Handbook of Combustion

Volume 4: Solid Fuels

Edited by
Maximilian Lackner, Franz Winter,
and Avinash K. Agarwal

WILEY-
VCH
WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA
 Contents

Preface XIX
About the Editors XXI
List of Contributors XXV
List of Abbreviations XXIX
List of Symbols XXXIII
Synopsis Volume 4 XLIII

1 Overview of Solid Fuels, Characteristics and Origin 1

Toby G. Bridgeman, Jenny M. Jones, and Alan Williams
1.1 Origin of the Solid Biomass and Fossil Fuels 1
1.1.1 Formation of Coal 1
1.1.2 Origin of Biomass Fuels 3
1.1.3 Peat 4
1.1.4 Derived Fuels and Waste or Opportunity Fuels 4
1.2 Availability and Resource Base of the Fossil and Biomass Fuels 5
1.2.1 Coal 5
1.2.2 Biomass 6
1.2.3 Peat 6
1.2.4 Waste Materials 6
1.3 Methods of Characterizing Solid Fuels 7
1.3.1 Proximate and Ultimate Analyses of Coals or Biomass 7
1.3.2 Calorific Value 8
1.3.3 Ash Composition 9
1.3.4 Ash Fusibility 9
1.3.5 Physical Properties 10
1.4 Physical and Chemical Properties of the Solid Fuels 10
1.4.1 Ultimate Analysis and Heating Value 11
1.4.2 Proximate Analysis 11
1.4.3 Ash 12
1.4.4 Classification 19
1.4.5 Reactivity of Solid Fuels 20
Contents

1.5 Handling and Preparation of the Fuels Prior to Use 24

1.5.1 Coal 24
1.5.2 Biomass 26
References 29

2 Overview of Solid Fuels Combustion Technologies 31

Despina Varnvuka
2.1 Introduction 31
2.2 Coal Characteristics Affecting Combustion Processes 32
2.2.1 Coal Structure and Petrographic Composition 32
2.2.2 Organic Elements and Sulfur Content 33
2.2.3 Moisture and Volatile Matter Contents 33
2.2.4 Calorific Value 34
2.2.5 Agglomeration Properties 34
2.2.6 Ash Content and Composition 34
2.2.6.1 Effect on Ash Softening Temperature 34
2.2.6.2 Effect on Slag Viscosity 35
2.2.6.3 Effect on Fouling 35
2.3 Conventional Coal Combustion Technologies 36
2.3.1 Stokers 37
2.3.1.1 Spreader Stokers 38
2.3.1.2 Chain Grate Stokers 39
2.3.1.3 Vibrating Grate Stokers 39
2.3.1.4 Underfeed Stokers 39
2.3.2 Pulverized-Coal Furnaces 40
2.3.2.1 Dry-Bottom Furnaces 42
2.3.2.2 Wet-Bottom Furnaces 43
2.3.3 Cyclone Furnaces 45
2.4 Advanced Clean Coal Technologies 46
2.4.1 Fluidized-Bed Combustion 46
2.4.1.1 AFBC Process 47
2.4.1.1.1 Process and Key Issues 47
2.4.1.1.2 Current Status and Experience 49
2.4.1.1.3 Future Developments 50
2.4.1.2 PFBC Process 52
2.4.1.2.1 Process and Key Issues 52
2.4.1.2.2 Current Status and Experience 54
2.4.1.2.3 Future Developments 55
2.4.2 Supercritical Coal Combustion 56
2.4.2.1 Process and Key Issues 56
2.4.2.2 Current Status and Experience 57
2.4.2.3 Future Developments 58
2.4.3 In Situ Emissions Control Technologies 58
2.4.3.1 SO, Control Technologies 58
2.4.3.2 NO, Control Technologies 59
 Contents I VII

2.4.3.3 Near-Zero CO Emissions Technologies 62

2

2.5 Biomass Characteristics Affecting Combustion Processes 63

2.5.1 Moisture Content 63
2.5.2 Ash Content and Composition 63
2.5.3 Particle Size 64
2.6 Industrial Biomass Combustion Systems 64
2.6.1 Fixed Bed Systems 65
2.6.1.1 Grate Furnaces 65
2.6.1.2 Underfeed Stokers 69
2.6.2 Fluidized Bed Systems 71
2.6.2.1 Bubbling Fluidized Bed 71
2.6.2.2 Circulating Fluidized Bed 72
2.6.3 Dust Combustion Systems 74
2.7 Outlook 75
2.8 Summary 76
References 78

