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1.ObjectivesandApplications
>
1.1DefiningaProblem>
1.1.1Decidingwhatto
calculate
1.1.2Defininggeometry
1.1.3Definingloading
1.1.4Choosingphysics
1.1.5Definingmaterial
behavior
1.1.6Arepresentativeproblem
1.1.7Choosingamethodof
analysis
2.GoverningEquations>
2.1Deformation
measures>
2.1.1DisplacementandVelocity
2.1.2Deformationgradient
2.1.3Deformationgradientfrom
twodeformations
2.1.4Jacobianofdeformation
gradient
2.1.5Lagrangestrain
2.1.6Eulerianstrain
2.1.7InfinitesimalStrain
2.1.8EngineeringShearStrain
2.1.9VolumetricandDeviatoric
strain
2.1.10Infinitesimalrotation
2.1.11Principalstrains
2.1.12CauchyGreendeformation
tensors
 2.1.13Rotationtensor,Stretch
tensors
2.1.14Principalstretches
2.1.15Generalizedstrainmeasures
2.1.16Velocitygradient
2.1.17Stretchrateandspin
2.1.18Infinitesimalstrain/rotation
rate
2.1.19Otherdeformationrates
2.1.20Strainequationsof
compatibility
2.2Internalforces>
2.2.1Surfacetraction/bodyforce
2.2.2Internaltractions
2.2.3Cauchystress
2.2.4Kirchhoff,Nominal,Material
stress
2.2.5Stressforinfinitesimal
motions
2.2.6Principalstresses
2.2.7Hydrostatic,Deviatoric,Von
Misesstress
2.2.8Stressesataboundary
2.3Equationsofmotion>
2.3.1Linearmomentum
balance
2.3.2Angularmomentum
balance
2.3.3Equationsusingother
stresses
2.4WorkandVirtual
Work>
2.4.1WorkdonebyCauchy
stress
2.4.2Workdonebyother
stresses
2.4.3Workforinfinitesimal
motions
2.4.4Principleofvirtualwork
2.4.5Virtualworkwithother
stresses
 2.4.6Virtualworkforsmall
strains
3.ConstitutiveEquations>
3.1Generalrequirements
3.2Linearelasticity>
3.2.1Isotropicelasticbehavior
3.2.2Isotropicstressstrainlaws
3.2.3Planestress&strain
3.2.4Isotropicmaterialdata
3.2.5Lame,Shear,&Bulkmodulus
3.2.6Interpretingelasticconstants
3.2.7Strainenergydensity
(isotropic)
3.2.8Anisotropicstressstrainlaws
3.2.9Interpretinganisotropic
constants
3.2.10Anisotropicstrainenergy
density
3.2.11Basischangeformulas
3.2.12Effectofmaterialsymmetry
3.2.13Orthotropicmaterials
3.2.14Transverselyisotropic
materials
3.2.15Transverselyisotropicdata
3.2.16Cubicmaterials
3.2.17Cubicmaterialdata
3.3Hypoelasticity
3.4Elasticityw/large
rotations
3.5Hyperelasticity>
3.5.1Deformationmeasures
3.5.2Stressmeasures
3.5.3Strainenergydensity
3.5.4Incompressible
materials
3.5.5Energydensity
functions
3.5.6Calibratingmaterial
models
3.5.7Representative
properties
3.6Viscoelasticity>
3.6.1Polymerbehavior
3.6.2Generalconstitutive
equations
3.6.3Springdamper
approximations
3.6.4Pronyseries
3.6.5Calibratingconstitutive
laws
3.6.6Calibratingmaterial
models
3.6.7Representativeproperties
3.7Rateindependent
plasticity>
3.7.1Plasticmetalbehavior
3.7.2Elastic/plasticstrain
decomposition
3.7.3Yieldcriteria
3.7.4Graphicalyieldsurfaces
3.7.5Hardeninglaws
3.7.6Plasticflowlaw
3.7.7Unloadingcondition
3.7.8Summaryofstressstrain
relations
3.7.9Representativeproperties
3.7.10Principleofmax.plastic
resistance
3.7.11Drucker'spostulate
3.7.12Microscopicperspectives
3.8Viscoplasticity>
3.8.1Creepbehavior
3.8.2Highstrainratebehavior
3.8.3Constitutiveequations
3.8.4Representativecreep
properties
3.8.5Representativehighrate
properties
3.9Largestrainplasticity>
3.9.1Deformationmeasures
3.9.2Stressmeasures
 3.9.3Elasticstressstrain
relations
3.5.4Plasticstressstrain
relations
3.10Largestrain
viscoelasticity>
3.10.1Deformationmeasures
3.10.2Stressmeasures
3.10.3Stressstrainenergy
relations
3.10.4Strainrelaxation
3.10.5Representative
properties
3.11Criticalstatesoils>
3.11.1Soilbehavior
3.11.2Constitutivelaws(Cam
clay)
3.11.3Responseto2Dloading
3.11.4Representative
properties
3.12Crystalplasticity>
3.12.1Basiccrystallography
3.12.2Featuresofcrystal
