Professional Education:

FACILITATING LEARNING

Learning
Is a process that produces relatively permanent changes in behavior potential. These behavioral
changes are result of ones experience or practice, as opposed to natural cause as maturation,
fatigue, injury or illness.
A process of acquiring, remembering, applying skills, knowledge, attitudes, and other models of
response.
Is commonly define as a process that brings together cognitive, emotional, and environmental
influences and experiences for acquiring, enhancing, or making changes in ones knowledge, skills,
values and world views. ( Illeris 2000;Ormorod, 1995) Learning theories have two chief values
according to hill (2002). One is in providing us with vocabulary and a conceptual framework for
interpreting the examples of learning that we observe. The other is in suggesting where to look for
solutions to practical problems. The theories do not give us solutions, but they do not direct our
attention to variables that are crucial in finding solutions.

Types of Learners
Fast learners/Gifted
Superior/Bright
Learners
Slow Learners
Average Learning
Mental Retardation
with an IQ of 130 above
good retention; quick response
rapid and accurate mastery of learning material
intellectual curiosity
likely to recognize their learning lacks and attempt to satisfy them by
asking questions
keen, observant
with an IQ of 115
very much like the gifted but to a slightly lower degree
may experience also problems at home and in school like boredom during
lectures that are too easy for them
have difficulty to learn the subject; attention span is short
functions at ability but significantly below grade level
have an IQ between 70 and 85
have limited reasoning power
have a poor self-image
have the ability to excel; with an IQ of 90-100
with determination and concentration, can achieve academic success
stay in the regular classroom for all subjects
now termed developmental disability refers to significantly sub-average
general intellectual functioning existing concurrently with deficits in
adaptive behavior which implies social maturity below the developmental
period or the time between the birth or the 18th birthday.

The Types of Learning

Rational Learning
The outcome sought in this type of learning is knowledge which may be described as the mental
assimilation of any object, fact, principle, or law within the natural or supernatural order.
It is clearly intellectual in nature and involves the process of abstraction by which concepts are
formed.
It implies the development of basic meanings of terms which constitutes the specialized
vocabularies of the various school subjects such as mathematics, science, and languages, together
with the understanding and utilization of these terms.
Motor Learning
The outcome sought in this type of learning skill, which may be described as the adaptation of
movement to stimuli resulting in speed and precision of performance.
Associational Learning
The outcome sought in this type of learning is the acquisition and retention of facts and
information. This type of learning involves the development of associative patterns by which ideas
and experiences are retained, recalled, and recognized through the process of linking together or
establishing relationship between and among these ideas and experiences so that one will serve as
the stimulus for the revival and recall of the other or others previously experienced.
Appreciational Learning
This outcome sought in this type of learning is appreciation or aesthetic improvement.
Involves the process of acquiring attitudes, ideals, satisfactions, judgment, and knowledge
concerning values as well as the recognition of worth and importance which the learner gains from
participating in learning activities.
The Main Categories of Learning Theories

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Behaviorism The individual is shaped by the environment through the basic process of
learning
John Watson, the proponents of this theory believes that real determinants
of the particular behavior are the reinforcements one meets along the way
Cognitivism This theory focuses on the adaptational process rather than on learning
The major proponent was Jean Piaget, Swiss scholar who began to study
childrens intellectual development during the 1920s.
Constructivism Constructivism view learning as a process in which the learner actively
constructs or builds new ideas or concepts based upon current and past
knowledge or experience. In other words, learning involves constructing
ones own knowledge from ones own experiences.

