Front. Mater. Sci.

2011, 5(2): 109118

DOI 10.1007/s11706-011-0125-5

RESEARCH ARTICLE

The mechanism of penetration increase in A-TIG welding

Rui-Hua ZHANG ()1, Ji-Luan PAN1, and Seiji KATAYAMA2

1 Department of Mechanical Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
2 Joining and Welding Research Institute, Osaka University, 11-1 Mihogaoka, Ibaraki, Osaka 567-0047, Japan

Higher Education Press and Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2011

ABSTRACT: The mechanism of the increasing of A-TIG welding penetration is studied

by using the activating ux we developed for stainless steel. The effect of ux on the ow
and temperature elds of weld pool is simulated by the PHOENICS software. It shows that
without ux, the uid ow will be outward along the surface of the weld pool and then
down, resulting in a atter weld pool shape. With the ux, the oxygen, which changes the
temperature dependence of surface tension grads from a negative value to a positive
value, can cause signicant changes on the weld penetration. Fluid ow will be inward
along the surface of the weld pool toward the center and then down. This uid ow pattern
efciently transfers heat to the weld root and produces a relatively deep and narrow weld.
This change is the main cause of penetration increase. Moreover, arc construction can
cause the weld width to become narrower and the penetration to become deeper, but this
is not the main cause of penetration increase. The effects of ux on uid ow of the weld
pool surface and arc proles were observed in conventional TIG welding and in A-TIG
welding by using high-speed video camera. The uid ow behavior was visualized in real-
time scale by micro focused X-ray transmission video observation system. The result
indicated that stronger inward uid ow patterns leading to weld beads with narrower
width and deeper penetration could be apparently identied in the case of A-TIG welding.
The ux could change the direction of uid ow in welding pool. It has a good agreement
with the simulation results.

KEYWORDS: A-TIG welding, penetration increase, numerical simulation, X-ray, high-

