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CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

The purpose of the review of related literature is to provide a concise scholarly

analysis of the existing theories, research, and practices that have contributed to the

existing climate of corporate training and posit potential areas for growth and

improvement. The review of literature establishes the intellectual foundation that

validates the scholarship of this investigation. The body of this research was derived

from current, scholarly, peer-refereed articles accessed from New Jersey City

Universitys Congressman Frank Guarini Library. Research was performed to evaluate

the best practices of flipped instruction as well as to assess the methods employed in

contemporary corporate environments to provide necessary training and continued

education to their employees in various industries and fields. Through comparative

studies, the researcher was able to identify transferrable practices to inform the research

process.

To determine potential connections between the field of education and the

corporate sector, the following keywords were utilized: technology acceptance model,

corporate e-learning, corporate training models, employee motivation, employee

compliance, skill obsolescence, and professional on-the-job training. The research was

categorized into four sections: Developing Content to Enhance Engagement for Adult

Learners, Developing Pedagogical Practices for the Corporate Flipped Training

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Classroom, Assessment Methods for Participation, Compliance and Motivation, and

Measuring Efficacy of Flipped Instruction in the Corporate Environment.

Developing Content to Enhance Engagement for Adult Learners

This section considers the forms of digital content and multimedia that corporate

trainers and instructional designers have implemented in eLearning programs to increase

learner engagement. Ormrod (2016) describes the pivotal role that learner engagement

plays in the learning process: information that the learner pays attention to moves on to

working memory, whereas information that isnt attended to may be lost from the

memory system (p. 167). As working memory enables skill transfer, it is imperative that

learners are able to engage in and focus throughout their training. In an effort to

understand how contemporary trainers are working to address this problem, the

researcher considered studies done in a variety of fields and industries in order to identify

the methods that are most efficacious in maintaining the attention of a wide range of

learners using eLearning.

Horton (2012) proposed that eLearning is most effective when designers provided

learners with absorb, do, and connect activities. Through this model, the content is

designed to provide learners with the opportunity to thoroughly explore new information,

interact with it in practice, and to consider how the information is relevant to their job

and real-world application. The researcher considered this model as the conceptual

framework for further research, in order to determine the types of digital content that is

most successful in engaging learners to achieve authentic learning in training initiatives.

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Horton defines absorb activities as learning opportunities that are closest to

pure information and usually consist of information and actions learners take to extract

and comprehend knowledge in a mentally active state (p. 67). One field where a great

deal of emphasis and importance is placed on their development of absorb activities is

within the branches of the military. Through content analysis and inquiry, Spain, Priest,

and Murphy (2012) examined the current trends in the militarys applications of adaptive

training. As it involves a diverse and widespread population of learners, the military

must incorporate technology-based training initiatives in order to provide learners with

necessary training in a timely and flexible manner. Military learning initiatives often

encompass a wide-range of topics that are vital to the success of operational roles,

missions, and the survival of individuals in the field; the potential consequences of failed

or ineffective training initiatives are extreme, making their training program and its

efficacy a high priority:

This visionary concept calls for a reduction in instructor-led training, and

transformation of lecture-based classes into collaborative problem-solving

exercises. It also calls for technology-based instruction and training to be

blended into institutional, operational, and self-development training, and

for training experiences to be tailored to each individuals experience,

competence, and need, without sacrificing standards. (p. 88)

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Military trainers have identified adaptive technologies as the most effective form of

instruction, as it changes dynamically based on the learners performance, abilities,

learning needs, experiences, skills, and other individual differences (p. 88).

As learners engage with an absorb activity that is, adapting to their skill set,

they benefit from a learning experience that is analogous to one-on-one tutoring. Spain,

Priest, and Murphy (2012) found that the military was employing two different forms of

adaptive training: using microadaptive and macroadaptive technologies. Microadaptive

programs adjust instruction according to individuals performance and rate of mastery as

they interact with the program, whereas macroadaptive technologies are customized and

designed specifically to address the needs of a group based on prior knowledge,

experience, mission, or level of skill.

The authors found that both of these types of instructional programs provided

learners with a customized learning experience that diagnosed their needs and provided

necessary reinforcement to prepare them for further training and application (p. 90).

Through adaptive programs, trainees review information and are continually prompted to

interact with the program to measure their comprehension throughout; correct responses

allowed forward progress, whereas incorrect answers routed them to intervention

opportunities or review. The authors found that as individuals perceived their needs

being considered in the planning and design of their learning experience, they were more

likely to engage with and find the value in the act of learning as the technology
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prescribed instructional interventions that were personally relevant and beneficial to their

learning.

Another element that contributed to an increased level of engagement was the use

of detailed, timely feedback. In their research, Spain, Priest, and Murphy (2012) were

able to identify that providing adaptive feedback can improve the efficiency of

performance acquisition and have direct implications for feedback implementation in

simulation-based training and instruction (p. 92).

While reviews of adaptive training literature were indicative of the efficacy of

these types of learning programs, Spain, Priest, and Murphy (2012) identified that there

was a lack of research to suggest what elements of instructional content should be

adapted, how content is best adapted, as well as an appropriate schedule for when or how

often it should be adapted to best support and benefit the learner.

As they concluded their study, Spain, Priest, and Murphy were able to affirm that

adaptive training was useful in the academic context and recommended that there was a

great deal of potential for this type of technology in warfighter training programs, in that

they could be personalized and catered to specific situations and the needs of the

individual learner. The personalized nature of adaptive technologies suggests that

learners would be apt to engage in this type of learning environment; however, further

study is needed to clarify the efficacy of this practice.

Dieker, Hynes, Hughes, Hardin, and Becht (2015) evaluated the value of do-type

activities as they explored the applications of virtual reality to provide pre-service

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teachers with realistic and personal situational learning activities. The authors of this

study were an interdisciplinary team from the University of Central Florida who explored

the application of TLE TeachLivE with pre-service and veteran teachers, and

administrators in order to provide an opportunity for practice in instruction and

management skills. As the authors had observed, as a significant need for a risk-free

practice opportunity for teachers to inform their practice, they sought to explore a virtual

solution. This study was performed to determine if virtual reality might offer a way to

better train, support, and retain teachers.

Through their action research, the authors were able to consider how the

implementation of virtual reality programs such as TLE TeachLivE could provide

effective professional development that was personalized, realistic, and relevant to the

needs of each individual teacher or administrator. Through this virtual environment,

trainees were able to engage with and interact with lifelike avatars, rehearse realistic

situations, observe consequences of their behaviors, then reflect on their experience (p.

12). In participating in this type of learning experience, each individual could benefit

from a realistic, personalized, and relevant learning experience in a safe, penalty-free

environment (p. 12).

Each student avatar was designed to reflect various learning styles, personality

archetypes, and behaviors in order to provide trainees with a range of interactions that

would prepare them for leading a classroom and interacting with a variety of learners.

The program also relied upon personal experiences from the development team to create
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parent and teacher avatars for trainees to interact and practice with. In addition, the

program worked to address all facets and responsibilities of a teachers job including:

knowledge of content area, classroom management skills, behavior management skills,

teacher-student relationships, teacher behavior and reaction, working with classified and

special needs students, working with students with disabilities, teaching English

Language Learners, parent-teacher conferences, instructional strategies, Universal Design

for Learning Strategies, Error Correction and Scaffolding, Inspiring Critical Thinking and

Questioning, Discrete Trial Teaching Cycle, and Direct Instruction Teaching Cycle (p.

13). As this program has the potential to be manipulated by a trainer or coach, trainees

were able to achieve authentic learning through an experience reflecting real-life

scenarios:

During the practice, the avatars can be manipulated to create an authentic

yet targeted experience. The sessions can be recorded, and the educator in

the simulators performance can be coded on a specific skill to facilitate

coaching/feedback after the session is completed or a computer summary

of performance can be provided by an automated system called Teaching

After-Action Review (Teach AARs). (p. 13)

Because this program has the potential to be controlled, it can be used to replicate

scenarios that address particular points of weakness for a teacher, simultaneously

addressing an area for growth, and providing the trainee with a safe-environment to learn

and improve in a way that is meaningful to them personally. As trainees perceive this
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vested interest on the part of their employer or trainer, they are likely to engage and

inform their behaviors and practice. The authors of this study determined that there were

numerous applications for this virtual reality simulation tool because it holds the potential

to be consistently useful for all faculty members throughout the year, as a training tool,

intervention resource, or effective professional development program.

Dieker, Hynes, Hughes, and Becht (2015) were also able to observe the value of

transdisciplinary work, as their complex design process considered the roles and

responsibilities of teachers from the perspectives of each contributor. This is a valuable

characteristic of this study, as it suggests that training programs are most effective when

developed by several stakeholders who can best consider the needs of the company and

the trainees. Through this process, the authors were able to implement a training tool that

was efficacious in providing learners with a personalized, relevant, and supportive

learning opportunity that was able to promote skill transfer and engender learner

engagement for all types of instructional staff.

