HVDC

Presented by

G. Gnaneshwar
D. Bhargav Email:

C/o Royal College of engineering gnaneshwar_g@rediffmail.com

Electrical and Electronics Dept. bhargavduggaraju@yahoo.co.in

Vivekanandanagar, Medak Town,

Medak Dist.

Biographical details:

I, G. Gnaneshwar and D. Bhargav are students of Royal college of Engineering pursuing Electrical

and Electronics Engineering, which is affiliated to Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University

(JNTU), Hyderabad.
 Abstract

Development of electrical power supplies began more than one hundred years ago. At the
beginning, there were only small DC networks within narrow local boundaries, which were able to
cover the direct needs of industrial plants by means of hydro energy. With an increasing demand on
energy and the construction of large generation units, typically built at remote locations from the load
centres, the technology changed from DC to AC. Power to be transmitted, voltage levels and
transmission distances increased.
The industrial growth of a nation requires increased consumption of energy, particularly
electrical energy. Remote generation and system interconnections lead to a search for efficient power
transmission at increasing power levels. The increase in voltage levels is not always feasible. The
problems of AC transmission, has led to the development of DC transmission. However, as generation
and utilisation of power remains at alternating current, the DC transmission requires conversion at
two ends, from AC to DC at the sending end and back to AC at the receiving end.
This conversion is done at converter stations rectifier station at the sending end and inverter
station at the receiving end. The converters are static using high power thyristor connected in series to
give the required voltage ratings. The physical process of conversion is such that the same station can
switch from rectifier to inverter by simple control action.
Introduction:

Electric power transmission was originally developed with direct current. The availability of
transformers and the development and improvement of induction motors at the beginning of the 20 th
Century, led to greater appeal and use of a.c. transmission.

D.C. transmission now became practical when long distances were to be covered or where cables
were required. The increase in need for electricity after the Second World War stimulated research. In
1950, a 116 km experimental transmission line was commissioned from Moscow to Kasira at 200 kV.
The first commercial HVDC line built in 1954 was a 98 km submarine cable with ground return
between the island of Gotland and the Swedish mainland.

Early electric power distribution schemes used direct-current generators located near the customer's
loads. As electric power use became more widespread, the distances between loads and generating
plant increased. Since the flow of current through the distribution wires resulted in a voltage drop, it
became difficult to regulate the voltage at the extremities of distribution circuits.

In large AC Systems with long distance transmission and synchronous interconnections, technical
problems can be expected, which are summarized in Fig. 1. Main problems occur regarding load
flow, system oscillations and inter-area oscillations. If systems have a large geographic extension and
have to transmit large power over long distances, additional voltage and stability problems can arise.
System problems listed in Fig. 1 can be improved by use of power electronic components, ref. to the
next section.

Fig. 1.
The Rise of High Voltage DC Transmission:

High Voltage DC Transmission (HVDC) has been introduced, offering new dimensions for
long distance transmission. This development started with the transmission of power in an order of
magnitude of a few hundred MW and was continuously increased to transmission ratings up to 3 - 4
GW over long distances by just one bipolar line.

By these developments, HVDC became a mature and reliable technology. Almost 50 GW

HVDC transmission capacities have been installed worldwide up to now, ref. to Fig. 3. Transmission
distances over 1,000 to 2,000 km or even more are possible with overhead lines. Transmission power
of up to 600 - 800 MW over distances of about 300 km has already been realized using submarine
cable, and cable transmission lengths of up to about 1,300 km are in the planning stage.

To interconnect systems operating with different frequencies, back-to-back (B2B) schemes

have been applied [4]. As a multi-terminal system, HVDC can also interconnect several locations in
the surrounding AC network.

CONFIGURATION:

The integral part of an HVDC power converter is the valve or valve arm. It may be non-
controllable if constructed from one or more power diodes in series or controllable if constructed
from one or more thyristors in series. The standard bridge or converter connection is defined as a
double-way connection comprising six valves or valve arms, which are connected as illustrated in
Figure 2. Electric power flowing between the HVDC valve group and the AC system is three HVDC
Transmission 3 phase.

When electric power flows into the DC valve group from the AC system then it is considered
a rectifier. If power flows from the DC valve group into the AC system, it is an inverter. Each valve
consists of many series connected thyristors in thyristor modules. Figure 2 represents the electric
circuit network depiction for the six-pulse valve group configuration. The six-pulse valve group was
usual when the valves were mercury arc.
 Fig. 2.