3 Solid Biomass Combustion 85

Amit Suri and Masayuki Horio
3.1 Introduction 85
3.2 Solid Biomass Fuels 88
3.2.1 Variety of Biomass Fuels 88
3.2.2 Characterization of Biomass Fuels 92
3.2.2.1 Chemical Analysis 92
3.2.2.2 Ash Characterization 95
3.2.2.3 Ash Behavior 99
3.2.2.4 Bulk Density and Energy Density 102
3.2.2.5 Hardness 103
3.3 Principle of Solid Biomass Combustion 104
3.3.1 Drying and Pyrolysis of Wood 105
3.3.2 Effect of Heating Rate and Temperature an Products of Pyrolysis 107
3.3.3 Ignition, Combustion, and Extinction 108
3.3.4 Kinetics 110
3.3.4.1 Volatiles Combustion 110
3.3.4.2 Char Combustion 112
3.3.4.3 Effect of Shape Factor during Combustion 113
3.3.5 Gaseous Emissions 114
3.3.5.1 Nitrogen Oxides (NO,) 114
3.3.5.2 Nitrous Oxide (N 0) 117
2

3.3.5.3 Sulfur Oxides (S0,3 118

3.3.5.4 Hydrogen Chloride (HC1) 118
3.3.5.5 Heavy Metals and Dioxins 118
3.4 Combustion and Conversion Technologies 120
3.4.1 Large-Scale Boilers 120
3.4.1.1 Fixed Bed Combustion Systems 122
VIII Contents

3.4.1.1.1 Grate Furnaces 122

3.4.1.1.2 Stoker Furnaces 123
3.4.1.2 Fluidized Bed Combustion 124
3.4.1.2.1 Circulating Fluidized Bed 125
3.4.1.2.2 Bubbling Fluidized Bed 126
3.4.1.3 Entrained Bed Furnace 127
3.4.2 Small-Scale Boilers 128
3.4.2.1 Classical Cooking Stoves 128
3.4.2.2 Fireplace Heaters 128
3.4.2.3 Pellet Burners 128
3.4.2.4 Charcoal Combustion 129
3.5 Ash Behavior in Different Combustion Systems 131
3.5.1 Ash Behavior in Grate Furnaces 131
3.5.2 Ash Behavior in FBCs 133
3.6 Outlook 135
3.7 Summary 136
References 136

4 SmaII-Scale Biomass Combustion 141

Matthias Gaderer, Florian Volz, and Robert Kunde
4.1 Introduction and Summary 141
4.2 Biomass Fuels 142
4.3 Biomass Combustion Techniques 143
4.3.1 Combustion Process 143
4.3.2 Manually Operated Systems 144
4.3.2.1 Log Wood Combustor Systems 144
4.3.2.1.1 Updraft Combustion with Complete Combustion 144
4.3.2.1.2 Updraft Combustion with Top-Burnout 145
4.3.2.1.3 Downdraft Combustion with Bottom or Lateral Burnout 146
4.3.2.2 Log Wood Fired Heating Systems 147
4.3.2.2.1 Fireplace 147
4.3.2.2.2 Stoves 149
4.3.2.2.3 Tule Stove, Heat-Storing Stoves 150
4.3.2.2.4 Central Heating Boilers 151
4.3.3 Automatically Fed Combustors 153
4.3.3.1 Combustion Concepts for Automatically Fed Firing Systems 156
4.3.3.1.1 Underfed Firing 156
4.3.3.1.2 Horizontally Fed Furnace Systems or So-called Stokers 157
4.3.3.1.3 Drop-Shaft Firing 158
4.3.3.2 Automatically Operated Wood Chip and Pellet Heating Systems 158
4.3.3.2.1 Stoves for the Combustion of Wood Pellet 158
4.3.3.2.2 Central Heating Boilers for Wood Pellet and Wood Chips 160
4.4 Emissions 165
4.5 Electricity Production and Combined Heat and Power 167
References 168
 Contents I IX