Trainers and instructional designers are also working to incorporate real-world

scenario-based or problem-based training through the use of game engines. Through the

use of game engines, it is hypothesized that trainees can merge what is known with what

has been learned and practiced, and merge it into virtual behaviors and actions; as

learners are able to close the gap between their prior knowledge and the information

gained from training initiatives, they are completing what Horton (2012) calls a

Connect-type Activity (pp. 163-214). In their research, Li, Chan, and Skitmore (2012),
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explored how trainers were working to circumvent the numerous fatalities that were

occurring in tower crane operations and dismantling. The authors considered that use of

a virtual environment or 3D game engine would provide necessary visualization and

simulation to properly train employees in these dangerous tasks without requiring the use

of costly equipment or space. Prior to this study, any training had to occur in real-time:

although the importance of crane training is acknowledged in the

industry, off-the-job training opportunities for related workers are limited

because, in terms of cost alone, it is usually impracticable to erect a tower

crane and derrick boom merely for practice purposes. Therefore, the only

way for trainees to practice is to work on site on real projects. (p. 639)

In their development of this program, the authors worked to provide an alternative, less

risky training initiative through virtual means. They posited that as learners would be

able to connect procedural training with visual application, they would be able to benefit

from experiential learning in order to inform and modify their use of the dangerous

equipment. Due to the edutainment nature of these game-based educational modalities,

it was hypothesized that this form of training would enhance the users motivation in

learning (Li, Chan, Skitmore, 2012, p. 640).

Two aspects of this research were specifically noted to be effective in ensuring

learner transfer and replication of real-world application of the training: multiuser

functionality and the integration of input devices to measure trainee movement. The

multiuser functionality of this training program allowed trainers to develop procedural

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training with the simulation that could be completed by groups as they prepared to

dismantle the tower cranes in teams; this on-the-job training was proven efficacious for

both new and experienced employees, as all participants received consistent results after

participating in the program. Users were able to collaborate, communicate and reflect on

their performance of the virtual crane dismantling in order to inform future practice. The

authors use of input devices to simulate realistic physical movement as much as possible

through the integration of Nintendo Wii remotes and nunchucks also ensured that trainees

were able to receive accurate and useful feedback regarding their physical movements

(pp. 643-644). In including aspects of collaboration and taking specific measurements of

trainee movement through the Bluetooth technology, the authors were able to perceive

the benefits of realistic virtual environments.

By making the training and feedback as accurate as possible, the authors were

able to observe a perceived usefulness and inherent value on the part of the trainees.

Surveys of participants and assessments of learning suggested that one of the main

benefits of the training was the identification of the trainees weaknesses and

opportunities for the development of further skills through off-the-job practice []

before the start of actual construction; through this study the authors were able to

conclude that:

game engines provide a perfect platform for physical based simulation.

The integration for the virtual environment and physical-based simulation

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can provide a platform for the designers to verify their proposals for a

risk-free environment. (p. 646)

While there are certainly benefits for game-based learning in terms of

engagement, safety, cost, and risk, in their content analysis of game-based training

initiatives in military applications, Newsome and Lewis (2011) identified that game-

based learning also has its limitations. While the gaming community has always been

eager to prove that their product is a panacea to satisfy training initiatives, realistic

applications have exhibited that their validity has been assumed more than proven (p.

121). What the US Army has called a significant deficiency in US training seems to

be caused between the disparities between the goals of game designers and military

instructional designers; the fact that [g]ame designers are concerned to entertain and

reward the user for playing leads to unrealistic design choices that are counterproductive

when preparing soldiers for combat, such as multiple lives and enduring user-led action

which are not conducive to warfighting training initiatives (Newsome & Lewis, 2011,

p. 126).

The authors go on to explain that game designers who have been contracted to

create digital training programs often present unrealistic time frames, idyllic conditions

and collaboration, and simplify or do away with necessary routines and headache

situations that are part of the job. These disparities only serve to mislead the learners and

give them unrealistic expectations as they prepare for battle. Military trainers argue that

the game-based digital training programs should help to illustrate worse-case scenarios,
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so that their trainees are better prepared; however, the risk everywhere, but reward is

nowhere model that lacks extrinsic motivators and elaborate visuals works to bore

trainees (p. 127). In making this point, Newsome and Lewis illustrate the divergence that

has contributed to less-than-efficacious design and application of game-based engines in

military training initiatives.

In addition to poor design and implementation, there are also some studies to

indicate that game-based training initiatives are completely ineffective for certain

personality types. While certain personalities are prone to experience a higher-level of

engagement from game-based educational technologies, there are those whose

engagement levels are completely unaffected (Bauer, Brusso, & Orvis, 2012), in addition

to this there is little research to indicate that it has a great impact on training-transfer or

learning:

Few studies of the training validity of digital training products can be

described as scientific. Even where correlation between gaming and skills

has been proven, the coefficients tend to be small. Moreover, the new

skills do not necessarily transfer to real-world situations [] Most of the

evidence gathered for the effectiveness of games is based on trainee

enjoyment or engagement, not training transfer, which is very difficult to

prove. (Newsome & Lewis, 2011, p. 129)

While this study does concede the hypothesis that game-based digital content can

increase learner engagement, the authors argue that it is important to consider that its
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efficacy as a learning tool is not yet validated. Newsome and Lewis (2011) include in

their research that both the US Department of Education and Sports Science have also

called the efficacy of game-based learning into question, as results are not indicative that

skill or learning transfer is authentically achieved universally, as many personality or

learner types do not equally benefitted from this form of learning content. This lead the

researcher to question whether or not participation in game-based learning is able to

generate authentic learning and lasting memory, or if it is simply a conduit for trainees to

be exposed to information while engaging in an entertaining activity.

In light of the research and current studies, the researcher hypothesizes that adult

learners are best able to benefit from eLearning when they are able to perceive the

content of the training as germane to their abilities, knowledge, and needs. As trainers

and instructional designers prepare their content and training programs, they should

consider the specific needs of trainees and provide opportunities for interaction and

reinforcement throughout the training that adapts to the learners need for enrichment or

reinforcement.

In addition to adaptive absorb-type activities, trainers should work to engage

learners through illustrating personal relevance to the trainees by replicating real-world

consequence and simulation. Case studies and simulations are effective activities in

exploring new information within the context of the workplace. Last, while the

researcher recognizes that game-engines and 3D simulations are efficacious in engaging

some learner types, it cannot be ignored that the research indicates that this is not the case
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for all learners. In light of the negative impact that game-based learning can have in

training programs, it is important that trainers and instructional designers be purposeful in

their design and implementation of games, and mindful that the edutainment nature of

these applications is not always conducive to learning when used in isolation.

By blending the use of virtual reality or game-based simulation with more valid

forms of educational content and pedagogy, trainers will be successful in engaging a

wider range of learners and personality types. In future inquiry, the researcher will seek

to determine how trainers and instructional designers are working to ensure that content

is effective in engaging learners in such a way to engender authentic learning and skill

transfer for all participants.

Developing Pedagogical Practices for the Corporate Flipped Training Classroom

This section explores the current research that has been done regarding the

instructional practice of the flipped classroom model, in order to identify proven

pedagogical practices that could potentially be adopted in the corporate training

environment. The Flipped Learning Network (2014) identified the 4 Pillars of F-L-I-P

to aid teachers in successfully adopting this model. They defined flipped learning as:

a pedagogical approach in which direct instruction moves from the

group learning space to the individual learning space, and the resulting

group space is transformed into a dynamic, interactive learning

environment where the educator guides students as they apply concepts

and engage creatively in the subject matter. (FLN, 2014)

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Using this method, the instructor no longer dictates and manages the learning, but rather

serves as a guide and mentors learners as they engage with and explore the content and

construct their own understanding.

According to the Flipped Learning Network (2014), instructors must provide

learners with a flexible environment, establish a learning culture, create and curate

intentional content, and adopt the role of a professional educator as they consistently

monitor their students learning and progress, and provide feedback and necessary

interventions when applicable. While there is little research to support that flipped

instruction is successfully being implemented within the corporate environment, the

researcher will identify how the four pillars are already occurring in corporate training in

isolation.

As corporate training initiatives are geared towards adult learners, the body of this

research will be aligned with Knowles (1984) five assumptions concerning how to best

teach adult learners: (1) adult learners consider themselves to be self-directed learners,

(2) adult learners rely upon their experiences as resources for learning, (3) readiness to

learn is greatly dependent upon the developmental tasks of their social roles, (4) adult

learners orient their learning according to problem-centeredness, and (5) adult learners

are internally motivated (Pappas, 2013). Through this, the researcher was able to select

studies that would be most applicable for andragogical application. By observing how

these attributes are being used in training initiatives to foster authentic learning and
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development for employees, the researcher seeks to illustrate how flipped instruction

would be an effective modality to employ within the corporate training environment.

A pervasive characteristic of many contemporary training initiatives is the

ubiquity of the training environment. As the digital age has availed trainers with a

number of eLearning modalities and platforms, flexible learning environments have

become a common trend. By transitioning from an in-person training model to

eLearning, trainers can implement a cost-effective program that has minimal impact on

production and workflow, and is flexible and accessible to employees. Stober and Putter

(2013) posit that mobile and macro learning are the new best practices for training.

The authors argue that by adopting a digital learning approach, instructional designers

and trainers can provide a ubiquitous and flexible learning environment that overcomes

the tactical barriers often associated with corporate and professional training (pp. 41-42).

As trainers begin to adopt a mobile learning mentality, they will open new frontiers for

training as learners can benefit from content that is delivered conveniently, feasibly and

immediately making on-demand learning available whenever and wherever (p. 42).

They go on to identify that mobile learning allows for learners to independently

access on-the-job training that is immediately relevant to their real-world application

and use, so that learners can benefit from absorb-style activities and then interact with

peers to perform a task according to their training. In doing this, learners are able to

engage in real-world collaboration and purposeful experiential practice that works to

transition new learning into working and long-term memory. Mobile learning works to
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confront transfer barriers, as trainees are able to authentically engage with new

information at their own pace, and consider relevant training within a workplace context

(p. 41). While a shift from face-to-face instruction to a flexible learning environment does

not reflect a significant change in learner outcomes, surveys are indicative of a higher

level of learner satisfaction in this model (Jeong & Kim, 2014, p. 35).