Different Principles of Learning and their Application in Classroom Situation

Principles Application in Classroom Situations
Learning by doing is Let the students have the feel of things through the hands-on activities. (Ex. To
more effective than learn how to use the computer, a computer should be available for practice)
just sitting and
listening
Concepts should be Teacher should be very creative, resourceful and imaginative in teaching so as
presented in not make the students as well as themselves get bored. (Ex. If pictures were used
varied/different ways in teaching on a Monday, the next day the teacher may use storytelling)
Learning is aided by Teaching is a two-way process , its not only the teachers who will always do the
formulating and asking talking and asking. Student should be given a chance the same thing. (Ex. Any
questions question regarding the discussion?)
Effort is put forth when In giving tasks to students, the teacher should consider that the tasks are not too
tasks are challenging difficult nor too easy

Theories of Learning (Hilbero, et al)

A. Concept Map of early schools of thoughts about Learning

Rationalism (philosophy) Empiricism (Philosophy)

(Knowledge gained by reason) (Experience-the only source of learning

Plato: Idealism Aristotle:

Associationism (Law of learning)

Descartes: Dualism Locke: Mind is a tabula rasa

Rationalism

Kant: Faculties of mind Mill: Learning from new Combination

Ideas
Cognitivism (Psychology)

Behaviorism (Psychology) Gestalt Psychology

Thorndike: Connectionism (meaningful wholes)
Pavlov/Watson: classical conditioning a. Kohler Insight
Skinner: operant conditioning b. Koffka-good form/equilibrium

B. Emergence of the Different Theories of Learning and their Application in Classroom

Situations
1. Behavioral Learning Theories or Associative Learning Theories
Prefer to concentrate on actual behavior.
Conclusions based on observations of external manifestations of learning.
Did not focus on any underlying changes that may take place in the learner.
Classical Conditioning
By Ivan Pavlov, term classical means in the established manner.
Individual learns when a previously neutral stimulus is paired with an unconditioned stimuli until the
neutral stimulus evokes a conditioned response.
Features of Classical Conditioning
Stimulus Generalization
A process by which the conditioned response transfers to other stimuli that are similar to the
original conditioned stimulus.
Discrimination
A process by which one learns not to respond to similar stimuli in an identical manner because of
previous experiences. (ex. A pupil learning to read might have serious difficulties if he could not
discriminate the letters p,b and d, or horizontal lines from vertical lines, left from right)
Extinction
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 The process by which a conditioned response is lost. (Ex. If a student is always scolded by the
teacher for failing in the test, he/she will develop fear in taking a test. But if in the succeeding tests,
he/she passed with flying colors and was praised by the teacher, gradually the fear in taking a test
will be extinguish.)
2. Edward Thorndikes Connectionism
Term connectionism means learning by selecting and connecting.
Put more emphasis on the response of the organism not limiting himself to the association between
the stimulus and the response
Believed that all learning is explained by bonds or connectionism occur mainly through trial and
error.
Formulated the three major laws of learning
o Laws of Readiness - readiness is an important condition in learning. A learner may be
satisfied or frustrated depending on his/her stage of readiness. The learner should be
biologically prepared.
o Law of Exercise - explains that any connection is strengthened in proportion to the number
of times it occurs and in proportion to the average vigor and duration of the connection.
Practice alone is not enough for improvement.
o Law of Effect when an organisms response is accompanied or followed by a satisfactory
state, positive reinforcements further learning. While punishment, failure, or negative
experiences hinder it.
3. Burrhus Skinners Reinforcement and Operant Conditioning
Stressed the consequence of behavior in order to learn.
Proved that reinforcement is a powerful tool in shaping and controlling behavior in and out to
reinforce or eliminate.
Reinforcement is a stimulus event that if it occurs in the proper temporal relation with a response
tends to maintain or increase the strength of a response, stimulus-response connection.
4. Albert Banduras Social Cognitive Learning
Called Observational learning or social learning theory
Learning takes place when one person observes and then imitates the behavior of others.
Information we process from observing other people, things and events influences the way we act.
Models are classified as:
o Real-life teachers, parents
o Symbolic oral or written symbols (ex. Book)
o Representational represented through audio-visual measures (ex. Films)
Four Phases in Observational Learning
Attention mere exposure does not ensure acquisition of behavior, observer must attend and
recognize the distinctive features of the models of response.
Retention reproduction of the desired behavior implies that a student symbolically retains the
observed behavior.
Motor Reproduction Processes after observation have students demonstrate as soon as possible.
Correct behavior can be reinforced, while incorrect ones are altered.
Motivational Processes although observer acquires and retains ability to perform the modeled
behavior, there will be no overt performance unless conditions are favorable.
a. Cognitive Learning Theories
Prefer to concentrate on analyzing cognitive processes.
Believe in the non-observable behavior
Define cognitive psychology as the study of structures and components of information processing.

