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The National School Improvement Networks bulletin that shares ideas from research and encourages discussion and reflection
This review includes both illuminative studies and So learners with a learning orientation do not focus
intervention studies, but such a distinction is imperfect. on performance as a goal - a paradox in some
Illuminative studies show an association between peoples minds. Their success is partly achieved by
those learners who hold a rich conception of learning talking themselves through the task in hand. By
and those who perform well in various learning tasks. contrast, performance orientation is associated with
But the context has its effect, sometimes because it helplessness - Im no good at Maths and the like.
promotes the association, and other times because it This difference may relate to the finding that giving
does not (e.g. when rich conceptions of learning are learners feedback of a person-oriented kind leads to
not encouraged in schools). Intervention studies show lower levels of performance than giving task-related
impact of a new strategy for promoting learning, but comments. Similarly, giving grades as feedback can
here again the context is important, not only for undermine motivation: pre-occupation with grade
supporting the new strategies being tried, but also for attainment can lower the quality of performance15.
embedding them into the complexity of the classroom. Indeed, performance feedback can have a negative
There is no single simple intervention with powerful effect on performance on about 40% of occasions16.
results, so various interventions may be seen as But schools are subject to increasing pressure for
contributions to building a rich learning environment results, and performance is confused with learning.
(and in the process grappling with all the contextual
pressures which can work against this goal).
Learning orientation, rich
Learning, and its relationship strategies and meta-learning
with performance Learners who adopt a learning orientation may also
be those who have a richer conception of learning,
We first consider the relationship between learning which engages more elements and more complex
and performance with the learner as the focus. Three relationships. At the same time, they may have a richer
decades of major studies in a number of countries14 range of learning strategies, but here a further
have shown that different learners approach connection emerges. Learners may possess learning
achievement-related tasks with different goals, strategies, but not employ them, or employ them
orientations or motivations, and that the distinction ineffectively. So it is the process of selection and use
between learning and performance is key. It relates which comes to the fore. This is where the meta-
to different beliefs about success, motivations in cognitive strategies of monitoring and reviewing are
learning, and responses to difficult tasks. vital: indeed one review concluded that direct teaching
of study skills to students without attention to
learning orientation performance orientation
reflective, metacognitive development may well be
concern for improving concern for proving pointless17. Since the development we seek refers to
ones competence ones competence learning (i.e. more than just thinking) we consider
belief that effort leads belief that ability leads to the term meta-learning more accurate.
to success success
So learning about learning aims to:
belief in ones ability concern to be judged as
1. focus on learning as opposed to performance
to improve and learn able, concern to perform
2. promote a rich conception of learning, and a
preference for satisfaction from doing rich range of strategies
challenging tasks better than others
3. develop meta-learning to monitor and review
derives satisfaction emphasis on normative
from personal success standards, competition In what ways can classrooms foster this? Is there any
at difficult tasks and public evaluation evidence that such learning leads to high levels of
uses self-instructions helplessness: evaluate performance, and if so under what conditions? The
when engaged in task self negatively when task choice of performance measures and whether they
is difficult assess high-level learning will be critical.
Enhanced Enhanced
learning performance
Learning Learning
orientation strategies
Figure 1. Relations between the major elements connecting learning and performance
Research Matters - No 13 3
Promoting high-level learners is helped by having them Active metacognition helps learners regulate their own
pose various meaning-oriented questions to promote learning and be able to plan. 10 and 11 year-olds who
understanding. Most effective questions are those took part in monitoring exercises, described by the
posed by the learners themselves.10 year-olds trained authors as metacognitive training, while they learned
in this performed better in later learning tasks. to use problem-solving software performed better. They
Questions for linking with the learner s prior were more successful with the more complex problems,
knowledge and experience and promoting they succeeded more quickly, and overall they
connections to the lesson are more effective than employed more effective strategies, not because they
questions simply designed to promote connections used particular strategies more effectively, but because
among ideas in a lesson: 10 and 11 year-olds they started by reflecting on a problem and considering
performance on comprehension tests was greater27. the possibilities before proceeding35. Similarly, 10 year-
Thought-provoking questions (such as Why is . . . old pupils who learned about goals and strategies in
important? and What would happen if . . . ?) asked learning sometimes improved their performance, but
in small pupil groups, elicit more explanations and, they also needed meta-learning in order to use the
in turn, mediate learning: Year 6 pupils offered better learning strategies36. Learning about strategies and
explanations 28. Asking questions in advance of learning about learning go best hand-in-hand.
teaching elicits higher order questions than those The third element in the classroom practices which
produced after classroom activity: they include promote learning about learning is clear - reflection.
wonderment questions aimed at explanation or at Writing reflections in a notebook dedicated to
resolving discrepancies in knowledge29. experience of learning, often called learning logs has
proved successful with 10 year-olds37.