speed video camera

1 Introduction increase in penetration depth, despite several that are being

In recent years, great attentions have been paid worldwide
to activating ux TIG (A-TIG) welding [1]. Many
investigations on the mechanism and application technology
of the A-TIG process have been made, and the two
representative theories are the arc constriction and reversal
of the Marangoni convection in the weld pool. However,
there is still no commonly agreed mechanism for the
Received November 13, 2010; accepted December 22, 2010
E-mail: zrh@lut.cn
proposed in Ref. [2]. Some researchers [3] believed that the
arc constriction increases the current density at the anode
root, and then, a substantial increase in penetration depth
can be achieved. Heiple and Roper [4] proposed that the
change in the magnitude and direction of surface tension
gradients on the weld pool surface caused by surface active
elements, such as oxygen and sulfur, should change the
direction of uid ow (Marangoni convection) in the weld
pool. Furthermore, David et al. [5] proposed a numerical
model of the weld pool, taking account of Marangoni
convection. Kou and Wang [6] were able to predict a
110 Front. Mater. Sci. 2011, 5(2): 109118
reverse ow phenomenon by changing the sign of the
surface tension temperature gradient from a negative value
to a positive one. Zacharia et al. [7] developed a
multidimensional mathematical model to simulate the
convection and heat transfer of the GTA weld pool by
considering the surface tension temperature gradient as a
function of temperature and sulfur concentration. From the
previous review, it can be said that the effects of sulfur on
uid ow and weld penetration have been quite well
modeled and understood. However, the activating ux for
A-TIG welding of stainless steel is made from oxides
combination, and the effects of oxygen in activating ux on
uid ow and weld penetration have not been quite well
modeled and understood. This article is focused on the
effect of activating ux on uid ow and welding
penetration and simulates the convection and heat transfer
of the GTA weld pool by considering the surface tension
temperature gradient as a function of temperature and
oxygen concentration by means of the PHOENICS soft-
ware. The predictions of the computational model were
veried by comparing the numerically predicted and
experimentally observed fusion zone size and shape. Arc
contraction could be veried by video camera observation.
The uid ow behavior was visualized in real-time scale by
micro focused X-ray transmission video observation
system. With the help of X-ray transmission real-time
observation system, further insight into the uid ow
behavior within the weld pool was obtained.
2 The devolvement of activating uxes
Improvement in penetration capability has long been
sought in many welding processes. One of the most
notable examples is the application of activating ux in
tungsten inert gas welding (A-TIG welding). A thin layer
of activating ux is covered on the surface of the joint to be
Fig. 2 Macrostructure of Type 304 stainless steel welded joints (12-mm-thick): (a) without ux (TIG); (b) with ux (A-TIG).
welded by means of a brush or a spray before welding.
Signicant increases in the penetration capability of up to
300% compared with the conventional TIG process have
been achieved when using activating ux consisting of
oxides and halides. For the plant of 12 mm thick, there is no
groove preparation, which can be welded in a single pass.
Therefore, A-TIG welding should bring about large
benets in terms of productivity.
The activating uxes were mixed with acetone to form a
sort of paste and then brushed on the desired area of the
workpiece before welding. The acetone evaporated,
leaving a layer of the ux adhering to the surface of the
material to be welded. Figure 1 is a schematic illustration of
TIG welding with activating ux. The layer of the ux
was less than 0.3 mm thick. The mean quantity of ux was
constant at about 0.20.5 g/m. Now, we have developed
the activating uxes for stainless steel and carbon steel. It
can increase weld penetration by as much as three times.
Possibility produce single-pass square-groove full pene-
tration welds up to 12 mm without lining, as shown in
Fig. 2.
Fig. 1 The application of ux.
 Rui-Hua ZHANG et al. The mechanism of penetration increase in A-TIG welding
The activating uxes change the weld metal ow such
that penetration is increased, while the quality of the weld
is improved. Repeated testing has proven that the
mechanical properties, weldability, and corrosion resis-
tance are not affected in most of the cases.
3 The numerical simulation of the
effects of activating ux in A-TIG welding
Based on the continuum formulation, the continuity,
momentum, and energy equations in the Cartesian
coordinate system and the boundary conditions are given
in Refs. [812]. The physics model of a moving arc TIG
welding was created in the PHOENICS-VR environment.
The physics space is 150 mm  40 mm  10 mm. In order
to improve the accuracy of the calculation 300  40  20,
unevenly spaced grids were used for the calculation
domain. Finer spacing was used in the weld pool region
because of the higher temperature gradient and uid ow
[1314]. The oxygen content in the weld metal was
analyzed using an oxygen analyzer (Horiba, EMGA-
622W). The thermo physical properties of Type 304
stainless steel and welding conditions used in the present
study are the same as those in Ref. [15].
3.1 Result without activating ux
The change in the weld pool shape is related to the different
ow patterns that occur in each weld pool [16]. Figure 3
shows the fusion zone shape of welded and simulated when
without ux (cO= 32 ppm, 1 ppm = 106). The velocity
vectors and temperature elds are shown in Fig. 4 for
metals containing oxygen at 32 ppm. It is seen that,
generally, there are three vortexes: The rst vortex is
Fig. 3 Fusion zone shape of (a) welded and (b) simulated for
TIG welding.
111
clockwise and on the foreside of the weld pool, which is
caused by the negative surface-tension temperature gra-
dient. The second vortex is counterclockwise and at the
center of the weld pool, which is caused by the negative
surface-tension temperature gradient also. The third vortex
is clockwise at the end of the weld pool, which is caused by
the positive surface-tension temperature gradient. A
negative g=T exists at over most of the weld pool
surface. Due to the assumed Gaussian distribution of the
incident thermal ux, the maximum surface temperature
occurs at the center of the weld pool. Hence, the surface
tension increases outward from the center as the tempera-
ture decreases outward, causing the liquid metal on the
surface to ow outward, as shown in Fig. 4. Because heat
from the arc is carried by the outward ow, the convective
heat transport is consequently directed away from the axis,
resulting in a atter weld pool shape. The last two vortexes
meet at the end of the weld pool, and uid ow will be
inward along the surface of the weld pool toward the center
and then down, as shown in Fig. 4. This uid ow pattern
efciently transfers heat to the weld root and produces a
relatively deep weld penetration at the end of the weld
pool.
3.2 Result with activating ux
The activating ux for A-TIG welding of stainless steel is
made up of oxides, which include Al2O3, Fe2O3, SiO2,
Cr2O3, TiO2, MnO, and B2O3 [1718]. With the activating
ux dissolved in the weld pool, the oxygen atoms come
into the weld pool, and they can segregate the surface of the
weld pool to produce a positive surface tension temperature
coefcient. The positive g=T signicantly inuences the
ow eld [1920]. The velocity vectors and temperature
elds are shown in Fig. 5 for metals containing 168 ppm of
oxygen (analyzed by EMGA-622W). It is seen that a
positive g=T exists almost all over the weld pool surface.
Hence, there are two large opposite vortexes carrying
downward the heat from the arc and creating a deep and
narrow penetration. In this case, the surface tension
increases with an increasing temperature. The surface
tension is the highest near the center (hotter) region of the
weld pool. Fluid ow will be inward along the surface of
the weld pool toward the center and then down, as shown in
Fig. 5. This uid ow pattern efciently transfers heat to
the weld root and produces a relatively deep and narrow
weld. Figure 6 shows the fusion zone shape of welded and
simulated when with ux. The simulation results of the
112 Front. Mater. Sci. 2011, 5(2): 109118