plasticity
3.12.3Deformationmeasures
3.12.4Stressmeasures
3.12.5Elasticstressstrain
relations
3.12.6Plasticstressstrain
relations
3.12.7Representative
properties
3.13Surfacesandinterfaces
>
3.13.1Cohesiveinterfacemodels
3.13.2Contactandfriction
4.Solutionstosimpleproblems
>
4.1Axial/Sphericallinear
elasticity>
4.1.1Elasticgoverningequations
 4.1.2Sphericallysymmetric
equations
4.1.3Generalsphericalsolution
4.1.4Pressurizedsphere
4.1.5Gravitatingsphere
4.1.6Heatedsphericalshell
4.1.7Axiallysymmetric
equations
4.1.8Generalaxisymmetric
solution
4.1.9Pressurizedcylinder
4.1.10Spinningcirculardisk
4.1.11Interferencefit
4.2Axial/Spherical
elastoplasticity>
4.2.1Plasticgoverningequations
4.2.2Sphericallysymmetric
equations
4.2.3Pressurizedsphere
4.2.4Cyclicallypressurized
sphere
4.2.5Axisymmetricequations
4.2.6Pressurizedcylinder
4.3Sphericalhyperelasticity>
4.3.1Governingequations
4.3.2Sphericallysymmetric
equations
4.3.3Pressurizedsphere
4.41Delastodynamics>
4.4.1Surfacesubjectedto
pressure
4.4.2Surfaceundertangential
loading
4.4.31Dbar
4.4.4Planewaves
4.4.5Wavespeedsinisotropic
solid
4.4.6Reflectionatasurface
4.4.7Reflectionataninterface
4.4.8Plateimpactexperiment
5.Solutionsforelasticsolids>
5.1GeneralPrinciples>
5.1.1Governingequations
5.1.2Navierequation
5.1.3Superposition&
linearity
5.1.4Uniqueness&
existence
5.1.5SaintVenants
principle
5.22DAiryfunctionsolutions
>
5.2.1Airysolutioninrectangular
coords
5.2.2DemonstrationofAiry
solution
5.2.3Airysolutioninpolarcoords
5.2.4Endloadedcantilever
5.2.5Lineloadperpendicularto
surface
5.2.6Lineloadparalleltosurface
4.4.7Pressureonasurface
4.4.8Uniformpressureonastrip
4.4.8Stressnearacracktip
5.32DComplexvariable
solutions>
5.3.1Complexvariable
solution
5.3.2DemonstrationofCV
solution
5.3.3Lineforce
5.3.4Edgedislocation
5.3.5Circularholeininfinite
solid
5.3.6Slitcrack
5.3.7Bimaterialinterface
crack
5.3.8Rigidflatpunchona
surface
5.3.9Parabolicpunchona
surface
5.3.10Generallinecontact
 4.3.11Frictionalsliding
contact
4.3.12Dislocationneara
surface
5.43Dstaticproblems>
5.4.1PapkovichNeuber
potentials
5.4.2DemonstrationofPN
potentials
5.4.3Pointforceininfinitesolid
5.4.4Pointforcenormalto
surface
5.4.5Pointforcetangentto
surface
5.4.6Eshelbyinclusionproblem
5.4.7Inclusioninanelasticsolid
5.4.8Sphericalcavityininfinite
solid
5.4.9Flatcylindricalpunchon
surface
5.4.10Contactbetweenspheres
4.4.11Relationsforgeneral
contacts
4.4.12Pdrelationsfor
axisymmetriccontact
5.52DAnisotropicelasticity>
5.5.1Governingequations
5.5.2Strohsolution
5.5.3DemonstrationofStroh
solution
5.5.4Strohmatricesforcubic
materials
5.5.5Degeneratematerials
5.5.6Fundamentalelasticitymatrix
5.5.7OrthogonalityofStroh
matrices
5.5.8Barnett/Lothe&Impedance
tensors
5.5.9Propertiesofmatrices
5.5.10Basischangeformulas
5.5.11BarnettLotheintegrals
 5.5.12Uniformstressstate
5.5.13Lineload/dislocationin
infinitesolid
5.5.14Lineload/dislocationneara
surface
5.6Dynamicproblems>
5.6.1Lovepotentials
5.6.2Pressurizedspherical
cavity
5.6.3Rayleighwaves
5.6.4Lovewaves
5.6.5Elasticwavesin
waveguides
5.7Energymethods>
5.7.1Definitionofpotentialenergy
5.7.2Minimumenergytheorem
5.7.3Simpleexampleofenergy
minimization
5.7.4Variationalapproachtobeam
theory
5.7.5Estimatingstiffness
5.8Reciprocaltheorem>
5.8.1Statementandproofof
theorem
5.8.2Simpleexample
5.8.3Boundaryinternalvalue
relations
5.8.43Ddislocationloops
5.9Energeticsofdislocations>
5.9.1Potentialenergyofisolated
loop
5.9.2Nonsingulardislocation
theory
5.9.3Dislocationinbounded
solid
5.9.4Energyofinteractingloops
5.9.5PeachKoehlerformula
5.10RayleighRitzmethod>
5.10.1Modeshapes,nat.
frequencies,Rayleigh'sprinciple
5.10.2Naturalfrequencyofabeam
