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International Rice Research Institute July-September 2008, Vol. 7, No. 3
Rice Today is published by the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), the world’s Responsibility for this publication rests with IRRI. Designations used in this publication
leading international rice research and training center. Based in the Philippines and with should not be construed as expressing IRRI policy or opinion on the legal status of any
offices in 13 other countries, IRRI is an autonomous, nonprofit institution focused on country, territory, city, or area, or its authorities, or the delimitation of its frontiers or
improving the well-being of present and future generations of rice farmers and consumers, boundaries.
particularly those with low incomes, while preserving natural resources. IRRI is one of Rice Today welcomes comments and suggestions from readers. Potential contributors
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by IRRI or the author(s).
NEWS http://ricenews.irri.org
Some relief but higher rice prices remain Export prices for rice
US$/ton
A fter continuing to climb in May Edouard Alexis. Also in April, 20,000 1100
2008, rice exports have fallen from Bangladeshi textile workers rioted US 2/4%
1000
their peak of more than US$1,000 over high food prices—particularly Thai 100%B
per ton, but, as of late July, remained rice—and low wages. 900 Viet 5%
around double the December 2007 High prices also threaten to worsen Pak Irri-25%
Thai A1 Super
price. With the Food and Agriculture malnutrition among the poor. Already, 800
Organization of the United Nations the Philippines has been forced to scale
(FAO) projecting a 2.3% growth in down its Food for School Program— 700
world paddy (unmilled) rice production which distributes iron-fortified rice to
to 666 million tons in 2008, economists children in public schools—from 40 to 600
are predicting that, assuming normal 20 provinces.
500
weather patterns, prices could drop C y c l o n e Na r g i s d e v a s t a t e d
further. Nevertheless, agricultural Myanmar’s Ayeyarwady (Irrawaddy) 400
economists are warning that the world Delta area on 3 May 2008, leaving more
must get used to higher prices. than 130,000 people dead or missing 300
“My personal view is that prices and causing an estimated 1.2-million-
will continue to decline but won’t ton (6%) drop in rice production, 200
Aug-07
return to the pre-crisis level,” said Sam jeopardizing the country’s exports.
Dec-07
Feb-08
Oct-07
Jun-07
Jun-08
Apr-08
Mohanty, head of the Social Sciences News of the disaster caused rice prices
Division at the International Rice to jump in an already jittery market.
Source: FAO Rice Price Update July 2008
Research Institute (IRRI). The food crisis of early 2008 has
Although Vietnam contributed pushed agriculture high onto the
to the easing of prices by ending its political agenda for the first time in cooperative agreement to carry out the
export ban, the country has imposed decades. Several countries, including the Philippines’ rice self-sufficiency plan.
a minimum export price of $800. Philippines, Indonesia, and Malaysia, Many other agencies and leaders
With India indicating that its export have announced major initiatives, each called for a reinvestment in agricultural
restrictions would remain at least until of around $1 billion, to increase rice research and development. The FAO
the wet-season harvest in October or production and productivity through hosted a High-level Conference on
November, and with continuing high oil infrastructure development, technology World Food Security in June, and
and fertilizer prices, the international and knowledge dissemination, and food issues were high on the agenda at
market remains under pressure. agricultural research. the July G8 summit in Japan, where
Poor consumers are still hurting, During a 2 May 2008 visit to IRRI the G8 leaders pledged to “promote
with domestic prices across Asia with President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo, agricultural research and development,
remaining high. Civil unrest broke out Philippine Secretary of Agriculture and the training of a new generation
in several countries as prices spiked Arthur Yap and IRRI Director General of developing-country scientists and
in April and May. Several people were Robert Zeigler signed a memorandum experts focusing on the dissemination
killed in rice riots in Haiti, prompting of agreement committing IRRI and the of improved, locally adapted, and
the senate to fire Prime Minister Jacques Department of Agriculture to a 5-year sustainable farming technologies, in
particular via the Consultative Group
At IRRI to sign a memorandum of agreement on International Agricultural Research
on improving rice production (from left to [which includes IRRI], and through
right), Philippine Secretary of Agriculture
Arthur Yap inspects an experimental field
partnerships such as the Alliance for a
with President Arroyo, Dr. Zeigler, and IRRI Green Revolution in Africa.”
senior scientist Darshan Brar. According to IRRI Development
Director Duncan Macintosh, the
sentiment is welcome but must be
followed up. “IRRI has been calling for
reinvestment in agricultural research
for years, and it has taken record prices
to really get the message across,” said
Mr. Macintosh. “Now, if organizations
such as IRRI and its national partners
are to develop technologies that can help
Ariel Javellana
Rice supercomputer conventional systems. IRRI researchers entire crops. According to the Chin
IBM and researchers at the University are helping to determine which proteins Famine Relief Committee, the United
of Washing ton have launched a to target. Anyone with a computer and Nations Development Programme has
program to develop improved rice Internet access can donate unused been providing limited food assistance
varieties. With processing power computer time by register ing at since the infestation began. Mizoram’s
equivalent to the world’s third-most- www.worldcommunitygrid.org. agriculture department has estimated
power f u l superc omputer, IBM’s a 75% rice shortfall for 2007−08.
World Community Grid will harness Rat plague continues
the donated power from nearly one The rat plague that has devastated Gene for yield potential
million personal computers in the rice production in the Indian state R e s e a r c her s f r om Hu a z hong
Nutritious Rice for the World project. of Mizoram—jeopardizing the food Agricultural University in China have
The initiative will help researchers security of around 1 million people—is pinpointed a gene that plays a major
determine rice protein structures now threatening tens of thousands of role in determining yield potential in
and use the information to breed people in Myanmar’s Chin State. Every rice, as well as the plant’s adaptability
varieties with improved traits, such 50 years, the flowering of native bamboo to cooler climates. The study was
as increased nutrition. The project, in Mizoram and neighboring areas of published in the 4 May 2008 issue of
helped by a $2 million grant from the Myanmar and Bangladesh causes a Nature genetics. Rice productivity is
U.S. National Science Foundation, will boom in the rat population. Once the determined by several traits, including
achieve in 2 years what would take bamboo food source is exhausted, the number of grains per panicle, the height
more than 200 years using existing rats move into rice fields, destroying of the plant, and its flowering time. By
screening thousands of rice plants, Qifa in 2005, broadcast 235 episodes over a U.S.-based company working on GM
Zhang and his colleagues were able to the Voice of Ho Chi Minh City and five rice in India. While in India, she gets
identify a gene on rice chromosome provincial radio stations. Farmers who caught up in a love triangle involving
7 that influences these three traits. listened to the drama used 30% fewer a scientist and a government official.
