Bouyancy and Archimedes Principle

Bouyant force- an upward force exerted by liquids on solids immerses in them. When an
object is placed in a fluid, the fluid exerts an upward force we call the buoyant force. The buoyant force comes from
the pressure exerted on the object by the fluid. Because the pressure increases as the depth increases, the pressure on
the bottom of an object is always larger than the force on the top - hence the net upward force.

The buoyant force is present whether the object floats or sinks. Let's consider a floating object, but the analysis is
basically the same for a submerged object.

We'll also consider a rectangular block, although a similar (more complicated) analysis leads to the same result for
funny-shaped objects.

Archimedes Principle- This principle states that a body partly or entirely submerged in a fluid is buyed up by a
force equal in the magnitude to the weight of the displaced Liquid.

Sample Work Problem #1

An object weighs 36 g in air and has a volume of 8.0 cm3. What will be its apparent weight when immersed in
water?
Solution:
When immersed in water, the object is buoyed up by the mass of the water it displaces, which of course is the mass
of 8 cm3 of water. Taking the density of water as unity, the upward (buoyancy) force is just 8 g.The apparent weight
will be (36 g) (8 g) = 28 g.

Sample Work Problem #2

A balloon having a volume of 5.000 L is placed on a sensitive balance which registers a weight of 2.833 g. What is
the "true weight" of the balloon if the density of the air is 1.294 g L1?
Solution:
The mass of air displaced by the balloon exerts a buoyancy force of
(5.000 L) / (1.294 g L 1) = 3.860 g. Thus the true weight of the balloon is this much greater than the apparant
weight:
(2.833 + 3.860) g = 6.69 g.

Sample Work Problem #1

A piece of metal weighs 9.25 g in air, 8.20 g in water, and 8.36 g when immersed in gasoline.
a) What is the density of the metal?
b) What is the density of the gasoline?
Solution:
When immersed in water, the metal object displaces (9.25 8.20) g = 1.05 g of water whose volume is (1.05 g) /
(1.00 g cm3) = 1.05 cm3. The density of the metal is thus (9.25 g) / (1.05 cm3) = 8.81 g cm3.

The metal object displaces (9.25 - 8.36) g = 0.89 g of gasoline, whose density must therefore be (0.89 g) /
(1.05 cm3) = 0.85 g cm3.
 DENSITY
Density-Mass per unit volume; the quality or state of being dense.

Sample Work Problem #1

You have a different rock with a volume of 30cm3 and a mass of 60g. What is its density?
Density is mass divided by volume, so that the density is 60 g divided by 30cm3, which is 2.0 g/cm3.

Sample Work Problem #2

In the above two examples which rock is heavier? Which is lighter?

The question is asking about heavier and lighter, which refers to mass or weight. Therefore, all you care about is the
mass in grams and so the 60 g rock in the second problem is heavierand the 45 g rock (in the first question) is
lighter.

Sample Work Problem #1

:You decide you want to carry a boulder home from the beach. It is 30 centimeters on each side, and so has a volume
of 27,000 cm3. It is made of granite, which has a typical density of 2.8 g/cm3. How much will this boulder weigh?
In this case, you are asked for a mass, not the density. You will need to rearrange the density equation so that you get
mass.

By multiplying both sides by volume, mass will be left alone.

Substituting in the values from the problem,

The result is that the mass is 75,600 grams. That is over 165 pounds!

Sample Work Problem #4

Rocks are sometimes used along coasts to prevent erosion. If a rock needs to weigh 2,000 kilograms (about 2 tons)
in order not to be shifted by waves, how big (what volume) does

it need to be? You are using basalt, which has a typical density of 3200 kg/m3. In this problem you need a volume, so
you will need to rearrange the density equation to get volume.

By multiplying both sides by volume, we can get volume out of the numerator (the bottom)

.
You can then divide both sides by density to get volume alone:

By substituting in the values listed above,

So the volume will be 0.625 m3

 Work
Work - measure of energy transfer hat occurs when an object is moved over a distance by an external force at
least a part of least part of which is applied in the direction of the displacement.

