The Marine Sextant

- is an instrument for determining the angle between the horizon and a celestial body such as the
Sun, the Moon, a star, or a planet and it is used in celestial navigation to determine the location of
the observer.

Use of the Sextant

A sextant is used to determine the sextant altitude (hs) of a celestial body.

First, we have to decide which stars to observe; this is done using a Rude Star finder or
other methods.
When making an observation, the star should look as shown below..

ERRORS

The sextant suffers from two main types of error, correctable and non-correctable. The latter as
the name suggests may only be rectified by returning the device to the manufacturer for servicing.
Adjustable/Correctable sextant errors are present when:
1. The frame of the sextant and the index mirror are not perpendicular to each other (called
perpendicularity error).
2. The frame of the sextant and the horizon glass are not perpendicular to each other (called
side error).
3. The index mirror and the horizon glass are not parallel to each other at 0 (called index
error).
 CORRECTABLE ERRORS

There are three different correctable errors which the OOW can easily rectify providing they have
the knowledge to do so. These errors should be adjusted for in a particular order as follows:

First Adjustment Error of Perpendicularity

This is caused by the index mirror not being perpendicular to the plane of the instrument. To
check whether this error is present the OOW should set the index arm about half way along the
arc. The sextant should be held horizontally and the OOW should look obliquely into the index
mirror. The true and reflected arcs should be aligned with one another. If this is not the case then
error of perpendicularity exists. This error can be resolved by adjusting the screw at the rear of
the index mirror until the true and the reflected arcs are aligned.

Second Adjustment Side Error

This occurs when the horizon mirror is not perpendicular to the plane of the instrument. There is
two simple ways for the OOW to check whether this error is present. The easiest in my opinion is
to observe a star. The sextant should be held vertically and the index arm set to 0. A bright star
with a low magnitude should be observed through the telescope if the true and reflected images
are shown side by side then side error is present.

During daylight hours it is also possible to test for side error by setting the index arm to 0 and
holding the sextant at a small angle off horizontal. You should look through the telescope and
observe whether the reflected and true horizons are misaligned. In this instance it will appear that
one is slightly higher or lower than the other. If this misalignment is present then once again it
can be said that side error is present.
Third Adjustment Index Error

This occurs when the horizon and index mirrors are not parallel to each other when the index arm
is set at 0. There is three main methods to detect whether index error is present.

Observation of a star Set the index arm to 0 and observe a star of a low magnitude. If the
reflected star is observed higher or lower than the true star then index error must exist.
Observation of the horizon Set the index arm to 0 and hold the sextant vertically. If the true
and reflected horizons are not aligned then index error exists.

Index Correction (IC)

Error present in the sextant itself is known as index error (IC).
This error is easily determined by setting the sextant to zero and observing the horizon; if
there is no error,

Often, however, the sextant has a slight error. In this case, the view is as follows:

INDEX ERROR

. If during daylight you were to measure the height of the horizon with respect to the horizon,
the reading on the sextant should be zero, but it usually reads a small angle due to the index error.
This value must be added to or subtracted from all readings.
To account for this sextant error, we apply an index correction (IC).
This correction number is a function of the individual sextant itself.
Non Adjustable Sextant Errors

The non-adjustable sextant errors are prismatic error, graduation error, centering error,
shade error, Worm and Rack Error and Collimation Error. The higher the quality of the
instrument, the less these error will be.
Prismatic error occurs when the faces of the shade glasses and mirrors are not parallel.
Error due to lack of parallelism in the shade glasses may be called shade error. The
navigator can determine shade error in the shade glasses near the index mirror by
comparing an angle measured when a shade glass is in the line of sight with the same
angle measured when the glass is not in the line of sight.
Graduation errors occur in the arc, micrometer drum, sextant which is improperly cut or
incorrectly calibrated.
Centering error results if the index arm does not pivot at the exact center of the arcs
curvature. Calculate centering error by measuring known angles after removing all
adjustable errors.

Worm and Rack Error Occurs by failures in the worm and rack gearing of the micrometer
and main arc.
Collimation Error Occurs when the telescope is not parallel to the plane of the instrument.
1. Determination of Observed Altitude (Ho)

We must make some corrections to hs to come up with the Ho, which we need to use the
altitude-intercept method.