Deletion of the Ghd7 gene causes plants seeds for sowing, 9% less nitrogen The film, which is expected to be in U.S.
that are shorter and have fewer grains fertilizer, and 60% less insecticide. IRRI theaters in mid 2009, will be dubbed
per panicle. The researchers also found entomologist K.L. Heong and former into Hindi for Indian audiences.
that natural mutants with reduced IRRI researcher Monina Escalada led
Ghd7 function were better suited to the campaign’s development. Egypt joins Africa Rice Center
cooler, temperate regions. Egypt is the Africa Rice Center's
Basmati blues (WARDA) newest member and the
Radio soap cleans up Norman Ellstrand, a geneticist from first from North Africa. WARDA’s
The Environmental Soap Opera for the University of California, Riverside, membership now stands at 22 countries,
Rural Vietnam drama series has been has been recruited to check the script covering West, East, Central, and
awarded the Commendation Certificate of Basmati blues—“a film about love, North Africa. Amin Abaza, Minister of
by One World Broadcasting Trust for adventure and ... genetically modified Agriculture and Land Reclamation of
outstanding and unique contribution rice”— for the accuracy of its scientific Egypt, wrote in his request, “We wish
to the communication of sustainable content. Using GM agriculture as a to commend the Africa Rice Center as
development and human rights. The backdrop, the film’s story centers on a a continental organization serving all
program, which started as IPM Radio young American woman who works for African countries.”
Hybrid rice to benefit from new public-private partnership Pests thrive on pesticide
S
ant Virmani, former IRRI recognition of his outstanding achieve-
principal scientist, received the ments on crop protection research.
Padma Shri Award from Indian Rolly Fuentes won the Best Paper
President Prathiba Patil on 10 May in Award in Weed Science in collaboration
New Delhi (pictured, right). The award with Aurora Baltazar and Florinia
honored his contributions made at IRRI Merca of the University of the Philip-
to the development and dissemination pines. Teodoro Migo was elected
of hybrid rice technology in tropical president of the Weed Science Society
countries, including India. Dr. Virmani of the Philippines for 2008−09.
was also honored by the city of Plano, IRRI also received awards at the
Texas, where he now resides. Plano 38th Crop Science Society of the Phil-
government of india
Mayor Pat Evans proclaimed 22 June ippines (CSSP) Annual Conference on
to be “Dr. Sant Singh Virmani Day” in 12−16 May in Iloilo City. Honors includ-
Plano. He was awarded a plaque from ed Best Poster (Upstream Research),
the Netlink Foundation in honor of his Best Poster (Downstream Research),
service to humanity in combating hun- Best Paper (Upstream Research), and
ger and poverty around the world. greenhouse gases emissions (the 2006 a CSSP Achievement Award for Tech-
IRRI Deputy Director General for IPCC Guideline on National Greenhouse nology Development, won by Plant
Research Achim Dobermann is the Gases Inventories). Breeding, Genetics, and Biotechnology
recipient of the 2008 International IRRI associate scientist Romeo (PBGB) Division associate scientist
Fertilizer Industry Association (IFA) Cabangon is the 2008 Outstanding Alvaro Pamplona. Renato Reaño,
International Crop Nutrition Award. Filipino Agricultural Engineer in the CSSP president in 2006-07, received a
The award recognizes Dr. Dobermann’s field of soil and water management. Testimonial Award.
pioneering research to fine-tune fertil- He was recognized for his contribution IRRI’s 2007 nationally recruited
izer and crop management practices to to the advancement of science in the staff awards were presented during the
improve productivity of rice, maize, and field of soil and water conservation, Institute’s Board of Trustees meeting
soybean production systems in an en- specifically the development of water- on 11 April. Alice Laborte, associate
vironmentally sustainable way. He was saving technologies in rice-production scientist in the Social Sciences Divi-
honored at the IFA Annual Conference systems in Asia. sion won the Award for Outstanding
on 20 May 2008 in Vienna, Austria. Eugenio Castro, associate scien- Scientific Achievement for her work on
Reiner Wassmann, coordina- tist at IRRI’s Training Center, was named land-use modeling. Norberto Quil-
tor of IRRI’s Rice and Climate Change this year’s Outstanding Professional of loy, research technician in PBGB, won
Consortium, has been formally recog- the Year in the field of agricultural en- the Award for Outstanding Research
nized by the United Nations Intergov- gineering. The award recognizes Mr. Support for his work in plant breeding
ernmental Panel on Climate Change Castro’s expertise, manifested through activities. Happily for Rice Today, the
(IPCC) for substantial contributions his work in the design, development, magazine’s production and distribution
to the IPCC’s Nobel and improvement team—George Reyes, Juan Lazaro,
Peace Prize award. of technologies in Ariel Javellana, Jose Raymond
The IPCC and former small-, medium-, Panaligan, Meg Mondoñedo, Em-
U.S. Vice President and large-scale manuel Panisales, and Chris Quin-
Al Gore were award- farming. tana—won the Award for Outstanding
ed the Nobel Peace IR R I weed Administrative Support.
Prize for 2007 “for scientists were Rice Today also had an excellent
their efforts to build honored at the year in the Association for Com-
up and disseminate Annual Confer- munication Excellence (ACE) Cri-
greater knowledge ence of the Pest tique and Awards Program, w in-
about man-made cli- Management ning Gold (first place) awards for
mate change, and to Council of the magazines and periodicals in the
lay the foundations Philippines held Publishing category (Rice Today
for the measures that in Puerto Prin- production team), for photography
are needed to coun- cessa, Palawan, in the Feature photo category (Ariel
teract such change.” on 6−9 May. Joel Javellana), and for writing for maga-
Dr. Wassmann was Janiya received zines in the Writing category (Adam
one of the authors of t he Pest Man- Barclay). Mr. Javellana also won a
the new guidelines agement Award silver award in the Environmental por-
to quantify national in Research in trait or personality photo category.
