Article 1 3 - Motivation On Reading Comprehension

Reading Amount as a Mediator of the Effects of Intrinsic and Extrinsic Reading
Motivation on Reading Comprehension

Author(s): Ellen Schaffner, Ulrich Schiefele and Hannah Ulferts
Source: Reading Research Quarterly, Vol. 48, No. 4 (OCTOBER/NOVEMBER/DECEMBER
2013), pp. 369-385
Published by: Wiley on behalf of the International Literacy Association
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Reading Amount as a Mediator
of the Effects of Intrinsic and
Extrinsic Reading Motivation
on Reading Comprehension
Ellen Schaffner ABSTRACT
This study examined the role of reading amount as a mediator o

Ulrich Schiefele
fects of intrinsic and extrinsic reading motivation on higher ord
University of Potsdam , Germany comprehension (comprised of paragraph- and passage-level comp
in a sample of 159 fifth-grade elementary students. A positive asso
tween intrinsic reading motivation and reading amount was assume
Hannah Ulferts
as a negative contribution to reading amount was expected for
Free University of Berlin, Germany reading motivation. As control variables, lower order reading comp
(comprised of word- and sentence-level comprehension), gender,
desirability were taken into account. Structural equation analyses
that reading amount fully mediated the positive effect of intrin
motivation on higher order comprehension, whereas extrinsic read
vation exerted both indirect and direct negative effects on comp
Additional analyses confirmed a suppression effect and showed
negative contributions of extrinsic reading motivation to reading a
reading comprehension only when intrinsic reading motivation was
neously included as a predictor.
ing motivation positively predicts reading amount and reading