These corrections account for the following:

index error (error in the sextant itself)

difference between visible and celestial horizon, due to the observers height of
eye

adjustment to the equivalent reading at the center of the earth and the center of
the body

refractive effects of the earths atmosphere

The corrections needed to convert from the sextant altitude (hs) to observed altitude (Ho)
are

1. Index Correction (IC) - sextant error

2. Dip (D) - height of eye

3. Altitude Correction (Alt Corr) -refractive effects of the atmosphere

2. Dip Correction (D)

DIP - When your eye is above sea level, as it usually is, the angle to the horizon is bellow the
horizontal plane by a value known as dip. This value must be subtracted from the measured
reading.

Next, we must account for the difference between the celestial horizon and the visible
horizon, due to our height of eye.

This is known as the dip correction (D).

Values of the dip correction are tabulated inside the front cover of the Nautical Almanac.

3.Altitude Correction

The third correction accounts for the refractive effects of the earths atmosphere.

Known as the altitude correction, it is tabulated inside the front cover of the Nautical
Almanac.

Ho = ha + Alt Corr

Apparent Altitude

Now, by applying the index correction (IC) and the dip correction (D), we can determine the
apparent altitude (ha).

ha = hs + IC + D
Note that this is not yet the observed altitude (Ho) required for our calculations.
REFRACTION

When light enters the atmosphere it bends slightly making the astronomical object appear
to be at a higher altitude. The change in angle can be calculated and this value must be
subtracted from the measured reading.
Altitude Correction
Determination of Ho

Again, the corrections needed to convert from the sextant altitude (hs) to observed
altitude (Ho) were
- IC (index correction, from sextant error)
- D (dip, from height of eye)
- Alt Corr (altitude correction, from refractive effects)

Additional Corrections

These corrections are all that are needed under normal circumstances to
determine Ho of a star.
An additional correction is required if the observation is made under non-
standard conditions of temperature or pressure.
If we are using the sun, moon, or planets, the problem becomes a bit more
complicated.
In addition to the corrections we already mentioned, we must also account for
- horizontal parallax (sun, moon, Venus, Mars)
- Semi-diameter of the body (sun and moon)
- augmentation (moon)

Semi-Diameter Correction

When measuring the altitudes of the Sun, Moon, Venus and Mars, it is usual to use either
the top (Upper Limb) or bottom (Lower Limb) of the body. This offset must then be
removed before comparison with the calculated value.
The angular diameter of a body depends on its distance from the Earth. Thus for the Sun
the Semi-Diameter varies between 16.3 in January, when the Sun is closest and15.7 in
June when it is furthest away.
For a lower limb observation, the Semi-Diameter should be added to the True altitude.

Augmentation of the Moons Semi-Diameter

The Earths radius is about 1/ 60th of the distance to the Moon. The reduction in distance
compared to when on the horizon, has a measurable effect on its size. In contrast the
Suns distance is 23,000 times the Earths radius and the effect is negligible.
Augmentation = Sin (Altitude) x Horizontal Parallax

Horizontal Parallax is used in the formula as the lunar distance is not provided in a Nautical
Almanac. This correction is typically 0.15 and should be added to the Moons Semi-Diameter
before applying the Semi-Diameter to the True Altitude.
Additional Corrections

These additional corrections make determination of Ho for the sun, moon, and planets
generally more difficult than those for a star.
For simplicitys sake, well stick to determination of Ho for a star.
Use of a Strip Chart

To aid in making any calculations in celestial navigation, we normally use a form called a
strip chart.
An example of a strip chart used for calculating Ho of Dubhe
 Reading the Sextant

Reading a micrometer drum sextant is done in three steps;

1.The degrees are read by noting the position of the arrow on the index arm in relation to the
arc.

2. The minute sare read by noting the position of the zero on the vernier with relation to the
graduations on the micrometer drum.
3. The fraction of a minute is read by noting which mark on the vernier most nearly
coincides with one of the graduations on the micrometer drum. This is similar to reading
the time with the hour, minute, and second hands of a watch.

How to read Marine Sextant

As well as being able to correct the instrument the OOW must understand how to read it.
There is three steps in this process.