6.Solutionsforplasticsolids>
6.1Sliplinefields>
6.1.1Interpretingslipline
fields
6.1.2Derivationofslipline
fields
6.1.3Examplesofsolutions
6.2Boundingtheorems
>
6.2.1Definitionofplastic
dissipation
6.2.2Principleofminplastic
dissipation
6.2.3Upperboundcollapse
theorem
6.2.4Lowerboundcollapse
theorem
6.2.5Examplesofbounding
theorems
6.2.6Lowerboundshakedown
theorem
6.2.7Examplesoflowerbound
shakedowntheorem
6.2.8Upperboundshakedown
theorem
6.2.9Examplesofupperbound
shakedowntheorem
7.IntroductiontoFEA>
7.1GuidetoFEA>
7.1.1FEmesh
7.1.2Nodesandelements
7.1.3Specialelements
7.1.4Materialbehavior
7.1.5Boundaryconditions
7.1.6Constraints
7.1.7Contactingsurface/interfaces
7.1.8Initialconditions/external
fields
7.1.9Solnprocedures/time
increments
7.1.10Output
 7.1.11UnitsinFEAcalculations
7.1.12Usingdimensionalanalysis
7.1.13Scalinggoverningequations
7.1.14Remarksondimensional
analysis
7.2SimpleFEA
program>
7.2.1FEmeshandconnectivity
7.2.2Globaldisplacementvector
7.2.3Interpolationfunctions
7.2.4Elementstrains&energy
density
7.2.5Elementstiffnessmatrix
7.2.6Globalstiffnessmatrix
7.2.7Boundaryloading
7.2.8Globalforcevector
7.2.9Minimizingpotentialenergy
7.2.10Eliminatingprescribed
displacements
7.2.11Solution
7.2.12Postprocessing
7.2.13Examplecode
8.Theory&Implementationof
FEA>
8.1Staticlinearelasticity
>
8.1.1Reviewofvirtualwork
8.1.2Weakformofgoverning
equns
8.1.3Interpolatingdisplacements
8.1.4Finiteelementequations
8.1.5Simple1Dimplementation
8.1.6Summaryof1Dprocedure
8.1.7Example1Dcode
8.1.8Extensionto2D/3D
8.1.92Dinterpolationfunctions
8.1.103Dinterpolationfunctions
8.1.11Volumeintegrals
8.1.122D/3Dintegration
schemes
 8.1.13Summaryofelement
matrices
8.1.14Sample2D/3Dcode
8.2Dynamicelasticity>
8.2.1Governingequations
8.2.2Weakformofgoverningeqns
8.2.3Finiteelementequations
8.2.4Newmarktimeintegration
8.2.5Simple1Dimplementation
8.2.6Example1Dcode
8.2.7Lumpedmassmatrices
8.2.8Example2D/3Dcode
8.2.9Modaltimeintegration
8.2.10Naturalfrequencies/mode
shapes
8.2.11Example1Dmodaldynamic
code
8.2.12Example2D/3Dmodal
dynamiccode
8.3Hypoelasticity>
8.3.1Governingequations
8.3.2Weakformofgoverningeqns
8.3.3Finiteelementequations
8.3.4NewtonRaphsoniteration
8.3.5Tangentmodulifor
hypoelasticsolid
8.3.6SummaryofNewtonRaphson
method
8.3.7Convergenceproblems
8.3.8VariationsonNewton
Raphson
8.3.9Examplecode
8.4Hyperelasticity>
8.4.1Governingequations
8.4.2Weakformofgoverning
eqns
8.4.3Finiteelementequations
8.4.4NewtonRaphson
iteration
8.4.5NeoHookeantangent
moduli
 8.4.6Evaluatingboundary
integrals
8.4.7Convergenceproblems
8.4.8Examplecode
8.5Viscoplasticity>
8.5.1Governingequations
8.5.2Weakformofgoverning
eqns
8.5.3Finiteelementequations
8.5.4Integratingthestressstrain
law
8.5.5Materialtangent
8.5.6NewtonRaphsonsolution
8.5.7Examplecode
8.6Advancedelements>
8.6.1Shearlocking/incompatible
modes
8.6.2Volumetriclocking/Reduced
integration
8.6.3Incompressible
materials/Hybridelements
9.ModelingMaterialFailure>
9.1Mechanismsoffailure>
9.1.1Monotonic
loading
9.1.2Cyclicloading
9.2Stress/strainbasedcriteria
>
9.2.1Stressbasedcriteria
9.2.2Probabilisticmethods
9.2.3Staticfatiguecriterion
9.2.4Modelsofcrushing
failure
9.2.5Ductilefailurecriteria
9.2.6Strainlocalization
9.2.7Highcyclefatigue
9.2.8Lowcyclefatigue
9.2.9Variableamplitude
loading
9.3Elasticfracturemechanics
>
 9.3.1Cracktipfields
9.3.2Linearelasticfracture
mechanics
9.3.3Calculatingstress
intensities
9.3.4UsingFEA
9.3.5Measuringtoughness
9.3.6Valuesoffracture
toughness
9.3.7Stabletearing
9.3.8Mixedmodefracture
9.3.9Staticfatigue
9.3.10Cyclicfatigue
9.3.11Findingcracks
9.4Energymethodsinfracture
>
9.4.1Definitionofenergyrelease
rate
9.4.2Energybasedfracture