A number comprehension,
comprehension,
ing motivation
whereasof extrinsic
studies positively
reading motivation
whereas havewasprovided predicts extrinsic evidence reading reading amount that motivation intrinsic and reading read- was
found to be a nonsignificant or negative predictor (e.g., Andreassen &
Braten, 2010; Guthrie, Wigfield, Metsala, & Cox, 1999; Park, 2011; see
overview by Schiefele, Schaffner, Mller, & Wigfield, 2012). Further-
more, previous research confirmed significant associations between
reading amount and reading comprehension (Ecalle & Magnan, 2008;
Harlaar, Dale, & Plomin, 2007; Mol & Bus, 2011). For example, the
amount of reading was found to predict orthographic processes
(Braten, Lie, Andreassen, & Olaussen, 1999) and growth of reading
comprehension (R.C. Anderson, Wilson, & Fielding, 1988; Cipielewski
& Stanovich, 1992). According to Cipielewski and Stanovich, students
who read frequently perform better on reading tasks than students
with the same intellectual abilities who do not read much (see also
Elley, 1992; Metsala & Ehri, 1998; Morrow, 1996).
Guthrie et al. (1999; Wigfield & Guthrie, 1997) assumed that the
positive effect of intrinsic reading motivation on reading comprehen-
sion is mediated by the amount of reading. The authors explained the
mediating effect of reading amount on comprehension by an increase
of knowledge, self-competence beliefs, and reading fluency through
Reading Research Quarterly , 48(4) frequent reading. However, direct evidence for the mediation of
pp. 369-385 I doi:10.1002/rrq.52
2013 International Reading Association motivation effects through reading amount is rare (e.g., Becker,
369
McElvany, & Kortenbruck, 2010). In addition, previous 2007; Watkins & Coffey, 2004; Wigfield & Guthrie,
findings on the contributions of reading motivation to 1997), Schiefele et al. (2012) concluded with the sugges-
reading amount and reading comprehension are not tion of seven core dimensions of reading motivation
clearly attributable to the intrinsic and extrinsic com- (using the terminology of Wigfield and Guthries, 1997,
ponents of motivation. In our view, this is due to the use Motivations for Reading Questionnaire [MRQ]):
of varying composite measures of intrinsic and extrin-
1. Curiosity : To learn more about topics of ones
sic reading motivation (cf. Schiefele et al., 2012). More- interest
over, some of these measures involved components,
such as reading efficacy or preference for challenge 2. Involvement : To get lost in a story or experience
(Wang & Guthrie, 2004; Wigfield & Guthrie, 1997), imaginative actions
that do not represent genuine aspects of reading moti- 3. Competition: To reach higher levels of school
vation (Schiefele et al., 2012). achievement, particularly in reading, than other
The present study examined the unique contribu- students
tions of theoretically and empirically well-founded 4. Recognition: To get praise for good reading
indicators of intrinsic and extrinsic reading motivation performance
on reading amount and reading comprehension. The
5. Grades: To improve ones grades in school
main research question referred to the role of reading
amount as a mediator of motivational effects on reading 6. Compliance: Reading because of external pressure
comprehension. Also, in extending earlier research, 7. Work avoidance: Trying to avoid reading-related
lower order comprehension ability and social desirabil- work
ity were taken into account as potentially confounding
variables. In the following, we first clarify our concep- As theorized by Schiefele et al., other proposed compo-
tion of reading motivation. Then, we review previous nents of reading motivation should be regarded as ante-
research on the relations among reading motivation, cedents (reading efficacy, importance of reading) or
reading amount, and comprehension performance. consequences of reading motivation (preference for
Finally, the objectives of the present study are outlined challenge). This position is in accordance with theoreti-
in the context of previous research. cal assumptions and empirical findings from research
on self-efficacy (e.g., Bandura, 1997) and expectancy-
value models of motivation (e.g., Eccles & Wigfield,
2002).
Reading Motivation In our German adaptation of the MRQ (see the
Reading motivation denotes the enduring readiness of a Method section), the core dimensions of reading motiva-
person to initiate reading activities and involves several tion, with the exception of compliance and work avoid-
dimensions (Schiefele et al., 2012; Wigfield & Guthrie, ance, were empirically identified and validated (Schaff-
1997). Theoretically, the distinction between dimen- ner & Schiefele, 2007). These dimensions include object-
sions of reading motivation should correspond to the oriented, experience-oriented, competence-oriented,1
various incentives that are attached to reading (Schiefele competition-oriented, and social reading motivation
et al., 2012). From the perspective of the reader, these (Schaffner & Schiefele, 2007; see also Schiefele et al.,
incentives appear as subjective reasons for reading (e.g., 2012). The first two dimensions refer to intrinsic motiva-
reading to please ones parents). Usually, these different tion and correspond to the MRQ scales of curiosity and
aspects of motivation are categorized as intrinsic or involvement. The other three dimensions constitute
extrinsic forms of motivation. In line with motivation extrinsic reading motivation and correspond to the
theories (Schunk, Pintrich, & Meece, 2008), extrinsi- MRQ scales of grades,2 competition, and recognition.
cally motivated reading is energized by its expected Accordingly, Schaffner and Schiefele demonstrated that
consequences (Wigfield & Guthrie, 1997). Thus, extrin- the structure of this questionnaire is best explained by
sic reading motivation refers to reasons for reading that assuming two higher order factors, namely, intrinsic and
are external to the activity of reading. In contrast, extrinsic reading motivation.
intrinsic reading motivation is defined as the willingness
to read because the activity itself is regarded as satisfy-
ing or rewarding. Reading Motivation
In a recent analysis of the dimensionality of reading
motivation based on both qualitative research (e.g., and Reading Amount
Guthrie, Van Meter, McCann, & Wigfield, 1996; Nolen, In studies on the relation between reading motivation
2007; Schiefele & Schaffner, 2013) and quantitative re- and reading amount, different indicators of self-reported
search (Mller & Bonerad, 2007; Schaffner & Schiefele, reading amount were used. For example, the Reading
370 I Reading Research Quarterly , 48(4)
Activities Inventory (Guthrie, McGough, & Wigfield, nonsignificant effects of extrinsic reading motivation
1994) captures students' amount of reading for school (Becker et al., 2010; Lau, 2009). Moreover, the results of
and reading for enjoyment by asking students how often Wang and Guthrie (2004) revealed a negative effect of
they read about particular themes (e.g., sports, history) extrinsic reading motivation on amount of reading for
in the last week and in general. Other scales to assess enjoyment when intrinsic reading motivation was
reading amount do not distinguish between reading for controlled.
enjoyment and reading for school (e.g., Guthrie et al., Taken together, the effects of extrinsic reading
1999; Lau, 2009), or they have an explicit focus on read- motivation on indicators of reading amount seem to
ing for enjoyment (or leisure time reading; e.g., Becker vary depending on the involved dimensions of reading
et al., 2010; Durik, Vida, & Eccles; 2006). For example, motivation and the control variables included in the
participants are asked to indicate the frequency and analyses. In particular, the control of intrinsic reading
length of their out-of-school reading activities (e.g., motivation leads to nonsignificant or even negative
"How many hours do you read outside school on a week- associations between extrinsic reading motivation and
day?" Becker et al., 2010, p. 777). In fact, most of the past reading amount. This finding is most likely due to a
studies focused on the amount of reading books for reciprocal suppression effect. Accordingly, Wang and
enjoyment (Schiefele et al., 2012). Those studies that Guthrie (2004) observed a substantial strengthening of
distinguished between reading for enjoyment and the association between intrinsic reading motivation
reading for school suggest that (a) reading motivation and amount of reading for enjoyment when controlling
is more closely related to amount of enjoyment read- for extrinsic reading motivation.
ing than school-related reading, and (b) amount of
enjoyment reading is more closely related to reading
comprehension than amount of school-related reading
(e.g., Cox & Guthrie, 2001; Wang & Guthrie, 2004). Levels of Reading Comprehension
Despite varying instruments of assessing reading Previous studies on the relation between reading moti-
amount, previous studies clearly indicated that intrinsic vation and reading comprehension relied on different
reading motivation is more strongly related to amount indicators of reading comprehension (cf. Schiefele et al.,
of reading for enjoyment than extrinsic reading motiva- 2012). The majority of studies assessed students' com-
tion (Baker & Wigfield, 1999; Becker et al., 2010; Lau, prehension performance by means of standardized or
2009; Wang & Guthrie, 2004). In these studies, intrinsic self-constructed tests involving more or less extended
and extrinsic reading motivation were usually assessed text passages and corresponding comprehension ques-
by composite measures being composed of scales incor- tions (mostly in multiple-choice format). Other studies
porating varying components of intrinsic or extrinsic have included standardized tests of vocabulary or word
reading motivation. Positive associations between comprehension (e.g., Becker et al., 2010; Cox & Guthrie,
intrinsic reading motivation and reading amount were 2001; Lau & Chan, 2003; Law, 2008; Unrau & Schlack-
also confirmed when accounting for relevant control man, 2006) and basic reading skills (e.g., letter and word
variables, such as prior knowledge, prior reading identification, spelling, pseudoword naming; Chapman
achievement, grade level, gender, parents' education, & Tunmer, 1995; Conlon, Zimmer- Gembeck, Creed, &
and reading efficacy (Becker et al., 2010; Durik et al., Tucker, 2006; Nurmi & Aunla, 2005). It should be not-
2006; Guthrie et al., 1999; Lau, 2009; Wang & Guthrie, ed that all of the above-mentioned studies involving
2004). tests of vocabulary have combined students' vocabulary
The evidence for effects of indicators of extrinsic scores with text comprehension scores in composite
reading motivation on reading amount is mixed.indicators of reading comprehension. Thus, it is not
Whereas Baker and Wigfield (1999) and Wigfield andpossible in these studies to evaluate the differential
Guthrie (1997) found that competition, recognition,effects of reading motivation on lower versus higher
grades, and compliance were positively correlated with levels of comprehension.
students' reading for enjoyment, Wang and Guthrie In the present study, we distinguished between
(2004) demonstrated such associations only for com-lower order and higher order reading comprehension.
petitive reading motivation. However, Becker et al. Lower order comprehension involves comprehension
(2010) obtained a weak negative (latent) correlation performance at the word and sentence levels, whereas
between extrinsic reading motivation and reading forhigher order comprehension refers to comprehension
enjoyment. The association between extrinsic reading performance at the paragraph and passage levels. The
motivation and reading amount has also been examined latter distinction refers to a study by Lau and Chan
with other predictors being controlled. The results (2003), who assessed students' comprehension and
of these analyses showed partly positive effects (Guthriestrategy use when reading short paragraphs (compris-
et al., 1999; Wigfield & Guthrie, 1997) and partlying only a few sentences) versus extended text passages.
Reading Amount as a Mediator of the Effects of Intrinsic and Extrinsic Reading Motivation on Reading Comprehension 371
The four levels of comprehension represent a hierar- Reading Motivation
chical sequence from low to high degrees of complexity
or difficulty. In addition, performance at higher levels is
and Reading Comprehension
assumed to depend on the proficiency in the respective Previous studies consistently confirm that intrinsic
lower level of comprehension (Carpenter, Miyake, & reading motivation is moderately and positively related
Just, 1995; Lenhard & Schneider, 2006; Long, Oppy, & to measures of reading comprehension, whereas extrin-
Seely, 1997). Thus, the four levels should be closely sic reading motivation was found to be either negatively
interrelated. or not significantly associated with comprehension per-
The ability to recognize the meaning of individual formance (Andreassen & Braten, 2010; Becker et al.,
words (Perfetti, 1985; Verhoeven & van Leeuwe, 2008) is 2010; Law, 2008, 2009; Park, 2011; Retelsdorf, Koller, &
crucial for the comprehension of sentences and text Mller, 2011; Schaffner & Schiefele, 2008; Taboada,
materials (Aarnoutse & van Leeuwe, 1998; Duke & Car- Tonks, Wigfield, & Guthrie, 2009; Unrau & Schlack-
lisle, 2011; Nagy, 1988). The recognition of a word s man, 2006; Wang & Guthrie, 2004). Evidence for posi-
meaning involves the identification of a mental (lexical) tive relations between reading comprehension and
representation in long-term memory that corresponds to extrinsic reading motivation was only found by Baker
that word. This representation is then used to attribute a and Wigfield (1999) and Lau and Chan (2003). However,
particular meaning to the word that fits with the con- these authors only reported bivariate correlations and
text. The quality of a lexical representation concerns its did not account for relevant confounding variables.
orthographic, phonological, and semantic precision. Furthermore, Guthrie et al. (1999) and Cox and Guthrie