In addition, Stober and Putter (2013) also recommend that learning content be

interactive and provided in microtraining segments, which present information within

small manageable chunks, that work to develop learning and mastery over time. As

learners perceive that they are being rewarded with their own free time and the freedom

to choose when, where, and the rate that learning will occur, they are intrinsically

motivated to comply with microtraining initiatives. The authors of this study observed

that these training programs were efficacious not only for their flexibility and

accessibility, but also because of their inherent nature to encourage meaningful discourse

and peer interaction as trainees collaborated to incorporate the content of their training

into everyday practice. As training initiatives engender such behaviors, they help to

establish a learning environment and culture of learning within their workplace.

The Flipped Learning Network (2014) argues that learners benefit when

instruction becomes learner centered, so trainers should work to establish opportunities

within their programs where trainees can interact and reflect on their learning in order to

establish a learning culture within the workplace. Through collaborative learning

initiatives, trainees are given the opportunity to team with peers in order to consider their
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learning and its application in the context of a group. Kopp, Hasenbein, and Mandl

(2014) evaluated how employees benefitted from collaborating in virtual groups in an

asynchronous learning environment to solve complex, realistic problems. In this study,

learners authentically engaged with realistic problems that mimicked experiences they

might face in the context of their workplace through participating in case-study scenarios.

The authors of this study argued that [m]irroring reality as authentically as possible

helps learners to stimulate their prior knowledge as learners contribute different

knowledge and multiple perspectives for solving a problem they are able to authentically

engage with new knowledge in a social context (pp. 352-354).

By exploring the effects of virtual collaboration, this study proposes an

efficacious connect type activity for corporate trainers, as it gives learners the authority

to integrate what [they] are learning with what [they] know and forge new

understandings within a community of practice (Horton, 2012, p. 163). At the same time,

this study works to confront the disengagement and isolation that often challenges the

success of virtual learning environments (Dunn, 2014, p. 35). By providing learners with

a digital forum to interact, collaborate, and question, instructional designers give trainees

the opportunity to adopt both the role of the student and of the expert; through

collaborative discourse, learners are able to construct an understanding that is relevant

and personally significant to them:

Mabry and Attridge (1990) showed that the frequency of discourse

contributions in which participants have asked for information, or have

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given information was positively linked to the quality of the final group

decision. When developing a solution, it is important that during the

process of sharing information, the groups are able to reach an adequate

solution or decision. Representatives of collaborative learning

arrangements see the potential advantage of groups in the ability of

learners to contribute different knowledge and multiple perspectives for

solving a problem (Johnson et al., 1991). (as cited in Kopp, Hasenbein,

and Mandl, 2014, p. 354)

As mentioned above, collaborative activities and discussion applications allow for

learners to receive immediate feedback from peers and instructors that can help them to

inform their learning process as they forge new knowledge to confront the problem.

In this study, the authors provided groups with two content-specific problem

solving activities and two coordination-specific problem solving activities in order to

determine the which types of interactions yielded higher transfer and learning (p. 351).

In doing this, learners not only were tasked with scenarios where each individual

assumed a singular role that contributed to the completion of a task, but also had to learn

how to collaborate and interact together to accomplish something collectively as a group

(p. 354). In the content-specific problem solving activities, participants were assessed on

their ability to gather information and develop a solution; on the other hand, the

coordination-specific problem solving activities measured the participants planning of a

common approach and steering the interaction process (p. 359). Evaluators of the
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course monitored virtual collaboration environments and tracked participant contributions

according to a coding system; by scoring the participants contributions, the evaluators

were about to assess productivity towards common objectives, as well as correctness of

solutions (p. 368).

While the authors of this study state that more research is needed on

collaborative learning in virtual environments, their data is indicative that virtual

collaboration benefits problem-based or scenario-based learning and skill transfer, as

participants are able to contextualize their learning and communicate with peers as they

apply new information to practice (p. 369). Kopp, Hasenbein, and Mandl (2014) also

recommend how instructors can further support learners with guidelines or scripted

interactions in order to establish co-construction of the understanding that is authentic

to the organization as well as the participants of the group (p. 369). The authors of this

study feel that the inclusion of a mentor or employer in this type of learning interaction

would be helpful in clarifying information, as well as engendering a sense of inclusion as

participants work together with leadership to confront real-world problems faced by the

organization or corporation. By establishing this team-oriented mindset, trainers and

employers can work to establish a discourse that contributes to an environment that

engenders a learning culture in the workplace.

As Kopp, Hasenbein, and Mandl (2014) suggest, the content that is selected and

provided to trainees will play a significant role in the construction of new learning and

understanding. The Flipped Learning Network (2014) explains that teachers must
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implement purposeful curatorship when creating and selecting instructional content for

participants to independently review: Educators continually think about how they can

use the Flipped Learning model to help students develop conceptual understanding, as

well as procedural fluency (p.2). Dunne and MacDonald (2010) describe a virtual-

reality training program developed by collaborators at The Virtual Clinical Learning Lab

at Texas A & M University-Corpus Christi and the US Navy to train medics and nurses in

the military. Their program, PULSE!!, allows learners to engage with a concentrated

reality as they rehearse life-saving skills and knowledge as often as necessary (p. 25).

This program was developed to address the needs of what Dunne and MacDonald (2010)

call the Net generation:

of which 89.5% are computer literate, 63% are Internet users, and

14.3% have been using the Internet since age 4. Research by the Kaiser

Family Foundation found that American children 4 to 6 years of age are

living richly media-centric lives90% using screen media 2 hours a

day, 43% using a computer, and 24% playing video games several times a

week. (p. 26)

In order to best address this audience, developers created Pulse!! to replicate the

experience of playing a video game. Users can control their avatar to get a sense of the

virtual environment by walking around and exploring; in doing this, users are able to

benefit from an adaptive program that is designed within a variety of situational contexts.
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As learners avatars engage with virtual environments and patients, they experience

problem-based scenarios that mimic things they might experience in the field:

Users interact with a high-fidelity virtual patient and with other virtual

medical personnel to conduct examinations, order tests, administer

medication, and conduct any other diagnostics or treatment required. The

patient is modeled to respond accordingly and in real time. (p. 26)

As the virtual patient responds to the users actions and decisions, situational

consequences arise to inform his or her future practice while in the field.

As Pulse!! can be accessed remotely, learners can engage with the learning tool

prior to coming into in-person training, practicing with mannequins and haptic devices,

and revisit various cases to refresh themselves prior to entering the field. In order to

ensure the efficacy of this tool, developers grounded their program in research findings

and equipped with tools and generators that enable clients to author cases and create

scenarios within a variety of virtual environments (p. 26). By providing opportunities

for authoring, revision and adaptation, Pulse!! has become more effective, as it can be

tailored to fit the needs of each individual or group of learners accordingly, and evolve to

mirror the emerging technologies that trainees will encounter in the field. This adaptive

technology not only will provide necessary assistance and feedback for users, but also

provide them with opportunities to further explore the depth of and improve upon their

skill sets. As learners engage with this tool, they are also become self-reliant as they are
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taking ownership over their own learning and working towards mastery at a pace that is

flexible and natural to their learning process.

This cost-effective use of virtual reality as a training tool is a perfect example of

what the Flipped Learning Network calls intentional content as it was designed with

users in mind, is able to flex to meet the needs of a wide-range of learner types, and helps

to replicate real-world situations in a safe and cost-effective manner. As this content is

grounded in research, reflective of real-world scenarios, and adaptable, it has the

potential to evolve to confront any potential challenge that trainees might face as they

engage with new training initiatives or rehearse skills in effort to achieve transfer.

As instructors create, select, and update their digital content, it is important that,

like Dunne and MacDonald, they consider how their tool will be able to grow with the

learners to best meet their needs in providing a realistic, accurate, and relevant learning

experience. The Flipped Learning Network argues that this is a central role of what they

call a professional educator. The final pillar of F-L-I-P is the role of the trainer or

instructor as a professional educator; in this role individuals are tasked with the

responsibility to continually observe their students, providing them with feedback

relevant to the moment, and assessing their work, and because professional educators

plan, they are reflective in their practice, connect with each other to improve their

instruction, accept constructive criticism, and tolerate controlled chaos in their

classrooms (p. 2). As flipped learning environments are inherently flexible and non-

conventional in their design, structure, and functionality, educators ability to fluctuate

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and adapt to the needs of their learners is critical to the success and efficacy of the

learning.

One way that corporate trainers and educators are working to fulfill this role is by

implementing blended learning environments. Blended learning is a pedagogical

approach that incorporates aspects of both eLearning and face-to-face instruction. In this

type of learning environment, learners benefit from the mobility and ubiquity of the

flipped model, but also have opportunities to receive instruction, feedback, and guidance

in a classroom or on-site setting. Through this model, teachers and trainers are able to

provide instantaneous interventions and review to ensure that participants are exposed to

absorb-style learning opportunities. Lotrecchiano, McDonald, Lyons, Long, and Zajicek-

Farber (2013) explain that within a blended learning environment, trainers can maximize

the efficacy and benefits of both online and face-to-face instruction, all the while

diminishing or confronting the weaknesses (p. 1726). The authors go on to explain that

the blended model is designed and thought to be a pedagogical approach that allows for

the instructor to be innovative, as they are continually changing their approach to best

meet the needs of their learners:

utilizing interactive learning activities and assignments and facilitating

discussion on a variety of themes using resources from multiple partner

centers and national resources [] [that] would increase opportunities for

reflection and ongoing discourse and, therefore, increase assimilation of

the program material for each learner. (p. 1727)

 25

In this type of learning environment, the educator is able to be flexible and use both

virtual and in-person instructional methods to foster authentic learning for all

participants.

