KONSEP READING

pengertian

1. Grabe n stoller hal 3

Reading is the ability to draw meaning from the printed page and
interpret this information appropriately.
2. Hibbard and wagner hal 1
Reading is a complex behavior including decoding words,
developing fluency, and improving comprehension.
3. Johson hal 3-5
a. Reading is the practice of using text to create meaning. The
two keywords here are creating and meaning. If there is no
meaning being created, there is no reading taking place.
b. Reading is a constantly developing skill. Like any skill, we get
better at reading by practicing. And conversely, if we do not
practice, we will not get better and our skills may deteriorate.
c. Reading integrates visual and nonvisual information. During
the act of reading, the visual information found on the page
combines with the nonvisual information contained in your
head to create meaning. In that way, whats in your head is
just as important as what is on the page in the process of
creating meaning (reading).
d. Reading is the act of linking one idea to another. Putting ideas
together to create a sensible whole is the essential part of
reading. It is not necessary to know every word in order to
read.
4. menurut moreillon hal 10
reading is making meaning from print and from visual
information. But reading is not simple. Reading is an active
process that requires a great deal of practice and skill.
5. menurut lines and nunan hal 69
6. Then Mckay stated that reading involves making meaning from a
text. Readers employ three main cueing systems when they read;
they rely on graphophonic cues at the word level (i.e. cues from the
way a word is written and how it sounds out), syntactic cues at the
sentence level (i.e. cues that give information about the role of any
one word within a sentence or clause of words) and semantic cues
at the whole text level (i.e. cues that relate to the meaning of a
word or words in relationship with the whole text, and also with
associated pictures or photographs that accompany the whole
text).1

1 Penny McKay, Assessing Young Language Learners, (UK: Cambridge University

Press, 2006), P. 223.
 7. According to Grellet (1981; 7) reading is a constant process of
guessing, and what one brings to the text is often more important
than what one finds in it.2

tujuan

menurut alderson di buku linse tujuan reading yaitu comprehension

menurut grabe and stoller hal 7- 10

1. Reading to search for simple information and reading to skim

2. Reading to learn from texts
3. Reading to integrate information, write and critique texts
4. Reading for general comprehension

Membaca untuk mengintegrasikan informasi membutuhkan keputusan

tambahan tentang
kepentingan relatif dari informasi yang saling melengkapi, saling
mendukung atau saling bertentangan dan kemungkinan restrukturisasi
kerangka retoris untuk
mengakomodasi informasi dari berbagai sumber. Keterampilan ini pasti
memerlukan evaluasi kritis dari informasi yang sedang dibaca sehingga
pembaca
dapat memutuskan informasi apa untuk mengintegrasikan dan bagaimana
mengintegrasikannya untuk
Tujuan pembaca. Dalam hal ini, baik membaca untuk writeand membaca
untuk kritik
teks mungkin varian tugas membaca untuk mengintegrasikan informasi.
keduanya membutuhkan
kemampuan untuk memilih, kritik dan menyusun informasi dari sebuah
teks. Kedua
tujuan mewakili tugas-tugas akademik umum yang memanggil membaca
kemampuan yang dibutuhkan untuk mengintegrasikan informasi

Gagasan pemahaman bacaan umum telah sengaja

disimpan untuk terakhir dalam diskusi ini karena dua alasan. Pertama,
adalah yang paling dasar
tujuan membaca, yang mendasari dan mendukung sebagian besar tujuan
lainnya untuk
bacaan. Kedua, pemahaman bacaan umum sebenarnya lebih kompleks
dari yang biasa diasumsikan. (Perhatikan bahwa istilah umum tidak
berarti sederhana atau mudah.) Asumsi ini dibahas secara rinci dalam
dua bagian berikutnya dari bab ini. Membaca untuk pemahaman umum,
ketika dilakukan dengan pembaca fasih terampil, memerlukan sangat
cepat dan
2 Franqoise Grellet, Developing Reading Skill: A Practical Guide to Reading
comprehension exercises, (UK: Cambridge University Press, 1981), P. 7.
pemrosesan otomatis kata-kata, keterampilan yang kuat dalam
membentuk makna umum
representasi dari ide utama, dan koordinasi efisien banyak proses di
bawah kendala waktu yang sangat terbatas.
kemampuan ini sering diambil untuk diberikan oleh pembaca fasih karena
mereka biasanya terjadi secara otomatis; yaitu, kita menggunakan
kemampuan ini tanpa memberi mereka banyak berpikir jika kita pembaca
fasih. Dalam konteks L2,
Namun, kesulitan yang siswa miliki dalam menjadi pembaca fasih
teks yang lebih panjang di bawah kendala waktu mengungkapkan
kompleksitas membaca untuk
pemahaman umum. Karena tuntutan untuk efisiensi pengolahan,
membaca untuk pemahaman umum mungkin, di kali, menjadi lebih sulit
untuk
menguasai daripada membaca untuk belajar, kemampuan yang sering
diasumsikan lebih
ekstensi sulit kemampuan pemahaman umum. (Persepsi yang salah ini
kemungkinan besar disebabkan oleh cara di mana pemahaman membaca
dan membaca untuk belajar biasanya diuji di sekolah-sekolah.