Therefore, the quantity and quality of the readers men- (2001) failed to obtain significant correlations between
tal lexicon (or vocabulary) is an important precondition reading comprehension and a composite measure of
of successful recognition of word meanings. intrinsic and extrinsic reading motivation. As will be
Sentence comprehension makes it necessary to re- shown, previous findings suggest that intrinsic and
late individual words to one another and integrate them extrinsic reading motivation are highly correlated but
into a common structure. For this purpose, the analysis exert opposite effects on comprehension and reading
of both semantic and syntactic relations among the ele- amount. Thus, combining intrinsic and extrinsic read-
ments of a sentence is required (Carpenter et al., 1995; ing motivation into one measure possibly neutralizes
Lenhard & Schneider, 2006). At the level of text compre- their effects.
hension, the reader needs to integrate the information Several of the above-mentioned studies have consid-
from individual sentences and build a coherent repre- ered relevant confounding variables, such as prior read-
sentation. To recognize relations between sentences, the ing comprehension, prior knowledge, reasoning ability,
reader has to form bridging inferences based on, for verbal ability, strategy use, decoding skills, working
example, anaphora or recurring words (Kintsch, 1998). memory capacity, reading self-concept, grade level, and
The mental representation of text includes two com- family background. In most cases, the effects of reading
ponents: the textbase and the situation model (Kintsch, motivation on reading comprehension remained
1998; Zwaan & Singer, 2003). The textbase captures the significant (Law, 2008; Retelsdorf et al., 2011; Schaffner
ideas mentioned explicitly in a sentence or text, whereas & Schiefele, 2008; Taboada et al., 2009; Unrau &
the situational representation entails a mental model of Schlackman, 2006; Wang & Guthrie, 2004). Of particu-
the situation described in the sentence or text. This lar importance is a longitudinal study by Retelsdorf
et al., who examined the unique effects of intrinsic and
model strongly depends on the integration of text infor-
mation with prior knowledge. For both the textbase andextrinsic reading motivation on grade 8 comprehension
the situation model, inferences are highly importantperformance when controlling for reasoning ability,
(Graesser, Singer, & Trabasso, 1994; Zwaan & Singer,decoding skills, aspects of family background, and
2003). Bridging inferences link the current clause orgrade 5 reading comprehension performance. The find-
ings revealed a significant positive contribution of
sentence to the preceding text and thus help establish
coherence, whereas elaborative inferences (e.g., associat- intrinsic reading motivation to comprehension, whereas
ing a fact mentioned in the text with similar factsthe contribution of extrinsic reading motivation was
retrieved from long-term memory) are strongly implied significantly negative.
by the discourse context but are not needed for preserv- Previous research also suggests that intrinsic and
ing coherence. In particular, elaborative inferences play extrinsic reading motivation should not be studied in
a crucial role in constructing a situation model (Kintsch,isolation. Some of the reviewed studies observed sup-
1998; Tapiero, 2007). Comprehension of longer text pas- pression effects that are most likely due to the high
sages involves higher order, inferential processes to correlation
a between intrinsic and extrinsic reading
larger extent than comprehension of single sentences ormotivation and their opposite effects on reading
short paragraphs. comprehension (cf. Wang & Guthrie, 2004). Thus,
rather strong positive contributions for intrinsic read- In sum, despite previous evidence of significant
ing motivation and strong negative contributions for associations between reading amount and reading com-
extrinsic reading motivation occurred when both vari- prehension, on the one hand, and between reading
ables were simultaneously tested as predictors of read- motivation and both reading amount and reading com-
ing comprehension (Unrau & Schlackman, 2006; Wang prehension, on the other hand, past studies do not sub-
& Guthrie, 2004). stantially support the assumption that reading amount
explains the effects of intrinsic and extrinsic reading
motivation on comprehension.
The Role of Reading Amount
as a Mediator
To date, only a few studies have examined the role of The Present Study
reading amount as a mediator of the effects of reading The current study aims to address the limitations of
motivation on reading comprehension. Wang previous and research on the effects of reading motivation
Guthrie (2004) found significant associations on of reading amount and reading comprehension. The
intrinsic and extrinsic reading motivation with both major deficit of previous research is in the lack of stud-
reading amount and reading comprehension. However, ies on the role of reading amount as a mediator of the
reading amount did not significantly contribute effects of reading motivation on comprehension. As
to reading comprehension and, thus, was not effective previously mentioned, Wang and Guthrie (2004) were
as a mediator of motivation effects. Partial evidence for
unable to demonstrate a mediating effect of reading
the mediating role of reading amount was provided amount
by because it did not significantly contribute
to comprehension in their study. Becker et al. (2010)
Becker et al. (2010), who demonstrated a significant in-
direct effect of intrinsic reading motivation in gradefound
4 significant mediation of the effect of intrinsic
on comprehension performance in grade 6 mediated reading motivation on reading comprehension
by reading amount in grade 4. By means of a separate through reading amount only when not controlling for
model, Becker et al. showed that grade 4 extrinsic read-earlier reading comprehension and extrinsic reading
ing motivation exerted a significant negative direct motivation. Given these few and inconclusive findings,
effect on grade 6 reading comprehension. Mediation it seemed
of warranted to reexamine the mediating role of
this effect through grade 4 reading amount was reading not amount by means of well-defined indicators of
observed. reading motivation and by taking into account relevant
The picture changed, however, when both intrinsicconfounding variables. In addition, we intended to ex-
and extrinsic reading motivation (measured in grade 4)amine the occurrence of reciprocal suppression among
intrinsic and extrinsic reading motivation.
as well as grade 3 reading comprehension were included
in the model. In this case, only the negative direct effect Previous studies have used varying indicators of in-
of extrinsic reading motivation on grade 6 comprehen-trinsic and extrinsic reading motivation. In addition,
sion performance was retained. There was no indirectsome of these indicators captured not only genuine
effect of intrinsic reading motivation through reading components of reading motivation but also antecedents
amount because reading amount was no longer signifi-(e.g., reading efficacy) or consequences (e.g., preference
cantly related to reading comprehension.3 It should befor challenge) of motivation. Thus, in the present study,
noted, however, that Becker et al. s (2010) extrinsic read-we assessed reading motivation by means of a theoreti-
ing motivation measure deviates from measures used in cally and empirically well-founded instrument that dif-
research based on the MRQ (e.g., Wang & Guthrie,ferentiates between five core dimensions of reading
2004). Also, in contrast to previous research, intrinsicmotivation: object-oriented, experience-oriented,
and extrinsic reading motivation were not significantly competence-oriented, competition-oriented, and social
correlated in Becker et als study. Moreover, Becker reading motivation (cf. Schiefele et al., 2012). These
et al. obtained very high latent correlations betweendimensions belong to two higher order factors repre-
grade 3 and grade 6 comprehension performance (.90) senting intrinsic and extrinsic reading motivation
and between extrinsic reading motivation and grade 6(Schaffner & Schiefele, 2007).
comprehension performance (-.64). Thus, there was The mediating role of reading amount was exam-
only little variance left in grade 6 comprehension per-ined by means of a structural equation model in which
formance to be predicted by reading amount. If theintrinsic and extrinsic reading motivation contribute to
assumption is correct that grade 3 reading comprehen-reading amount that in turn affects higher order
sion also depends on reading amount, then the analysesreading comprehension. When testing effects of moti-
of Becker et al. have possibly underestimated the role of vation and reading amount on comprehension, it is
reading amount. particularly important to account for confounding
cognitive factors (Guthrie et al., 1999; Morgan & Fuchs, even more positive. Thus, prior to testing the mediating
2007). Thus, we included lower order comprehension as role of reading amount, we examined the occurrence of
an additional predictor of higher order comprehension. reciprocal suppression by comparing the direct contribu-
Lower order comprehension was used as a control vari- tions of intrinsic and extrinsic reading motivation as
able instead of prior comprehension performance separate versus simultaneous predictors of reading
because the latter variable was shown to explain almost amount and comprehension. When considered as simul-
all the variance in later comprehension performance taneous predictors, intrinsic reading motivation should
(see Becker et al., 2010). As a consequence, the role of positively predict reading amount and comprehension,
motivation might be underestimated in such models whereas negative contributions were expected for extrin-
because there is only little variance to explain and sic reading motivation.
because the possible dependence of earlier comprehen-
sion performance on preceding reading motivation is
not taken into account.
The analyses entailed gender and social desirability
Method
as additional control variables. Social desirability has
been neglected as a possible confounding variable in
Sample
past research on reading motivation. Gender has been The sample comprised 168 fifth-grade elementary
students from nine different classrooms within five
shown to be an important factor in reading-related
motivation, behavior, and achievement. Specifically, different urban schools in Germany. Nine students
girls exhibit higher levels of intrinsic reading motiva-
and at least one of their parents were not born in
tion, reading amount, and comprehension (e.g., Baker & Germany. Because of the well- documented deficits in
Wigfield, 1999; Logan & Johnston, 2009). The inclusion reading comprehension of German students with a
of social desirability (e.g., Borkenau & Ostendorf, 1992) migration background and born outside of Germany
seemed important because students are likely to be (e.g., Baumert & Schmer, 2001; Diefenbach, 2010), we
decided to exclude these students from all further
aware of the fact that reading motivation and reading
amount are positively evaluated by their parents and analyses.
Thus, the final sample comprised 159 students (95
teachers. More specifically, we assumed that social
boys, 64 girls). The average age was 11.01 years (SD = 0.45;
desirability leads to unrealistically favorable ratings of
intrinsic reading motivation and reading amount. This boys: M = 11.01, SD = 0.56; girls: M = 11.02, SD = 0.22).
effect is likely to be stronger for students with low The level of reading competence in the present sample
intrinsic reading motivation and low reading amount. was above average. According to the norm-referenced
scores provided by Lenhard and Schneider s (2006) ELFE
As a consequence, the strength of relationships among
test (see the Instruments section), the present sample
reading motivation, reading amount, and reading
comprehension would be underestimated. performed at the 70th percentile for all three subtests
(word-, sentence-, and paragraph-level comprehension).
Research findings suggest that it is essential to
include intrinsic and extrinsic reading motivation as
simultaneous predictors of reading amount and reading Instruments
comprehension (cf. Schiefele et al., 2012). Because of
reciprocal suppression between intrinsic and extrinsic Reading Motivation
reading motivation, the isolated study of these variables Reading motivation was assessed by means of the Read-
may result in underestimating their effects. Several stud- ing Motivation Questionnaire (RMQ). The RMQ was
ies (e.g., Unrau & Schlackman, 2006; Wang & Guthrie, developed by Schaffner and Schiefele (2007; see also
2004) have shown that intrinsic and extrinsic reading Schiefele et al., 2012) with reference to the MRQ (Wig-
motivation are positively correlated but have opposite field & Guthrie, 1997). The following five dimensions of
effects on comprehension and reading amount. According reading motivation are captured by the RMQ:
to Wang and Guthrie (2004), the high positive correlation
1. Object-oriented reading motivation (e.g., "I read
between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation induces posi-
in order to learn more about things that interest
tive spurious effects of extrinsic motivation and negative
me.")
spurious effects of intrinsic motivation on reading
amount and comprehension. As a consequence, when 2. Experience-oriented reading motivation (e.g., "I
testing the two components of reading motivation as read in order to identify with the main character
simultaneous predictors, the nonsignificant contribu- in a story")
tions of extrinsic motivation to reading amount and 3. Competence-oriented reading motivation (e.g., "I
comprehension become significantly negative, whereas read because I will become better at understand-
the positive contributions of intrinsic motivation become ing texts.")
374 I Reading Research Quarterly, 48(4)
4. Competition-oriented reading motivation (e.g., "I
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The scale to assess reading amount was adapted Uby