R
ecent arrivals at IRRI include visiting research fellow in PBGB. the arrival of Fiona Farrell, who is
plant pathologist Serge Sa- U.S. Singh has become IRRI’s scheduled to begin in September.
vary, senior scientist in the South Asia regional project coordinator David Johnson, senior scientist
Plant Breeding, Genetics, and Bio- for developing abiotic stress tolerance. in CESD, is the new coordinator of the
technology (PBGB) Division; plant Based in New Delhi, he will help imple- Consortium for Unfavorable Rice En-
pathologist Laetitia Willocquet, ment the project to reduce poverty and vironments, taking over from David
scientist, PBGB; agricultural economist hunger and increase food and income Mackill. Bas Bouman has been
Samarendu Mohanty, new head security of resource-poor farm fami- appointed leader of IRRI’s program on
of the Social Sciences Division (SSD); lies and rice consumers in South Asia Sustaining productivity in intensive
Digna Manzanilla, postdoctoral through the development and dis- rice-based systems: rice and the envi-
fellow in SSD; Deepinder Grewal, semination of rice varieties tolerant of ronment. He remains CESD head. JK
postdoctoral fellow in PBGB; Krishna abiotic stresses. The work is supported Ladha has returned to the IRRI-India
Jagadish, postdoctoral fellow in by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation Office in New Delhi after a successful
PBGB; Matthieu Conte, postdoctoral project Stress-tolerant rice for poor year-long fellowship at Cornell Univer-
fellow in the Crop Resource Informa- farmers in Africa and South Asia. sity. He remains IRRI representative
tion Laboratory; Xiangqian Zhao, Recent departures include Gary and coordinator for the Rice-Wheat
postdoctoral fellow in the Grain Qual- Jahn, entomologist and coordinator Consortium.
ity, Nutrition, and Postharvest Center; for the Greater Mekong Subregion; Federico Ramos, former su-
Sarah Covshoff, postdoctoral fellow Christine K reye, international perintendent of the IRRI Farm (now
in PBGB; Xin’ai Zhao, postdoctoral research fellow in CESD; Yuichiro the Experiment Station), 1961−85 and
fellow in PBGB; Nobuko Katay- Furukawa, project scientist in CESD; father of University of the Philippines
anagi, visiting research fellow in the and Hector Hernandez, head of President and IRRI Board member
Crop and Environmental Sciences Human Resource Services. Paramjit Emerlinda Roman, passed away on
Division (CESD); and Yohei Koide, Sachdeva is acting head of HRS until 13 May.
oliver veran
researcher, with Rice Today in front of Petronas Twin Henry Sackville Hamilton takes Rice
Towers, Malaysia. Today to the temple of Angkor Wat.
Jan 2001
May 2001
Sep 2001
Jan 2003
Jan 2006
May 2003
May 2005
Jan 2008
Sep 2003
Jan 2004
Sep 2004
Sep 2005
May 2002
Sep 2002
Jan 2000
Sep 2006
Sep 2007
Jan 2002
Jan 2005
May 2000
May 2004
May 2006
Jan 2007
May 2007
May 2008
Sep 2000
long-residual insecticides that disrupt is available
natural pest control mechanisms. to poor rice
consumers. Month and year
How do price rises affect To achieve
poor rice consumers? this, a second Green Revolution is of rural poor lift themselves out of
Although more expensive rice may needed now as much as the first poverty. In the near term, urgent
help farmers who produce more was needed to avoid famine and actions from national governments
than they consume, a rise in the mass starvation. Increased research and international agencies are needed
price of rice is equivalent to a drop investment together with policy on two fronts: rapidly exploiting
in real income for the majority of the reforms that make rice markets more existing technological opportunities
poor who are net consumers of rice. efficient will help bring rice prices for increasing rice yields and policy
Higher prices increase the num- down to a level affordable to the poor reforms to improve poor people’s
ber of poor people and push people and, ultimately, reduce poverty. food entitlements. Rice produc-
deeper into poverty and hunger, tion can be revitalized, but there
forcing them to sacrifice essentials What needs to be done? are no silver bullets. Investment by
such as more nutritious food, health Recent advances in science and the world community is essential.
care, and children’s education—thus technology offer unprecedented op-
condemning future generations to portunities to not only solve current
a vicious poverty cycle. Higher food problems but also develop agricul- For more information, visit
prices also affect the poor indirectly tural systems that can help millions http://solutions.irri.org
as international relief agencies are
forced to reduce or cut programs.
The International Rice Research Institute’s action plan
How do we prevent short- Some of the following actions deal with the immediate crisis while others provide
ages and price rises? long-term solutions to prevent future crises.
Given the structural reasons that
1. Bring about an agronomic revolution in Asian rice production to reduce existing
contributed to the price rise in 2008,
gaps between achieved and potential yield. Yield improvements of 1–2 tons per
rice prices are not expected to fall to
hectare can be achieved through the use of better crop management practices,
anywhere near their historic lows. particularly in irrigated environments.
And, without the buffer of high 2. Accelerate the delivery of new postharvest technologies to reduce losses.
stock levels, there is an increased Postharvest includes the storing, drying, and processing of rice. New and existing
risk of additional sharp price rises. technologies can substantially reduce the considerable postharvest losses—in terms
The best strategy for keeping of both quantity and quality—suffered by most Asian farmers.
the price of rice low is to ensure 3. Accelerate the introduction and adoption of higher yielding rice varieties.
that production increases faster 4. Strengthen and upgrade the rice breeding and research pipelines. The steady
than demand. Rice production can decline in funding for the development of new rice varieties must be reversed in
be increased by expanding the area order to develop the new varieties and crop and resource management systems
required for sustained productivity growth.
planted to rice, by increasing the yield
5. Accelerate research on the world’s thousands of rice varieties so scientists can tap
per unit area, or by a combination of
the vast reservoir of untapped knowledge they contain.
the two. With limited opportunity 6. Develop a new generation of rice scientists and researchers for the public and
for increasing Asia’s rice area, the private sectors. Asia urgently needs to train a new generation of rice scientists and
main source of additional produc- researchers—before the present generation retires—if the region’s rice industry is
tion will need to be yield growth. to successfully capitalize on advances in modern science.
Productivity growth through the
by David Dawe
W
orld market rice prices
Percentage change
tripled between April 50
2007 and April 2008,
World price DC
with most of the increase Domestic price DC
40
coming early in 2008. While the DC = domestic currency
world market price is an important
30
indicator of scarcity, rice-consuming
and -producing households do
20
not buy and sell directly on the
world market. Thus, an important
10
question for food security is the
extent to which changes in world
prices are transmitted, or passed 0
World
through, to domestic consumers Bangladesh China India Indonesia Philippines Thailand Vietnam
and producers. Price transmission -10
from world to domestic markets is
Fig. 1. Cumulative percentage change in real rice prices, first quarter 2003–first quarter 2007.
influenced by many factors, but two
Data for Vietnam are annual, not quarterly, and refer to change between 2003 and 2006.
of the most important are exchange
rates and government policies.