Promoting engaged learners brings attention to the
Dear Mrs Sanford
style of tasks, especially in light of the disengage-ment
I see that as I write log entries I tend to read them.
of the later primary years. A longitudinal study with
I find in some places where words are misspelled
431 US pupils showed that they become less learning-
oriented and more work avoidant30, culminating in a or where I got an answer to a question or I
fourth grade slump probably associated with something [sic]
teaching isolated skills for state tests. Tasks which are Last year my teacher gave us so much homework
challenging, collaborative, and multi-day lead to pupils I would just memorise it and not care what it was
being less performance-oriented, and less work or if I understood it and you take a test and have
avoidant especially the low-achieving pupils. A key nothing to show for it. Except for the grade, but it
feature is that tasks demand planning and dialogue. doesnt matter the grade. Understanding is what
9 year olds prefer high challenge tasks (requiring counts for you.
longer writing, collaboration and extending over more These log entries help me a lot.
than one school day, e.g. essays on own choice of As I write I notice and understand more too.
topic, letters to politicians, research papers, letters to Your student, Lynne
next years class) over low challenge tasks (short,
completed alone, lasting a single lesson, e.g. So beyond
worksheets on vowels, pronouns, and vocabulary, making learning an object of attention an
spelling and handwriting exercises). They view the making learning an object of conversation,
latter as boring and requiring minimal thought31. High- we now include
challenge tasks were preferred because of aspects of making learning an object of reflection.
the learning process: pupils felt creative, experienced
positive emotions, and worked hard. The act of writing about ones learning requires
attention and demands verbalisation: it also makes
Developing meta-learning requires open task ones ideas available for consideration.
structures, with choice and self-control. Such tasks in
Current practice in English and Irish classrooms
the literacy activities in 12 classrooms also helped 6-
suggests there is some way to go in meta-learning.
year olds develop intrinsic motivation, metacognition
Only a minority of teachers provided opportunities for
and strategic behaviour32. Similarly, writing activities
students to develop metacognitive awareness and
in classrooms supporting self-regulated learning
strategies about the task of reading in 12 classrooms
helped 7- and 8-year olds monitor and evaluate their
of 9 year olds in Leeds and Dublin. These teachers
writing in productive ways, use peers effectively, and
helped learners become more aware of how they learn
see teachers as collaborators33
and acquire or refine strategies for the learning of
A focus on meta-learning can enhance engagement. reading, for example, thinking out loud, and suggesting
While devising ways of building childrens ways of tackling a task. They elicited children s prior
metacognitive knowledge, leading experimenters knowledge and helped them verbalise their experiences,
frequently found children becoming actively interested offered guidance on strategies, etc. The other teachers
in what the activity allowed them to discover about placed great emphasis on the task to be completed,
their mental processes. Involvement and enthusiasm the end product of the activity, pupil compliance with
have generally been high. Students who have not liked teacher directives, and so on. The promotion of
writing have nonetheless seemed to like analysing the learning strategies and learning about learning was
task and the process34. not a prominent feature of classroom life.38
Research Matters - No 13 5
Learning about Learning Students with a rich conception of learning are also
more active metacognitively. They engage in on-
in Secondary School line theorising, ask questions which focus on
For nearly 20 years it has been known that students explanations or discrepancies, venture ideas, use
with more elaborated conceptions of learning perform personal experiences, and give more elaborate
better in public examinations at age 1639. Lower explanations46. Their comments in class included:
attainment at that age is correlated with perceived - self-evaluating their ideas: Ive figured out what
pressure from adults, while higher attainment is I want to say,
positively related to independence, competence and - recognising blocks No, I dont get it,
a meaning-oriented approach to learning. Recent - maintaining commentary I didnt draw that
data confirms the connection: students with qualitative right: Im getting confused, and
and experiential conceptions of learning were likely - self-questioning when problems arose What am
to use meaning-oriented approaches, whereas I going to do? Have I come across this before?