g I st i*
in
Schaffner, Schiefele, and Schmidt (2013) from Becker t

et al. s (2010) questionnaire. In accordance with Becker
lo
4-
^^ tj
.Si o. SCL^ Ê "to
B J
E Bg-
Utc
0 0
.y 0E
</)
et al., the present scale includes two items referring to XI<U^XPPOc_fec^wjxrM
XI<U^XPPOc_fec^wjxrM t % 2. I I *5 on -g -g 3 %"S i 11
42-o O " =5 .g i Si g. S -O
1 i-
reading frequency and one item capturing reading i- F ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ G "S
F v ^ ^ a: a: a: oj o y y u u ^
^ Q.
length. To assess reading frequency, the participants
Uj - LU "ro
-J U
were asked how many books they read in their C spare
< 0)
V)
'-fvimînvor^.oooOT-fS-îi
<b E
<
time during the last 12 months (1=0 books, 2 = 1-5 P o
Reading Amount as
books, 3 = 6-10 books, 4 = 11-20 books, 5 = more than paragraph ranges between two and seven. Most of the
20 books) and how often they read in their spare time paragraphs are narratives (e.g., "Tim is happy when the
(1 = about once a month, 2 = about once a week, 3 = sev- sun shines. Then, he can play soccer with his friends."),
eral times a week, 4 = daily, 5 = several times a day). whereas only three paragraphs refer to factual topics
Reading length was addressed by asking the respon- (e.g., "Whales live in the ocean. In order to breathe, they
dents how long they usually read a book without taking swim to the water surface. There, they take a deep breath
a break (1 = 5 minutes, 2 = 15 minutes, 3 = 30 minutes, and are then able to stay under water for a long time").
4 = 60 minutes, 5 = more than 60 minutes). In each case, the participants have to respond to one or
In contrast to the Reading Activities Inventory two multiple-choice questions while the text remains
(Guthrie et al., 1994), our scale captures not only the available to them. There is a total of 20 questions to
frequency but also the length of reading. However, it answer. The questions represent three different aspects
does not differentiate between different themes. In of text comprehension: identification of specific infor-
addition, the present scale refers only to reading for mation, understanding of anaphoric relations, and infer-
enjoyment because this aspect of reading amount is ence making. Six minutes are given to answer the test.
more strongly related to reading motivation and read- To measure passage-level comprehension, the par-
ing comprehension than reading for school (Coxticipants & read a lengthy expository text (708 words)
Guthrie, 2001; Wang & Guthrie, 2004). Significant called "The Nights of Young Puffins." The text was tak-
correlations with aspects of the home literacy environ-en from the German version of the comprehension test
ment (e.g., number of books at home) and with intrinsic being used in the PIRLS (Progress in International
(but not extrinsic) reading motivation (Schaffner et al.,Reading Literacy Study; Bos et al., 2003). The corre-
2013) support the validity of the present reading amount sponding questions comprised eight multiple-choice
scale. and five free-response items. According to the PIRLS
model of reading literacy, these questions refer to
Lower Order (Word- and Sentence-Level) retrieving specific information, drawing inferences, and
reflecting on the content or form of the text. The text
Reading Comprehension
was available during question answering. The partici-
Subtests from the ELFE standardized reading compre-
pants were required to read the text and answer the
hension test for grades 1-6 (Lenhard & Schneider, 2006)
questions within 35 minutes. This was supposed to be
were used to measure word- and sentence-level compre-
enough time for all students to finish the test. Partici-
hension. In support of the validity of the ELFE test, Len-
pants received 1 point for each correctly answered
hard and Schneider reported (a) high correlations
multiple-choice item. Correct answers to free-response
between ELFE total scores and other reading compre-
items were scored 1, wrong answers were scored 0, and
hension tests as well as teacher ratings of students' com-
partly correct answers were scored .5.
prehension ability (convergent validity) and (b) low or
The percentage of inter-rater agreement for the cod-
medium correlations between ELFE total scores and
ing of the free-response questions varied from 81% to
concentration ability (discriminant validity).
Each of the 72 items of the word-level subtest re-
90%. Disagreement between raters was resolved by dis-
cussion and joint agreements.
quires the participants to choose one of four phonologi-
cally similar (German) words (e.g., Bote/Hose/Rose/
Dose) that matches with a corresponding picture (e.g.,Social Desirability
the picture of a can = Dose). The sentence-level subtest
Students' tendency of responding in a socially desirable
comprises 28 sentences in which a clause (usually a sin-
way was measured by means of Stbers (1999) Social
gle word) is missing (e.g., "If it [rains] and the sun
Desirability Scale. This scale comprises 17 items (e.g., "I
shines, a rainbow occurs") and has to be replaced by
am always friendly to other people, even if I am dis-
choosing the correct solution out of five alternatives be-
tressed") that have to be answered on a 4-point rating
longing to the same category (e.g., runs , reads , or reigns).
scale ranging from 1 (not at all true) to 4 (very true).
The target words are nouns, verbs, adjectives, conjunc-
Three of the original items were not included because
tions, or prepositions. Participants have to finish each
test within two minutes.
they did not seem appropriate for elementary students
(e.g., "I would never live at public expense."). All items
were coded with a high score indicating a strong level of
Higher Order (Paragraph- and social desirability. According to Stber (1999), the
Passage-Level) Reading Comprehension Social Desirability Scale displays satisfactory conver-
The paragraph-level comprehension test was also cap- gent validity (high correlation with an older scale of
tured by a subtest from ELFE. This subtest includes 13social desirability) and face validity (students rated the
short paragraphs. The number of sentences in each items of the Social Desirability Scale to be more
indicative of social desirability than the alternative negatively contribute to reading amount and reading
older scale). comprehension. The only exception was a significant
positive correlation between competence-oriented read-
Procedure ing motivation and reading amount. Correlations with
gender revealed that girls outperformed boys only in the
All surveys and tests required a maximum of 90 min- passage-level comprehension test, although girls showed
utes and took place in students' regular classes. Data
higher levels of intrinsic reading motivation. In addi-
collection was carried out by trained university students
tion, girls tended to be higher in competence-oriented
on the basis of standardized instructions. In the first
motivation and social desirability than boys did.
part, students were asked for demographic information Social desirability was significantly related to
and were presented with the questionnaires on reading
object-, experience-, and competence-oriented reading
motivation and reading amount. In addition, the ELFEmotivation as well as reading amount. Moreover, stu-
test (containing word-, sentence-, and paragraph- dents higher in social desirability showed higher com-
level comprehension) was administered. In the second
prehension performance at the paragraph and passage
part, after a short break, students completed the
levels. To estimate the impact of both social desirability
passage-level comprehension test and the social desir-and gender on the relations between reading motiva-
ability questionnaire. tion, amount of reading, and reading comprehension,
partial correlations with social desirability and gender
Missing Values as partial variables were computed (see Table 2). The
Missing values were only possible with respect to ques-
findings showed that partial correlations were only
tionnaire items (reading motivation, reading amount, slightly lower than the corresponding bivariate coeffi-
cients. In addition, with only one exception (pertaining
social desirability), whereas failure of responding to a
to the relation between object-oriented reading motiva-
reading comprehension task was counted as a wrong
answer according to test instructions. The percentages
tion and passage-level comprehension), all significant
correlations remained significant when controlling for
of missing data per questionnaire item did not exceed
2.5%. Furthermore, only 30 participants showed itemsocial desirability and gender.
omissions, with an average value of 4.1% (minimum:
2.7%, maximum: 13.5%). For purposes of descriptive Contributions of Intrinsic and Extrinsic
analyses, missing values were replaced by expectationReading Motivation to Reading
maximization estimates (generated by NORM 2.03;
Schafer, 1999). In the case of structural equation model-
Amount and Reading Comprehension
In the following, we first address direct effects of intrin-
ing, the full information maximum likelihood method
sic and extrinsic reading motivation on reading amount
was applied.
and reading comprehension, without taking into
account the role of reading amount as a mediator of
motivation effects on comprehension. The main pur-
Results pose of these analyses was to examine the occurrence of
reciprocal suppression effects pertaining to the relations
In the following, we first report mean values and bivari-
ate correlations between all measured variables. The of intrinsic and extrinsic reading motivation to reading
amount and reading comprehension. In the second part
next section refers to the findings of structural equation
of the analyses, we focus on our main research question
modeling that were applied to examine the relations
among reading motivation, reading amount, and read- by testing a structural equation model that involves
reading amount as a mediator of motivational effects on
ing comprehension.
reading comprehension.
The succeeding analyses were based on latent vari-
Mean Values and Intercorrelations ables. Intrinsic and extrinsic reading motivation were
Table 1 provides the means and standard deviations of defined by their corresponding manifest subscale scores.
all variables and their intercorrelations. The strength ofReading amount was indicated by its corresponding
associations between variables was generally according individual items. The subtest scores for word- and
to expectations. Reading amount proved to be asentence-level comprehension were used as manifest
significant predictor of all indicators of reading
indicators of lower order comprehension, whereas high-
er order comprehension was defined by the subtest
comprehension. Components of intrinsic reading moti-
scores for paragraph- and passage-level comprehension.
vation were positively related to reading amount and
reading comprehension. In contrast, components ofFinally, social desirability was indicated by two item
extrinsic reading motivation did not significantly or didparcels (random assignment of items to parcels).
Reading Amount as a Mediator of the Effects of Intrinsic and Extrinsic Reading Motivation on Reading Comprehension I 377
Direct Contributions of Intrinsic and
~ s o s S *
N N ^ ^ y. n Extrinsic Reading Motivation as Separate
fll
^ ^ ^
o
in Versus Simultaneous Predictors
OA
S a To evaluate the occurrence of suppression effects, we