Monopole and Earth Return

In a common configuration,called monopole, one of the terminals of the rectifier is connected to earth
ground. The other terminal, at a potential high above, or below, ground, is connected to a
transmission line.

The earthed terminal may or may not be connected to the corresponding connection at the inverting
station by means of a second transmission line conductor. This is a common source of terminological
confusion. A monopole transmission line is sometimes, confusingly, used to refer to a transmission
line without an accompanying earth conductor.

Without an accompanying earth, the potential is equalised by current flowing in the earth between the
earth electrodes at the two stations. The issues surrounding earth-return current include

Areas which contain extended metal objects, such as pipelines, may have a considerable
current induced, resulting in corrosion if the object is not effectively cathode protected, and
sparking and shock problems if the earthing is incomplete.
If either of the earth electrodes is near the sea, the current flowing through the body of water,
where concentrated, can cause toxic chlorine emission and alkalinisation of the water body
near the electrode.
The presence of a considerable earth current can generate a magnetic field, which can affect
magnetic navigational compasses.
These effects can be compensated for by laying a second conductor alongside the monopole, for
carrying the earth current. In 2000s the issues of a metallic return remained a controversial political as
well as technical issue[4], through the conflicting economic and environmental interests.

Fig. 3

Bipolar

In bipolar transmission a pair of conductors is used, each at a high potential with respect to ground, in
opposite polarity. Bipolar transmission is a more expensive option than monopolar transmission
owing to the increased cost of line. Although monopolar transmission with an earth return uses two
conductors, the earth return is at a low potential with respect to its surroundings, minimising
additional insulation costs. Bipolar transmission, by contrast, requires two high-potential lines.
However, there are a number of advantages to bipolar transmission which can make it the attractive
option.

Under normal load, negligible earth-current flows, as in the case of monopolar transmission
with a metallic earth-return; minimising environmental impact.
When a fault develops in a line, if considerable electrodes have been installed at earth
potential at each end of the line, current can continue flow under these fault conditions using
the earth as a return path, operating in monopolar mode.
Since for a given power rating bipolar lines carry only half the current of monopolar lines, the
cost of the second conductor is reduced compared to a monopolar line of the same rating.

A bipolar system may also be installed with a metallic earth return conductor.
HVDC Converter Arrangements:

HVDC converter bridges and lines or cables can be arranged into a number of configurations
for effective utilization. Converter bridges may be arranged either monopolar or bipolar as shown in
12 pulse arrangement in Figure 6. Various ways HVDC transmission is used are shown in simplified
form in Figure 7 and include the following:

1. Back-to-Back. There are some applications where the two AC systems to be inter-connected
are physically in the same location or substation. No transmission line or cable is required
between the converter bridges in this case and the connection may be monopolar or bipolar.
Back-to-back DC links are used in Japan for interconnections between power system
networks of different frequencies (50 and 60 Hz). They are also used as interconnections
between adjacent asynchronous networks.
2. Transmission Between Two Substations. When it is economical to transfer electric power
through DC transmission or cables from one geographical location to another, a two-terminal
or point-to-point HVDC transmission is used. In other words, DC power from a DC rectifier
terminal is dedicated to one other terminal operating as an inverter. This is typical of most
HVDC transmission systems.
3. Multi-terminal HVDC Transmission System. When three or more HVDC substations are
geographically separated with interconnecting transmission lines or cables, the HVDC
transmission system is multi-terminal. If all substations are connected to the same voltage
then the system is parallel multi-terminal DC. If one or more converter bridges are added in
series in one or both poles, then the system is series multi-terminal DC.
4. Unit Connection. When DC transmission is applied right at the point of generation, it is
possible to connect the converter transformer of the rectifier directly to the generator terminals
so the generated power feeds into the DC transmission lines. This might be applied with hydro
and wind turbine driven generators so that maximum efficiency of the turbine can be achieved
with speed control. Regardless of the turbine speed, the power is delivered through the
inverter terminal to the AC receiving system at its fundamental frequency of 50 or 60 hz.
5. Diode Rectifier. It has been proposed that in some applications where DC power transmission
is in one direction only, the valves in the rectifier converter bridges can be constructed from
diodes instead of thyristors. Power flow control would be achieved at the inverter, and in the
case where the unit connection is used AC voltage control by the generator field exciter could
be applied to regulate DC power.
Substation Configuration

The central equipment of a DC substation are the thyristor converters which are usually
housed inside a valve hall. Some DC cable systems only have one pole or monopole configuration
and may either use the ground as a return path when permitted or use an additional cable to avoid
earth currents. In the fig.4; a simple substation may also use a bi-polar configuration.
The essential equipment in a DC substation in addition to the valve groups includes the
converter transformers. Their purpose is to transform the AC system voltage to which the DC system
is connected so that the correct DC voltage is derived by the converter bridges.
The secondary or DC side windings of the converter transformers are connected to the
converter bridges. The converter transformer is located in the switchyard, and if the converter bridges
are located in the valve hall, the connection has to be made through its wall.