1. Kurt Lewins Field Theory

View focused on the psychological field or life space of an individual.
Life space of an individual consists of everything one needs to know about a person in order to
understand his/her behavior in a specific psychological environment at a specific time.
Life space concept it is not always possible to draw accurate conclusions simply by observing
overt behavior. To understand behavior is often essential to be subjective in the sense that the
observer must see things from the subjects point of view at a given moment.
The significance to education is his view of motivation by psychological tensions produced by the
interaction of a psychological self with a psychological.
2. Wolfgang Kohlers Problem Solving Theory
Insight is the
o Capacity to discern the true nature of a situation
o Imaginative power to see into and understand immediately
Gaining Insight is gradual process of exploring, analyzing, and restructuring perceptions until a
solution is arrived at.
The more intelligent a person and the more experience he has, the more capable he will be for
gaining insight.
Held that animals and human beings are capable of seeing relationships between objects and
events and act accordingly to achieve their needs. They have the power of looking into relationship
and in coming up with a solution.
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 His studies on apes led him to conclude that learning was a result of insightful solutions, not blind
trial and error.
3. David Ausubels Meaningful Learning Theory
Meaningful-learning is the acquisition of new meaning. Two important ideas in the definition:
o Material to be learned is potentially meaningful.
o Refers to the process by which students turn potentially meaningful material into actual
meaningfulness.
Meaningful learning occurs when the material to be learned is related to what students already
know.
Two Dimensions of learning processes
o The first relates to two ways by which knowledge to be learned is made available to the
learner.
Meaningful Reception Learning - new logically, organized material is presented in
final form and the learner relates it to his/her existing knowledge.
Rote Discovery Learning material in any kind is presented in final form and is
memorized.
o The second dimension relates to the ways by which the learner may incorporate new
information into his existing cognitive structure.
Meaningful Discovery Learning learner arrives at the solution to problem or other
outcome independently and relates it to his existing knowledge.
Rote Discovery Learning the solution is arrived at independently but is committed to
memory.
This theory primarily applies to older students who can read reasonably well and who already have
a fund of basic concepts in a subject-matter field.
4. Jerome Bruners Theory of Instruction
His view of learning is called instrumental conceptualism.
The acquisition of knowledge, whatever its forms, is dynamic interactive process. A learner is a
purposive participant in the knowledge getting process who selects, structures, retains and
transforms information.
Focused on the problem of what people do with information to achieve generalized insights or
understanding.
Learning is seen as a cognitive process that involves three (3) simultaneous processes.
o Acquisition process of obtaining new information to fit new situations.
o Transformation checking on whether or not the learned material has been manipulated
appropriately.
5. Robert Gagnes Cumulative Learning
Learning skills are hierarchically arranged, where there is a progression from developing simple
stimulus-response association to concepts and principles and problem solving.
The eight (8) levels of learning
o Signal Learning where voluntary responses are learned. Similar to operant conditioning.
(Ex. Getting ready to move at the sound of a fire alarm.)
o Motor/Verbal Chains Learning two or more separate motor/verbal responses maybe
combined or chained to develop a more complex skill. (Ex. house + wife = housewife)
o Discrimination Learning learner selects a response which applies to certain stimuli.
(Ex. Sound of fire engine is different from other sounds/sirens.)
o Concept Learning involves classifying and organizing perceptions to gain meaningful
concepts. (Ex. Concepts of triangle discriminates triangle from other shapes and deduce
commonality among different shapes).
o Principle Learning (Rule Learning) involves combining and relating concepts already learned
to form rules. (Ex. Equilateral triangles are similar in shapes.)
o Problem Solving considered the most complex condition; involves applying rules to
appropriate problem situations. (Ex. Solving mathematical problems using given formula:
Find the area of a square A + 1 X W.)0