on compared the predictive contributions of intrinsic and
c
extrinsic reading motivation to reading amount and
u
1 * Al
& reading comprehension as separate versus simultane-
Smro2rj^so^
~o K 1 1 1 ' .2 ous predictors. To examine intrinsic and extrinsic read-
c
(0 <
> ing motivation as separate predictors, we analyzed bi-
4-T
c
variate latent correlations. These correlations were esti-
3 -ôoin^ ! > 5 mated within a structural equation model of correlative
0
E
,NrO;t5
< -C ^ = associations among intrinsic and extrinsic reading mo-
O. .Q
OA
C
tivation, reading amount, and lower order and higher
1 order reading comprehension: %2(43) = 56.8, ns ,
ft!
g. ' " 1 1 1 ' i I osso
CFI = .982, TLI = .972, SRMR = .055. The contributions
c
y
CC ,
s S.
S.gco
co of intrinsic and extrinsic reading motivation as simul-
o .i* 11
.i* aioo*8SC2>oi taneous predictors were determined by means of a
'S g aioo*8SC2>oi C/) ^ i ? 7 structural
7 t S equation model involving the two compo-
>
*<p
nents of reading motivation as exogenous variables and
c
o O
*0)
on ^
reading amount, lower order comprehension, and high-
c ^ ir ooioS ; Q-c
'5 ^ ,5, cnj CN O ^ . ^ er order comprehension as endogenous variables:
to
a: S o %2(43) = 50.9, ns, CFI = .990, TLI = .984, SRMR = .045.

on g ) The results (see Table 3) showed significantly posi-
c
o
E
g

OSo9^9l
i' *2
tive associations between intrinsic reading motivation
< t as a separate predictor and reading amount as well as
* J g
m
C lower order and higher order reading comprehension.
O
*4J
a * s ^ * s In contrast, the latent correlations involving extrinsic

</ * 1 1 * | reading motivation as a separate predictor did
not attain significance. As expected, the contributions
o
ai E
.c
-M ^ ^ O)
of intrinsic and extrinsic reading motivation became
C ,-s ^
,-s ^ ^Ô OS 9 w r .w ^1" ^ rM ^1" - -O -
o ^ ^ 1 ^ ' J' 2 more pronounced when they were considered as simul-
k-
ai
'w
taneous predictors. Particularly, the nonsignificant
O
o
c
ai S
"2 I
#w^vO'^00'fc
o S oCSo-SSi #w^vO'^00'fc
"O
c
yf*
f* ' ' 1
5 1 1
5 u

(0
J *1 TABLE 3
|> c
Direct Contributions of Reading Motivation to Reading
io Amount and Reading Comprehension (analysis of
2 g ^ r g
U)
_ c
ro o latent variables)
ai " ^
o ro JS IRM and ERM IRM and ERM as
^ ^ ^ ^ ^ Q. <U
5u ^ <22 oo ti; in N. i ^ t
<22 tT un ti; r>J O O I o as separate simultaneous
*j
C c
-o