In their field report, Lotrecchiano, McDonald, Lyons, Long, and Zajicek-Farber

(2013) monitored the transition of a graduate-level interdisciplinary course regarding care

for individuals with neurodevelopmental and related disabilities from an on-site course to

a blended model. The participants in this study ranged from healthcare professionals,

expert faculty, and family members of individuals with neurodevelopmental and related

disabilities. The authors of this study stated that asynchronous online discussion (AOD)

forums played a critical role in the efficacy of the virtual learning environment as it

allowed for trainees and faculty to have a social presence in the course and on-going

engagement with the material as they collaborate[d] to construct a shared

understanding of a given topic (p. 1728). In their field analysis, the authors were able to

confirm that the existence of the AOD allowed the trainees to more easily relate

personal/community experiences through daily online rigor and that they appreciated

the immediate interaction with the cohort through online discussions, within time frames

that were most comfortable to them and congruent with their own personal training

goals (p. 1732).

As Xie (2013) asserts, the use of AOD can promote collaborative learning and

enable[e] communication and interaction among physically isolated online learners (p.

289). Through these interactions students can benefit from peer-feedback, which not
 26

only helps learners to forge new learning as they make meaningful connections, but also

to motivate their continued participation (p. 291). Xie argues that the teacher has a

responsibility to model collaborative behaviors through timely, accurate and

encouraging feedback in order to emphasize the positive aspects of students posting

(p. 297). In addition, the author recommends that teachers provide students with

discussion prompts and learning tasks via the AOD that are inherently challenging, but

also provides exemplary models to illustrate the wished-for result from achieving the

learning objectives (p. 297).

Lotrecchiano, McDonald, Lyons, Long, and Zajicek-Farber (2013) noted in their

study that the hybridization of virtual learning environments with face-to-face learning

activities, allowed instructors to become more engaged in the experiences of trainees

and simultaneously encouraged students to emerge as leaders by practicing peer-

professional discourse; learners learned from each other and the experience of faculty

(p. 1729). In this type of learning environment, instructors are able to take a less visibly

prominent role and engender a learning culture where all participants are viewed as

equally valid contributors in the collective construction of understanding (FLN, 2014, p.

2).

Despite the perceived potential for the model, this study illustrated some logistical

constraints that should be considered when planning a blended training initiative.

Lotrecchiano et al. found that there was significant disconnect when synchronous

meeting was unattainable. They also found that inconsistent participation among the
 27

learners in AOD affected the efficacy of the course: not all specialty faculty

participated in the online discussions, so they were not all able to draw connections

between their classroom discussion and the online course (p. 1732). While the rate of

the curriculum was designed to allow for learners to work freely according to their own

pace and rate of learning, the authors found that this often proved to be

counterproductive to encouraging open conversation as it often took more time for

participants to become fully comfortable in communicating in this manner, and the pace

of the curriculum often caused for individuals to abandon communication and discourse

that had potential to engage critical and higher-level thinking (p. 1732).

The authors of this study recommend that instructors model appropriate online

postings early in the course to encourage learner adoption of expected practices that set

the standards for length, quality, and frequency of AOD contributions (p. 1733). In

addition, they encourage trainers to place strong emphasis on the imperative attendance

and participation in face-to-face sessions, as these learning opportunities allow for the

authentic bridging of learned concepts and skill-transfer; without synchronous meetings

and an opportunity to practice caregiving techniques, the authors felt that the training was

not as effective as it could have been for those participants who were unable to attend.

While the authors concede that their course was already blended, in that it already

incorporated didactic, experiential, [and] reflective learning opportunities, they felt that

the inclusion of the online interactions, absorb activities, and resources worked to

enhance the course (p. 1733). The researcher hypothesizes that for best results,
 28

instructional designers of blended and flipped corporate training environments should

also seek to incorporate or blend a wide-array of learning opportunities that align

themselves with the diverse needs of adult learners.

While there is a gap in the research regarding the applications of flipped

instruction occurring in the corporate training environment, the aforementioned studies

help to substantiate the researchers claim that the flipped model would be efficacious in

fostering authentic learning and skill-transfer with adult learners. With the observation

that many facets of flipped instruction are trending in the corporate training sector, it can

be assumed that this pedagogical model would be successful in its application. In future

research, the researcher will seek to identify studies that further support the efficacy of

this hypothetical model in environments that support andragogy and corporate training.

Assessment Methods for Participation, Compliance, and Motivation

This subsection will review the literature that evaluates the elements of training

initiatives that are proven to enhance learner behaviors of participation, compliance, and

motivation when using eLearning modalities. As the flipped instruction model requires

that learners engage in learning activities independently, this section of the chapter will

review the current research that will be helpful in determining how trainers and

instructional designers can best stimulate learner participation, user compliance, and

inherent motivation.

One of the leading factors in determining the efficacy of any independent learning

initiative is active participation and engagement on the part of the learner. When learners
 29

actively engage with and participate in learning initiatives, they are best able to benefit

from training and learning opportunities. As eLearning has increased in popularity,

instructional designers and trainers are facing the challenge of engendering learner

participation naturally through the design and implementation of their online training

initiatives. As Dunn (2014) asserted in her study, [t]eaching and learning in the online

environment presents challenges for any course, so it is important that in the planning

and development phase of any eLearning initiative that learner participation be a central

goal (p. 34).

While participation is an essential element for independent learning initiatives like

eLearning, procrastination is often an ensuing behavior that affects a learners ability to

fund success. Dunn sought to determine the factors that contributed to academic

procrastination in a graduate-level online statistics course. She defined procrastination as

the purposeful and needless delay in completing class work that is detrimental to

academic outcomes (p. 34). Existing research concluded that academic procrastination

was the resultant behavior in similar courses within the traditional classroom model,

stemming from the separate influences related to academic self-regulation, intrinsic

motivation, and content-related anxiety (p. 34). Dunn sought to explore how these

contributing factors worked to collectively influence learner procrastination behaviors in

an online learning environment by surveying learner experience and attitudes in an online

graduate statistics course at a midwestern university. The author recognized two different

forms of learner procrastination:

 30

[Active procrastination is] essentially a positive, proactive strategy,

whereas [] passive procrastination reflects negative behavior by which

the procrastinators allow fear and indecisive behavior to paralyze them.

Research indicates that passive procrastination [] negatively impacts

academic performance and learning as it limits both the quality and

quantity of student work. (p. 34)

As students are paralyzed by passive procrastination behaviors, their participation and

levels of engagement are greatly impacted. In fast-paced online courses that assess

regular and frequent participation through AOD or collaboration with peers, the mounting

stress of this procrastination and inactivity can also add to an insurmountable level of

anxiety that only further exacerbates the procrastination behaviors. As a result, learners

affected by passive procrastination feel a lower commitment to their academic goals, and

experience a decreased level of achievement (p. 35).

Dunn (2014) identified one environmental factor in her study that defined online

learning platforms as a natural environment for procrastination behaviors:

Notably, students report that the asynchronous nature of online

interactions increases their frustration and sense of isolation, which also

contributes to lower levels of regulating learning through the use of

learning strategies (McInnerney and Roberts 2004) and increased levels of

procrastination (Elvers et al. 2003). (p. 35)

 31

As learners feel inherently isolated by the online learning course, they are more likely to

fall into behaviors of procrastination and anxiety. In this situation it is likely that students

will experience a high-level apathy, which will result in negative performance and

avoidance behaviors. When this is perceived by a high percentage of learners in a course

or program, the eLearning cannot be considered efficacious.

Dunn suggests that intrinsic motivation and academic self-regulation are learner

characteristics that contribute to positive academic outcomes and behaviors, and that

when these things are absent from a learning experience, that procrastination and learner

anxiety are likely to occur (p. 36). In her study, Dunn confirmed her hypothesis that

online, graduate statistics students academic self-regulation, statistics anxiety, and

intrinsic motivation would significantly and collectively influence their passive

procrastination; conversely, Dunn also observed that students experienced a low-rate of

procrastination when encouraged to set goals and complete other self-regulatory

behaviors. In these circumstances, they experienced a higher rate of intrinsic motivation

and academic achievement (p. 39).

As instructional designers and trainers implement eLearning content, it is

imperative that they provide learners with three conditions that foster motivation:

autonomy, competence, and relatedness (p. 40). As learners are able to feel a sense of

control and independence in their learning process, they are more likely to take an

ownership role over their learning and exhibit self-regulatory behaviors. Also, as learners

experience confidence in their abilities, they are more likely to feel motivation to
 32

continue active and productive participation. As mentioned earlier in this chapter,

context plays a significant role in learner engagement; as learners are able to understand

applications for their learning, they are likely to engage in a meaningful and productive

way. Dunn also observed that when learners were given appropriate levels of challenge,

that they experienced a higher rate of motivation.

Xie (2013) conducted a study at a southeastern university of learner participation

and engagement in an online instructional technology class. In his study, he assessed

learner engagement in asynchronous online discussion boards (AOD), along with

feedback and data from the LMS system. Through this information, Xie evaluated

posting and non-positing behavior in order to determine what authentic learning looks

like in an asynchronous eLearning environment. Xies study is unique in that it considers

non-positing behavior as a facet of learning, just as posting behavior is. Xie defines

posting behavior as the measurable participation and engagement in an AOD, i.e. posting

in discussions, responding to the posts of others, and the frequency and quality of

posting. Xie argues that non-posting behavior has oft been neglected by other

researchers, and that students invisible actions of reading and evaluating contributions

of peers, completion of course tasks and review of content, and general lurking

behavior is also a contributing factor to student learning (pp. 288-289). Unfortunately,

trends in eLearning administration only reward, and thereby perpetuate, posting

behaviors, and discourage non-posting behaviors which play a significant role in the

process of forging new knowledge through online learning formats.