5 Coal Combustion 171

Monika Kosowska-Golachowska
5.1 Introduction 171
5.2 Description of Combustion of a Single Coal Particle 172
5.2.1 Heating and Drying 172
5.2.2 Ignition of Volatiles 174
5.2.3 Devolatilization and Volatile Combustion 175
5.2.4 Char Combustion 179
5.2.4.1 Mechanisms of Combustion of Non-Porous Char 180
5.2.4.2 Mechanisms of Combustion of Porous Char 181
5.2.4.3 Burning Rate 182
5.2.4.4 Time of Char Combustion 182
5.2.5 Fragmentation of a Coal Particle 182
5.3 Experimental Research into Combustion of a Single Coal Particle 184
5.3.1 Test Apparatus 185
5.3.2 Test Procedure 186
5.3.3 Coals Tested 186
5.3.4 Thermal Fragmentation of Coal 186
5.3.4.1 Effect of Coal Type 187
5.3.4.2 Effect of Particle Diameter 191
5.3.4.3 Influence of Bed Temperature 191
5.3.5 Evolution of Coal Structure during Combustion 192
5.4 Mathematical Model of Primary Fragmentation 198
5.4.1 Coal Heating 199
5.4.2 Volatile Release 201
5.4.3 Volatile Transport 202
5.4.4 Primary Fragmentation 202
5.4.5 Results of Numerical Simulations 203
5.4.6 Verification of the Model 206
5.5 Applications of Coal Combustion in Industry 209
5.6 Outlook 211
5.7 Summary 212
References 213

6 Pulverized Coal-Fired Boilers 217

Hai Zhang andJunfu Lu
6.1 Introduction 217
6.1.1 PC Combustion and PC Fired Boiler 217
6.1.2 Physical Properties of PC Particles 220
6.1.3 Conventional Layout of a PC Boiler 221
6.1.4 Heating Surfaces and Water-Vapor Path in a PC Boiler 223
6.1.5 Heat Transfer Calculation Procedure of a PC Boiler 224
6.2 Some Theories 226
6.2.1 Theoretical Air and Coefficient of Excess Air 226
6.2.2 Heat Balance and Efficiency of a PC Boiler 227
X Contents

6.2.3 Ignition of PC Particles 229

6.2.4 Char Combustion 232
6.2.5 NO, Formation Mechanisms 232
6.2.5.1 Thermal NO 233
6.2.5.2 Fuel NO 234
6.3 PC Fired Furnace 235
6.3.1 Furnace Layout and Firing Type 235
6.3.2 Cross-Section Heat Release Rates Selection 237
6.3.3 Volumetric Heat Release Rates Selection 238
6.3.4 Empirical Heat Transfer Calculation in the
Furnace 238
6.3.4.1 General Introduction 238
6.3.4.2 Heat Input to the Furnace 239
6.3.4.3 Emissivity of the Flame and the Furnace 240
6.3.4.4 Empirical Heat Transfer Calculation in the Furnace 241
6.4 PC Fired Burners 243
6.4.1 General Introduction 243
6.4.2 Arrangement of Burners 244
6.4.3 Low NO, burners (LNB) 247
6.4.4 Examples of LNBs 248
6.4.4.1 Boat-Shaped Bluff-Body Burner 248
6.4.4.2 Double PA Channel Burner 248
6.4.4.3 DRB Burner 249
6.4.4.4 WR Burner 250
6.4.4.5 PM Burner and Vertical Rich/Lean 250
6.4.4.6 Louver Damper Burner and Bias Combustion 251
6.4.4.7 In-Furnace HTAC Burner 251
6.5 Outlook 253
6.6 Summary 254
References 254

7 Modeling Moving and Fixed Bed Combustion 257

Bernhard Peters and Harald Raupenstrauch
7.1 Introduction 257
7.1.1 Combustion Characteristics of an Individual Particle 257
7.1.2 Combustion Characteristics of a Fixed or Moving Bed 258
7.1.3 Conversion Regimes 259
7.1.4 Classification of Model Approaches 260
7.2 Modeling Approach 262
7.2.1 Conversion 262
7.2.1.1 Drying 263
7.2.1.2 Pyrolysis and Devolatilization 263
7.2.1.3 Gasification and Combustion 265
7.2.2 Transport of Fuel Particles 266
7.2.3 Gas Flow 267
 Co ntents I XI

7.3 Applications 268

7.3.1 Conversion 268
7.3.1.1 Drying 268
7.3.1.2 Pyrolysis and Devolatilization 269
7.3.1.3 Gasification and Combustion 271
7.3.1.3.1 Grate: Optimal Conditions for Fuel Ignition and Optimal
Primary Air Load 272
7.3.2 Transport an a Grate and in a Rotary Kiln 277
7.3.2.1 Grate 277
7.3.2.2 Rotary Kiln 279
7.4 Outlook 279
7.5 Summary 280
References 280