u predictors predictors
5 C v S Dependent
o ra 8 Predictor variable r
o E "
<0 00 TT o i iO I S>
+
U
<0
OD OrouTÔO o i iO I I c-- IRM RA .77** .93**
Q. S .2
E ERM RA .16 -.32**
ff ^^
i ^ o
ai
.c
j S IRM LRC .34** .51**
h
"O <D
/ ro ^ ERM LRC -.10 -.36**
C 2
O o
E c ft _ IRM HRC .46** .67**
jg o 8 c -2 c S
ai w 8 y c S s D .t ,-
C i ^ o X Q
w . C i ERM
^ ^ HRC
o 1 -.16
X -.50**
Q
fS UU -g
M * & 8. S. Note. ERM = extrinsic reading m
a $io
Im5 ^^Ô5^^ ^^<5(^ ^^ ^0
^ ^<u
J |
0Qv
wQv
j 1
comprehension. IRM = intrinsic r
aC E Im ^ i reading comprehension. RA = re
< <0 O >-9=9=JLLLJOOAI
< Pau <0 **p< .01.
contributions of extrinsic reading motivation (when order to higher order comprehension was included to
analyzed as a separate predictor) all became signifi- control for basic comprehension ability.
cantly negative. The results demonstrated a good fit of the hypothe-
sized model: %2(72) = 90.9, ns , CFI = .979, TLI = .969,
SRMR = .059. However, the analysis of modification in-
Test of the Mediation Model
dexes suggested a significant direct negative effect of
extrinsic reading motivation on higher order reading
Our main research question refers to the role of reading
amount as a mediator of the effects of reading motiva-comprehension, in addition to its indirect effect medi-
tion on reading comprehension. Therefore, we tested a by reading amount. Thus, we added a direct path
ated
structural equation model in which intrinsic and
from extrinsic reading motivation to higher order read-
extrinsic reading motivation were assumed to contrib- ing comprehension.
ute to reading amount, which in turn should predict As expected, the adapted model (see Figure 1),
higher order comprehension. The effect of intrinsic %2(71) = 86.5, ns. , CFI = .983, TLI = .974, SRMR = .054,
reading motivation on reading amount was hypothe- showed a better fit with the data than the initial model,
sized to be positive and the effect of extrinsic reading A%2(1) = 4.48, p < .05. Intrinsic reading motivation con-
motivation on reading amount to be negative. No directtributed strongly positively to reading amount, which
effects of reading motivation on higher order compre- in turn significantly predicted higher order reading
hension were specified. Instead, we expected significantcomprehension, despite controlling for lower order
indirect effects of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation onreading comprehension. The latter variable showed a
comprehension mediated by reading amount. Effectsstrong of effect on higher order comprehension. The indi-
gender and social desirability on all variables in the rect effect of intrinsic reading motivation on higher
model were implemented. Moreover, the model com- order comprehension mediated by reading amount was
prised correlative paths among variables that were not substantial and significant: = .33, p < .01. Further-
related by directed paths. Finally, a path from lower more, we observed significant negative direct effects of
FIGURE 1
Model of Relations Among Reading Motivation, Reading Amount, and Reading Comprehension (standardized path
coefficients )
Parcel 1 Parcel 2
*'.89" /72**
/^SocialN^ .26** J
'desirabilityy * Gender
' AO** / 97**
' ^ /.26**
I
I
Experience * - ^ '.69" .66" Ay. 'oraer orter ko/
42" - 33** ^/Readng'
i
Competence*^ .71** w
[compe
[comp
Social ^
Paragraph Passage
Note. RC = reading comprehension. RM = reading motivation. The model includes paths from gender and social desirability on all
only significant effects of gender and social desirability are depicted. Also, only significant correlative paths are shown.
*p < .05. < .01.
Reading Amount as a Mediator of the Effects of Intrinsic and Extrinsic Reading Motivation on Reading Comprehension I
extrinsic reading motivation on both reading amount the same data set; see note 3), it is difficult to draw
and higher order comprehension. The indirect effect of straightforward conclusions from Becker et al.s (2010)
extrinsic motivation on higher order comprehension study. Specifically, it seems noteworthy that Becker et al.
mediated by reading amount was also significant: obtained very high latent correlations between grade 6
= -0.12, p < .05. Taken together, we obtained opposite comprehension and both grade 3 comprehension (.90)
total effects of intrinsic reading motivation (.33) and and extrinsic reading motivation (-.64). Thus, only a
extrinsic reading motivation (-.28) on reading compre- rather small portion of variance of grade 6 comprehen-
hension that are similar in size. sion was left to be explained by reading amount. Ac-
cording to Becker et al., the high stability of reading
achievement has been confirmed by several longitudi-
nal studies (e.g., Aarnoutse, van Leeuwe, Voeten, &
Discussion Oud, 2001; Morgan, Farkas, & Hibel, 2008). Given this
The central objective of this study was to examinestability,
the little variance in achievement can be indepen-
dently explained. Moreover, measures of prior compre-
role of reading amount as a mediator of the contribu-
hension
tions of intrinsic and extrinsic reading motivation to performance may also include variance being
associated with reading motivation. Therefore, it cannot
reading comprehension. Specifically, we hypothesized
be strictly concluded from Becker et al.'s findings that
that when analyzed as simultaneous predictors, intrin-
intrinsic reading motivation and reading amount do not
sic motivation should positively predict reading amount,
whereas a negative contribution was expected impact
for reading comprehension.
extrinsic motivation. Moreover, reading amount wasThe present study represents probably the first suc-
assumed to significantly predict comprehension cessful
and, attempt to demonstrate the significant role of
thus, mediate the effects of intrinsic and extrinsic moti-
reading amount as a mediator of the effects of intrinsic
vation on comprehension. and extrinsic reading motivation on reading compre-
hension. Our results were obtained by testing a cross-
sectional model with latent variables and by controlling
The Mediatins Role of Reading Amount
for (lower order) comprehension ability, gender, and
social desirability. The longitudinal study by Becker
The present results showed that the effects of intrinsic
et al. (2010) partially supports the present findings by
and extrinsic reading motivation on reading comprehen-
sion were largely mediated by reading amount, even
means of models that did not account for past reading
though a strong effect of lower order comprehensioncompetence
on and that analyzed intrinsic and extrinsic
higher order comprehension was observed. All the indi-reading motivation as separate predictors. These models
revealed a significant indirect effect of intrinsic reading
rect effects of reading motivation were significant. How-
ever, an additional direct negative effect of extrinsic
motivation on reading comprehension of about the same
motivation was obtained. This is in line with results size (.39) as in our study (.33). Moreover, both indirect
and direct effects of extrinsic reading motivation were
reported by Becker et al. (2010). The negative direct effect
found. However, the indirect effect of extrinsic reading
of extrinsic motivation suggests that other processes than
motivation (-.04) was negligible in size, whereas its
reading amount (e.g., surface-level text processing) may
direct effect (-.56) was larger than in our study. The
be involved in the negative association between extrinsic
motivation and higher order comprehension. direct effect was reduced to -.24 when past reading com-
petence and intrinsic motivation were included in the
Previous research on the mediating role of reading
amount obtained negative findings. By means of cross-
model. In this case, the resulting total effect of extrinsic
reading motivation (-.24; indirect effect: .0009) was
sectional data, Wang and Guthrie (2004) did not find
evidence for indirect effects of reading motivation
quite similar to that in the present study (-.28).
mediated by reading amount. In a longitudinal study, Interestingly, and in contrast with research on
academic motivation (e.g., Schunk et al., 2008),
Becker et al. (2010) were also unable to confirm the
extrinsic motivation seems to reduce achievement-
mediating role of reading amount. By means of a struc-
related behaviors and outcomes. The composite mea-
tural equation model, they found that grade 6 compre-
sure
hension was significantly positively predicted by grade 3 of extrinsic reading motivation in the present
comprehension and significantly negatively predicted study involves (in accordance with Wang & Guthrie,
by extrinsic reading motivation. Although reading 2004) competence- and competition-oriented as
amount was strongly predicted by intrinsic motivation,well as social reading motivation. The first two com-
ponents are similar to achievement motivation as
reading amount was not significantly related to reading
comprehension. conceptualized by achievement goal theory (e.g.,
As we discussed previously (and in light of the Elliot, 2006; Grant & Dweck, 2003; Pintrich, Conley,
contrasting findings of McElvany et al., 2008, based&on Kempler, 2003). This theory suggests a distinction
between approach-oriented achievement goals (i.e., stri- Gender and Social Desirability
ving for high levels of achievement) and avoidance- The relationships among reading motivation, reading
oriented achievement goals (i.e., striving for avoiding amount, and reading comprehension were not substan-
failure). Approach-oriented achievement goals have tially dependent on gender and social desirability.
been either defined as a competitive orientation (i.e., Although girls were significantly higher in object-
striving for being superior to others) or as a noncom- oriented, experience-oriented, and competence-oriented
petitive orientation aimed at positive evaluations of reading motivation as well as in reading amount and
ones competence or performance without necessarily passage-level comprehension, controlling for gender did
implying a social comparison (e.g., striving for good not change the bivariate correlations among study vari-
grades in school). The findings of previous research ables in a notable way. The higher scores in reading
clearly showed that approach- oriented achievement motivation, reading amount, and comprehension for