 33

Like Dunn, Xie found that online learning is most effective in fostering

intrinsically motivated learners when there were opportunities for autonomy and

competence (p. 291); Xie also included perceived value in his list of critical factors to

engender student engagement. Xie found that feedback played a significant role in

encouraging student participation:

studies discovered positive correlations between peer feedback and

student learning [] Peer feedback helped students to revisit and reinforce

what was taught throughout the course of the semester because they had to

recall what they were taught when they provided feedback to their peers.

Palloff and Pratt (2007) suggested that online courses should encourage

students to provide meaningful feedback to each other in order to create

connections between students and to provide new perspectives. Research

also suggests that peer feedback has positive effects on students

motivation [] students who received peer feedback displayed an

increase on their perceived value of learning tasks while those without

peer feedback showed a decrease. (p. 291)

As students engaged in a learning community, they were able to adopt various roles as

expert, learner, and collaborator. As learners felt responsible to their peers to provide

feedback and share their experiences, they not only felt a sense of perceived value in their

positing behaviors, but also a sense of competence. Xie also suggests that instructor

feedback plays a significant role in learner engagement, motivation, and behavior. To

 34

confront the issue of students who never post, Xie recommends a rating system where

learners receive extrinsic motivators to participate and engage in academic discourse (p.

298).

As Xie was able to determine the causes of posting-behaviors, he was also able to

determine what contributed to non-posting behaviors:

They may have thoughts but others have already made similar comments before

they can post theirs, they may have ideas but are not quite sure how to phrase it

yet or they may simply prefer to read what others wrote before they post anything

(Beaudoin, 2002). The non-posting behavior is more of a temporary phase that

fulfills a particular students pedagogical needs in the context of online learning

(Dennen, 2008b). The significant correlations suggest that a students reading and

evaluation activities eventually may lead to some tangible behavioral

consequences, which are posting or replying to a message. (p. 296)

As the above passage suggests, non-posting behaviors are just as important to the

learning process as posting behaviors. The researcher concludes that this behavior set is

indicative of the learners rate of learning; as Horton (2012) suggests learners must

absorb information before they can successfully put their learning into application or

make connections between their prior knowledge and the new information. Xie (2013)

explains the same phenomenon in his study:

[l]earning happens when students read the discussion content, integrate the

information with their existing understanding of the field and internalize

 35

the information to become their own knowledge. Learning also happens

when students organize their thinking, share their experience and

understanding and externalize the information in the discussion boards so

that the community can mutually construct knowledge and understanding

of the subject to be learned. (p. 291)

As instructional designers and trainers integrate AOD and evaluate learner participation,

they must consider the value of both posting and non-posting behaviors so that they can

glean an accurate picture of how learners are benefitting from the eLearning

environment.

While the work of Dunn (2014) and Xie (2013) helps to illustrate how instructors

can use online learning platforms to enhance learner participation and motivation in

academic contexts, Puhakainen and Siponen (2010) discuss how trainers can achieve

similar results in employee compliance initiatives. Just as participation is critical to

achieving learning objectives, compliance is imperative to corporate training. In

achieving employee compliance, trainers and instructional designers are able to activate

employee thinking processes and thereby make it more likely for employees to

internalize the reason why it is important to comply with training programs (p. 758).

As many training initiatives and compliance programs often fail to engender

motivated and engaged learners, some organizations and corporations try to encourage

compliance and learner engagement through punitive approaches; however, 1,000

studies on Cognitive Moral Development in more than 40 countries suggest that non-
 36

punitive strategies, particularly cognitive education and training, can be even more

effective in justifying compliance with the rules for certain types of people (Puhakainen

& Siponen, 2010, p. 758). So corporations and organizations would be better off finding

other ways to engender authentic engagement and perceived value in their initiatives.

One issue that trainers and instructional designers must confront lies in the design

of training programs and content. Puhakainen and Siponen (2010) argue that many failed

programs have no basis in learning theory or paradigms of learning:

if tools, such as training programs, have no underlying theory, then

practitioners acquire tools that might work in one situation but do not

know why they ultimately work. Such tools might fail in other situations,

but again, the practitioners wont know why. If one doesnt understand

the underlying theory behind the tool, then one cannot understand its

limitations. (Senge et al. 1994, as cited in Puhakainen & Siponen, 2010,

p. 758)

They go on to explain that efficacious learning programs must have a clear and

observable objective, and that the learning tool must be grounded in theoretical and

empirical research.

Puhakainen and Siponen performed action research to evaluate how trainers and

instructional designers could best motivate and engage learners in such a way that fosters

authentic learning and transfer. The authors worked with a host company to complete a
 37

training program reviewing existing IS Security policy and procedures with trained

employees in effort to confront frequent violations of the policy (p. 765).

In order to perform this study, the authors completed the study in two cycles. The

first cycle evaluated intervention based theory, while the second measured the efficacy of

implementation practices (p. 770). In the first cycle, the authors identified that

intervention based theories were effective in structuring productive learning initiatives.

In the second cycle, they were able to identify seven implications for trainers and

instructors: (1) the use of a systematic training program, (2) the design of learning tasks

that will hold personal significance and relevance to the learners, (3) the implementation

of cause-and-effect models that illustrate consequences of behaviors, (4) learner design of

potential policy and procedures to benefit the corporation or organization, (5) integration

of policy and procedure in everyday practice, (6) employee evaluation and review by

management, (7) improvement of practice (p. 774). These seven implications replicate

the model recommended by Horton (2012).

In their training program, Puhakainen and Siponen allow participants to engage in

several processes and activities in order to engender authentic learning. As employees

observe that training initiatives are well designed and planned with intentions to confront

a real problem, they are more likely to perceive a value and use for the program, and

comply with the training initiative, in order to fully understand and comply what is being

asked of them by their corporation or organization.

 38

The authors observed that when authentic documents created by the trainees were

used as models and examples, learner engagement increased. By using e-mailed

documents that had been sent to partners and customers to illustrate reoccurring security

issues, learners were able to see a significant relevance to the training (p. 768). Results

indicated that this activity was especially fruitful, as learners were able to see how they

were at fault and were being given an opportunity to correct their behaviors, which had

serious repercussions for the company as a whole (p. 769). As learners were able to

perceive this as not only a learning opportunity but also a second chance, they were

intrinsically motivated to comply and work to correct their behaviors to benefit the

company.

In light of current research, it is clear that learners are more likely to actively

participate with online training initiatives when they are designed to encourage goal

setting, self-directed pacing, collaboration and challenge that is adaptive to the individual.

When the design of training initiatives is grounded in research and design and includes

purposeful discourse, relevant activities, and clear learning objectives, learners are able to

develop inherent motivation to comply with training directives. The researcher concludes

that the trainer or instructional designer has a responsibility to prepare a instructional

program that works to include these things, but also is designed to confront the issues that

combat participation motivation and compliance, such as punitive measures, rapid

pacing, and isolation. By addressing these issues, the training initiatives may be best

suited to meet the needs of both trainee and employer.

 39

Measuring Efficacy of Flipped Instruction in the Corporate Environment

This section addresses the various factors that have been studied to measure the

efficacy of eLearning innovations and applications in training programs. By examining

these factors the researcher projects that she will be able to determine criteria that have

potential applications for measuring the efficacy of a flipped instruction program in the

corporate training environment.

Lee, Hsieh, and Hsu (2011) identified that eLearning initiatives are only able to

benefit learners and employers if the programs are utilized appropriately. As the authors

suggest, if learners fail to use e-Learning systems, the benefits of such systems will

not be achievable (p. 124). While many studies have been performed to better

understand employee acceptance and utilization using the Technology Acceptance Model

(TAM) (Davis et. al, 1989), the authors sought to better measure employee acceptance

and potential use through blending TAM with Innovation Diffusion Theory (IDT)

(Rogers, 1995) as a background theory:

This study contributes to the literature by examining the relationships

between the innovation diffusion theory and TAM variables in the same

model. We propose to examine the effects of motivational determinants

on TAM constructs using IDT as a background theory. Thus, we

employed five factors: relative advantage, compatibility, complexity,

trialability and observability as determinants of perceived usefulness (PU),

perceived ease of use (PEU) and behavioral intention to use (BI). This
 40

empirical study could be useful for developing and testing theories related

to e-learning system acceptance, as well as to practitioners for

understanding strategies for designing and promoting e-learning systems.

(p.124)

The authors suggested that their study was unique when compared to the body of existing

literature in that it measured user acceptance and use within the setting of an

organization, rather than an educational institution. For this reason the researcher

selected this study. In their merging of TAM and IDT, the authors were able to determine

a model that would translate best to application in a corporate training environment:

Five constructs of innovative characteristics, PEU, and usefulness and

intention to use the e-learning system, were taken from the TAM and IDT.

With appropriate modifications, our proposed model could successfully be

generalized to acceptance within an organizational context. (p. 125)

The Technology Acceptance Model (Davis et al., 1989) was designed to assess

any interaction between humans and computers and is based on two salient beliefs PU

and PEUdetermine technology acceptance and are the key antecedents of behavioral

intentions to use information technology (p. 125). Their model suggested that, as

individuals perceive that a technology or system will enhance job performance (PU), and

experience an ease of effort while interacting with the technology or system (PEU), that

they are most likely accept and find applications for it. The authors hypothesized that by
 41

including factors from this evaluation model, researchers would be enabled to determine

and predict user behaviors.