Sample Work Problem #1

#How much work is done by a person who uses a force of 27.5N to

move a grocery buggy 12.3m?

Equation
W = F x d = (27.5N) (12.3m) = ?
Answer
W = 338.25J
Did you get it correct? Try another one!

Sample Work Problem #2

# 55, 000J of work is done to move a rock 25m. How much

force was applied?
Many work problems give you the amount of work done, but
want you to solve for distance or force

In that case the work formula can be rearranged to look for the other variables. In this
problem, we are looking for force, so the equation must be rearranged

Equation
F = W = 55,000J = ?
d 25m
Answer
F = 2200J

Think you're pretty good at this? Work one more sample problem before you complete the
practice problems.

Sample Work Problem #3

You and 3 friends apply a combined force of 489.5N to push a piano. The amount of work
done is 1762.2J. What distance did the piano move?

Equation
You need to rearrange the work formula to look for distance:
d= W = 1762.2J = F= 489.5N

Answer
d = 3.6m

You've worked through all of the sample problems, now you need to try out your
skills on the practice problems. Good Luck!

Practice Problems

Get your paper, pencil, and calculator ready for some work practice problems! Make sure
to label all numbers with SI units and show all of your work.:
1. Calculate the amount of work done when moving a 567N crate a distance of 20 meters.
2. A fallen tree is lifted 2.75 meters. How much work is done?
3. If it took a bulldozer 567.6 joules of work to push a mound of dirt 30.5 meters, how
much force did the bulldozer have to apply?
4. A frontend loader needed to apply 137 newtons of force to lift a rock. A total of 223
joules of work was done. How far was the rock lifted?
5. A young boy applied a force of 2,550 newtons on his St. Bernard dog who is sitting on
the boy's tennis shoes. He was unable to move the dog. How much work did he do trying
to push the dog?
6. If it takes 68 joules of work to push a desk chair across a floor, what force would be
needed?
7. If a long distance runner with a weight of 596.82 newtons does 35,674.7 joules of work
during a portion of a race, what distance will she cover during that portion?
8. If a weight lifter raises a barbell with a mass of 125.7 grams doing 5,023 joules of work,
what distance did he move the barbells? Remember that you need a force, not a mass.
You must first calculate the force in order to complete your solution. HINT: Weight is a
force. Weight on earth is determined by multiplying an object's mass times earth's
gravitational pull (9.8m/s2 ).
9. Children are sled riding on a hill. One little girl pulls her sled back up the hill and does
379.5 joules of work while pulling it back up the 17.3 meter hill. What amount of force did
she exert on the sled?
10. A large semi-truck is moving a house from one lot to another. The amount of force
required to move the house horizontally a distance of 73.2 meters is 3,500 newtons. How
much work will be done on the house?
 Energy

Sample Work Problem #1

Initially, the car has a speed of 80 km/hr so has a KE of 1/2 Mv2; we need to be sure to
convert the speed into SI units. After 50 m, the car is at rest, so its KE is zero.

Sample Work Problem #2

The ball's potential energy (PE) gets smaller by an amount Mgh, where h is the height
through which it falls (10 m). This energy change results from the work done on the ball by
gravity. Numerically,change in
PE = -Mgh = -(1.0 kg)(9.8 m/s2)(10 m) = -98 J

Sample Work Problem #3

We can find the speed in one of two ways. The first way is to realize the ball has a constant
acceleration (9.8 m/s2 downward), and we can then find the time it takes for the ball to fall.
This is harder than the second way. Since the work done by gravity is recoverable we can
say that the PE lost equals the kinetic energy (KE) gained by the ball. Initially, the ball's KE is
zero. So

The work done on the ball equals the energy changed from PE to KE, or 98 J.