Inadequate infrastructure can also
play an important role, but this is Figure 1, the left column for each change in world prices is adjusted
less relevant in the Asian context, country makes this adjustment (using for exchange rate movements.
where infrastructure is much better inflation-adjusted exchange rates), Bangladesh, India, the
than in Africa, for example. showing that world rice prices during Philippines, and Vietnam all fall
this time typically increased much into this category of countries that
Exchange rates less in inflation-adjusted domestic- stabilize domestic prices. For all
Even before the sharp increase in currency terms than in inflation- of these countries, the volatility of
early 2008, world rice prices had been adjusted US-dollar terms, although domestic consumer prices during
steadily increasing since early 2004: Bangladesh was an exception. the past few years has been less than
they increased 44% from the first that of world prices, thus justifying
quarter of 2003 (Q1 2003) to Q1 2007 Government policies the use of the term “stabilizer.” As
in inflation-adjusted US-dollar terms In addition to exchange rate one example of the results of this
(see the leftmost column in Figure movements, domestic rice policies type of stabilization, Figure 2 shows
1). But, for many Asian countries, such as procurement, storage, and the evolution of monthly domestic
this “headline” price increase was variable tariffs also determine retail rice prices in India between
illusory because the US dollar was how world prices are transmitted 2003 and 2007. Clearly, domestic
steadily depreciating against a wide to domestic markets. Many Asian prices were more stable than
range of regional currencies. For countries actively try to stabilize international prices during this time.
example, during these 4 years, the domestic prices, and the right column Historically, Indonesia has
Philippine peso strengthened against for each country in Figure 1 shows also stabilized domestic rice prices,
the dollar from 54.2 in 2003 to 46.1 that, for several countries, the change but, in recent years, its trade policy
in 2007. Thus, the world price as in domestic consumer (either retail has been dominated by domestic
measured in Philippine pesos did not or wholesale) prices was much less political considerations that have
increase nearly as much as the world than the change in world prices served to destabilize domestic
price as measured in US dollars. In during this time, even when the prices by restricting imports.
0
Bangladesh China Indonesia Philippines
Dr. Dawe is a senior economist
Fig. 4. Cumulative percentage change in real rice producer and consumer prices, 2003–07. at the United Nations Food and
Data for the Philippines compare March to May 2003 with March to May 2008. Agriculture Organization.
1
Block S, Kiess L, Webb P, Kosen S, Moench-Pfanner R, Bloem MW, Timmer CP. 2004. Macro shocks and micro outcomes: child nutrition during Indonesia’s crisis.
Econ. Hum. Biol. 2(1): 21−44.
2
Torlesse H, Kiess L, Bloem MW. 2003. Association of household rice expenditure with child nutritional status indicates a role for macroeconomic food policy in
combating malnutrition. J. Nutr. 133(5): 1320−1325.
3
Senauer B, Sur M. 2001. Ending global hunger in the 21st century: projections of the number of food insecure people. Rev. Agric. Econ. 23(1): 68−81.
A perfect
water-saving technologies find their way to the province
of Bohol in the Philippines and prove to be a perfect
match for the region’s climate and irrigation systems
W
systems operating in Bohol, covering use. The dam has been beset by
ith three major a total area of 10,260 hectares, are problems—declining available water,
reservoir-fed the Capayas Irrigation System in asynchronous farming activities
irrigation systems Ubay (1,160 hectares), the Bohol resulting in wasteful use of water,
operating in the Irrigation System 1 (BIS 1; 4,960 and poorly maintained irrigation
area, it’s easy to think that Bohol, hectares), and the Bohol Irrigation facilities. All of these have, in turn,
one of the biggest rice-growing System 2 (BIS 2; 4,140 hectares). affected farm productivity and
areas in the Philippines’ Visayas The Malinao Dam of BIS 1 in contributed to low farmer incomes.
region, is free of water problems Pilar, the Bayongan Dam of BIS 2 in A JBIC mission conducted in
for irrigated rice. Think again. San Miguel, and the Capayas Dam March 2005 reported that water
Despite these dams, the rice in Ubay are all reservoir-type dams. from BIS 1 failed to cover the
farmers of Bohol have been struggling However, Bayongan Dam, which was designated irrigation area and that
to irrigate their crops, for the simple constructed under the Japan Bank the nonirrigated areas are mostly
reason that the province does not for International Cooperation (JBIC) located farthest from the canals.
have enough water. Bohol has loan program, was built in such a way Usually, there is insufficient
what is known as a Corona climate that it had to rely primarily on BIS1. water available during the year’s
type IV, characterized by evenly Water from Bayongan Dam will come second cropping (November to April),
distributed rainfall throughout the mostly from the excess water flowing especially for downstream farmers
year. There is no clear-cut wet or from Malinao Dam. The technical who live farthest from the dam.
dry season, though there is a higher functionality of BIS 2 is therefore This problem is aggravated by the
likelihood of heavy showers from very much dependent on the efficient practice of unequal water distribution
November to January. The average operation and management of BIS 1. and unnecessary water use by
annual rainfall is estimated at Since the start of operations in farmers who insist on continuous
19
Supercharging the
rice engine
An ambitious project to re-engineer rice photosynthesis has the potential to
by Dilantha Gunawardana
transform rice production as much as, if not more than, any single advance
since agricultural research began
I
n his 1988 Nobel Prize in dioxide is relatively inefficient, of poor—and often undernourished—
Chemistry acceptance speech, many crop species, such as maize people, improving the efficiency of
German scientist Hartmut and sorghum, have evolved a much photosynthesis in rice could have
Michel, quoting the Royal more efficient (and, in evolutionary an enormous beneficial impact.
Swedish Academy, described terms, newer) photosynthetic Driven by the need to improve
photosynthesis as “the most pathway. This mechanism, known rice yields, International Rice
important chemical reaction on as C4 photosynthesis because of Research Institute (IRRI) scientist
earth.” Dr. Michel, who solved the the initial formation of a molecule John Sheehy and his team are
three-dimensional structure of the possessing four carbon atoms, can embarking on an ambitious but
primary protein complex responsible be distinguished from the ancestral realistic goal to develop rice with C4
for the initial light capture in “C3” photosynthesis by the initial photosynthesis. Due to the magnitude
photosynthesis, knows a thing 3-carbon compound formed. of the task and the multi-faceted
or two about the means by which The inefficiency of C3 nature of converting a plant’s
plants derive energy and—happily photosynthesis means that the complete photosynthetic pathway—
for we humans—convert carbon potential growth rates and yields which entails changes in leaf anatomy,
dioxide to oxygen in the process. of rice are lower than those of a C4 photosynthesis biochemistry, and
The sheer importance of crop such as maize. Considering that plant physiology—IRRI formed an
photosynthesis is a plain truth more than 90% of the world’s rice international consortium of some
that we tend to ignore in spite is consumed within Asia and is the of the world’s leading experts on
of constant reminders: the trees major staple for hundreds of millions photosynthesis including Julian
outside our windows, the ingredients
of the food we ingest, the energy
we expend on the sports field,
and even the intellectual power
that goes into formulating simple
sentences. One way or another, all
of this derives from the chemical
Bundle Mesophyll
energy synthesized from solar
sheath cells
irradiation by photosynthesis.
cells
The energy captured from light
Abigail Elmido-Mabilangan
IRRI
structures (mostly chloroplasts), that
make carbon capture inefficient. One
of the primary goals in the mission
to deliver C4 rice is to identify or
construct the cellular architecture
of C4 plants—the Kranz Anatomy—
in rice leaves. This will include
microstructural analysis of many
plant lines including Oryza sativa
(cultivated rice) and many wild rice
species. Initial studies with wild
rice have demonstrated that some
features of C4 photosynthesis, such
as close spacing of leaf veins and
favorable ratios of the two cell types
of Kranz Anatomy, do exist in rice.