The Innovation Diffusion Theory (Rogers, 1995), on the other hand, measures

how an individuals willingness to accept an innovation is based on personal beliefs that

are forged quickly after interacting with a given technology (as cited in Lee, Hsieh, &

Hsu, 2011, p. 126). Rogers (1995) defined the term innovation as an idea, practice, or

object that is perceived as new by an individual or another unit of adoption (p. 11). He

defined diffusion as: the process by which an innovation is communicated through

certain channels over time among the members of a certain system (p. 5). Rogers

theory includes five significant innovation characteristics: (1) relative advantage, (2)

compatibility, (3) complexity, (4) trialability, and (5) observability:

Relative advantage is defined as the degree to which an innovation is

considered as being better than the idea it replaced. This construct is

found to be one of the best predictors of the adoption of an innovation.

Compatibility refers to the degree to which innovation is regarded as being

consistent with the potential end-users existing values, prior experiences,

and needs. Complexity is the end-users perceived level of difficulty in

understanding innovations and their ease of use. Trialability refers to the

degree to which innovations can be tested on a limited basis.

Observability is the degree to which the results of innovations can be

visible by other people. These characteristics are used to explain end-user

 42

adoption of innovations and the decision-making process. (as cited in Lee,

Hsieh & Hsu, 2011, p. 126)

While there were many existing studies that merged aspects of TAM and IDT, the

authors decided that it was important to include all five innovation characteristics of IDT

in order complete a thorough and effective study that would consider all variables. In

their study, Lee, Hsieh, and Hsu hypothesized that compatibility, relative advantage,

observability and trialability while working with the e-Learning systems would have a

positive effect on the PU, PEU, and BI. Conversely, the authors predicted that any

complexity experienced and perceived by users would negatively impact the PU, PEU,

and BI for potential use of e-Learning systems (pp. 127-128). In order to collect end-user

data, the authors of this study surveyed e-Learning users from:

manufacturing, finance, marketing and service, information technology,

and government agencies in Taiwan, and randomly selected 15 firms that

provide an e-Learning training system for employees (three in each

industry). Of the 736 mailed and electronic questionnaires, 566 were

completed and returned. (p. 129)

The questionnaires consisted of three parts and were designed to measure the five

innovation characteristics from IDT and the constructs of TAM, and gather basic

demographic data.

The authors stated that they felt their hypotheses for this study were confirmed.

Consistent with their hypothesis, it was observed that when users were able to perceive
 43

compatibility between the innovation and their previous experiences or knowledge, that

they perceived it as useful or relevant. Similarly, relevant advantage had a positive

impact on perceived usefulness. It was observed by the authors that:

prior to the employees decision to use the e-learning systems, they

tended to evaluate whether the e-learning systems could meet their job

needs or be relevant to their job. If they perceived that the e-learning

systems could meet their job needs, then they were likely to consider the

e-learning systems to be useful. On the other hand, when the users

regarded the e-learning systems as being better than the traditional training

techniques or other approaches, they may perceive the e-learning systems

to be more useful (Chang & Tung, 2008; Wu & Wang, 2005). (as cited in

Lee, Hsieh, & Hsu, 2011, p. 133)

In contrast with the existing research, Lee, Hsieh, and Hsu found that complexity

had a significant impact on perceived usefulness, as structurally simplistic e-Learning

initiatives were assumed to be similarly simplistic in their objective and purpose (p. 133).

These findings suggest that when e-Learning initiatives are perceived as complex they are

similarly perceived as relevant or sophisticated and assumed to be best able to enhance or

improve an individuals job performance. The researcher hypothesizes that when users

feel a need to invest time to better understand e-Learning systems, they assume that their

investment of time and effort will be rewarded with equivalent gains in skill or

knowledge.
 44

The authors also found that observability had little to no impact on the perceived

usefulness of the technology. This suggests that e-Learning systems provide an

individualized experience which is unaffected by a participants observation of another

participants success or failures when using the program (p. 133).

Trialability was shown to have a negative impact on perceived usefulness. As

learners were given opportunities to try the technology, they felt that the e-Learning

system was less useful as their participation was not dependent on their employer or

trainers expectation, but rather their own self-driven exploration (p. 133).

In their evaluation of PEU, the authors found that complexity had a negative

effect, whereas trialability and relative advantage had a positive effect. These results

were consistent with previous studies, suggesting that users in educational institutions

and organizations have similar perceptions in terms of technology ease of use. In their

comparison of PU and PEU results, the authors:

uncovered that the employees would perceive the e-learning systems

with unease, when they felt it was complex and difficult to operate. It

implied that if the employees believed that the e-learning system could

promote their job performances, they tended to think e-learning systems

were easy to use. Additionally, when the employees had more

opportunities to try the e-learning systems, they were more likely to view

them as being easier to use. Hence, to enhance the perception of ease of

use, the e-learning system developers should design the systems to be

 45

user-friendly and relevant to the employees jobs. The managers should

provide employees with organizational support for trying out e-learning

systems. (Lee, Hsieh, & Hsu, 2011, p. 134)

The authors observed that the five innovation characteristics of the IDT and the

perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use from the TAM had significant and direct

effect on employee behavioral intention (p. 134). While the study confirmed the

hypothesis that the synthesis of a conceptual framework was efficacious in measuring

employee intentions with e-Learning programs in a corporate environment, it also

illustrated the fluidity and impermanence of perception. As user perception can

continually change, the authors concluded, adoption is not a snapshot and one-time

decision, but rather a continuously staged process that can be investigated and boosted

(p. 134). This conclusion helped to establish recommendations for integrating e-learning

systems in an organization:

Potential users must first learn about the innovative tool and be persuaded

to try it out before they decided whether to adopt it. Therefore, this study

suggested that well-designed trainings should be provided for the

employees to familiarize themselves with the fundamental knowledge

about how to use the e-learning systems as well as the trial opportunities

to build a better understanding in the operational functions. The trainers

frequent demonstration of the use of e-learning systems help the

employees form positive beliefs and attitudes, which in turn influences

 46

their behavioral intention and actual use of e-learning systems. As such,

trainers should introduce and describe the benefits of e-learning systems

and their relevance to their job performances. Additionally, trainers and

system designers of e-learning systems should carefully consider the needs

of e-learning system users and ensure that the e-learning systems

effectively meet their job needs and demands. (p.135)

Joo, Lim, and Kim (2012) similarly considered perceived usefulness and

perceived ease of use in their study. The authors considered these learning environmental

factors as determinants of learning flow in corporate online training (p. 313). In addition,

this study considered learner self-efficacy, intrinsic value, and test-anxiety as significant

predictors of learner achievement. As, Joo, Lim, and Kim sought to determine whether or

not e-Learning programs were providing a high quality of learning, they evaluated levels

of cognitive engagement, perceived learner experience, and learning outcomes. In their

study, the authors wanted to determine if participants were able to engage in what they

called learning flow [] characterized by complete absorption during learning and is

defined as the optimal experience as a mental state of extremely rewarding

concentration that emerges in-between frustration and boredom (p. 313).

As learning flow is the fruition of authentic learner engagement, it was selected

by the authors to be an indicator of achievement and program efficacy. The body of

existing literature suggested that the determining factors of learning flow are: self-
 47

efficacy, intrinsic value, perceived usefulness, and perceived ease of use. Therefore, the

authors selected these factors when determining predictors of authentic learning flow.

Participants of this study were learners enrolled in e-learning programs through

their employer in Korea. This company was selected because of its twelve-year history

of implementing job-task-related e-learning courseware across the organization, which

was expected to minimize the novelty effect of e-learning interventions to the learners

(p. 317). The authors evaluated two different surveys: the first survey evaluated learner

self-efficacy, intrinsic value, and test-anxiety and was distributed during the first week of

the program, whereas the second survey measured perceived usefulness, ease of use, and

learning flow and was administered during the final week of the program (p. 318).

The study confirmed much of the literature suggesting that self-efficacy, intrinsic

value, perceived ease of use and perceived usefulness were significant indicators of

learning flow, while intrinsic value, test anxiety, perceived usefulness and ease of use had

significant and direct effects on learner achievement. One interesting observation from

this study was that learning flow did not necessarily result in learner achievement. It was

concluded from these results that learning flow is not necessarily a determining factor in

learning achievement in corporate e-learning environments due to the fact that

participants in this study were unable to fully engage and focus solely on e-learning tasks,

but were instead distributing their focus between job-related tasks and e-learning

participation (p. 323).

 48

The authors concluded that perceived ease of use and perceived usefulness were

the most significant influential factors for learning flow and achievement. They

recommend:

instructors and instructional designers need to employ strategies that

increase learners self-efficacy and intrinsic motivation in order to facilitate

learning flow. To improve academic achievement by providing internal

motivation to the learners, learning tasks should be designed so that they

are relevant and valuable to learners. Most of all, the design of the

learning environment should be centered around learners so that every

feature and function of the online system is useful and easy to use. (Joo,

Lim, & Kim, 2012, p. 323)

In addition to these recommendations, the results of this study also suggested that

employees are unable to achieve learning flow within their workplace environment.

From this data, the researcher hypothesizes that if learners are removed from the context

of their job and job-related responsibilities and given adequate time and space to fully

engage with e-Learning systems in order to achieve learning flow, that learning

achievement will increase. This hypothesis is not only based on the results of this study,

but also the literature upon which Joo, Lim and Kim based their hypotheses. This

information further supports the researchers hypothesis that mobile learning and

microtraining would be a successful approach to corporate training initiatives, as that

 49

would allow for participants to engage in training outside of the workplace at a time

optimal for learning flow and focus.