criterion
9.4.3GKrelations
9.4.4Gcompliancerelation
9.4.5CalculatingKwith
compliance
9.4.6IntegralexpressionforG
9.4.7TheJintegral
9.4.8CalculatingKusingJ
9.5Plasticfracturemechanics
>
9.5.1DugdaleBarenblatt
model
9.5.2HRRcracktipfields
9.5.3Jbasedfracture
mechanics
9.6Interfacefracture
mechanics>
9.6.1Interfacecracktipfields
9.6.2Interfacefracture
mechanics
9.6.3Stressintensityfactors
9.6.4Crackpathselection
10.Rods,Beams,Plates&
Shells>
10.1Dyadicnotation
10.2Deformablerods
general>
10.2.1Characterizingthex
section
10.2.2Coordinatesystems
10.2.3Kinematicrelations
10.2.4Displacement,velocity
andacceleration
10.2.5Deformationgradient
10.2.6Strainmeasures
10.2.7Kinematicsofbentrods
10.2.8Internalforcesand
moments
10.2.9Equationsofmotion
10.2.10Constitutiveequations
10.2.11Strainenergydensity
10.3String/beamtheory>
10.3.1Stretchedstring
10.3.2Straightbeam(small
deflections)
10.3.3Axiallyloadedbeam
10.4Solutionsforrods>
10.4.1Vibrationofastraightbeam
10.4.2Bucklingundergravitational
loading
10.4.3Postbuckledshapeofarod
10.4.4Rodbentintoahelix
10.4.5Helicalspring
10.5Shellsgeneral>
10.5.1Coordinatesystems
10.5.2Usingnonorthogonal
bases
10.5.3Deformationmeasures
10.5.4Displacementand
velocity
10.5.5Deformationgradient
10.5.6Otherstrainmeasures
 10.5.7Internalforcesand
moments
10.5.8Equationsofmotion
10.5.9Constitutiverelations
10.5.10Strainenergy
10.6Platesandmembranes>
10.6.1Flatplates(smallstrain)
10.6.2Flatplateswithinplane
loading
10.6.3Plateswithlarge
displacements
10.6.4Membranes
10.6.5Membranesinpolar
coordinates
10.7Solutionsforshells>
10.7.1Circularplatebentby
pressure
10.7.2Vibratingcircularmembrane
10.7.3Naturalfrequencyof
rectangularplate
10.7.4Thinfilmonasubstrate
(Stoneyeqs)
10.7.5Bucklingofheatedplate
10.7.6Cylindricalshellunderaxial
load
10.7.7Twistedopenwalled
cylinder
10.7.8Gravityloadedspherical
shell
A:Vectors&Matrices
B:Intrototensors
C:IndexNotation
D:Usingpolarcoordinates
E:Miscderivations
Problems
1.ObjectivesandApplications
>
1.1DefiningaProblem
2.GoverningEquations>
2.1Deformation
measures
 2.2Internalforces
2.3Equationsofmotion
2.4WorkandVirtual
Work
3.ConstitutiveEquations>
3.1Generalrequirements
3.2Linearelasticity
3.3Hypoelasticity
3.4Elasticityw/large
rotations
3.5Hyperelasticity
3.6Viscoelasticity
3.7Rateindependent
plasticity
3.8Viscoplasticity
3.9Largestrainplasticity
3.10Largestrain
viscoelasticity
3.11Criticalstatesoils
3.12Crystalplasticity
3.13Surfacesandinterfaces
4.Solutionstosimpleproblems
>
4.1Axial/Sphericallinear
elasticity
4.2Axial/Spherical
elastoplasticity
4.3Sphericalhyperelasticity
4.41Delastodynamics
5.Solutionsforelasticsolids>
5.1GeneralPrinciples
5.22DAiryfunctionsolutions
5.32DComplexvariable
solutions
5.43Dstaticproblems
5.52DAnisotropicelasticity
5.6Dynamicproblems
5.7Energymethods
5.8Reciprocaltheorem
5.9Energeticsofdislocations
5.10RayleighRitzmethod
 6.Solutionsforplasticsolids>
6.1Sliplinefields
6.2Boundingtheorems
7.IntroductiontoFEA>
7.1GuidetoFEA
7.2SimpleFEA
program
8.Theory&Implementationof
FEA>
8.1Staticlinearelasticity
8.2Dynamicelasticity
8.3Hypoelasticity
8.4Hyperelasticity
8.5Viscoplasticity
8.6Advancedelements
9.ModelingMaterialFailure>
9.1Mechanismsoffailure
9.2Stress/strainbasedcriteria
9.3Elasticfracturemechanics
9.4Energymethodsinfracture
9.5Plasticfracturemechanics
9.6Interfacefracture
mechanics
10.Rods,Beams,Plates&
Shells>
10.1Dyadicnotation
10.2Deformablerods
general
10.3String/beamtheory
10.4Solutionsforrods
10.5Shellsgeneral
10.6Platesandmembranes
10.7Solutionsforshells
A:Vectors&Matrices
B:Intrototensors
C:IndexNotation
D:Usingpolarcoordinates
E:Miscderivations
FEAcodes
Maple
Matlab
Reportanerror