Transfer of Learning
The process of applying knowledge or skill previously learned in one situation to a new or different
situation.
Has two types:
o Lateral transfer occurs when the individual is able to perform a new task that requires
previously learned skills (e.g. solving a word problem from the textbook and later solving a
similar problem on the board)
o Vertical transfer occurs when the individual is able to learn more complex or advanced
skills (e.g. being able to add and multiply, being able to read and write)

Theories of Transfer ( Hilbero, et al)

Formal-discipline theory The facilities of the mind such as memory, reason, will, and imagination
could be strengthened through practice.
Identical elements Elements such as facts, skills, and methods present in the original
theory
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 learning situation must be present in a new situation.
Generalization theory
The facts and concepts that have been previously learned must lead to
formulation of principles used in a new situation.
Transposition theory Transfer of learning is possible if there is understanding of the
relationships among facts, processes, and principles (e.g., recognizing
Lupang Hinirang in the key of G after learning it in the key of C,
although notes in the two keys are not the same.)
The Process and Transfer of Learning

Retention
This measures the difference between what was originally learned and what is remembered. Many
factors determine what is retained and what is forgotten: how long ago the material was learned,
the amount of interference, the strength of original learning, and the meaningfulness of the
material.
Recall
This is a process of remembering in which, without outside help, we reproduce material by finding it
within our own storehouse of memory. For example, we are able to greet and call people by their
name after not having seen them for many years.
Recognition
This is a flash of knowing that we have seen someone or something, or learned something before.
Relearning
This is another method of measuring retention. In this process something previously learned is
learned again.
Overlearning
Overlearning aids retention more for nonsense of difficult that it does for easy, highly organized
material.

Motivation (Sevilla et al, 1995)

Gazzaniga (1995) defines motivation as the force behind behavior. The study of motivation
involves an examination of the variables that affect the tendency to behave in particular ways.
Morgan (1977) covering any behavior
directed toward a goal. He mentions numerous words in the vocabulary that refer to motivation:
ambition, aim, aspiration, desire, drive, goal, hunger, love, motive, need, revenge, striving, want,
wish, and many more.
The Motivation Cycle
1. Motive

2. Instrumental 3. Goal
Behavior

The process of motivation starts with (1) some motivating state that moves the person toward
some goal; (2) behavior displayed in striving for the goal; (3) realization or achievement of the goal.
The motivation state leads to behavior; the behavior leads to the goal; and when the goal is
reached, the motives subside at least, temporarily.
The second phase of the motivational cycle which is some kind of behavior evoked by the drive or
need is called operant behavior. This is usually instrumental in arriving at the goal and thus
satisfying the underlying motive.
The third phase of the motivational cycle is the achievement of the goal. When a bottle of
soft drink is obtained, the thirsty athlete drinks and satisfies, his thirst, ending the
motivational sycle for the time being.
The Purpose of Motivation
To arouse interest;
To stimulate a desire to learn which leads to effort;
To direct these interests and efforts toward the accomplishment of suitable purposes and toward
the attainment of definite goals.
Types of Motivation
Intrinsic an individuals internal desire to perform a particular task.
Extrinsic Promoted by factors external to the individual, and unrelated to the task being
performed such as recognition or other reward.
The Basic Factors in Motivation
The first factor is the pupil whose development, learning, and conduct are the objects of
motivation.