8 Waste Combustion, MSW, Sewage Sludge, Hazardous,

Grate and Rotary Kiln 285
Helmut Seifert and Jrgen Vehlow
8.1 Introduction 285
8.2 Objectives of Thermal Waste Treatment 285
8.3 Basic Processes for Thermal Waste Treatment 286
8.4 Waste Incineration Processes 287
8.5 Incineration of Municipal Solid Waste 288
8.5.1 Generation and Quality of Municipal Solid Waste 288
8.5.2 Management of Municipal Solid Waste 289
8.5.3 Grate-Based Waste Incinerators 289
8.5.3.1 Elements and Design of Grate Furnaces 291
8.5.3.2 Grate Types 292
8.5.3.3 Travelling Grates 292
8.5.3.3.1 Roller Grates 292
8.5.3.3.2 Reciprocating Grates 293
8.5.3.4 Fundamentals of Fuel Technology 295
8.5.3.4.1 Waste Characteristics 295
8.5.3.4.2 Specific Combustion Parameters 297
8.5.3.4.3 Design of a Grate Fired Furnace 299
8.6 Material Partitioning Inside the Furnace 300
8.7 Air Pollution Control 301
8.7.1 Flue Gas Quality 301
8.7.2 Air Emission Regulations 302
8.7.3 Process Stages 304
8.7.4 Particle Removal 304
8.7.5 Chemical Gas Cleaning 305
8.7.5.1 Wet Scrubbing 306
8.7.5.2 Dry Scrubbing 307
8.7.5.3 NO, Abatement 308
8.7.5.4 Control of Dioxins 308
xll Contents

8.7.6 Quality of Emissions 309

8.8 Solid Residues 310
8.8.1 Mass Flows in a Waste Incinerator 310
8.8.2 Management of Bottom Ashes 311
8.8.2.1 Characterization 311
8.8.2.2 Pretreatment for Utilization 311
8.8.2.3 Utilization and Environmental Compatibility 311
8.9 Management of Boiler and Filter Ashes and APC Residues 313
8.9.1 Boiler and Filter Ashes 313
8.9.2 APC Residues 315
8.10 Hazardous Waste Combustion in Rotary
Kiln Furnaces 315
8.11 Sewage Sludge Incineration in Fluidized
Bed Furnaces 316
8.12 Alternative Processes for Thermal Waste Treatment 317
8.13 Summary 319
References 319

9 Gasification and Pyrolysis of Coal 325

Adam Luckos, Mohammed N. Shaik, and Johan C. van Dyk
9.1 Introduction 325
9.2 Fundamentals of Coal Gasification Technology 326
9.3 Pyrolysis and Gasification Chemistry 328
9.3.1 Pyrolysis 328
9.3.2 Stoichiometry and Thermodynamics of Gasification 331
9.3.3 Kinetics of Gasification Reactions 333
9.4 Coal Gasification Technologies 334
9.4.1 Fixed-Bed Gasifiers 335
9.4.1.1 Fixed-Bed Dry-Bottom (FBDB) Process 336
9.4.1.2 British Gas/Lurgi Process 338
9.4.2 Fluidized-Bed Gasifiers 339
9.4.2.1 High Temperature Winkler Process 340
9.4.2.2 Kellogg Rust Westinghouse Process 342
9.4.2.3 Kellogg Brown Root Transport Gasifier 343
9.4.3 Entrained-Flow Gasifiers 345
9.4.3.1 Shell Coal Gasification Process 345
9.4.3.2 Prenflo Gasification Process 348
9.4.3.3 General Electric Coal Gasification Process 350
9.4.3.4 Conoco-Phillips E-Gas Gasification Process 351
9.4.3.5 Mitsubishi Heavy Industries Coal Gasification Process 352
9.4.3.6 Siemens Fuel Gasification Technology 355
9.4.4 Other Gasification Technologies 356
9.4.4.1 Opposed Multi-Burner (OMB) Gasification Technology 356
9.4.4.2 Pratt and Whitney Rocketdyne (PWR)
Gasification Technology 357
 Contents I XIII