Chapter3

ConstitutiveModels RelationsbetweenStressandStrain




3.2Linearelasticmaterialbehavior

You are probably familiar with the behavior of a linear elastic
materialfromintroductorymaterialscourses.

3.2.1Isotropic,linearelasticmaterialbehavior

Ifyou conduct a uniaxial tensile test on almost any material, and
keep the stress levels sufficiently low, you will observe the
followingbehavior:
Thespecimendeformsreversibly:Ifyouremovetheloads,the
solidreturnstoitsoriginalshape.
Thestraininthespecimendependsonlyonthestressappliedto
it it doesnt depend on the rate of loading, or the history of
loading.
For most materials, the stress is a linear function of strain, as shown in the
picture above. Because the strains are small, this is true whatever stress
measure is adopted (Cauchy stress or nominal stress), and is true whatever
strainmeasureisadopted(Lagrangestrainorinfinitesimalstrain).
Formost,butnotall,materials,thematerialhasnocharacteristicorientation.
Thus, if you cut a tensile specimen out of a block of material, as showninthe
figure, the the stress strain curve will be independent of the orientation of the specimen relative to the block of
material.Suchmaterialsaresaidtobeisotropic.
If you heat a specimen of the material, increasing its temperature uniformly, it will generally change its shape
slightly. If the material is isotropic (no preferred material orientation) and homogeneous, then the specimen will
simplyincreaseinsize,withoutshapechange.



3.2.2Stress strainrelations for isotropic, linear elastic materials. Youngs Modulus, Poissons ratio and the
ThermalExpansionCoefficient.

Before writing down stress strainrelations, we need to decide what strain and stress measures we want to use.
Becausethemodelonlyworksforsmallshapechanges
Deformation is characterized using the infinitesimal strain tensor defined in
Section 2.1.7. This is convenient for calculations, but has the disadvantage that linear elastic constitutive
equationscanonlybeusedifthesolidexperiencessmallrotations,aswellassmallshapechanges.
Allstressmeasuresaretakentobeequal.WecanusetheCauchystress asthestressmeasure.

Youprobablyalreadyknowthestress strainrelationsforanisotropic,linearelasticsolid.Theyarerepeatedbelow
forconvenience.

Here,Eand are Youngs modulus and Poissons ratio, is the coefficient of thermal expansion, and is the
increaseintemperatureofthesolid.Theremainingrelationscanbededucedfromthefactthatboth and are
symmetric.

Theinverserelationshipcanbeexpressedas

HEALTHWARNING:Notethefactorof2inthestrainvector.Mosttexts,andmostFEMcodesusethisfactorof
two, but not all. In addition, shear strains and stresses are often listed in a different order in the strain and stress
vectors.Forisotropicmaterialsthismakesnodifference,butyouneedtobecarefulwhenlistingmaterialconstants
foranisotropicmaterials(seebelow).

Wecanwritethisexpressioninamuchmoreconvenientformusingindexnotation.Verifyforyourselfthatthe
matrixexpressionaboveisequivalentto

Theinverserelationis

Thestressstrainrelationsareoftenexpressedusingtheelasticmodulustensor ortheelasticcompliancetensor
as

Intermsofelasticconstants, and are

3.2.3Reducedstressstrainequationsforplanedeformationofisotropicsolids

Forplanestrainorplanestressdeformations,somestrainorstresscomponentsarealwayszero(bydefinition)sothe
stressstrainlawscanbesimplified.

Foraplanestraindeformation .Thestressstrainlawsaretherefore
Inindexnotation

whereGreeksubscripts canhavevalues1or2.

Foraplanestressdeformation

3.2.4Representativevaluesfordensity,andelasticconstantsofisotropicsolids

Mostofthedatainthetablebelowweretakenfromtheexcellentintroductorytext`EngineeringMaterials,byM.F.
AshbyandD.R.H.Jones,PergamonPress.Theremainderarefromrandomwebpages

Notetheunits valuesofEaregivenin theGstandsforGiga,andisshortfor .Theunitsfordensity

arein thatsMegagrams.Onemegagramis1000kg.

Material Massdensity YoungsModulus PoissonRatio Expansioncoeft

TungstenCarbide 14 17 450 650 0.22

SiliconCarbide 2.5 3.2 450 0.22
Tungsten 13.4 410 0.30
Alumina 3.9 390 0.25
TitaniumCarbide 4.9 380 0.19
SiliconNitride 3.2 320270 0.22
 Nickel 8.9 215 0.31
CFRP 1.51.6 70 200 0.20
Iron 7.9 196 0.30
Lowalloysteels 7.8 200210 0.30
Stainlesssteel 7.57.7 190200 0.30
Mildsteel 7.8 196 0.30
Copper 8.9 124 0.34
Titanium 4.5 116 0.30
Silicon 2.53.2 107 0.22
Silicaglass 2.6 94 0.16
Aluminum&alloys 2.62.9 6979 0.35
Concrete 2.42.5 4550 0.3
GFRP 1.42.2 745
Wood,parallelgrain 0.40.8 916 0.2
Polyimides 1.4 35 0.10.45
Nylon 1.1 1.2 2 4 0.25
PMMA 1.2 3.4 0.350.4
Polycarbonate 1.2 1.3 2.6 0.36
NaturalRubbers 0.830.91 0.010.1 0.49
PVC 1.31.6 0.0030.01 0.41

3.2.5OtherElasticConstants bulk,shearandLamemodulus.

Youngs modulus and Poissons ratio are the most common properties used to characterize elastic solids, but other
measures are also used. For example, we define the shear modulus, bulk modulus and Lame modulus of an
elasticsolidasfollows:

Anicetablerelatingallthepossiblecombinationsofmodulitoallotherpossiblecombinationsisgivenbelow.Enjoy!

LAME SHEAR YOUNGS POISSONS BULK

MODULUS MODULUS MODULUS RATIO MODULUS

Irrational Irrational Irrational

3.2.6PhysicalInterpretationofelasticconstantsforisotropicsolids

ItisimportanttohaveafeelforthephysicalsignificanceofthetwoelasticconstantsEand .