C4 photosynthesis evolved from
C3 photosynthesis within the past
25–32 million years, a relatively short Technicians in the C4 group take
time frame in terms of evolutionary samples of maize leaves in the field.
adaptation (by comparison, the two
A youth field school in the Philippines trains young students in rice farming and
agriculture in the hope of perpetuating the nation’s dying breed of farmers
“F
armers are getting older This is the bleak reality, as In 2007, ICDAI, in partnership
and older. When they are explained by Father Francis B. with the Philippine Rice Research
gone, who will produce Lucas, president of the Infanta Institute (PhilRice) and the
the food? Few farmers Integrated Community Development International Rice Research
today want their children to become Assistance, Inc. (ICDAI), a Institute (IRRI), launched the
farmers or even agriculturists. community-based nongovernmental Youth Field School (YFS) as part
The farmer will just say: there is organization (NGO) in Infanta, in of the PhilRice-IRRI project on
no future in this for my child.” the Philippine province of Quezon. “Improving knowledge exchange
effective trainers for their families.” Integrated School in Infanta, an exercises to lectures, they like seeing
Ms. Morilla says that because ICDAI pilot school for the YFS. “They how the lessons are applied in the
students also learn how to went to the field, they cleaned, they actual field.”
use the Rice Knowledge Bank planted, and they were very eager For the students, the rewards
(RKB)—IRRI’s digital repository to learn. Normally, our classes do come in the discovery that they
of information on rice production not have full attendance, but, every can make a real difference
(www.knowledgebank.irri.org)— Thursday, the rooms are full!” to their families’ lives.
they are becoming the conduits of Ludie Ligutan, a volunteer “The YFS has helped me a lot
information to their farmer-parents. YFS facilitator and a farmer because my father is a farmer,”
The connection between herself, explains that ICDAI says Sheena Orozco, a high-school
the PhilRice-IRRI Cyber Village gives her materials with which student at Binulasan. “I tell him
project and the YFS lies in the to teach a particular topic, such whatever I learn from the field, like
use of the RKB as the source of as seed health management how and when to apply fertilizer,
computer-based information and or sustainable agriculture. and which are the harmful insects
knowledge dissemination. In “I try to make the classroom and which are the good ones.”
Infanta, however, students, not just lessons interesting by making jokes Her classmates are quick to agree.
farmers, are given direct access and telling stories,” says Ms. Ligutan, “We really learn a lot!” enthuses
to agricultural information. “but once its time to go out into the Kristell Barrival. “Whenever my
The YFS was incorporated field, the students are uncontrollable! parents have a question, I
into students’ regular subjects and They dive into the look it up in the RKB
graded just like, say, mathematics mud and start and I know the
or science. On Thursdays, YFS identifying the answers are there.”
facilitators, composed of ICDAI staff insects and The YFS
members and farmer-volunteers, memorizing helps not only the
teach the young students about their names. students learn
growing rice, managing pests and They prefer about rice farming
diseases, using the RKB, and many hands-on and agriculture
other aspects of growing rice. but also their
To the happy surprise parents.
of ICDAI staff members, the
students enjoyed the field school
subjects so much that they began
attending school more often. Alvin Romantiko
“My co-teachers and I were
very pleased to see the impact of the
YFS on the lives of our students,”
relates Eva Crisostomo, teacher and
Sheena Orozco
guidance counselor at the Binulasan
“Sometimes there are lot,” he says. “We learned about scientists need to eat. We should
parents who don’t listen to the rice and vegetables, but rice make sure there is food security first,
field lectures,” says Ms. Ligutan, was the most important to me. I and everything else will follow.”
“but their children listen, and realized that if all of us became It is encouraging to know that
at home, when it’s their own successful engineers, lawyers, or IT these students are giving farming
children who tell them about the specialists, then who would plant a chance, helping to lessen the
lessons, they listen and learn.” rice: who will feed us? If we all worry that farming will become an
Alvin Romantiko, also a high- think of becoming professionals, endangered profession. However,
school student in Binulasan, sums then who will become farmers? many challenges remain.
it up perfectly. “Since they started Everybody needs to eat. Even the According to Father Lucas, a
with the YFS, they’ve taught us a most successful businessmen and lot of poor people are victims of
industrialization. “When industries
come in, people get sucked into
their centers,” he says. “When
Kristell Barrival that happens, the environment is
neglected—the basis of food and
production is neglected because
when you remove the farmer, they
sell the land, hoping to have their
children study anything other than
agriculture. At the end of the day,
though, they lose: they don’t have
land and they don’t have jobs, and
nobody can break the cycle.”
Breaking this cycle is what the
YFS aims to achieve. By training
school students in farming and
agriculture early on, young people
Quizzes in the field are a part of the learn about the importance of
Youth Field School program. Students food, and, more specifically, the
experience actual field conditions and get importance of rice in the lives of
first-hand knowledge of field problems.
millions not in only in the Philippines
but also around the world.
R
ice is the staple food of Madagascar, and 60%
of the workforce is involved in rice farming.
The crop is grown all over the country, except
in the arid southwest of the island (Map 1).
The principal rice production areas are in the central
highlands. About 1.25 million hectares are planted to
rice each year, with an average yield of 2.8 tons per
hectare. Rice is produced mainly in flooded conditions
and is mostly rainfed with limited opportunities for
irrigation. Slash-and-burn agriculture characterizes
Madagascar’s steep eastern slopes, threatening
1
The 2001 commune census is described by Minten B, Randrianarisoa J-C, Randrianarison L (eds.) 2003. Agriculture, pauvreté rurale et politiques économiques à Madagascar (USAID,
Cornell University, INSTAT, and FOFIFA). This insightful book, which contains a wealth of information on rice and agriculture in Madagascar, includes 54 maps and is available at
www.ilo.cornell.edu/ilo/book.html. For a thorough discussion of rice prices in Madagascar, see also Bart Minten and Paul Dorosh (eds.) 2006. Rice markets in Madagascar in disarray:
policy options for increased efficiency and price stabilization. Africa Region Working Paper Series 101.World Bank. www.worldbank.org/afr/wps/wp101.pdf.