students with quantitative conceptions of learning and What do I know about this?
tended to use surface approaches40. Similar findings
Reflecting on learning is necessary for conceptual
appear in 14-year olds in Hong Kong. Learning
change: without it students regress to their original
orientation is significantly associated with adaptive
conceptions. When learning collaboratively students
learning strategies, and performance orientation with
need to reflect on and reconstruct their conceptions47.
maladaptive learning strategies (229 12 year-olds).
Learning orientation is also associated positively with Students can be helped towards a richer conception.
students beliefs that they are able to regulate Asking them to reveal their science ideas and discuss
themselves and their learning. The more students are with each other the status of their conceptions, has
supported as autonomous learners, the higher their led to more permanent restructuring of their
school performance, as demonstrated by the grades understanding48. Through the Metacognitive Learning
in French, Maths, Biology and Geography (263 15 Cycle the teacher found It definitely changed the
year-old students in Canada)41. climate of the classroom: the metacognitive class
definitely had livelier discussions, even volatile at times,
The classroom environment is again a contributor: and became more involved in the class - especially
meaning-oriented approaches to learning relate to some students that would not normally have been
classrooms which are personalised, encourage active involved. Especially some of the girls became more
participation and the use of investigative skills (484 involved.
students in two Australian schools)42. When students Again, asking oneself a sequence of meaningful and
view classrooms as having a learning orientation they thought-provoking questions improves engagement
have positive coping strategies and positive feeling; and understanding: when this practice is incorporated
by contrast, when they view classrooms as having a into peer tutoring, one asks and the other explains.
performance orientation there is defensive coping and The ability to construct knowledge in science
negative feeling (880 US students at transfer from improved, both during the tutorial and on written
primary to secondary school)43. measures49. Through this 12 year-olds enhanced each
others higher order thinking and learning, and effects
Better academic performance relates to a learning were not restricted to situations in which one partner
orientation and a malleable view of ability: these also was more knowledgeable or competent (as other
link with positive motivational beliefs, higher use of stances on peer-tutoring suggest). Understanding and
learning strategies, and self-regulation (434 12 and metacognition were shared, and new knowledge was
13 year-olds in USA)44. These findings held across constructed. Student-generated questions are more
three subjects: English, maths, and social studies. effective than provided ones. They can also help the
Classrooms have different impacts, but this is not learner be active in learning situations typically viewed
simply about subject differences. Where differences as passive: in a world history course 15 year-olds
occurred between subjects (in thinking and trained in the strategy during classroom lectures
motivation), they were less pervasive than similarities showed greater comprehension than those involved
(545 12 to 14 year-olds)45. Student self-regulation did in discussion or self-review. Students maintained the
not differ by subject area, and links with performance strategy when external prompts were removed. Self-
were very similar across the three subjects. So from questioning improves performance raising the mean
the learners perspective, differences between subjects from 50% to 64% on standardised tests and to 81%
may not be as great as teachers may feel. on task-related comprehension tests50.
Similarly, learners trained to generate explanations
Learning is often researched in a single subject, to oneself (self-explaining) perform better. Students
especially science. Learners different beliefs prove asked to self-explain after reading each line of a
salient. Students who believe that science is about passage had a greater knowledge gain than those
constructing ideas engage more actively and use more who read the text twice. Incorporated into peer
meaningful strategies: those who believe tutoring, a tutors prompts to self-explain are the most
understanding is the best strategy for learning science beneficial in producing deeper meaning and co-
scored highest in examinations. construction51.