9.4.4.3 Plasma Gasification 357

9.4.4.4 Underground Coal Gasification 357
9.5 Outlook 358
9.6 Summary 359
References 359

10 Gasification of Biomass and Waste 365

Alberto Grnez-Barea and Bo Leckner
10.1 Introduction 365
10.2 Biomass as a Fuel for Gasification 366
10.2.1 Impact of Biomass Characteristics an Gasifier Performance 366
10.2.2 Biomass Classification and Standardization 368
10.2.3 Biomass Reliability 369
10.3 Thermochemistry of Biomass Gasification 370
10.4 Gasification Technologies 373
10.4.1 Types of Gasifiers 373
10.4.1.1 Fixed-Bed Gasifiers 374
10.4.1.2 Fluidized-Bed Gasifiers 375
10.4.1.3 Entrained-Flow Gasifiers 376
10.4.2 Direct and Indirect Gasification 376
10.4.3 Pressured Gasification 378
10.5 Gas Requirements for Utilization 378
10.6 Gas Cleaning 380
10.6.1 Dust Removal 380
10.6.2 Removal of Contaminants 381
10.6.2.1 Nitrogen 381
10.6.2.2 Chlorine 381
10.6.2.3 Alkalis 381
10.6.2.4 Sulfur 382
10.6.3 Tar Removal and Conversion 382
10.6.3.1 Secondary Methods 382
10.6.3.2 Primary Methods 384
10.6.4 State of the Art of Gas Cleaning Technology 386
10.7 Applications 387
10.7.1 Direct Firing 387
10.7.1.1 Direct Firing for Thermal Applications 387
10.7.1.2 Direct Firing in Stand-Alone Gas Boiler for
Electricity Production 388
10.7.2 Co-Firing 389
10.7.3 Power Production in Engines 391
10.7.4 Biomass Gasification Integrated in Combined Cycles 392
10.7.5 Production of Liquids by Chemical Synthesis 393
10.7.6 Fuel Cell Applications 394
10.8 Summary and Outlook 395
References 396
XIV Contents

11 Fluidized Beds 399

Zbigniew Bis
11.1 Introduction 399
11.2 Theory 401
11.2.1 Average Particle Size 404
11.2.2 Parameters of a Bed of Solids 405
11.2.3 Critical Fluidization Velocities 407
11.2.4 Structure of Fluidized Bed 413
11.2.5 Heat Transfer in Fluidized Bed 418
11.3 Application in Industry 420
11.3.1 Introduction 420
11.3.2 Fundamental Rules in Designing and Operating
the Fluidized Bed Boilers 422
11.4 Outlook 428
11.5 Summary 431
References 432

12 Modeling of Circulating Fluidized Bed Combustion 435

Wei Wang and finghol Li
12.1 Introduction 435
12.2 Fluid Dynamics 437
12.2.1 Moving Packed Bed 437
12.2.2 Bubbling Fluidization 438
12.2.3 Fast Fluidization 438
12.2.3.1 Axial Voidage Profile 439
12.2.3.2 Lateral Voidage Profile 441
12.2.3.3 Meso-Scale Structure 441
12.2.3.4 EMMS Model and Extensions 441
12.2.3.5 Gas and Solids Mixing 445
12.3 Heat and Mass Transfer 445
12.3.1 ParticleFluid Heat/Mass Transfer 446
12.3.1.1 Classical Correlations 446
12.3.1.2 Heat/Mass Transfer with Meso-Scale Structures 447
12.3.2 Bed-to-Wall Heat Transfer 449
12.4 Reaction Kinetics 451
12.4.1 Devolatilization 452
12.4.2 Char Combustion 453
12.4.3 Pollutant Emission 455
12.5 Modeling Approaches 456
12.5.1 Lumped Parameter Model 456
12.5.2 1D/1.5D Model 456
12.5.3 Multi-D Model 457
12.5.4 CFD Model 457
12.6 Multiscale CFD Modeling of Combustion 458
 Contents XV

12.6.1 Governing Equations for Multiphase Flow and Reactions 458

12.6.1.1 Continuity Equation for Phase j (j = 1, 2...N) 458
12.6.1.2 Momentum Equations for Gas Phase (g) and Solid Phase (s) 459
12.6.1.3 Mass Conservation Equations for Gas and Solid Components 462
12.6.1.4 Energy Conservation Equations 464
12.6.2 An Example of Simulation 464
12.7 Summary and Prospects 466
References 466