Fig. 4 Temperature and velocity eld without activating ux.

molten pool shape provide good agreement with the
practice welding results. The maximum surface velocities
are 0.2 m/s near the center of the weld pool.
It is reasonable to expect that a higher oxygen
concentration facilitates deeper penetration. However,
only a very small increase in penetration is found when
the oxygen concentration is increased to 300 ppm or
more.
3.3 Effect of arc constriction
(Lorentz force), and then, an increase in penetration depth
can be achieved in A-TIG welding [3,21]. The effect of arc
constriction on the penetration can be considered in the
simulation model by altering the value of the arc heat ux
distribution parameter q in the Gaussian heat term and
electromagnetic source terms according to the arcs shape
with and without ux. When the value of the arc heat ux
distribution parameter q changed from 0.005 to 0.004,
there is a little variation in the bead width of weld, and the
penetration variation is not so distinct.

In the case of GTA welding with ux, the plasma is
constricted at the center in the lower part of the arc. The
constricted anode root should lead to higher current density
at the anode, which should also promote the inward
recirculatory ow driven by the electromagnetic force
3.4 Effect of voltage
The voltage stepped up can be observed during A-TIG
welding [2223]. Because the current is self-adjusted, the
increase in voltage probably corresponds to a proportional
 Rui-Hua ZHANG et al. The mechanism of penetration increase in A-TIG welding
Fig. 5 Temperature and velocity with activating ux.
Fig. 6 Fusion zone shape of (a) welded and (b) simulated for A-
TIG welding.
increase in heat input. To study the effects of voltage on
uid ow and weld penetration, calculations are performed
for the case in which the voltage is set from 14 to 15.5 V,
and the oxygen concentration is 32 ppm. By comparing the
results with Fig. 5, it is noted that the temperatures are
higher than those in Fig. 5, and also, the ow velocities are
bigger than those in Fig. 5. There is no change in the bead
width of weld and penetration.
113
3.5 Results of considering all kinds of situations
To study the effects of arc constriction, increase in
voltage and the oxygen concentration on ow patterns
and weld penetration, calculations are performed for the
case in which parameter q in the Gaussian heat term and
Lorentz force term is 0.004, the voltage is 15.5 V, and the
oxygen concentration is 180 ppm. The results look like
those in Fig. 5, wherein there are two large opposite
vortexes. The weld penetration is 2 times deeper than that
in Fig. 4. By comparing Figs. 4 and 5, it is found that
surface tension is very important for deep penetration.
When the temperature is increased with altering the
parameter, it is surprising to see that there is almost no
change in the weld penetration. The result shows that by
increasing heat input, there is no guarantee that the
penetration depth will also be increased. It is reasonable
to expect that a higher temperature facilitates deeper
penetration, but a positive g=T existing area on the
weld pool surface decreases with increasing the tempera-
114 Front. Mater. Sci. 2011, 5(2): 109118

Fig. 7 The compare of uid ow elds (a) without and (b) with ux.

Fig. 8 X-ray transmission in-situ imaging system.

ture; hence, the point with the maximum surface tension 4.2 Effect of ux on arc constriction
is near the edge of the weld pool instead of near the center
of it, leading to a shallow penetration, as shown in Arc plasma was observed when welds were produced.
Fig. 7. Figure 9 shows the photos captured from the video. These
images demonstrated the process of arc constriction when
TIG arc moved from the bare plate to the ux-coated area.
4 The observations of molten pool When the TIG arc moved into the ux-coated region, TIG
behaviours during A-TIG welding
arc plasma was constricted gradually both in the horizontal
4.1 Experimental procedures direction and in the vertical direction. Consequently, a
smaller arc surrounded with a thin layer of blue plume
The effects of ux on uid ow of the weld pool surface appeared above the pool surface pasted with ux.
and arc proles were observed in conventional TIG
welding and in A-TIG welding by using high-speed
video camera. The camera was put in a horizon position
for capturing the front prole of arc plasma. As for the
observation of the weld pool, the camera was put in an
orientation with 45 to the workpiece. The uid ow in
welding pool behavior was visualized in real-time scale by
microfocused X-ray transmission video observation sys- Fig. 9 Images showing arc constriction (argon shielding): (a)
tem, as shown in Fig. 8. The specimens with W particles in without ux; (b) with ux.
the butt-joint interfaces were specially prepared for the
observation of the liquid ow or convection within the Figure 10 shows the images derived from the video
molten pool [2426]. observation of TIG welding with helium shielding gas. As
 Rui-Hua ZHANG et al. The mechanism of penetration increase in A-TIG welding 115