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 The second factor is the teacher whose task is to guide and direct the interest and efforts of
the pupil toward the accomplishment of suitable purposes and toward the attainment of
definite goals.
The third factor is the techniques and devices which the teacher makes use in order to
stimulate, to guide; and to direct the intention or will to learn.
Theories of Motivation
Hedonism This doctrine holds that the underlying causes of all behavior are the
tendencies to seek pleasures and avoid pain. Descartes, Hobbes, Locke,
and Hume, were the seventeenth and eighteen century philosophers
who adhered to this mechanistic view of behavior.
Rationalism Behavior is guided by rational principles. This was upheld by
philosophers and theologians for hundreds of years. It assumes that a
person is very much responsible for his behavior. He is free to choose,
and his choices are either good or bad, depending upon his intelligence
and education.
Instinct Theory The psychologist William McDougall strongly advocated the theory that
our thoughts and behavior are the result of inherited instincts, which
are compelling sources of conducts but modifiable by learning and
experience. He mentions the following instincts in his theory: flight,
repulsion, curiosity, pugnacity, acquisition, self-assertion, reproduction,
gregariousness, self-abasement, and construction.
Freuds Psychoanalytic His theory attributes behavior to two basic energies: life and death
Theory instincts. Life instinct, although unconscious, are powerful motivational
forces. These include the sex drives (libido) and life-maintaining drives
such as hunger and thirst. Death instincts include unconscious wishes
to die, as well as outward and inward aggressions. These two kinds of
instinct represent a part of the individuals innate needs and they
function as drives that impel and govern behavior.
Drive-Reduction A drive is an aroused state that results from some biological need (food,
water, oxygen, or avoidance of painful stimuli). This aroused condition
motivates the organism to remedy the need (finding food) to satisfy it.
Need refers to the psychological state of deprivation, whereas drive is
not observable, but is inferred from behavior.
Homeostasis The principle of homeostasis is the bodys tendency to maintain
constant internal environment. This equilibrium preserving tendency is
needed for the body to survive and function, and if it is upset in some
manner, steps must be taken to restore it. Psychologists maintain that
any psychological or psychological imbalance will motivate behavior
designed to restore equilibrium.
Incentives Silverman (1979) explains incentives as reinforcers that motivate. He
points out that human being respond to the incentive value of
renforcers.

Intelligence
Is defined as a general capacity of an individual to adjust this thinking to new requirements.
It is general mental adaptability to new problems and conditions of life. (W.Stern)
Lewis Terman defines it as the ability to learn in terms of abstract ideas while Colvin viewed
intelligence as the ability to adjust to new environment,
Is an overall capacity for particular mental activities that cannot be measured directly.
Theories of Intelligence
Theories Proponents Perspectives
General Intelligence Charles Spearman In using the technique, Spearman
British psychologist concluded that scores on these
Charles Spearman (1863- tests were remarkably similar.
1945) described a concept People who performed well on
he referred to as general one cognitive test tended to
intelligence, or g factor. perform well on other tests, while
those who score badly on others.
He concluded that intelligence is
a general cognitive ability that
could be measured and
numerically expressed.
(Spearman, 1904)
Primary Mental Abilities Louis L. Thurstone His theory focused on seven
(1887-1955) different primary mental
abilities (Thurstone, 1938) The
abilities that he described were:
Verbal comprehension
Reasoning

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Multiple Intelligences
Triarchic Theory of
Intelligence
Howard Gardner
Robert Sternberg defined
intelligence as mental activity
directed toward purposive
adaption to, selection and
shaping of, real-world
environments relevant to ones
life. (Sternberg, 1985, p.45)
Perceptual speed
Numerical ability
Word fluency
Associative memory
Spatial visualization
Gardner proposed that numerical
expressions of human intelligence
are not a full and accurate
depiction of peoples abilities. His
theory describes eight distinct
intelligences that are based on
skills and abilities that are valued
within different cultures. The
eight intelligences gardner
described are:
Visual-spatial intelligence
(picture/art smart)
Verbal-linguistic
ntelligence (word/smart)
Bodily-kinesthetic
Intelligence
(body/smart)
Logical/mathematical
Intelligence
(number/reasoning
smart)
Interpersonal Intelligence
(people/smart)
Musical Intelligence
(music/smart)
IntelIntrapersonal
Intelligence
(self/smart)
Naturalistic Intelligence
(nature/smart)
He proposed the successful
intelligence comprised the three
different factors:
Analytical intelligence:
refers to problem-solving
abilities
Creative intelligence:
involves the ability to deal
with new situations using
past experiences and
current skills.
Practical intelligence:
refers to the ability to
adapt to a changing
environment.