Youngsmodulus E is the slope of the stress strain curve in uniaxial tension. It has dimensions of stress (
)andisusuallylarge forsteel, .YoucanthinkofEasameasureofthestiffnessofthe
solid.ThelargerthevalueofE,thestifferthesolid.Forastablematerial,E>0.

Poissonsratio istheratiooflateraltolongitudinalstraininuniaxialtensilestress.Itisdimensionlessand
typicallyrangesfrom0.2 0.49,andisaround0.3formostmetals.Forastablematerial, .Itisa
measure of the compressibility of the solid. If , the solid is incompressible its volume remains
constant,nomatterhowitisdeformed.If ,thenstretchingaspecimencausesnolateralcontraction.
Some bizarre materials have if you stretch a round bar of such a material, the bar increases in
diameter!!

Thermal expansion coefficient quantifies the change in volume of a material if it is heated in the absence of
stress.Ithasdimensionsof(degreesKelvin)1andisusuallyverysmall.Forsteel,

Thebulkmodulus quantifies the resistance of the solid to volume changes. It has a large value (usually bigger
thanE).

The shear modulus quantifies its resistance to volume preserving shear deformations. Its value is usually
somewhatsmallerthanE.

3.2.7StrainEnergyDensityforIsotropicSolids

Notethefollowingobservations
Ifyoudeformablockofmaterial,youdoworkonit(or,insomecases,itmaydoworkonyou)
Inanelasticmaterial,theworkdoneduringloadingisstoredasrecoverablestrainenergyinthesolid.If
youunload the material, the specimen does work on you, and when it reaches its initial configuration you
comeouteven.
Theworkdonetodeformaspecimendependsonlyonthestateofstrainattheendofthetest.Itis
independentofthehistoryofloading.

Basedon these observations, we define the strainenergydensity of a solid as the work done per unit volume to
deformamaterialfromastressfreereferencestatetoaloadedstate.

Towritedownanexpressionforthestrainenergydensity,itisconvenienttoseparatethestrainintotwoparts

where,foranisotropicsolid,

representsthestrainduetothermalexpansion(knownasthermalstrain),and
isthestrainduetomechanicalloading(knownaselasticstrain).

Workis done on the specimen only during mechanical loading. It is straightforward to show that the strainenergy
densityis

Youcanalsorewritethisas

Observethat

3.2.8Stressstrainrelationforageneralanisotropiclinearelasticmaterial theelasticstiffnessandcompliance
tensors

Thesimple isotropic model described in the preceding section is unable to describe the response of some materials
accurately,eventhoughthematerialmaydeformelastically.Thisisbecausesomematerialsdohaveacharacteristic
orientation. For example, in a block of wood, the grain is oriented in a particular direction in the specimen. The
block will be stiffer if it is loaded parallel to the grain than if it is loaded perpendicular to the grain. The same
observation applies to fiber reinforced composite materials. Generally, single crystal specimens of a materialwill
also be anisotropic this is important when modeling stress effects in small structures such as microelectronic
circuits. Even polycrystalline metals may be anisotropic, because a preferred texture may form in the specimen
duringmanufacture.

Amoregeneralstress strainrelationisneededtodescribeanisotropicsolids.

Themostgenerallinearstress strainrelationhastheform

Here, is a fourth order tensor (horrors!), known as the elastic stiffness tensor, and is the thermal
expansioncoefficienttensor.Thestressstrainrelationisinvertible:
where isknownastheelasticcompliancetensor

Atfirstsightitappearsthatthestiffnesstensorhas81components.Imaginehavingtomeasureandkeeptrackof81
materialproperties!Fortunately, musthavethefollowingsymmetries

Thisreducesthenumberofmaterialconstantsto21.Thecompliancetensorhasthesamesymmetriesas .

Toseetheoriginofthesymmetriesof ,notethat
Thestresstensorissymmetric,whichisonlypossibleif
Ifastrainenergydensityexistsforthematerial,theelasticstiffnesstensormustsatisfy
Theprevioustwosymmetriesimply ,since and.

Toseethat ,notethatbydefinition

andrecallfurtherthatthestressisthederivativeofthestrainenergydensitywithrespecttostrain

Combiningthese,

Now,notethat

sothat

Thesesymmetriesallowustowritethestressstrainrelationsinamorecompactmatrixformas
where ,etcaretheelasticstiffnessesofthematerial.Theinversehastheform

where ,etcaretheelasticcompliancesofthematerial.

Tosatisfy Drucker stability, the eigenvalues of the elastic stiffness and compliance matrices must all be greater
thanzero.

HEALTHWARNING:Theshearstrainandshearstresscomponentsarenotalwayslistedintheordergivenwhen
definingtheelasticandcompliancematrices.Theconventionsusedherearecommonandareparticularlyconvenient
inanalyticalcalculationsinvolvinganisotropicsolids.Butmanysourcesuseotherconventions.Becarefultoenter
materialdatainthecorrectorderwhenspecifyingpropertiesforanisotropicsolids.

3.2.9PhysicalInterpretationoftheAnisotropicElasticConstants.

It is easiest to interpret , rather than .

Imagine applying a uniaxial stress, say , to an anisotropic
specimen.Ingeneral,thiswouldinducebothextensionalandshear
deformationinthesolid,asshowninthefigure.