pool. Some kind of tracer was put on the workpiece prior to

Fig. 10 Images showing arc constriction (helium shielding): (a)
without ux; (b) with ux.
the TIG arc moved into the ux-coated region, it also could
be identied that the peripheral blue plume tended to
minimize its size. At the same time, a bright region located
beneath the electrode became smaller in diameter and less
bright in luminance. The bright region seemed to be the anode
root, which offered a primary passage for electric current.
4.3 The observation of uid ows of molten pool surface
The uid ows of molten pool surface could be veried by
high-speed video camera observation both without and
with a ux. A laser light was used to lighten the molten
welding. High-speed video was recorded at the rate of 1200
frames per second.
In the case of TIG welding without ux, the weld pool
was developed quietly, with the workpiece moving, the
tracer comes into the molten pool and distributes around
the molten pool, and then, it moves slowly to the end of
molten pool. It was revealed that the uid ow for TIG
weld pool was in the radial outward direction. The heat
from welding arc is not directly transferred to the weld root.
Because heat from the arc is carried by the outward ow,
the convective heat transport is consequently directed away
from the axis, resulting in a atter weld pool shape, as
shown in Fig. 11. The performance of A-TIG weld pool
was distinctively different from TIG weld pool. When the
tracers come into the molten pool, it moves to the center of
pool, disappearing at the center of the molten pool rapidly.
The uid ow was inward along the surface of the weld
pool toward the center and then down to bottom of the
molten pool, as shown in Fig. 12. This uid ow pattern
efciently transfers heat to the weld root and produces a

Fig. 11 Observation results of molten pool surface and tracer during TIG welding.

Fig. 12 Observation results of molten pool surface and tracer during A-TIG welding.
116 Front. Mater. Sci. 2011, 5(2): 109118
relatively deep weld penetration at the end of the weld
pool. The tracer speed is faster than that without of the ux.
It was reasonable to link this phenomenon with a stronger
and rapid inward ow inside the weld pool in the presence
of an activating ux. The driven force would be surface
tension.
4.4 X-ray transmission observation of uid ows inside
molten pool
The motion of W particles in the molten pool was observed
by the X-ray transmission method. In order to obtain the
uid ows inside a weld pool both without and with a ux,
several W particles were buried into the workpiece prior to
welding. High-speed video was recorded at the rate of 1200
frames per second.
In the case of TIG welding, W particle moved from the
center to outside. At the subsurface of the weld pool, it
rotated in an anticlockwise cycle, as shown in Fig. 13(a).
When the ux was presented, the motion behavior of W
particle was quite different from the case of TIG welding.
W particle moved rapidly toward the central of the weld
puddle and then down to bottom of molten pool. At the
subsurface of the weld pool, it rotated in a clockwise cycle,
as shown in Fig. 13(b). The W particle speed is faster than
Fig. 13 Observation results of tungsten particle behavior: (a) without ux; (b) with ux.
that without the ux. The ux can make the melt ows
move faster.
From the experimental observation with X-ray transmis-
sion system, it was conrmed that the outward uid ow
pattern could be identied in the case of conventional TIG
welding without ux, and a stronger and rapid inward melt
ow pattern could be apparently identied in the case of A-
TIG welding.
Figure 14 schematically illustrates the motion of W
particles inside the molten pools under both conditions
without and with a ux.
5 Conclusions
(1) The oxygen content through the ux in the weld pool
plays an important role in increasing the weld penetration
by the reverse of the surface tension gradient in the weld
pool from a negative value to a positive value. The change
in the surface tension gradient in the molten pool is
considered to be the principal mechanism for increased
penetration.
(2) Arc construction and increase in voltage can cause
the width of the weld to become narrower but have little
effect on penetration.
 Rui-Hua ZHANG et al. The mechanism of penetration increase in A-TIG welding
Fig. 14 Schematic of melt ows inside molten pool: (a) without ux; (b) with ux.
(3) Stronger inward uid ow patterns leading to weld
beads with narrower width and deeper penetration could be
apparently identied in the case of A-TIG welding.
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