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College Park, MD 20742 much different from values measured using standard multimeters. This difference appears to be a
function of the input resistance, with the low resistance multimeters allowing a higher current to flow
during measurement which alters the electrochemical environment causing the voltage to drift. The
objectives of this paper are (i) to report on a device which when attached to a low resistance multimeter
facilitates the accurate measurement of soil redox potential, and (ii) to better understand the nature
of the drift observed when measurements are made using a standard multimeter. Redox potentials
were measured with Pt and calomel electrodes in soil mesocosms using a research grade voltmeter and
a standard multimeter, with and without an inexpensive device that effectively increased the input
resistance of the multimeter to 1 Tohm. The device was constructed using a TL082 wide bandwidth
dual JFET input operational amplifier which effectively raised the input resistance from 10 Mohm
to approximately 1 Tohm. When a small correction factor was applied to account for the internal
offset error from the amplifier, the Eh data recorded using the modified multimeter were essentially
identical to those collected using higher end, research grade instruments (n = 162; Y = 0.9996X
0.09; r2 = 1.0000). Depending on the pH of the system and the type of reference electrode used, and
the redox couple of interest, Eh data collected using standard multimeters could lead to erroneous
conclusions regarding whether a soil is oxidized or reduced.
Sampling
Series Classification Pedo-geomorphic setting Initial pH Organic C Texture
location
g kg1
38127 N
Berryland Sandy, siliceous, mesic Typic Alaquods Late Pleistocene Dunes 3.2 55 Loamy sand
75302 W
Coarse-loamy, siliceous, Sandy Coastal 385412 N
Downer 5.5 6 Loamy sand
semiactive, mesic Typic Hapudults Plain Sediments 76812 W
Coarse-loamy, siliceous, active, Flood Plain of the 39143 N
Indiantown 5.1 67 Silt loam
acid, mesic Cumulic Humaquepts Inner Coastal Plain 765030 W
MATERIALS AND METHODS at 2- to 3-d intervals (after the daily change in redox potential was less
Redox potentials were measured using Pt and calomel electrodes pronounced) until approximately Day 17.
in soil mesocosms using research grade voltmeters and multimeters. Typically, when the two wires that normally lead to the Pt and ref-
Measurements were also made using multimeters that were equipped erence electrodes are connected to each other (short circuited) across a
with an inexpensive device that effectively increased the input resistance volt meter or multimeter, a voltage of zero is observed. However, when
of the multimeters. Small mesocosms were made from 1-L plastic con- the system is short circuited with an amplifier included in the circuit as
tainers approximately 12 cm high that were filled with homogenized ma- shown in Fig. 1, a small but consistent deviation from zero is observed.
terial collected from the A horizons of soils identified as the three series This has been called an internal offset error and is inherent to the ampli-
Indiantown, Berryland, and Downer. The properties of the soils used are fier. An evaluation of thirteen TL082 amplifiers showed this internal
presented in Table 1. Six replicate Pt electrodes were inserted into the soil offset to range from 1 to 8 mV (mean 4 mV). The particular device
to a depth of approximately 6 cm. The mesocosms were saturated by add- used for collecting the data in this experiment had an internal offset of
ing distilled water through a 1/2 inch PVC tube that was placed in the 5 mV, and thus a correction factor was applied by subtracting this 5 mV
center of the mesocosm and permitted the soils to be saturated from the from voltages measured when using this device.
bottom. Once saturated, the mesocosms were maintained with a 1-cm
layer of water on the surface. The mesocosms were placed on a lab bench RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
where the temperature was maintained at approximately 24C. A comparison of the Eh values measured in the mesocsoms
Voltages were measured using a Beckman model PHI 260 pH/ from all three soils using the research grade voltmeter and using
voltmeter(Beckman Coulter, Inc., Fullerton, CA) and using a Radio a multimeter modified to include the amplifier device is shown
Shack model 22812 multimeter(Radio Shack Corp., Fort Worth, TX) in Fig. 2. The linear model fit to the data shows that there is
with and without a device designed to increase the input resistance of almost a perfect fit of the data. Of the 162 data points included
the instrument. The device was constructed using a TL082 wide band- in the figure (six electrodes, three soils, nine dates) the mea-
width dual JFET input operational am-
plifier and two 9-V batteries that were
configured as shown in Fig. 1 (66pacific.
com, 2007). A single throw, double pole
switch was also incorporated into the
circuitry to easily disconnect the bat-
teries (to preserve battery life) when
measurements were not being made.