Sample Work Problem #4

Calculate the kinetic energy (KE) of a 1500-kg automobile with a speed of 30 m/s. If it
accelerates to this speed in 20 s, what average power has been developed?
KE = 1/2 Mv2 = 1/2 (1500 kg)(30 m/s)2 = 6.8 x 105 J
The total work done equals 6.8 x 105 J; i.e., this is the change in kinetic energy. The average
power is the total work divided by the time interval, or
average power = 6.8 x 105 J / 20 s = 3.4 x 104 W
Length Contraction

The length of any object in a moving frame will appear

foreshortened in the direction of motion, or contracted. The
amount of contraction can be calculated from the Lorentz
transformation. The length is maximum in the frame in which the
object is at rest.

Time Dilation

A clock in a moving frame will be seen to be running slow, or

"dilated" according to the Lorentz transformation. The time
will always be shortest as measured in its rest frame. The time
measured in the frame in which the clock is at rest is called
the "proper time".
For small velocities at which the relativity factor is very close to 1, then the time dilation can be expanded in a
binomial expansion to get the approximate expression:

Relativistic Mass
The increase in effective mass with speed is given by the expression

The increase in relativistic effective mass makes the speed of light c the speed limit of the universe. This increased
effective mass is evident in cyclotrons and other accelerators where the speed approaches c. Exploring the
calculation above will show that you have to reach 14% of the speed of light, or about 42 million m/s before you
change the mass by 1%.

1. Coordinates (x;t) in one frame are related to coordinates (x0;t0) in another frame by the Lorentz transformation
formulas.
2. Similarly, space and time intervals (x;t) in one frame are related to intervals (x0;t0) in another frame by the
same Lorentz transformation formulas. Note that time dilation and length contraction are just special cases: it
is time-dilation if x= 0 and length contraction if t= 0.
3. The space-time interval (s)2= (ct)2(x)2 between two events is the same in every frame.
4. Energy and momentum are always conserved, and we can make e cient use
of this fact by writing them together in an energy-momentum vector P=(E=c;p) with the property P2
=m2c2. In particular, if the mass is zero thenP2= 0.1.Theearth and sun are 8.3 light-minutes apart. Ignore their
relative motion for this problem and assume they live in a single inertial frame, the Earth-Sun frame. Events A and B
occur att= 0 on the earth and at 2 minutes on the sun respectively. Find the time dierence between the events
according to an observer moving atu= 0:8cfrom Earth to Sun. Repeat if observer is moving inthe opposite direction
atu= 0:8c.
According to the formula for a Lorentz transformation, t observer=t Earth-Sunuc2xEarth-
Sun;=1p1(u=c)2:Plugginginthe numbers gives (notice that the cimplicit in \light-minute" cancels the extra factor
of c, which is why it's nice to measure distances in terms of the speed of light)t observer=2
min0:8(8:3min)p10:82=7:7min;which means that according to the observer, event B happened before event A! If
we reverse the sign of u then to bserver 2
=2 min + 0:8(8:3 min)p10:82

ATHMOSPHERIC PREASSURE
Atmospheric pressure (or air pressure) is the weight of air resting on the earth's surface. In a pile of books the weight
means that pressure is greatest at the bottom of the pile. Gravity pulls the atmosphere towards the ground, so just as
in a pile of books, the pressure is greater nearer the surface.

It follows that there is a pressure gradient in the atmosphere. The graph shows the higher we go the pressure falls.
Atmospheric pressure is measured by an instrument called a barometer in units called millibars. About 90% of the
atmosphere is below 16 kilometers. The fall in pressure in the lower atmosphere is about 1 mb for every 10 meters.

The famous Niagara Falls is between Lake Ontario and Lake Erie. Ships get round the falls by using the Welland
Canal. The difference in height is overcome by a series of eight locks. Ships have passed through the locks carrying
a barometer.