Map 3. Average spatial variation in rice prices in communes of Map 4. Mean variation across four trimesters (% change from average
Madagascar. Average for 2001 and 2007. price) of the rice price in communes in Madagascar. Average for 2001
and 2007.
2
Such data are currently collected by the “Observatoire du riz,” an impressive government program that tracks weekly rice prices throughout markets in Madagascar.
H
Coming to IRRI developing countries. IRRI had made in the new Rice Genetic Resources
aving worked at the great progress, but it did not always Laboratory, which on 24 October
nearby University of the communicate well. [We needed to 1981 would be named the N.C. Brady
Philippines at Los Baños foster] international cooperation Laboratory] for their resistance to
as a visiting Cornell between IRRI scientists and those in different insects and diseases and
professor, I knew of the area and the developing world’s rice countries. for their tolerance of acidic, saline,
the plans of Bob Chandler [IRRI’s This also involved inter- and toxic soils and drought. Every
first director general] and his disciplinary collaboration to increase department was involved. The plant
group to set up the Institute in rice production around the world. breeders’ products were evaluated
the early 1960s. In 1972, Frosty When I arrived [at IRRI], there were by the entomologists, the plant
[Forrest F., Ford Foundation vice four separate rice improvement pathologists, the agronomists, and
president of overseas development] research programs—i.e., in plant the social scientists in terms of what
Hill, chairman of IRRI’s Board of breeding, entomology, plant was useful to them and to the farmers
Trustees, asked me if I wanted the pathology, and agronomy. This was whom they were representing. This
job of director general [DG]. I had good because it was competitive, is how the Genetic Evaluation and
been working at Cornell University but I said, “Let’s see what we can do Utilization Program (GEU as it was
as director of research in the College if we can get together to develop a known) came into existence. I think
of Agriculture. I asked a few friends truly interdisciplinary collaborative it really revolutionized, internally,
what they thought and they said research program.” And we did, our ability to provide the world
that it would be a good thing. So, I making full use of the thousands of with products that could be used
decided to try it. Of course, I also genetic accessions [seed samples] in breeding programs elsewhere.
had to get permission from my wife in IRRI’s germplasm bank. The GEU was basically a plant
[Martha] and she was delighted to Back then, the germplasm bank breeding and genetic improvement
go back to the Philippines with me. holdings were in paper bags! A fire program that the whole Institute was
could have destroyed everything. concerned with. And as far as I was
Challenges and achievements So, the first thing we had to do concerned, it was fantastic! When we
In those days, I thought the greatest was to build [in 1976−77] a truly first started working on [this concept],
challenge for IRRI was to influence, modern facility to store the seeds there were some in the group who
to the degree it could, quality [see photo]. Second, we began were not exactly enthusiastic, at
research for our collaborators in evaluating those cultivars [housed least in dealing with me on this. But
direction in which IRRI and other On 9 November 1976, IRRI Director General Nyle Brady ceremoniously sinks the first pile for the Rice
such centers should and could go. Genetic Resources Laboratory, a structure that would officially (unbeknownst to him at the time) bear his
IRRI must also continue to push name only a few years later.
“E
veryone to the farm,” the rice crisis—news that comes
is the new decree of as a relief to local rice farmers.
President Wade of “We think that the crisis has
Senegal—a country forced our government to pay
that has seen massive riots in the attention to local rice production,
last few months, when thousands which has been neglected for so
of citizens carrying empty rice long,” says Abdoulaye Ouédraogo,
sacks on their heads marched in a rice farmer from Burkina Faso,
protest against soaring rice prices. which is now investing massively
The President has just unveiled in agriculture. He added that if
an ambitious agricultural plan called the government had listened to
the Great Offensive for Food and the farmers earlier, the country
Abundance (GOANA), which aims to would not have been in such a
make Senegal self-sufficient in food crisis, referring to food riots that Local and imported rice in Cotonou, Benin.
staples, especially rice. GOANA’s recently broke out in the cities.
target is to produce in the next season As expected, in contrast to urban
500,000 tons of rice—2.5 times consumers, African farmers are
more than the current production. happy about the high price of rice. Center (WARDA), the rice crisis offers
Senegal, where rice-fish called “I have never seen this kind of price a big opportunity for Africa to use its
cebbu jen is the most popular daily hike in 30 years,” says Abdoulaye. latent potential for production and
dish, consumes about 800,000 “Just a few months ago, 1 kilogram break from decades of policy bias
tons of rice per year and nearly of paddy [unhulled] rice was selling against agriculture. Except for Egypt,
80% of this is imported at a cost here for 110 CFA francs [$0.27] and Africa is a net importer of rice with
of more than 100 billion CFA now it is 225 CFA francs [$0.56].” Nigeria, South Africa, Senegal, and
francs (US$247 million). Some In neighboring Mali, the grain is Côte d’Ivoire ranking among the top
Senegalese call this the “tyranny of so much in the limelight today that 10 importers of rice in the world.
rice” because of its huge negative some citizens joke the country will
impact on the national economy. soon have a Minister of Rice. In April
President Wade has said that 2008, the government launched an
GOANA will help free Senegal from Initiative riz (rice initiative) as “a
this tyranny, urging farmers to structural response to the rice crisis.”
grow more rice (and even asking his The aim of this program is
ministers and government officials to double Mali’s annual milled
to farm at least 20 hectares each). rice production in 2008-09 to 1
The government has earmarked million tons, which will not only
750 billion CFA francs ($1.85 meet domestic demand but also
billion) for boosting national provide a surplus of 100,000 tons
rice production. The money will for export. In addition, Prime
be used to improve irrigation Minister Modibo Sidibé is placing
facilities and farmers’ access to considerable importance on the
seed, fertilizer, and equipment. national rice research program.
Similar announcements have “There is no agricultural development
been made by governments of several without research,” he said.
A woman sells a rice dish in Cotonou, Benin.