Thestraininducedbytheuniaxialstresswouldbe
Alltheconstantshavedimensions .Theconstant lookslikeauniaxialcompliance,(like ),whilethe
ratios aregeneralizedversionsofPoissonsratio:theyquantifythelateralcontractionofauniaxial
tensilespecimen.Thesheartermsarenew inanisotropicmaterial,noshearstrainisinducedbyuniaxialtension.

3.2.10Strainenergydensityforanisotropic,linearelasticsolids

Thestrainenergydensityofananisotropicmaterialis

3.2.11Basischangeformulasforanisotropicelasticconstants

Thematerialconstants or foraparticularmaterialareusuallyspecifiedinabasis
with coordinate axes aligned with particular symmetry planes (if any) in the material.
When solving problems involving anisotropic materials it is frequently necessary to
transform these values to a coordinate system that is oriented in some convenientway
relative to the boundaries of the solid. Since is a fourth rank tensor, the basis
changeformulasarehighlytedious,unfortunately.

Supposethat the components of the stiffness tensor are given in a basis ,and we wish to determine its
components in a second basis, . We define the usual transformation tensor with components
,orinmatrixform

This is an orthogonal matrix satisfying . In practice, the matrix can be computed in terms of the
angles between the basis vectors. It is straightforward to show that stress, strain, thermal expansion and elasticity
tensorstransformas

Thebasischangeformulafortheelasticitytensorinmatrixformcanbeexpressedas

wherethebasischangematrixKiscomputedas

andthemodulofunctionsatisfies

Althoughtheseexpressionslookcumbersometheyarequiteconvenientforcomputerimplementation.

Thebasischangeforthecompliancetensorfollowsas

where

The proof of these expressions is merely tiresome algebra and will not be given here. Tings book `Anisotropic
Elasticity:TheoryandApplicationsOUP(1996)hasanicecleardiscussion.

For the particular case of rotation through an angle in a counterclockwise sense about the axes,
respectively,therotationmatrixreducesto

where .Theinversematrix canbeobtainedsimplybychangingthesignoftheangle in
eachrotationmatrix.Clearly,applyingthethreerotationssuccessivelycanproduceanarbitraryorientationchange.

Foranisotropicmaterial,theelasticstressstrainrelations,theelasticitymatricesandthermalexpansioncoefficient
areunaffectedbybasischanges.

3.2.12Theeffectofmaterialsymmetryonstressstrainrelationsforanisotropicmaterials

A general anisotropic solid has 21 independent elastic constants.
Note that in general, tensile stress may induce shear strain, and
shearstressmaycauseextension.

Ifamaterialhasasymmetryplane,thenapplyingstressnormalor
parallel to this plane induces only extension in direction normal
andparalleltotheplane

Forexample,supposethematerialcontainsasinglesymmetryplane,andlet benormaltothisplane.

Then the components of the elastic stiffnes matrix (
). (symmetrical terms also vanish, of course). This leaves 13
independentconstants.

Similarrestrictionsonthethermalexpansioncoefficientcanbedeterminedusingsymmetry conditions. Details are
leftasanexercise.

In the following sections, we list the stressstrain relations for anisotropic materials with various numbers of
symmetryplanes.




3.2.13Stressstrainrelationsforlinearelasticorthotropicmaterials

Anorthotropicmaterialhasthreemutuallyperpendicularsymmetryplanes.Thistypeof
material has 9 independent material constants. With basis vectors perpendicular to the
symmetryplane,theelasticstiffnessmatrixhastheform
This relationship is sometimes expressed in inverse form, in terms of generalized
Youngs moduli and Poissons ratios (which have the same significance as Youngs modulus and Poissons ratio for
uniaxialloadingalongthethreebasisvectors)asfollows

HerethegeneralizedPoissonsratiosarenotsymmetricbutinsteadsatisfy (nosums).Thisensures
thatthestiffnessmatrixissymmetric.

Theengineeringconstantsarerelatedtothecomponentsofthecompliancetensorby

orininverseform

For an orthotropic material thermal expansion cannot induce shear (in this basis) but the expansion in the three
directionsneednotbeequal.Consequentlythethermalexpansioncoefficienttensorhastheform

3.2.14StressstrainrelationsforlinearelasticTransverselyIsotropicMaterial

Aspecialcaseofanorthotropicsolidisonethatcontainsaplaneofisotropy(thisimpliesthatthesolidcanberotated
with respect to the loading direction about one axis without measurable effect on the solids response). Choose
perpendicular to this symmetry plane. Then, transverse isotropy requires that , , ,
,sothatthestiffnessmatrixhastheform

Theengineeringconstantsmustsatisfy

andthecompliancematrixhastheform
where .AsbeforethePoissonsratiosarenotsymmetric,butsatisfy

Theengineeringconstantsandstiffnessesarerelatedby

Forthismaterialthetwothermalexpansioncoefficientsinthesymmetryplanemustbeequal,sothethermal
expansioncoefficienttensorhastheform

3.2.15Representativevaluesforelasticconstantsoftransverselyisotropichexagonalclosepackedcrystals

Hexagonalclosepackedcrystalsareanexampleoftransverselyisotropicmaterials.The
axismustbetakentobeperpendiculartothebasal(0001)planeofthecrystal,asshown
in the picture. Since the plane perpendicular to is isotropic the orientation of and
isarbitrary.

Atableofvaluesofstiffnesses(takenfromFreundandSuresh,ThinFilmMaterials,CUP
2003)islistedbelow.F&Slisttheoriginalsourcesfortheirdataonpage163.