While the aforementioned studies posit ways to assess learner perception and

predict adoption and utilization of e-Learning initiatives, other studies suggest that

training innovations are only efficacious when the programs are purposefully designed

and continually tailored to meet the fluctuating needs of the learner.

Chang (2011) performed a study to explore how employees in Taiwan

convenience stores were being trained. The author developed and evaluated the quality

and effectiveness of the training program through four phases over the course of a year

while implementing design-based research and usability evaluation. Design-based

research (DBR) is defined as:

an emerging paradigm for the study of learning in content through the

systematic design and study of instructional strategy and tools [] Thus,

the DBR approach is an iterative cycle of multiple steps, including design

exploration, interventions enactment, outcome evaluation and analysis and

redesign. (E125)

Through this process, Chang also evaluated the usability of the eLearning program. The

author determined that usability was a significant factor that would affect the efficacy of

a program, as inadequate usability hampers learning motivation and hinder[s] learning

and information retention (p. e125). Changs research is in support of the arguments
 50

made in the aforementioned articles, as his study considered user perceptions and

experience as indicators of success and efficacy of eLearning innovations.

The author evaluated the usability of the training program through Neilsens

(2000) five usability categories; of the five categories identified by Neilsen, three were

considered: (1) efficiency, where the user knows how to use an artifact, the speed at

which the user can perform tasks; (2) errors, the number and importance of user errors

and the ease of correcting the errors; and (3) satisfaction, the pleasure of using the

artifact (pp. E125-E126).

In his study, Changs research approach was guided by DBR, and the refinement

stage of this research process was synthesized with the usability evaluation process,

which was performed through each stage of the DBR (E126). To begin, a needs

assessment was performed to identify the needs of the trainees; interviews and surveys

indicated that merchandise receiving and performing inventory, checking out customers

and heating up food were aspects that required emphasis (E. 126). Three versions of

interactive and multimedia based eLearning were developed throughout the study

including a prototype, alpha, and beta version. While completing the training prototype,

participants were asked to complete formative evaluations of the program. The

evaluations considered content, design, and usability. Through this process the designers

were able to continually assess the efficacy of the model (p. E126). Each phase of this

process resulted in revision of the eLearning content and program.

 51

Throughout the research process, participants were trained in how to use the

program, and were guided by a test experimenter. As the experimenter prompted the

participants to complete the tasks, [u]sers were asked to think out loud while performing

the tasks (p. E127). The experimenters observations from this, paired with the usability

surveys helped to inform revision and design of later versions of the training. Eight

questions were used to measure usability:

(1) was the instruction sufficient in terms of the content?; (2) how did the

users respond to the instructional presentation?; (3) did the design

elements provide sufficient guidance?; (4) could learners easily navigate

design elements?; (5) were the functions of design elements clearly

marked?; (6) did the design elements help users to understand the

instructional content?; (7) could learners comprehend the instructional

content when audio and video multimedia were presented?; (8) what

design elements or content were inadequate? (p. E127)

The participant surveys included 12 statements that participants rated on a five-

point Likert scale. The statements considered the user experience and perception of the

program: (1) The learning content of the e-Learning program is clear for me to

understand; (2) I think this program provides relevant learning content and information;

(3) Graphics and icons of this program are appropriately displayed; (4) The learning

content of the program is adequately edited; (5) I think the learning content of this

program is necessary for my work; (6) In general, I feel comfortable using this e-learning
 52

program; (7) After using this program, I think I am able to carry out more work; (8) After

using this program I think it makes my work more efficient; (9) After using this program,

I think it is useful for my work; (10) It is simple for me to use this program; (11) It is easy

for me to get needed information from this program; (12) It is easy for me to navigate this

program without problems (Chang, 2011, p. E129).

Through this process, the designers were able to better understand areas for

program revision throughout the prototype, alpha, and beta versions, which were

reflective of the design, development, and implementation processes of the DBR. Chang

posits that through this type of active observation, assessment and revision, instructional

designers can ensure meaningful improvements and continuous usability. The author

concluded at the end of his research that this process not only affects the efficacy of the

program, but also affects user acceptance as it enables users to accomplish tasks easily,

effectively, and efficiently (p. E129).

While Changs study helps to illustrate how designers can work to adapt and

revise content to meet the needs of learners and trainees, Bauer, Brusso, and Orvis (2012)

argue that technology has the potential to make those changes automatically through

adaptive programming. In their study, the authors evaluated video games as adaptive

technologies in order to determine which type of e-Learning innovation would be most

effective in instructing various personality types. They defined adaptive technology as:

training content that is tailored to suit each trainee where the level of difficulty of the

training content can be modified to best suit the trainees current skill level and personal
 53

progression across the training (Wexley & Latham, 1991, as cited in Bauer, Brusso, &

Orvis, 2012, p. 149).

The authors considered that game-based training maximizes effectiveness by

providing trainees with an optimal level of difficulty [c]onsistent with Vygotskys (1978)

zone of proximal development, the training should be difficult enough to increase trainee

motivation and performance, but not beyond the given trainees capability (p. 149).

While the authors assumed that learner-centered adjustments in difficulty would be more

advantageous than forced adjustments (based on level or time elapsed), there was little

research to support that assumption. In fact, exiting studies indicated that there was little

difference in learning outcomes between these two types of adaptive technologies.

However, the research of Orvis, Brusso, Wasserman, and Fisher (2011)

substantiated that learner-centered adaptive training (i.e., high learner control in their

study) was not universally better for all trainees in terms of learning (as cited in Bauer,

Brusso & Orvis, 2012, p. 149). As a result, Bauer, Brusso, and Orvis considered how a

learners personality type affected their ability to benefit from certain learning modalities.

As a result, this study was completed to investigate the optimal strategy for modifying

task difficulty for different learner personality types, and what conditions (i.e., for which

trainees) the investment in adaptive training is most fruitful and may reap the expected

benefit of accelerated learning over the course of training (p. 150).

The authors argued that an adaptive technologys ability to modify its task

difficulty, or the degree to which the activity represents a personally demanding

 54

situation requiring a considerable amount of cognitive or physical effort in order to

develop the learners knowledge and skill levels (Orvis et al., 2008, p. 2417, as cited in

Bauer, Brusso & Orvis, 2012, p. 150), to match trainees needs and abilities is

paramount. As trainees have varying competencies, skill-sets, and experiences, it is a

necessity to the success of an adaptive training program that it adjust according to the

trainees existing and evolving levels of mastery. Based on their research, the authors

hypothesized that when learners experienced what the they called manageable

challenge they would be able to continually engage with training program to enjoy the

anticipated benefits:

it is expected that learner-centered adaptive trainingwhere the

training content gets easier when the learner performs poorly and harder

when he/she performs wellis most effective at enhancing training

outcomes. In contrast, non-tailored adjustment, such as a forced increase

in difficulty (i.e., the training content gets harder regardless of the

learners current performance), is sub-optimal. For example, Shute and

Towle (2003) argued for improved efficiency, effectiveness, and

enjoyment of training as possible payoffs of adaptive e-Learning

environments [] challenge is an important game attribute linked to

training outcomes [] rudimentary challenges lead to boredom, while

excessive difficulty leads to frustration. Thus, challenge should match the

trainees capability. (p. 150)

 55

Despite the potential advantages of adaptive learning programs, the research of

Orvis et al. (2011) suggested that the expected benefits are largely dependent upon the

individuals personality type; of what the authors described as the Big Five personality

types, they evaluated three: openness to experience, conscientiousness, and neuroticism

(as cited in Bauer, Brusso, & Orvis, 2012, p. 151).

The authors described individuals with openness to experience personalities as

intellectually curious, and continually seeking new experiences; as these individuals are

naturally able to readily engage with new information and learning opportunities, and are

intrinsically motivated, they are often able to benefit from training initiatives (p. 151).

Orvis et al. (2011) observed that as these individuals engaged with eLearning programs,

they required the opportunity to assume what the authors defined as learner control,

and when they were denied it they did not yield consistent results in terms of learning

outcome (p. 151). From this study, Bauer, Brusso, and Orvis (2012) hypothesized that

adaptive eLearning programs would provide these individuals with an optimal learning

environment that would allow for opportunities where creativity and curiosity would

flourish; on the other hand, trainees without this personality type may not find success or

growth while using this type of training innovation:

if trainees low in openness to experience are placed in an adaptive

environment where the difficulty level depends on personal performance,

their performance improvement over time may be hampered. Because

such individuals are not receptive to learning new things and do not seek
 56

challenge (Gully & Chen, 2010), they may by prone to underperform,

remain in a low difficulty level, and thus learn less over time. In contrast,

because the difficulty level is pre-determined to be challenging in the non-

tailored, forced increased and static conditions, trainees with low openness

would be required to stretch their current skills/performance level, despite

their own tendency to avoid challenge. Thus, less open trainees

performance over time will be greater in the non-tailored conditions. (pp.

151-152)

As the passage above suggests, without openness to experience, individuals are less likely

to grow and adapt to challenge levels in order to grow or progress beyond their current

skill set.

Bauer, Brusso, and Orvis described conscientious individuals as being persistent,

dutiful, organized, and strive for personal achievement as such, these individuals find

great success in training initiatives as they put forth more effort [] and set higher

goals (p. 152). Trainees with lower levels of conscientiousness were expected to

perform better when interacting in learner-centered adaptive learning programs, as the

mounting frustrations born from poor performance will cause for an increase in persistent

and motivated behaviors that are anticipated to yield high rates of learner achievement (p.