African countries in the wake of According to the Africa Rice
T
he high cost of hybrid cell and egg cell contain half the for human rice consumers).
rice seeds is considered genetic content of normal cells. This Among the more than 250,000
a major disincentive to halving of the genetic content of species of flowering plants, about
poor farmers to adopt this sperm and egg can be traced back 400 are known to be apomictic, so
beneficial technology, which offers to a process known as meiosis, while the trait is not rare, it is not as
yields substantially higher than which occurs in the microspore common as sexuality. For reasons
those of nonhybrid (inbred) rice. mother cells (MiMCs) of the anthers that are not clear, apomictic species
Not only are hybrid seeds more and the megaspore mother cells are almost invariably polyploid, with
expensive per kilogram than seeds (MeMCs) of the ovule, respectively. four or more copies of the genetic
of inbred lines but they must also be The MiMCs and MeMCs are material, compared with sexual
purchased fresh each season. Inbreds among the most highly specialized species, which are mostly diploid,
breed true and may be reproduced cells of the plant. All other dividing with two copies. One of IRRI’s first
by self-pollination (selfing), even in cells first double their DNA content activities in apomixis research was
farmers’ fields. By contrast, hybrids and then divide the two DNA copies to screen accessions of cultivated and
lose their yield advantage and genetic equally between the two daughter wild germplasm, including polyploids,
uniformity when selfed. They must cells (the process known as mitosis). for apomixis or its component traits.
be produced repeatedly from inbred In contrast, MiMCs and MeMCs, However, when it became clear that,
parental lines in large and specialized after doubling their DNA content, unlike wheat, maize and pearl millet,
nurseries. Although farmers sow recombine it in a complex way rice possesses no close apomictic
hybrid seed at a somewhat lower before dividing twice to give a tetrad relatives, two alternative approaches
density to reduce the impact of the of cells. It is this recombination were adopted: artificial mutagenesis
higher price, considerable research that constitutes genetic “mixing.” and genetic engineering. However,
is being focused on ways of reducing Apomicts avoid meiosis during the artificial mutagenesis approach
the cost of hybrid seed production. embryo formation and so produce was soon abandoned when studies
In addition, for the last 20 years, the offspring that are genetically elsewhere showed that the genetic
International Rice Research Institute identical with their maternal parent. control of apomixis is more complex
(IRRI) has studied the feasibility of Although the paternal parent does than previously thought. The careful
an alternative breeding system for not contribute to embryo formation, screening needed for detecting
hybrid rice, one that fixes the special it may contribute to the formation apomixis would not be feasible with
genetic constitution of hybrids so of the endosperm—the starchy the large mutant populations required
that they will breed true in farmers’ tissue that provides nutrients to catch rare multiple mutations.
fields. This new breeding system for the developing embryo (and IRRI’s genetic engineering
is known as apomixis—asexual
reproduction through seeds.
The term “apomixis” means
“without mixing,” where “mixing”
refers to the important and beneficial
role of sexual reproduction in
generating offspring with novel
combinations of maternal and
paternal genetic material. In sexual
xin'ai zhao
fangming xie
farmers must purchase new seed each time
apomixis in citrus and hawkweed. they plant. The seed of apomictic hybrids can
approach over mutation, which
The collaboration was conceived be saved and planted. usually knocks out the function
as a 15-year, three-phase program. of the gene in all tissues. Figure
The second phase of the project 2 shows the presence of a single
ended in June this year. (RNAi), and to confirm the expected MeMC in the ovule of a normal rice
There are three main apomictic mac1-like phenotype (exhibiting plant and of multiple MeMCs in the
mechanisms in plants: adventitious extra MeMCs in the ovule). The next ovule of an OsTDL1A-RNAi line.1
embryony (as in citrus), apospory step would be to bypass meiosis in The full fertility of the OsTDL1A-
(as in hawkweed), and diplospory the extra MeMCs in the expectation RNAi lines makes them a suitable
(as in tripsacum, a close relative that one or more AIs would form and platform for the project’s next stage:
of maize). During Phase 1, IRRI develop into aposporous embryos bypassing meiosis in the extra
focused on achieving adventitious without the need for fertilization. MeMCs. To achieve this objective,
embryony. This was attempted by In 2003, when Phase 2 started, IRRI is conducting basic research
first identifying Arabidopsis genes a group in Japan identified a mutant on the initiation of meiosis in plants.
that appear to cause embryos to form of rice that mimicked mac1 in both Meiosis is best understood in two
in unusual sites within the plant and the ovule and the anther. Because types of fungus, budding yeast and
then overexpressing the equivalent the mutation added a DNA tag to the fission yeast, where it is induced by
genes in rice. Although this approach affected rice gene, it was possible to nutritional stress—specifically, a
succeeded in expressing seed- identify the gene as one encoding a deficiency of nitrogen and sugars.
specific genes in leaves, it did not type of protein known as a leucine- However, the initiation process
generate adventitious embryos. rich repeat receptor kinase. Named is completely different in the two
During Phase 2, the focus MULTIPLE SPOROCYTES1 (MSP1), yeasts, which are in fact not closely
shifted to achieving apospory, the this gene is closely related to a related, in spite of their names.
most common form of apomixis gene in Arabidopsis that encodes Overall, meiosis in plants and
among the grass family, to which rice the protein EXTRASPOROCYTES animals is more closely allied to
belongs. This shift was stimulated (EXS). The exs mutation caused meiosis in budding yeasts, and
by reports on a mutant of maize, similar symptoms in the anther but this is consistent with IRRI’s
multiple archaesporial cells1 appeared to have no effect on the recent finding that certain crucial
(mac1), which has lost control over ovule. It turned out that the mutation aspects of the initiation of meiosis
the number of MeMCs in the ovule of a different Arabidopsis gene, are highly conserved between
and MiMCs in the anther. We saw a encoding the protein TAPETUM budding yeast and rice. With this
parallel between the extra MeMCs DETERMINANT1 (TPD1), produced knowledge, IRRI has a chance of
that form alongside the primary the same symptoms as exs, suggesting developing a simple procedure to
MeMC of mac1 and the multiple that EXS (and, by extension, MSP1 bypass meiosis—a major step in the
structures known as aposporous in rice) does not work alone in development of apomictic hybrid rice.
initials (AIs) that form alongside the controlling MiMC numbers.
single MeMC in aposporous apomicts The msp1 mutant of rice is not Dr. Bennett worked as a senior
such as Hieracium pilloselloides suitable as a platform for building biotechnologist at IRRI from
(tall hawkweed). IRRI proposed aposporous hybrid rice because one 1992 to 2007 (see Where science
to identify the rice equivalent of effect of the mutation is to cause meets art on pages 17-19 of Rice
the MAC1 gene, to inactivate it by sterility in the anthers. With help Today Vol. 6, No. 4). Dr. Zhao is
adam barclay
mutation or by RNA interference from the CSIRO, IRRI identified a postdoctoral fellow at IRRI.
1
Zhao X, de Palma J, Oane R, Gamuyao R, Luo M, Chaudhury A, Hervé P, Xue Q, Bennett J. 2008. OsTDL1A binds to the LRR domain of rice receptor kinase MSP1, and is required to limit
sporocyte numbers. The Plant Journal 54:375-387.
An international drive to generate data on tiny genetic differences will help scientists
develop high-yielding, high-quality rice varieties that can better withstand pests, diseases,
and environmental stresses
V
ariation is the spice of life.
In humans, plants, and
animals, genetic variation
within species is immense.