reading comprehension

1. Grabe n stoller hal 11

Reading for general comprehension is, in its most obvious sense, the
ability to understand information in a text and interpret it
appropriately.
2. menurut Jeffries and mickulecky hal 74
Comprehending what you read is more than just recognizing and
understanding words.
True comprehension means making sense of what you read and
connecting the ideas in the text to what you already know. It also
means remembering what you have read. In other words,
comprehending means thinking while you read
3. Menurut Duffy hal 13
Comprehension is the essence of reading because the goal of
written language is communication of messages. If we do not
understand the message, we are not reading. And vocabulary is
fundamentally important for
understanding the message
4. menurut linse and nunan hal 71

menurut Duffy hal 14-15

Reading comprehension depends on prior knowledge or knowledge
 about the world. Prior knowledge is expressed with words.
When
comprehending, readers say to themselves, in effect, In my
experience with words associated with this topic or situation,
the author
must mean something close to what Ive experienced. So they use
the
words in the text to build a meaning consistent with their past
experience with these words.
When the meaning of a word is unknown, it means the reader
does not have background knowledge or has not had
experiences in that area. Without background knowledgethat
is, without the
vocabulary that comes with various experiencesthere is no
comprehension.

menurut duffy hal 17-18

comprehension is a continuous process of using text clues
mainly
word meanings but also syntactic cluesto access relevant
categories
of prior knowledge and, on the basis of our own experience with
those
categories of knowledge, making predictions about what meaning is
to
come. Inferential, because the reader can only make a
calculated
guess about the authors meaning since the author was operating
from one set of experiences and the reader from another.
Reflective, in that good readers evaluate what they have read
and determine its significance and/or how it can be used after
finishing reading.
5. menurut wooley hal 15
Reading comprehension is the process of making meaning from
text. The goal, therefore, is to gain an overall understanding of
what is described in the text rather than to obtain meaning from
isolated words or sentences. In understanding read text

proses reading comprehension

1. menurut alderson hal 3 (di resume)

the process is what we mean by reading proper: the interaction between a

reder and the text. During that process, presumably many things are
happening. not only is the reader looking at print, deciphering in some
sense the marks on the page , deciding what they mean and how they
relate to each other. the reader is presumably also thinking about what he
is reading: what it means to him, how it relates to other things he has
read, to things he knows, to what he expects to come next in texts like
this.

2. menurut grabe n stoller hal 25

a. bottom-up models suggest that all reading follows a mechanical
pattern in which the reader creates a piece-by-piece mental
translation of the information in the text, with little interference from
the readers own background knowledge. In the extreme view, the
reader processes each word letter-by letter, each sentence word-by-
word and each text sentence-by-sentence ina strictly linear fashion.
b. Top-down models assume that reading is primarily directed by
reader goals and expectations. Again, such a view is general and
metaphorical. Top-down models characterise the reader as someone
who has a set of expectations about text information and samples
enough information from the text to confirm or reject these
expectations. To accomplish this sampling efficiently, the reader
directs the eyes to the most likely places in the text to find useful
information. The mechanism by which a reader would generate
expectations is not clear, but these expectations might be created
by a general monitoring mechanism (i.e. an executive control
processor). Inferencing is a prominent feature of top-down models,
as is the importance of a readers background knowledge. Top-down
views highlight the potential interaction of all processes (lower- and
higher-level processes) with each other under the general control of
a central monitor. In extreme interpretations, there is a question
about what a reader can learn from a text if the reader must first
have expectations about all the information in the text. In fact, few
reading researchers actually support strong top-down views.
c. interactive models of reading, again as a general metaphorical
explanation. The simple idea behind this view is that one can take
useful ideas from a bottom-up perspective and combine them with
key ideas from a top-down view. So, word recognition needs to be
fast and efficient; and background knowledge serves as a major
contributor to text understanding, as does inferencing and
predicting what will come next in the text. Unfortunately, using this
logic leads to a self-contradictory model. As it turns out, the key
processing aspects of bottom-up approaches, that is, efficiently
coordinated automatic processing in working memory such as
automatic word recognition, are incompatible with strong top-down
controls on reading comprehension. The automatic processing
aspects of comprehension, by definition, need to be able to operate
without a lot of interference from the moment-to-moment
information gained from background knowledge or massive amounts
 of inferencing. These top-down aspects of comprehension must be
reserved primarily for higher-level processing.
3. menurut alderson hal 16-17 sma top down, bottom up, interactive
model