13 Agglomeration in Fluidized Bed Combustion: Mechanisms, Detection,

and Counteraction 471
J. Ruud van Ommen and bleigang Lin
13.1 Introduction 471
13.2 Mechanisms of Agglomeration in a Fluidized Bed 472
13.2.1 Hydrodynamics 472
13.2.2 Chemical Reactions and Transportation of Sticky Compounds 474
13.3 Fuel Ash Measurement Methods 476
13.4 Agglomeration Detection Based on Process Measurements 477
13.4.1 Detection Methods Based on Pressure Measurements 477
13.4.2 Detection Methods Based on Acoustic Emissions 479
13.4.3 Detection Methods Based on Temperature 480
13.4.4 Detection Methods Based on Gas-Phase Alkali Concentrations 480
13.4.5 Detection Methods Based on Other Measurement Sources 481
13.5 Agglomeration Counteraction Strategies and Technologies 481
13.6 Summary 483
References 485

14 Ash-Forming Matter and Ash-Related Problems 493

Maria Zevenhoven, Patrik Yrjas, and Mikko Hupa
14.1 Analysis of Ash-Forming Matter 493
14.2 Release and Chemical Reactions of Ash-Forming Matter 500
14.2.1 Silicon 502
14.2.2 Aluminum 503
14.2.3 Iron 504
14.2.4 Potassium and Sodium 505
14.2.5 Calcium and Magnesium 507
14.2.6 Sulfur 510
14.2.7 Chlorine 511
14.2.8 Phosphorus 512
14.3 Deposit Formation 513
14.4 Agglomeration and Sintering in Fluidized Bed Conversion 520
14.5 Corrosion 524
14.6 Final Remarks 527
References 528
XVI Contents

15 Ash Fouling of Boiler Tubes and Thermophysical Properties

of Deposits 533
Arvo Ots
15.1 Introduction 533
15.2 Types and Classification of Ash Deposits 534
15.3 Formation of Ash Deposits 535
15.3.1 Forces Acting on a Ash Particle 535
15.3.2 Sticking of Particles on the Surface 537
15.3.3 Formation of Loose Deposits 538
15.3.4 Formation of Bound Deposits 542
15.4 Thermophysical Properties of the Ash Deposits 546
15.4.1 Thermal Conductivity 546
15.4.2 Thermal Radiation Emissivity 549
15.4.3 Influence of Emissivity on Heat Transfer 550
15.5 Summary 553
References 553

16 Co-Firing Biomass with Coal in Fluidized Bed Combustion Systems 557

Nevin Selcuk and Zuhal Gogebakan
16.1 Introduction 557
16.2 Comparison between Coal and Biomass Characteristics 558
16.3 Comparison between Combustion Characteristics of
Coal and Biomass 561
16.4 Motivation Behind Co-firing 563
16.5 Co-firing Biomass with Coal 566
16.5.1 Combustion Efficiency 568
16.5.2 Emissions 569
16.5.2.1 CO and CO Emissions 569
2

16.5.2.2 SO Emissions 570

2

16.5.2.3 NO, and N 0 Emissions 571

2

16.5.2.4 Trace Element Emissions 573

16.5.3 Agglomeration and Ash Deposition 573
16.6 Industrial and Utility-Scale Applications 575
16.7 Outlook 575
16.8 Summary 577
References 577

17 Co-utilization of Biomass Based Fuels in Pulverized Coal Power

Plants in Europe 585
Panagiotis Grammelis, Michalis Agraniotis, and Emmanuel Kakaras
17.1 Introduction 585
17.2 Current Co-firing Techniques 586
17.3 Practical Considerations for Retrofitting a Coal-Fired Unit to
Co-firing Biomass 588
17.3.1 Fuel Availability 588
 Contents (XVII

17.3.2 Plant Modifications 591

17.3.2.1 Biomass Handling, Storage, and Fuel Preparation 591
17.3.2.2 Preparation of the Blended Fuel and Modifications in the
Coal Mills 592
17.3.2.3 Impact of Co-firing on the Boiler Performance 594
17.3.2.4 Impacts of Co-firing on Emissions 595
17.3.3 Legislative Framework on Environmental Issues 596
17.3.4 Financial Evaluation 598
17.3.5 Societal Issues 599
17.4 Review on Co-firing Experience at European Level 600
17.5 Research trends for Biomass Co-firing in Europe 602
17.6 Conclusions 605
References 607

Index 609