(GPa) (GPa) (GPa) (GPa) (GPa)

Be 292.3 336.4 162.5 26.7 14
C 1160 46.6 2.3 290 109
Cd 115.8 51.4 20.4 39.8 40.6
Co 307 358.1 78.3 165 103
Hf 181.1 196.9 55.7 77.2 66.1
Mg 59.7 61.7 16.4 26.2 21.7
Ti 162.4 180.7 46.7 92 69
Zn 161 61 38.3 34.2 50.1
Zr 143.4 164.8 32 72.8 65.3
ZnO 209.7 210.9 42.5 121.1 105.1

Theengineeringconstantscanbecalculatedtobe

(GPa) (GPa) (GPa) (GPa)

Be 289.38 335.17 0.09 0.04 0.04 162.50 132.80
C 903.69 30.21 0.04 0.08 2.25 2.30 435.00
Cd 83.02 30.21 0.09 0.26 0.72 20.40 38.00
Co 211.30 313.15 0.49 0.22 0.15 78.30 71.00
Hf 139.87 163.07 0.35 0.26 0.22 55.70 51.95
Mg 45.45 50.74 0.36 0.25 0.23 16.40 16.75
Ti 104.37 143.27 0.48 0.27 0.20 46.70 35.20
Zn 119.45 35.28 0.06 0.26 0.87 38.30 63.40
Zr 98.79 125.35 0.40 0.30 0.24 32.00 35.30
ZnO 127.30 144.12 0.44 0.32 0.28 42.50 44.30

3.2.16Linearelasticstressstrainrelationsforcubicmaterials

A huge number of materials have cubic symmetry all the FCC and
BCCmetals,forexample.Theconstitutivelawforsuchamaterialis
particularly simple, and can be parameterized by only 3 material
constants.Pickbasisvectorsperpendiculartothesymmetryplanes,as
shown.

Then

orintermsofengineeringconstants

Thisisvirtuallyidenticaltotheconstitutivelawforanisotropicsolid,exceptthattheshearmodulus isnotrelated
tothePoissonsratioandYoungsmodulusthroughtheusualrelationgiveninSection3.1.6.Infact,theratio

providesaconvenientmeasureofanisotropy.For thematerialisisotropic.

Forthismaterialthethermalexpansioncoefficientmatrixmustbeisotropic.

Therelationshipsbetweentheelasticconstantsare

3.2.17Representativevaluesforelasticpropertiesofcubiccrystalsandcompounds

A table of elastic constants for various cubic crystals and compounds (modified from Simmons and Wang Single
CrystalElasticConstantsandCalculatedAggregatePropertiesMITPress(1970))isgivenbelow

Material
(GPa) (GPa) (GPa) (GPa) (GPa)
Ag (fcc) 124.00 46.10 93.40 43.75 0.43 46.10 3.01
 Al (fcc) 107.30 28.30 60.90 63.20 0.36 28.30 1.22
Au (fcc) 192.90 41.50 163.80 42.46 0.46 41.50 2.85
Cu (fcc) 168.40 75.40 121.40 66.69 0.42 75.40 3.21
Ir (fcc) 580.00 256.00 242.00 437.51 0.29 256.00 1.51
Ni (fcc) 246.50 127.40 147.30 136.31 0.37 127.40 2.57
Pb (fcc) 49.50 14.90 42.30 10.52 0.46 14.90 4.14
Pd (fcc) 227.10 71.70 176.00 73.41 0.44 71.70 2.81
Pt (fcc) 346.70 76.50 250.70 136.29 0.42 76.50 1.59
Cr (bcc) 339.80 99.00 58.60 322.56 0.15 99.00 0.70
Fe (bcc) 231.40 116.40 134.70 132.28 0.37 116.40 2.41
K (bcc) 4.14 2.63 2.21 2.60 0.35 2.63 2.73
Li (bcc) 13.50 8.78 11.44 3.00 0.46 8.78 8.52
Mo (bcc) 440.80 121.70 172.40 343.86 0.28 121.70 0.91
Na (bcc) 6.15 5.92 4.96 1.72 0.45 5.92 9.95
Nb (bcc) 240.20 28.20 125.60 153.95 0.34 28.20 0.49
Ta (bcc) 260.20 82.60 154.50 145.08 0.37 82.60 1.56
V (bcc) 228.00 42.60 118.70 146.72 0.34 42.60 0.78
W (bcc) 522.40 160.80 204.40 407.43 0.28 160.80 1.01
C (dc) 949.00 521.00 151.00 907.54 0.14 521.00 1.31
Ge (dc) 128.40 66.70 48.20 102.09 0.27 66.70 1.66
Si (dc) 166.20 79.80 64.40 130.23 0.28 79.80 1.57
GaAs 118.80 59.40 53.70 85.37 0.31 59.40 1.82
GaP 141.20 70.50 62.50 102.85 0.31 70.50 1.79
InP 102.20 46.00 57.60 60.68 0.36 46.00 2.06
KCl 39.50 6.30 4.90 38.42 0.11 6.30 0.36
LiF 114.00 63.60 47.70 85.86 0.29 63.60 1.92
MgO 287.60 151.40 87.40 246.86 0.23 151.40 1.51
NaCl 49.60 12.90 12.40 44.64 0.20 12.90 0.69
TiC 500.00 175.00 113.00 458.34 0.18 175.00 0.90

(c)A.F.Bower,2008
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