This variation, or genetic diversity,
is a result of different mixes of genes
and is fundamental to the adaptation
and survival of species. When the
environment of a species changes—
because of the occurrence of a new
disease or fluctuations in rainfall
patterns, for example—the small gene
variations occurring in a population
are essential for its adaptation. The
more diverse the population, the more
likely that individuals will exist that
can cope with a changed environment A single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) is a difference between one pair of DNA nucleotides.
or withstand a new pest or disease.
Low genetic diversity was a A difference in only one DNA base diversity that can be exploited to
contributing factor of the infamous (see figure, above) can cause a large develop new varieties that can help
1840s potato famine in Ireland. At difference in physical appearance or not only feed the billions of people
this time, Irish farmers were reliant behavior (this physical manifestation dependent on rice as their staple but
on, essentially, a single potato variety. of an organism’s genetics is known also lift millions out of poverty.
The lack of diversity had a devastating as its phenotype). For example, in The challenge is to decipher the
consequence when an outbreak of humans, a single SNP in one gene is code and identify key alleles (different
potato blight fungus hit Ireland, responsible for red hair associated forms of a gene) that can increase
destroying the vast majority of the with people from Celtic descent. SNPs yield, improve quality, and provide
potato crop and causing an estimated in the genetic code of other genes have resistance to pests and tolerance of
1 million deaths from starvation and been associated with the stickiness harsh environments. Rice has an
disease. With approximately the of ear wax and patterns of baldness. estimated 50,000 genes encoded in
same number emigrating, Ireland’s Genetic diversity provides a its genome, which comprises 400
population fell by around 20%. potential gold mine for scientists to million base pairs. If translated
The fundamental basis of genetic explore. With the steadily increasing into text, the rice genome would
diversity lies in one particular class human population, decreasing land take up the equivalent space of 130
of difference in the sequence of availability, climate change, and copies of Tolstoy’s epic War and
the nucleotides—named adenine outbreaks of pests and diseases, peace (one copy has around 500,000
(A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), and there is enormous pressure to create words). Detecting these minute,
thymine (T), these are also referred to high-yielding, high-quality rice yet important, differences in DNA
as bases—that form the DNA within varieties with increased tolerance sequence is an immense undertaking.
the cells of organisms. These tiny of abiotic stresses (such as drought, In 2003, an ambitious research
david hall (Gringer)
differences in DNA sequence, known flooding, and salinity) and biotic project was undertaken by
as single nucleotide polymorphisms stresses (pests and diseases). The International Rice Research Institute
(SNPs, pronounced “snips”), are the challenge is tough, yet within the (IRRI) molecular geneticist Ken
smallest level of genetic variation. rice gene pool lies incredible DNA McNally to look at genetic variation
E
ven before the dramatic price Increase (%)
3.5
spike in early 2008, rice
prices on the world market 3.0
increased every year from 2001 to
2.5
2007. Never before in the post-World
War II period had they increased 2.0
for more than 3 consecutive years. Population growth
A
s we grapple with the world rice crisis, I think of It is now widely recognized that rice yield gaps result
Alexander Humboldt, Henry Bates, Alfred Russel from agronomic failings, and that future yield increases
Wallace, Charles Darwin, and Richard Spruce. These depend heavily on this science. Agronomy’s time has come
extraordinary naturalists wove their exceptional powers to lift farm productivity out of stagnancy. Will it respond
of observation into the bases of the modern sciences of quickly and efficiently to the challenge?
biogeography, meteorology, geology, tropical biology, and Perhaps it is an insult to pose the question; yet, the
evolution. Their wide interests and insight contributed to our answer is not evident to me. The issue is not lack of knowl-
concepts of the origin of species, natural selection, mimicry edge—agronomists have good answers to individual yield
in animals, continental drift, and the Wallace Line. Spruce, constraints. Nor is the problem ignorance of the need to bun-
for example, was responsible for the introduction of chi- dle together solutions to interrelated management deficien-
nona trees to India for the extraction of cies. Farm yield is always constrained
quinine. These explorers were supreme by several management deficiencies.
generalists. Agronomy's time Alleviation of one may increase yield
Scientists today are specialists who modestly; simultaneous reduction of all
focus ever deeper into specific research has come to lift farm narrows the yield gap substantially.
areas. The continuing shift from the This integrated approach has re-
general to the specific is exacerbated by sulted in spectacular productivity
institutional policies, funding agencies,
productivity out of gains in Latin America through the
publication standards, and peer pres- Latin American Fund for Irrigated
sure. This specialization has also con- stagnancy—will Rice (FLAR) agronomy program, and
tributed massively to knowledge with in several countries in Asia through
immense benefits to society. This essay it respond to the integrated crop management.
is not to debate the merits of each but, Although modifications must be
rather, to suggest that we might learn challenge? made continually for local conditions,
from past masters to address current it is evident that integrated agronomy
problems. works and has the power to balance
Rice scientists likewise have become narrowly special- Asian and Latin American rice supply and demand. Com-
ized and, thereby, increasingly isolated from their clients, pared with seed-based technology, bringing agronomic im-
the rice farmers who are consummate generalists. Exten- provements to millions of farmers is slow, difficult, and costly,
sion agents, the conduit of information from laboratory to and requires many more agronomists able to unite specialist
rice field, are often sequestered from researchers, treated knowledge into comprehensive solutions. But, it is the best
as second-class workers, and reduced in number and insti- alternative to repeat the success of the Green Revolution.
tutional support. Further, within the scientific community, What, then, is the problem? I suggest it concerns agro-
basic research is often favored over the applied, widening nomic overspecialization wherein pitifully few agronomists
the gap between researchers and farmers. apply on-farm, holistic solutions to multiple yield limitations.
If one research area should be exempt from overspecial- The lesson from Humboldt, Darwin, et al. for research direc-
ization, it is agronomy, the study of field crop management. tors and project managers is to reward, not penalize, a general-
It is not. Agronomists rank somewhere between extension ist approach to solving farm problems. The greater the impact
agents and biotechnicians in the elitist hierarchy of agricul- on yield, the greater should be the reward. This attitude could
tural research. They are relatively few in number compared convince young, bright scientists to discard their lab coats and
with breeders and geneticists of all sorts and their contribu- head to farmers’ rice fields as generalist agronomists. Rice
tions are inadequately recognized. Perhaps to compensate, farmers and consumers sorely need more of them.
they, too, have become specialists: experts in soils, weed con-
trol, land and water management, plant nutrition, planting Dr. Jennings was principal scientist at the International Center for
systems, crop rotation, and so forth. They are infected with Tropical Agriculture and FLAR after founding the breeding program
a guild consciousness. Yet, specialized agronomic knowledge at IRRI (1961-67), where he helped develop IR8, the variety that ig-
applied singly to the multiple management deficiencies of nited the Green Revolution in rice. See his IRRI pioneer interview at
farms is inadequate to the task. www.irri.org/publications/today/Jennings.asp.