When measurements were made using
the Beckman meter or when using the
multimeter with the amplifier, the volt-
ages measured showed no drift and were
recorded after 5 to 10 s. When the mul-
timeter was used without the amplifier,
the measured voltages showed a signifi-
cant drift. The rate of drift (mV min1)
is greatest at the outset, and then slowly
decreases with time. For purposes of
standardization, voltages were recorded
after 120 s, even though in most cases,
the voltages were still continuing to
change at rates ranging between 5 and
50 mV min1) (Fiedler et al., 2007).
Starting on the day the soils were satu-
Fig. 1. A device designed to increase the input resistance of a standard multimeter by using a TL082 wide
rated, measurements were taken daily bandwidth dual JFET input operational amplifier and two 9-V batteries. The effective resistance using
for the first 5d (when redox potentials this arrangement is 1 Tohm. A single throw, double pole switch is utilized to allow easy preservation of
were changing most quickly) and then battery life when measurements are not being made. Modified from 66pacific.com (2007).
CONCLUSIONS
It has been demonstrated that Fig. 4. The EhpH diagram showing the empirical line for the Fe-oxide stability fields according to the
Technical Standard of the National Technical Committee on Hydric Soils which is defined by the equation
when soil redox potentials are mea- Eh = 595 (pH60). If when a traditional multimeter is used to measure Eh, the EhpH data fall within
sured using a low resistance instru- the dark gray zones (between the TS line and an Eh of 244 mV), these data are ambiguous to interpret,
ment, such as a standard multimeter because of the possibility that the measured values could have drifted from one side of the stability line
(approximately 10 Mohms), electro- across to the other side, toward an Eh value of 244 mV. Data points were collected during a different
chemical changes in the soil environ- study using a standard multimeter and allowing drift for approximately 5 min. Note that nearly one third
(32%) of the data points plot within the ambiguous gray zones. Of 144 data points, 49% of the Eh values
ment caused by the flowing current are within 10 mV of 244, 33% are within 5 mV of 244, and 21% are within 2 mV of 244.
result in a drift in the measured redox
potential as, presumably, the propor- interpretations of data collected using low resistance meters would
tion of reduced and oxidized chemical species are changing in the lead to erroneous conclusions with regard to the redox status of the
vicinity of the Pt electrode. This observed drift is always toward a soil. When using redox data to assist in making evaluations related
raw voltage of zero, or toward an Eh of 244 mV (if a calomel refer- hydric soil or wetland assesment, care should be taken to ensure that
ence electrode is used.) When a high resistance research grade in- Eh measurements are collected and interpreted correctly.
strument is utilized (approximately 200 Gohms), the current flow
is negligible and reliable redox measurements can be obtained. By REFERENCES
using inexpensive components including a TL082 wide bandwidth 66Pacific.com. 2007. The simplest possible pH meter. Available online at
dual JFET input operational amplifier and two 9-V batteries, a http://www.66pacific.com/ph/simplest_ph.aspx (Verified 2 June 2009).
standard multimeter can be modified to have an effective input re- Bohn, H.L. 1971. Redox potentials. Soil Sci. 112:3945.
Fiedler, S., M.J. Vepraskas, and J.L. Richardson. 2007. Soil redox potential:
sistance of 1Tohm, which when a minor correction factor of a few Importance, field measurements, and observations. Adv. Agron. 94:154.
millivolts is applied to account for the internal offset error inher- James, B.R., and R.J. Bartlett. 2000. Redox phenomena. p. B169194. In M.E.
ent to the amplifier, provides Eh measurements that are essentially Sumner (ed.) Handbook of soil science. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.
identical to the more expensive research instruments. The magni- National Technical Committee for Hydric Soils (NTCHS). 2000. Technical
tude of the observed voltage drift can be as high as 100 to 200 mV Note 11: Technical standards for hydric soils [Online]. http://soils.usda.
gov/use/hydric/ntchs/tech_notes/index.html (Verified 2 June 2009).
and therefore can lead to significant problems of interpretation. Patrick, W.H., R.P. Gambrell, and S.P. Faulkner. 1996. Redox measurements
Depending on the type of reference electrode used, there are cer- of soils. p. 12551273. In D.L. Sparks (ed.) Methods of soil analysis.
tain zones within Eh-pH stability diagrams where readings made Part 3. SSSA Book Ser. 5. SSSA and ASA, Madison, WI.
with low resistance meters can be interpreted unambiguously as re- Rabenhorst, M.C., W.D. Hively, and B.R. James. 2009. Measurements of soil
ducing or oxidizing. There are other Eh-pH zones, however, where redox potential. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 73:668674.