Fig. 4

AC networks interconnections

Using ac transmission lines, only synchronized AC networks can be interconnected: those which
oscillate at the same frequency and in phase. Many areas which wish to share power have
unsynchronized networks. The UK and continental Europe both operate at 50Hz but are not
synchronized. Japan has 50Hz and 60Hz networks. Continental North America, whilst operating at
60Hz throughout, is divided into regions which are unsynchronised, East, West, Texas and Quebec.
Brazil and Paraguay which share the massive Itaipu hydroelectric plant, operate on 60Hz and 50Hz
respectively. However, HVDC systems makes it possible to interconnect unsynchronized AC
networks, and also adds the possibility of controlling AC voltage and reactive power flow.

A generator connected to a long ac transmission line may become unstable and fall out of
synchronization with a distant ac power system. A HVDC transmission link may make it
economically feasible to use remote generation sites. Wind farms located off-shore may use HVDC
systems to collect power from multiple unsynchronized generators for transmission to the shore by an
underwater cable.

In general, however, an HVDC power line will interconnect two AC regions of the power-distribution
grid. Machinery to convert between AC and DC power adds a considerable cost in power
transmission. The conversion from AC to DC is known as rectification, and from DC to AC as
inversion. Above a certain break-even distance (about 50 km for submarine cables, and perhaps 600-
800 km for overhead cables), the lower cost of the HVDC cable outweighs the cost of the electronics.

The conversion electronics also present an opportunity to effectively manage the power grid by
means of controlling the magnitude and direction of power flow. An additional advantage of the
existence of HVDC links, therefore, is potential increased stability in the transmission grid.

APPLICATIONS OF HVDC TRANSMISSION:

The first application for HVDC converters was to provide point-to-point electrical power
inter-connections between asynchronous AC power networks. There are other applications which can
be met by HVDC converter transmission which include:

1. Interconnections between asynchronous systems. Some continental electric power systems

consist of asynchronous networks such as the East, West, Texas and Quebec networks in
North America and island loads such as the Island of Gotland in the Baltic Sea make good use
of HVDC inter-connections.
2. Deliver energy from remote energy sources. Where generation has been developed at remote
sites of available energy, HVDC transmission has been an economical means to bring the
electricity to load centers. Gas fired thermal generation can be located close to load centers
and may delay development of isolated energy sources in the near term.
3. Import electric energy into congested load areas. In areas where new generation is impossible
to bring into service to meet load growth or replace inefficient or decommissioned plant,
underground DC cable transmission is a viable means to import electricity.
4. Increasing the capacity of existing AC. transmission by conversion to DC transmission. New
transmission rights-of-way may be impossible to obtain. Existing overhead AC transmission
lines if upgraded to or overbuilt with DC transmission can substantially increase the power
transfer capability on the existing right-of-way.
 5. Power flow control. AC networks do not easily accommodate desired power flow control.
Power marketers and system operators may require the power flow control capability
provided by HVDC transmission.
6. Stabilization of electric power networks. Some wide spread AC power system networks
operate at stability limits well below the thermal capacity of their transmission conductors.
HVDC transmission is an option to consider to increase utilization of network conductors
along with the various power electronic controllers which can be applied on AC transmission.

ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS
The electrical environmental effects from HVDC transmission lines can be characterized as:

The electric field arises from both the electrical charge on the conductors and for a
HVDC overhead transmission line, from charges on air ions and aerosols surrounding
the conductor. DC current flowing through the conductors produces a DC magnetic
field.
Air ions produced by HVDC lines form clouds which drift away from the line when
blown by the wind and may come in contact with humans, animals and plants outside
the transmission line right-of -way or corridor. The corona effects may produce low
levels of radio interference, audible noise and ozone generation.