The Concept of the Intelligence Quotient (I.Q)

Mental Age
Mental age refers to the degree of mental development of an individual as compared with the
average person of a particular chronological age.
Chronological age or CA is the actual age of a person. The average ability of children at each age is
taken as the standard. For instance, an individual whose mental age is sixteen can perform at the
time the intelligence tests is given.
Intelligence Quotient (IQ)
It is the number that indicates a person has fared test as compared to others in the same age
bracket.
When the mental age is determined, it will be an easy matter to compute the IQ of a child through
the use of the formula:
IQ = MA/CA x 100
Hence, if a child has a mental age of 8 and a chronological age of 10, his IQ is computed thus:
IQ = 8/10 x 100
IQ = 80 or below average
Uses of IQ
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 The IQ can be used as basis for classification for school purposes or for job placements.
Many schools use the IQ results for admission purposes.
IQs of students can serve as basis for educational, vocational, or occupational guidance. IQs of
students are used to advantage by guidance counselors.
IQs can help isolate the deviants, like the gifted, as well as the mentally retarded, for special
educational purposes.
The IQ can help in the diagnosis of learning difficulties.
Distribution of Intelligence Quotients based on the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (Morgan,
1961)

IQ Verbal Description Percent Adults

Above 130 Very superior 2.2
120-129 Superior 6.7
110-119 Bright normal 16.1
90-109 Average 50.0
80-89 Dull normal 16.1
70-79 Borderline 6.7
Below 70 Defective 2.2

Factors Affecting Intelligence

Heredity
Environment
Culture
Socio-Economic Status
Health
Race
Extremes of Intelligence
1. Mentally Gifted- defined as having an intelligence of 130 or higher (or having an IQ in the upper 2 to 3
percent of the population.)

Characteristics of the Intellectually Gifted Child:

He learns very fast with minimum direction and grasps concept easily.
He can readily understand what he reads and could retain and recall principles and theories
presented.
He organizes his thoughts systematically.
He recognizes relationships; thinks reflectively and critically.
He is aware of the various events in the environment that often children do not take notice of.
He has a good command of language or several languages and dialects.
He has wide range of vocabulary.
He accepts intellectual challenges and works on his mental tasks diligently.
He is curious of things, events, and of peoples behavior.
He is creative and initiates activities.
He has a variety of interests on many subjects.
2. Mentally retarded has three essential features
Intellectual functioning must be significantly below average. Intelligence test scores of below 70 or
two standard deviations below the mean are considered below average.
Significant deficits in adaptive functioning must be evident average. Adaptive functioning refers to
social competence or independent behavior that is expected on chronological age;
Onset must be prior to age 18.
Below is the adaptation form the American Psychiatric Association (1994) levels of mental
retardation
Level IQ Scores % Adaptations to Demands of Life
Mild 50 to 70 85 May learn academic skill up to sixth grade level. Adults, may, with
assistance, achieve self-supporting, social, and vocational skills.
Moderate 35 to 40 10 May progress to second grade level academically. Adults may
contribute to their own support by labor in sheltered workshops.
Severe 20 to 34 3- May learn to talk and to perform simple work tasks under supervision
4 but are generally unable to profit form vocational training.
Profound Below 20 1- Require constant aid and supervision.
2

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