6 Research Matters - No 13
A programme in science classrooms set its aim as Making a difference to classrooms does not require
Increased learner awareness of the nature and major reorganisation. When teachers coach students
process of learning52. Materials were devised to in learning strategies (e.g. describing thinking
increase students awareness and control of their own processes, suggesting strategy use) a significant
learning, including a Question-Asking Checklist, an difference in use occurs58. Yet on average coaching
Evaluation Notebook , and a Techniques Workbook. occurred in only 9% of observed segments, and in only
Lessons often included discussions of the purposes of 2% of the total did they suggest use of a learning
learning, questionnaires about learning, and strategy. Here, teachers most frequently urged use of
discussions about the relative roles of teacher and learning aids (Use your calculator check your
student in learning. After 6 months, 15- and 16-year- answers with the map) and, less frequently,
olds showed greater understanding of content and metacognitive monitoring (look back and see how
more purposeful learning, while the teacher had youve done). Teachers varied in suggestion-making,
changed to allow more learner control. A project to ranging from 0 to 7.2% of lesson segments. Differences
generalise the strategies53 showed the need to pay in this range had significant effect in promoting
attention to context, purpose, support and assessment learners use of strategies: when the average is so low,
methods. These influenced whether students accepted this suggests that learners are more responsive to
the meta-learning strategies and saw them as fruitful. coaching in these domains than a transmission view
Old orientations sometimes die hard: for example, of teaching them might suggest.
after 8 months two students came to their science
teacher: The above studies illustrate the fourth element in
One said: We see what all this is about. You are classroom practices:
trying to get us to think and learn for ourselves making learning an object of learning
Yes, yes replied the teacher, heartened by this
long-delayed breakthrough, Thats it exactly For such learning, starting ideas such as previous
Well, said the student, We dont want to do that. knowledge, organisation, metacognition, and dialogue
Meta-learning is also the key to effective use of may be needed, but students can then investigate their
learning strategies. Data from nearly five thousand own learning and experiment with learning strategies59.
14 and 16 year-olds and college / university students There is a need to build a vocabulary of learning and
showed that students with higher meta-learning highlight learning discourse. In a UK secondary school,
selected appropriate strategies and deployed them low-achieving 13 year olds could all focus on learning
effectively, with enhanced performance: those as a topic of conversation and participate in reflective
students with low meta-learning appeared to use discussion about their own and peers learning60. This
strategies without metacognitive involvement and their challenges the prevalent idea that low attainers need
use did not correlate well with performance. They simplification. Investigation of 14-15 year-olds ideas
appear to be functioning in the same way as about learning suggests they are varied, with no clear
techniques or tactics, i.e. as short-term props to understanding of how they learn61.
learning that do not involve any metacognitive insight The most recent analysis of patterns in examination
on the part of the learner54. A lack of development performance in UK secondary schools over the last
through school was suggested: Even at the upper decade62 shows that the schools which improve more
end of the secondary school, however, many students than the national norm have gone through three
do not appear to have the meta-learning capability approaches:
to use learning strategies appropriately.
(i) new tactics to maximise their showing in the
As a focus for courses or programmes, learning about performance tables (enter more pupils, mentor the
learning has more impact than study skills. One borderlines etc.),
programme used material from the history curriculum
(ii) internal strategies to improve their schools (more
making it the object of reflection: another used generic
responsibility to pupils, departmental improvement
learning skills materials. The students in the first group
strategies, pastoral and academic links),
developed more advanced conceptions of learning,
and got better grades on essays and achieved better (iii) the small group of the highest improving schools
examination results55. has shifted beyond these two into an area which
In the UK a project identified the thinking required in builds its capacity to improve, through an
physics56 and then tried cognitive acceleration. In overarching focus on learning.
separate lessons, specially designed problems Currently schools differ greatly in their focus on
engineer cognitive conflict, to accelerate students into learning. These differences relate to students learning
formal operational thinking. The intervention seems in a systematic way. Schools with emphasis on
to have large effects for some and near-zero for others, autonomy and moderate stress on achievement are
and effects are not stable across years or gender. associated with learning for understanding. Those with
Improved patterns of school results at GCSE, in science strong emphasis on formal academic achievement
and maths and English are claimed. Yet some students have counter-productive effects on learners63.
did not show gains in thinking. Recent explanations When teachers learn more about learning, the
align with this review: These results were attributed effectiveness of a school improves and increased
to aspects of the intervention methodology intended performance follows, especially for many of the
to enhance metacognition57 underachieving students64 .
Research Matters - No 13 7
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