Firstly you must note the number of full degrees indicated in the arrow on the index arm
pointing to a corresponding value on the sextant arc in this example 29. Secondly you
should note the number of full minutes which can be obtained by reading the nearest value on
the micrometer drum which is beside the 0 graduation on the Vernier scale. Here is reads 42.
Finally the fraction of a minute is obtained by examining the Vernier scale. The mark which
most matches a mark on the micrometer drum indicates the value. In this instance 0.5.

By observing the image above you can state that the reading for this sextant is2942.5 on the
arc.

Lines of position from celestial observations should be compared often with good positions
obtained by electronics or piloting.

Common sources of error are:

1. The sextant may not be rocked properly.
2. Tangency may not be judged accurately.
3. A false horizon may have been used.
4. Subnormal refraction (dip) might be present.
5. The height of eye may be wrong.
6. Time might be in error.
7. The index correction may have been determined incorrectly.
8. The sextant might be out of adjustment.
9. An error may have been made in the computation.

A nautical almanac

Is a publication describing the positions of a selection of celestial bodies for the purpose of
enabling navigators to use celestial navigation to determine the position of their ship while at sea.
The Almanac specifies for each whole hour of the year the position on the Earth's surface (in
declination and Greenwich hour angle) at which the sun, moon, planets and first point of Aries is
directly overhead. The positions of 57 selected stars are specified relative to the first point of
Aries.

The objective of this Almanac is to provide, in a convenient form, the data required for the
practice of astronomical navigation at sea.
Main contents of the Almanac consist of data from which the Greenwich Hour

Angle (GHA) and the Declination ( Dec) of all the bodies used for navigation can be obtained for
any instant of Universal Time (UT), or Greenwich Mean Time (GMT). The Local Hour Angle
(LHA) can then be obtained by means of the

Formula: LHA = ?

For the stars the Sidereal Hour Angle (SHA) is given, GHA can be obtained

From:

GHA of Star =?

MAIN DATA:
1. DAILY PAGES the daily pages give the GHA of Aries, the GHA and declination of the
Sun, Moon, and the four navigational planets, for each hour of UT (universal Time). For
the moon, values of v and d are also tabulated for each hour to facilitate the correction of
GHA and Declination to intermediate time: v and d for the sun and planets change so
slowly that they are given, at the foot of the appropriate columns, once only on the page.
v is zero for Aries and negligible for the Sun and is omitted. The SHA and Dec of the 57
selected stars, Arranged in alphabetical order of proper name.

2. Stars the SHA and DEC of the 173 stars including the 57 selected stars, are tabulated
for each month, no interpolation required and the data can be used in precisely the same
way as those for the selected stars on the daily pages. The stars are arranged in order of
SHA. The list of 173 includes all stars down to magnitude 3.0, together with a few
fainter ones to fill the larger gaps. The 57 selected stars have been chosen from amongst
these on account of brightness and distribution in the sky. The index to the selected stars,
containing list in both alphabetical and numerical order in pages provided also reprinted
on the bookmark.

3. INCREMENTS and CORRECTIONS the tables printed on tinted paper at the back of
the Almanac provided the increments and correction for minutes and seconds to be
applied to GHA and DEC. They consist of sixty tables, one for Each minute, separated
into two parts: increments to GHA for Sun and planets, Aries, and moon for every minute
and second; and for each minute, correction To be applied to GHA and DEC
corresponding to value of v and d given to daily pages. The increments are based on the
following adopted hourly rates of Increase of the GHA: SUN and PLANETS, 15
precisely: ARIES 15 02.46` ; MOON 14 19.0`. The values of v on the daily pages are
the excesses of the actual hourly motions over the adopted values. They are generally
positive, except for VENUS. The tabulated hourly values of the sun`s GHA have been
adjusted to reduce to a minimum the error caused by treating v as negligible. The values
of d on the daily pages are the hourly difference of the DEC for the moon, the true values
of v and d are given for each hour: other wise the mean values are given for the three
days on the page.

Declination (Dec)
The Declination for most bodies is tabulated for each hour. Due to the very small
movement of stars, it is only provided once for each three day period.
The hourly change of Declination is usually small therefore the adjustment is
found using the d value at the bottom of the page for the Sun and planets. (It is
negligible for stars.) The Moon however moves rapidly which means that its d
value is provided for each hour.
 The d correction is found in the same manner as for v by going to the
appropriate Increments and Corrections page to obtain the appropriate correction
from the right hand v and d section.
The direction in which to apply the d correction (North or South) is determined
by examining the next hourly value.