P F
= A

kg
N kg
Pa m/s2
= m= =m
m2
2
s2

Sample Work Problem #1

A vertical tube of radius 1 cm, open at the top to the atmosphere, contains 2 cm of oil
(oil=0:82water)oating on 3 cm of water. What is the gauge pressure (pressure in excess of
atmospheric) at the bottom?
Answer
: Only the depth matters, so that
pgauge=oilghoil+waterghwater
=waterg(0:82hoil+hwater)
= (1000 kg=m3)(9:8 m=s2)[0:82(0:02 m) + 0:03 m]
pgauge =460 Pa:

Sample Work Problem #2

A person wants to suck water through a straw 120 cm tall. What is the minimum pressure dierence
between the atmosphere and the inside of the person's mouth?
Answer
: The pressure dierence must be at least
gh= (1000 kg
=m3) (9:8 m=s2)(1:2 m) = 1:2104Pa
Sample Work Problem #3
A wide can of water is lled to heighth
. At what height from the base should I drill a hole to (i)
get the maximum range for the jet that comes out, and (ii) ensure that the jet travels a horizontal
distance equal to the vertical distance? (iii) What is the maximum horizontal distance the jet can
travel?
Answer
: Since the can is wide, we can assume that the velocity of the water at the top of the can
is zero. If the hole is drilled at height z from the base, then the (horizontal) velocity at the hole is
determined by Bernoulli's equation g(hz) =12v2=)v=p2g(hz): Going back to projectile motion for a
moment, a particle dropped from height z takes time t=p2z=g to reach the ground, so it travels a distance
R=vt in the horizontal direction. Plugging in the above then gives R=p2g(hz)r2zg=2pz(hz):i)To make life
easy we can maximize the square ofR:14d(R2)dz=ddz[z(hz)]=h2z= 0 =)z=h2:ii) This time we solve for
R= 2pz(hz)=z=)5z2= 4zh; which means z=45h.

Bernoullis Principle
The Bernoulli Equation can be considered to be a statement of the conservation
of energy principle appropriate for flowing fluids. The qualitative behavior that is
usually labeled with the term "Bernoulli effect" is the lowering of fluid pressure in
regions where the flow velocity is increased. This lowering of pressure in a
constriction of a flow path may seem counterintuitive, but seems less so when you
consider pressure to be energy density. In the high velocity flow through the
constriction, kinetic energy must increase at the expense of pressure energy.

Sample Work Problem #1

Water at a gauge pressure of 3.8 atm at street level flows in to an office building at
a speed of 0.06 m/s through a pipe 5.0 cm in diameter. The pipes taper down to
2.6cm in diameter by the top floor, 20 m above. Calculate the flow velocity and the
gauge pressure in such a pipe on the top floor. Assume no branch pipe and ignore
viscosity.

Solution:
By continuity equation:
v2 = (A1v1) / A2 = ( (5.0 / 2)2 (0.60) ) / ( (2.6 / 2)2)
v2 = 2.2 m/s
By Bernoullis Equation:
P1 + gh1 + (v1)2 = P2 + gh2 + (v2)2
(Po = atmospheric pressure)
P2 = (3.8 x Po) + Po + (1000)(0.6)2 (1000)(9.8)(20) (1000)(2.2)2
P2 = 2.8 x 105 Pa

Sample Work Problem 2

If the pump at one end of the hose and the nozzle at the otherend are at the same
height, and if the pressure at the nozzleis 1.00 atm, what is the pressure at the
pump outlet?

Solution:
Find the velocity at the first position ,let it be V1
V1 = Iv/A
= 2.7 x 10-3 / x 1.3225 x 10-4
= 6.5 m/s
Using Bernoulli equation
P1 +gh + v12 = p2 + gh + V22
The second term gets canceled on both sides. We get ,
V2 = V12 + 2( P1 P2) / density of water
= (6.5)2 + 2( 142 101)1000/1000 1/2
= 11.146 m/s
Using the formula
A1V1 = A2 V2
D2 = d1 (V1 /V2)1/2
= 2.3 (6.5 / 11.146)1/2
Answer: D2= 1.756 cm
 Sample Work Problem #3

Water flows at 0.563 m/s through a 3.20-cm diameter hosethat terminates in a

0.295-cm diameter nozzle. Assume lam-inar non-viscous steady-state flow. At what
speed does thewater pass through the nozzle?