152). Learner-centered adaptive programs, tailored to the needs and progress of

individual trainees, were expected to be best suited for this type of learner, as the

potential experiences of challenge and failure faced on a time-based or forced increase of

 57

difficulty were projected to cause individuals to give up or cease participation. The

authors posited that learners with conscientious personalities required consistent small

wins in order to feel motivated to continue their use of the training program. They also

assumed that learners would benefit from: a boost in self-efficacy for the training task

and enhance the effort they put forth to perform well during the training (Bandura, 1977)

(Bauer, Brusso, and Orvis, 2012, p. 152).

As they evaluated neuroticism, the authors described individuals with that

personality type as prone to psychological distress, have higher levels of anxiety, are

more self-conscious, and tend to react to frustration with anger, whereas individuals

with low levels of neuroticism are able to reflec[t] positive psychological adjustment

(p. 153). From the existing research, the authors determined that individuals with this

type of personality would struggle in training environments due to high rates of anxiety

and low levels of focus (p. 153). This observation aligned with many other studies

examined by the researcher, which suggested that anxiety generally had a negative impact

on learning initiatives in any setting. The authors of this study indicated that their

research lead them to believe that neurotic individuals were significantly impacted by

complex training initiatives:

Accordingly, we expect neuroticism to play an important role in

performance in a complex/challenging videogame-based training

environment. Specifically, the anxiety experienced by trainees with high

neuroticism will be exacerbated when task difficulty is predetermined to

 58

be challenging, as in the forced increased and static conditions, because

the training may be more difficult than they can effectively cope with. (p.

153)

While challenge presents an issue for these types of learners, the authors

hypothesized that adaptive, learner-centered training could have the potential to make

these individuals feel more comfortable and less anxious as the difficulty level meets

their current performance/ability levels (p. 153). As learners were made to feel less

anxious by the support of the technology, the authors suggested that they could then

better focus on the content, and work towards meeting the objectives of the training. As

neuroticism largely had negative effects on training performance, the authors

recommended that learners with low-levels of this trait would likely not be largely

impacted by the experience of adaptive training.

The participants of this study were: 139 students from a southeastern university,

who received course credit or extra credit for participation (p. 153). Through the use of

an interactive simulation first-person perspective game designed for military applications,

the participants were able to engage in the study from remote locations and communicate

via headsets (p. 154). The participants completed six training missions in the role of an

armed field soldier in search of 14 pieces of intelligence (Intel), placed throughout the

town (p. 154).

Prior to joining in the program, participants completed a questionnaire that

assessed for their personality-type, experience and perception of video games and game-
 59

based engines, and other basic demographic information (p. 155). Personality types were

assessed through a nine-point Likert Scale (p. 156). Each participant was randomly

assigned to one of three difficulty conditions: increasing, adaptive, or static (p. 154).

Participants were given a pre-training tutorial to assist them in their interaction with the

program. The program, G-DIS, was adaptive and the missions were developed to ensure

equivalence (relative to a given difficulty level) while eliminating carry-over effects

across missions and the overall design necessitated that trainees engage in/practice

strategy development and adaptation of their tactics in order to maximize their mission

performance (p. 154). Each mission was about seven minutes, and at the close of the

mission participants were able to review their scores in order to inform their performance

in future missions (p. 155).

In order to yield consistency in task completion, participants completed training

missions at moderate difficulty. In the increasing condition, participants experienced a

steady increase in difficulty level between missions 2 and 5. In the adaptive condition,

missions changed dynamically based on participants performance scores from the

previous mission (p. 154). Within the static condition, the degree of difficulty for each

mission remained at a moderate challenge level. The authors also manipulated scores in

order to evaluate participant response: In order to make performance scores comparable

across conditions for [missions 2-5], mission performance was adjusted such that 1 point

was subtracted from the mission score for participation in a low difficulty mission and 1

point was added to the mission score for participation in a high difficulty mission (pp.
 60

155-156). This practice was consistent with prior studies in game-based educational

research.

The authors found in their study that individuals with higher openness to

experience and neuroticism are better positioned for training success in adaptive training,

whereas those lower in these traits are better suited for non-tailored training environments

(i.e., training that employs forced increase or static difficulty) (p. 162). Like previous

studies, Bauer, Brusso, and Orvis also found that an individuals prior experience with

video games had a significant impact on their ability to benefit from game-based training

innovations. From their study, the authors developed recommendations for military

application of videogame training programs:

the military may benefit from developing game-based training programs

with different options for varying task difficulty across the training, as

well as maintaining Soldiers profiles on a personality assessment. The

record of a Soldiers personality assessment could be used to place

individual trainees into the appropriate game-based training program,

maximizing the militarys return on investment. Further, as suggested by

Orvis, Moore, Belanich, Murphy, and Horn (2010), Soldiers prior game

experience should be assessed prior to training, and those lacking game

experience should be provided with opportunities to gain the prerequisite

experience either before or during the training. To facilitate instructors in

providing this prerequisite experience, Orvis and colleagues suggest that

 61

training game developers incorporate a feature within training games that

enables the instructor to select the desired amount of content of trainee

orientation and practice. (p. 162-163)

From this, the authors were able to conclude that adaptive training had the potential to be

the most effective form of eLearning, due to the personalized and experiential nature of

it. However, adaptive videogame innovations are only effective if the trainee is suited

for such an environment based on their personality (p. 163). In order to create such an

environment, the researcher advises that trainers and instructional designers perform

needs assessments, learner inventories, and purposefully select eLearning innovations

that provide training modalities and programs that are adaptive to meet the needs of any

personality type, so that the program can support the experience and perceptions of any

learner in their learning process.

While there is insufficient research to reflect the best way to measure the efficacy

of corporate flipped training, the current literature suggests significant factors that should

be considered. Lee, Hsieh, and Hsu identified that the Technology Acceptance Model

(Davis et al.) and the Innovation Diffusion Theory (Rogers) were helpful in predicting

user behavioral intention and adoption of eLearning programs. Joo, Lim, and Kim

expanded upon that research and determined that the environmental factors of perceived

usefulness and perceived ease of use contributed to learning flow and achievement. In

addition to those environmental factors, Joo, Lim, and Kim determined that instructional

designers should include activities that engage learners self-efficacy and motivation,
 62

while also being mindful of their content-related anxieties. While Chang supported the

claims of the previous studies, his work also recommended that continual revision and

learner perception surveys aided in user adoption and efficacy. Through this study, the

author was able to recommend design-based research and usability evaluation as

significant factors in the successful development of an effective eLearning program, as

learners are then able to perceive relevance and value. The work of Bauer, Brusso, and

Orvis supports Changs assertion that learners benefit from a learning experience that is

personalized and customized to their needs. In their study, the authors evaluated how

various personalities benefit from adaptive learning.

Overall, the literature recommends that eLearning initiatives are most effective

when they are designed and customized to suit the needs of the learner, the learner is

prepared and trained to engage with the technology, and the program is tailored to their

level of experience, need, and comfort level. The studies indicate that needs assessments,

participant surveys, formative evaluations, and summative evaluations are all useful ways

to measure learner perceptions and attitudes about eLearning innovations. By

synthesizing factors from the TAM (Davis), IDT (Rogers), Neilsens Usability Factors,

and the personality types evaluated by Bauer, Brusso, and Orvis, the researcher

hypothesizes that an effective measuring device could be developed.

Summary
 Conclusions drawn from the current literature are supportive of the researchers

hypothesis that applications of flipped instruction in the corporate training environment have

great potential to engender authentic learning and achievement for trainees.

After analysis of the literature, it was observed that adult learners are able to benefit from

interactive, game-based, and virtual-reality content when, and only when, the programs have

been designed and developed to meet the specific needs of the learner and mission. It was also

observed that users find higher success when the program is adaptable to their existing abilities,

prior knowledge, and job-specific needs. Through application of the Absorb-Do-Connect model

(Horton, 2012), instructional designers can integrate media and content that is effective in

providing employees with the necessary training in a way that is conducive for the needs of adult

learners.

In order to achieve authentic learning and skill transfer, instructional designers and

trainers should consider pedagogical approaches that are best suited for andragogical application.

Through evaluating current research, it can be concluded that eLearning initiatives are in support

of Knowles (1984) research regarding environmental factors for andragogy, as they permit for

learners to be self-directed, rely upon their experience, adopt social roles commensurate with

their level of experience and development, avail problem-based learning opportunities, and rely

upon internally motivated participants. Through adopting interactive and accessible technologies

and establishing opportunities for social learning, corporate trainers can establish a training

environment that is conducive to authentic learning and skill transfer.

As corporate trainers work to activate and engage their audience, it is imperative that

learners find purpose and relevance within their program. Challenge level and isolation were

identified as critical factors resulting in passive procrastination and non-posting behaviors. To

combat this, the literature indicates that trainers should implement strategies to encourage self-

regulatory behaviors. Through the use of asynchronous online discussions and realistic problem-

based learning activities, instructors can allow for learners to experience both independence and

competence as they engage in purposeful discourse and benefit from consistent feedback. Action

research also indicated that learning outcomes are enhanced when training is designed to

confront a real problem that is aligned with a learners role within an organization or company.

Training initiatives are most effective when learners are able to perceive the training as

relevant to their needs and that of the organization, as well as easy to use. Through consideration

of learner survey and demographics, developers and designers can create and adapt their

eLearning initiatives to best meet the needs and abilities of learners in an efficient way and

personalized way.

Chapter I illustrated the purpose of this study along with research questions to drive

content analysis. In addition, Chapter I presented the researchers purpose within the context of

the relevant background and need for the study. Chapter II examined the relevant literature

according to the themes of the research questions. Chapter III will discuss the research method

employed in this scholarly investigation.