Field and corona effects:

The field and corona effects of transmission lines largely favor DC transmission over AC
transmission. The significant considerations are as follows:

For a given power transfer requiring extra high voltage transmission, the DC transmission
line will have a smaller tower profile than the equivalent AC tower carrying the same level
of power. This can also lead to less width of right-of-way for the DC transmission option.
The steady and direct magnetic field of a DC transmission line near or at the edge of the
transmission right-of-way will be about the same value in magnitude as the earths naturally
occurring magnetic field. For this reason alone, it seems unlikely that this small contribution
by HVDC transmission lines to the background geomagnetic field would be a basis for
concern.
The static and steady electric field from DC transmission at the levels experienced beneath
lines or at the edge of the right-of-way have no known adverse biological effects. There is no
 theory or mechanism to explain how a static electric field at the levels produced by DC
transmission lines could affect human health. The electric field level beneath a HVDC
transmission line is of similar magnitude as the naturally occurring static field, which exists
beneath thunderclouds. Electric fields from AC transmission lines have been under more
intense scrutiny than fields generated from DC transmission lines.
The ion and corona effects of DC transmission lines lead to a small contribution of ozone
production to higher naturally occurring background concentrations. Exacting long-term
measurements are required to detect such concentrations.

USE DC TRANSMISSION:

The level of losses is designed into a transmission system and is regulated by the size of
conductor selected. D.c. and a.c. conductors, either as overhead transmission lines or submarine
cables can have lower losses but at higher expense since the larger cross-sectional area will generally
result in lower losses but cost more.

When converters are used for d.c. transmission in preference to a.c. transmission, it is
generally by economic choice driven by one of the following reasons:

1. An overhead d.c. transmission line with its towers can be designed to be less costly per unit of
length than an equivalent a.c. line designed to transmit the same level of electric power.
However the d.c. converter stations at each end are more costly than the terminating stations
of an a.c. line and so there is a breakeven distance above which the total cost of d.c.
transmission is less than its a.c. transmission alternative. The d.c. transmission line can have a
lower visual profile than an equivalent a.c. line and so contributes to a lower environmental
impact. There are other environmental advantages to a d.c. transmission line through the
electric and magnetic fields being d.c. instead of ac.
2. If transmission is by submarine or underground cable, the breakeven distance is much less
than overhead transmission. It is not practical to consider a.c. cable systems exceeding 50 km
but d.c. cable transmission systems are in service whose length is in the hundreds of
kilometers and even distances of 600 km or greater have been considered feasible.
3. Some a.c. electric power systems are not synchronized to neighboring networks even though
their physical distances between them is quite small. This occurs in Japan where half the
country is a 60 hz network and the other is a 50 hz system. It is physically impossible to
 connect the two together by direct a.c. methods in order to exchange electric power between
them. However, if a d.c. converter station is located in each system with an interconnecting
d.c. link between them, it is possible to transfer the required power flow even though the a.c.
systems so connected remain asynchronous.

Realized HVDC Systems

Baltic-Cable
Kontek
GKK Etzenricht
Elbe-Project (HVDC-project between Dessau and Berlin, incompleted)
HVDC Gotland
HVDC Cross-Channel (HVDC-link England-France)
HVDC Inter-Island (HVDC link between the Islands of New Zealand)
HVDC Italia-Corsica-Sardinia (SACOI)
HVDC Vancouver-Island
Pacific-Intertie
Cabora-Bassa link from Mozambique to South Africa
HG-Kurzkupplung Drnrohr
GK Wien-Southeast
Hydro Quebec/James Bay to Sandy Pond, Ayer, Massachusetts

HVDC Systems in India:

Gajuvaka HVDC Back to back substation, 400Kv.

Dadri-Rihand HVDC pole- I & II
Bhadrumati (chandrapur), 2x 500Mv HVDC regional link station.

AREAS FOR DEVELOPMENT IN HVDC CONVERTERS

The thyristor as the key component of a converter bridge continues to be developed so that its
voltage and current rating is increasing. Gate-turn-off thyristors (GTOs) and Insulated Gate Bipole
Transistors (IGBTs) are required for the voltage source converter (VSC) converter bridge
configuration. It is the VSC converter bridge, which is being applied in new developments (12). Its
special properties include the ability to independently control real and reactive power at the
connection bus to the a.c. system. Reactive power can be either capacitive or inductive and can be
controlled to quickly change from one to the other.
REFERENCES

1. HVDC Transmission by Dennis A. Woodford, Manitoba HVDC Research Centre

2. Role of HVDC Power Systems, W. Breuer, D. Povh, D. Retzmann, E. Teltsch X. Lei,
Siemens AG, Germany XJ Group, China.
3. HVDC by Raja Joseph Reddy, Royal College of Engineering.
4. Power System Analysis, by Soni Gupta, Bhatnakar and Charkrabarthi.