Methods of Entry

The UT of an observation is expressed as a day and hour followed by a number of

minutes and seconds. The tabular values of GHA and DEC and where necessary, the
corresponding values of v and d are taken directly from the daily pages for the day and
hour of UT; this hour is always before the time of observation. SHA and DEC of selected
stars are also taken from daily pages.

Greenwich Hour Angle (GHA)

This is the bodys angular distance west of the Greenwich meridian.

The GHA for the Sun, Moon and Planets is tabulated in a Nautical Almanac for each
hour.
An increment is applied to allow for the minutes and seconds. The main values assume
that the GHAs change by consistantly. This assumption is corrected using a v
correction.

Example of Calculations for the Moon ~ 00:30:05 GMT, 19th January 2011

GHA at 00:00 10 09.4

Increment for 30m 05s + 7 10.7

v (6.1 at 00:00) + 3.1

GHA at 00:30:05 17 23.2

Longitude 10 00.0 E Add for East and subtract if West

LHA 27 23.2
Declination at 00:00 21 08.5 N

d (7.6 at 00:00) (-) 3.9

Declination at 00:30:05 21 04.6 S

examples of calculations using a sextant with the following errors:

index error = 2,0 (correction = -2.0)

correction for instrument error = -1,2 (from a calibration certificate for altitude between 35 and
50)

height of the Eye above the Sea = 2,5 meters

sextant altitudes : Sun 35 25,9 (lower limb) star 48 28,8

Sun Star

35 29,5' sextant altitude 48 28,8'

- 2,0 index error - 2,0

-1,2 instrument error - 1,2

35 26,31 observed altitude 48 25,6'

- 2,8 dip - 2,8

35 23.5' apparent altitude 48 22,8'

0.0 refraction 0,0

35 23,5' true altitude 48 22,8

+ 15,7 semi-diameter

35 39,2 true altitude 48 22,8'

Time and Equation of Time

TIME may be defined as the measure of the period of duration or elapse interval between events.
It expresses the relation between the past, the present, and future.
Two motion of earth as unit of time:
1.) Day is the period of the earth`s rotation.
2.) Year is the period of the earth`s revolution around the sun.
Depending on what celestial objects is used to established the unit of time.
1.) SIDEREAL DAY - unit derived from the apparent movement of a fixed star
or the vernal equinox.
SIDEREAL TIME represents absolute time as the reference point used for
its measurement is considered a fixed in space it begins at the time when
Aries transit the upper branch of the meridian of that place.
2.) SOLAR DAY unit derived from the apparent diurnal movement of the sun.
SOLAR TIME - based on the hour angle of the sun with respect to the
selected meridian.
SOLAR or TROPICAL YEAR the interval between two successive
passages of the sun through vernal equinox.
March 21 - the sun crosses Aries not at the beginning of the year.
3.) LUNAR DAY unit derived from the apparent movement of the moon.

Marine Chronometer
A marine chronometer is a timepiece that is precise and accurate enough to be used as a portable
time standard; it can therefore be used to determine longitude by means of celestial navigation

The purpose of a chronometer is to measure accurately the time of a known fixed

location, for example Greenwich Mean Time (GMT).
Knowing GMT at local noon allows a navigator to use the time difference between the
ship's position and the Greenwich Meridian to determine the ship's longitude. As the
Earth rotates at a regular rate, the time difference between the chronometer and the ship's
local time can be used to calculate the longitude of the ship relative to the Greenwich
Meridian (defined as 0)
A stopwatch is a handheld timepiece designed to measure the amount of time elapsed
from a particular time when it is activated to the time when the piece is deactivated
 Hs = Sextant Altitude
I.E. = (+) off the arc (-) on the arc
Dip = Height of Eye (Always subtract)
Ha = Apparent Altitude
T/C = Total Corrections (Parallax, Semi
Diameter, Augmentation, Refraction)
Lower Limb (-), Upper Limb (+)
Ho = Observe Altitude
Hc = Computed Altitude
Int = Intercept (Towards and Away)