GOODMAN, K. S. Reading: a psycholinguistic

guessing game. In: SINGER, H.; RUDDELL, R.

B. (Eds.). Theoretical models and processes

of reading. Newark, DE: International Reading

Association, 1970.

Goodmans work (1970) offered us the

distinction between bottom-up and top-down

processing. In bottom-up processing, readers

first recognize a multiplicity of linguistic signals

(letters, morphemes, syllables, words, phrases,

grammatical cues, discourse markers, etc.) and

use their linguistic data-processing mechanisms

to impose some sort of order on these signals.

These data-driven operations obviously require a

sophisticated knowledge of the language itself.

From among all the perceived data, the reader

selects the signals that make some sense, that

cohere, that mean.

When using previous knowledge and assumptions, i t is called a top-down

strategy,

because the reader goes down from more

general knowledge and meanings to the specific ones of the tex t

Level of comprehension

menurut alderson hal 7-8

there are three levels are

a. reading in the lines refers to the literal meaning of text

b. reading between the lines refers to inferred meanings
c. reading beyond the lines refers to readers critical evaluations of
text

faktor reading comprehension

menurut alderson hal 6 when the reader reads the text, they create
meaning. the meaning is created in the interaction between a reader and
the text is called meaning potential. the potential is realized only by
readers reading. readers knowledge and experiences influence the
realization of this meaning potential and since the readers may differ in
their knowledge and experiences then the products of reading
(understanding) will also necessarily differ.

menurut alderson pada hal 32-33 ada 2 yg mempengaruhi yaitu dari si

reader and text nya

1. Readers = readers knowledge (schemata and background

knowledge), readers motivation to read, readers strategies, stable
characteristics of readers like sex, age and personality, physical
characteristics like eye movements, speed of word recognition,
automatic of processing.
2. text = texts content, texts types or genres, texts organization,
sentence structure, lexis, text typhography,layout , relationship
betweenverbal and non verbal text, the medium in which the text is
preseted

menurut wooley hal 34

There are four main reader variables

within the socio-cultural context that impact on the efficiency of reading

comprehension for any individual: (a) the text, (b) the task (c) the reader
characteristics and

(d) the purpose of the activity.

strategi reading comprehension

menurut Jeffries and mikulecky hal 170

Skimming is a form of rapid reading for finding the general ideaor gist
of a passage or a

book. In your daily and academic life, you probably skim many things:
movie reviews,

newspaper articles, and passages and websites that might be useful for a
research paper

menurut Duffy hal 13-14

A strategy is a plan. You reason when you do it, and you often adjust the
plan as you go along. In reading, making predictions is a strategy
because readers are thoughtful in using text clues and prior knowledge
to make an initial prediction, but they remain ready to change or adjust a
prediction when subsequent text clues provide more information.

menurut Duffy hal 19

Strategies are an important part of comprehension. There are

only a few strategies readers use in various combinations over and

over again, with slight variation from one reading situation to another.

These include:

Making predictions.

Monitoring and questioning what is happening.

Adjusting predictions as you go.

Creating images in the mind.

Removing blockages to meaning.

Reflecting on the essence or the significance or the importance

of what has been read.

These strategies can be categorized as:

Before you begin reading.

As you begin reading.

During reading.
After reading.

menurut duffy hal 101

predicting is based on the thoughtful use of prior knowledge. Readers

make predictions based on purpose for reading, topic clues, and the type
of text being read.

menurut Zimmermann and Hutchins (2003) in million hal 11

identify seven reading comprehension strategies:

1. Activating or building background

knowledge

2. Using sensory images

3. Questioning

4. Making predictions and inferences

5. Determining main ideas

6. Using fix-up options

7. Synthesizing