goals, in contrast to avoidance- oriented achievement girls are in accordance with previous research (e.g., Baker
goals, are positively related to academic behavior and & Wigfield, 1999; Logan & Johnston, 2009). Further-
achievement (e.g., Grant & Dweck, 2003; Harackie- more, we were able to rule out that social desirability
wicz, Barron, Pintrich, Elliot, & Thrash, 2002). How
affected the relations among the variables under investi-
could it be explained that rather similar motivational gation. Although we observed significant positive corre-
orientations are even negatively related to behavior lations between social desirability and most of the
and performance in the domain of reading variables, controlling for social desirability did not sub-
comprehension? stantially alter the size of correlations among motivation,
It seems plausible that leisure time activities, such as reading amount, and comprehension. Moreover, the hy-
reading for enjoyment, are strongly controlled by intrin- pothesized mediation model was largely confirmed even
sic incentives (e.g., positive emotional experience; cf. though we controlled for gender and social desirability.
Rheinberg, 2006). If reading is motivated to increase
ones competence, to outperform others in school, or to
Reciprocal Suppression Between
please ones parents and teachers, then on the one hand,
Intrinsic and Extrinsic
the amount of reading for school may increase at the
expense of reading for enjoyment. Probably, extrinsi- Readins Motivation
cally motivated readers do not consider voluntary lei- The occurrence of reciprocal suppression was examined
sure time reading as being instrumental for increasing by comparing the direct contributions of intrinsic and
their reading competence or achievements in school extrinsic reading motivation as separate versus simulta-
and, thus, reduce the amount of reading for enjoyment. neous predictors of reading amount and both lower
On the other hand, extrinsically motivated students order and higher order reading comprehension. When
may tend to read only when they have to (to achieve at analyzed as separate predictors, intrinsic motivation
higher levels or get praise by significant others), which was significantly related to all dependent variables,
in turn leads to smaller amounts of reading and poorer whereas extrinsic motivation did not significantly con-
reading skills (Becker et al., 2010). tribute to the dependent variables. However, examining
With respect to the negative direct effect of extrinsic intrinsic and extrinsic motivation as simultaneous pre-
reading motivation on reading comprehension, we sug- dictors produced even higher contributions of intrinsic
gest that the extrinsically motivated reader, when read- motivation and significantly negative contributions of
ing a particular text, may tend to be more strongly extrinsic motivation. These findings are in line with
concerned with future outcomes of his or her reading Wang and Guthrie's (2004) study and thus confirm the
activity than with understanding a given text. Thus, hypothesized suppression effect. The close relationship
this reader fails to focus on comprehending the content between intrinsic and extrinsic reading motivation also
and on being more deeply involved with the subject of implies that beneficial and detrimental effects of read-
the text. More specifically, extrinsic motivation may ing motivation are strongly associated and may neutral-
interfere with the processes that are necessary for ize each other to some degree.
in-depth text comprehension, such as using effective The existence of reciprocal suppression may also
strategies, inference making, and identifying the main explain why some studies found positive relations
ideas (Pintrich & Schrauben, 1992; Wang & Guthrie, between extrinsic motivation and reading amount as
2004). The focus on the consequences of reading may well as reading comprehension (e.g., Baker & Wigfield,
lead to surface-level strategies, such as guessing and 1999; Lau & Chan, 2003; Wigfield & Guthrie, 1997).
memorization (Elliott & Dweck, 1988; Pintrich & Such positive relations were only found by means of
Schrauben, 1992), and to task-irrelevant cognitions, bivariate correlations and, therefore, by neglecting the
such as worrying about performing better or worse than suppression effect between intrinsic and extrinsic
others (Brophy, 2005; Grant & Dweck, 2003). reading motivation. In contrast, multiple regression
analyses including both extrinsic and intrinsic reading Practical Implications
motivation as predictors have consistently revealed sig- With respect to educational consequences, it was par-
nificant negative effects of extrinsic motivation on ticularly interesting to observe negative relations
reading amount (Wang & Guthrie, 2004) and on read- between extrinsic reading motivation and reading
ing comprehension (Unrau & Schlackman, 2006; Wang amount as well as comprehension. This suggests that
& Guthrie, 2004).
extrinsic motivation might be detrimental to these out-
come variables. Whereas the findings support inter-
Limitations and Future Research ventions that foster intrinsic reading motivation as it is
related to higher reading amount and better reading
Taken together, we were able to demonstrate a positivecomprehension, extrinsic reading motivation should
contribution of intrinsic motivation and a negative con-
not be emphasized when low-frequency readers are to
tribution of extrinsic motivation to reading comprehen-
be motivated to read more. This suggestion is further
sion that were largely mediated by reading amount. Thesupported by the finding that the detrimental effects of
inclusion of a highly predictive cognitive control vari-
extrinsic motivation partially neutralize the beneficial
able corroborates the validity of our findings. However,
effects of intrinsic motivation.
these findings were obtained by means of cross-sectional These practical implications, however, have to be
data and, thus, do not allow causal conclusions and are
regarded with caution because there is still weak
likely to overestimate the relations among reading moti-
evidence on the causal direction of the relations among
vation, reading amount, and reading comprehension.
reading motivation, reading amount, and comprehen-
Therefore, future research needs to replicate the present
sion. However, recent findings from experimental and
study by using a longitudinal design. Thereby, applying
training studies are in line with the causal relations
different tests of reading comprehension should be con-
referring to intrinsic reading motivation implied by
sidered at different measurement points to decrease theour mediation model. Specifically, Guthrie and his
stability of comprehension performance being caused bycolleagues (e.g., Guthrie & Humenick, 2004; Guthrie
common method variance. The effects of reading moti- et al., 2006) have demonstrated that particular
vation might be underestimated when prior comprehen- interventions (i.e., use of stimulating tasks, e.g., hands-
sion performance leaves only a small portion of variance
on science observations) facilitate both students'
to be explained in later comprehension performance.reading motivation and comprehension. In addition,
Furthermore, bidirectional relationships between read-
their findings showed that stimulating tasks only
ing motivation, reading amount, and reading compre-affected comprehension through increased reading
hension, as suggested by Morgan and Fuchs (2007),
motivation.
should be taken into account.
Future research on the mediating role of reading
amount should also consider examining the quality ofNOTES
text materials being read. Research findings suggest, for1 In an earlier article (Schiefele et al., 2012), this dimension was
example, that intrinsic reading motivation predicts read- labeled performance-oriented reading motivation. As suggested by
one of the anonymous reviewers, the performance-oriented label is
ing competence more strongly for those readers who
not appropriate because it does not capture the meaning of that
read challenging or difficult text materials (Carver & dimension well, which refers to increasing one's reading
Leibert, 1995). Probably, the reading of challenging texts competence.
facilitates higher level comprehension processes, which
2 The MRQ scale of grades refers to improving one's grades in
in turn increase students' reading competence (Kim, reading or other school subjects, whereas the scale of competence-
2007). In addition, Pfost, Drfler, and Artelt (2010) oriented reading motivation refers to improving one's reading
competence.
reported evidence that reading amount predicts reading 3 In a German publication, McElvany, Kortenbruck, and Becker
comprehension mainly for those students whose parents (2008) reported different results, although they referred to the same
are moderately or highly educated. The latter findingdata set as Becker et al. (2010). Specifically, McElvany et al.
may be explained by the fact that families with higher demonstrated a significant indirect effect of intrinsic reading
motivation in grade 3 on comprehension performance in grade 6
education levels are more likely to provide their children
mediated by reading amount in grade 4. Grades 3 and 4 reading
with challenging reading materials (see also Kraaykampcomprehension were included as predictors of grade 6 reading
& Dijkstra, 1999). Taken together, the mediating role of comprehension. Extrinsic reading motivation was not part of these
reading amount may depend on the quality of students' analyses.
4 Although the present sample size may appear to be rather small, it
reading materials. Thus, the relatively high level of read-
is sufficient for confirmatory factor analysis and structural
ing competence in our sample (see sample description)
equation modeling. Insufficient sample size is most likely indicated
may have contributed to the quality of reading materialsby nonconvergence or improper solutions (for details, see J.C.
and, consequently, to the significant mediating role of
Anderson & Gerbing, 1988, p. 415; MacCallum, Widaman, Zhang,
reading amount in the present study. & Hong, 1999, p. 96).
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Reading Amount as a Mediator of the Effects of Intrinsic and Extrinsic Reading

Motivation on Reading Comprehension

This study examined the role of reading amount as a mediator o

ing motivation positively predicts reading amount and reading

370 I Reading Research Quarterly , 48(4)

372 I Reading Research Quarterly , 48(4)

374 I Reading Research Quarterly, 48(4)

5. Social reading motivation (e.g., "I read because

ability information). The items have to be answered on c

4-point rating scales ranging from 1 (not at all true) to 4 o* ro

The factorial validity of the RMQ was demonstrated i 10 'i

by Schaffner and Schiefele (2007) by means of confir- "O

amined the dimensional structure of the RMQ by O

means of confirmatory factor analysis. For this purpose,

1998-2011) was used.

(TLI), and the standardized root mean square residual

(SRMR; cf. Kline, 2005). A good level of fit is indicated |inin<NCMOOO* . *

SRMR is below .08. The fit of a model is still acceptable _ ipM^^-oocooooinNO.2

The scale to assess reading amount was adapted Uby

Schaffner, Schiefele, and Schmidt (2013) from Becker t

376 I Reading Research Quarterly, 48(4)

S a To evaluate the occurrence of suppression effects, we

a: S o %2(43) = 50.9, ns, CFI = .990, TLI = .984, SRMR = .045.

378 I Reading Research Quarterly, 48(4)

380 I Reading Research Quarterly , 48(4)

382 I Reading Research Quarterly , 48(4)

384 I Reading Research Quarterly , 48(4)

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