Solution:
According to Bernoulli principle ;
A1V1 = A2 V2
r12 V1 =r22 V2
R12 V1 = r22 V2
(3.2/2)2 (0.563) = (0.295/2)2 V2
1.44128 = 0.02175625 V2
Answer: V2 = 66.2467 m/s

Sample Work Problem #4

A fountain designed to spray a column of water 11.1 m into
the air has a 1.33-cm-diameter nozzle at ground level. The
water pump is 3.14 m below the ground. The pipe to the
nozzle has a diameter of 2.66 cm. Find the pump pressure
necessary if the fountain is to operate as designed. (Assume
laminar nonviscous steady-state flow).

Solution:
Use the Equation
P1 + gh + v12 = P2 + gh +1/2 V22
P1 3.14g + Vn2/16 = Patm + Vn2
Vn2 = (2gh)1/2
= (2x 9.81 x 11.1)1/2
= 14.757 m/s
P1 3.14 x 9.81 x 1000 + 0.5 x 1000x 217.782 /16
= 1.01 x 105 + 0.5 x 1000 x 217.782
P1 0.308 x 105 + 0.06805 x 105 = 1.01 x 105 + 1.0889 x 105
P1 = (1.01+1.0889 +0.3 0.06805) x 105
= 2.3308 x105
Answer: P1= 233.08 kPa
 Power
Power- Power is the time rate at which work is done or energy is transferred. In calculus terms, power is the
derivative of work with respect to time.

The SI unit of power is the watt (W) or joule per second (J/s). Horsepower is a unit of power in the British system of
measurement.

Sample Work Problem #1

A weightlifter lifts a 2000 N weight to a height of 2 m in 1 second. Another weightlifter lifts a 2
000 N weight to a height of 2 m in 2 seconds.(a) Which weightlifter did more work? First lifter: W= Fd= (2000 N)(2
m) = 4
000 J
Second lifter: same(b) Which weightlifter required more power?First lifter required more power: P = W / t = 4
000 J / 1 s = 4000 watts
Second lifter: P = 4000 J / 2 s = 2000 watts
Sample Work Problem #2
How fast must a 7,350 N car be traveling to have 1.5 x 105J of energy?
Weight = mgm= Weight/ g= 7350 N / 9.8 m/s2= 750 kg
KE = mv2v2=2(KE) / m = 2(1.5 x 105J) / (750 kg) = 400 m2/s2
Take square root to get
v= 20 m/s

Thermography

Commonly known as poor man's engraving, thermography produces raised

printing similiar in appearance to engraving but using a completely different
process. In thermography, a special powder is added to the document with it
adhering to the ink printed on the paper. After removing the excess powder the
printed piece is heated and the powder and ink mixture dries to form a raised effect
on the paper.
Also Known As: offset thermography | raised printing | thermographic printing
Examples:
Thermography is often used in place of the more expensive engraving process to
produce wedding invitations, business cards, and letterhead.
 Atomic Structure
An atom is a complex arrangement of negatively charged electrons arranged in defined shells about a positively
charged nucleus. This nucleus contains most of the atom's mass and is composed of protons and neutrons (except for
common hydrogen which has only one proton). All atoms are roughly the same size. A convenient unit of length for
measuring atomic sizes is the angstrom (), which is defined as 1 x 10-10 meters. The diameter of an atom is
approximately 2-3 .

In 1897, J. J. Thomson discovered the existence of the electron, marking the beginning of modern atomic physics.
The negatively charged electrons follow a random pattern within defined energy shells around the nucleus. Most
properties of atoms are based on the number and arrangement of their electrons. The mass of an electron is 9.1 x 10 -
31
kilograms.

One of the two types of particles found in the nucleus is the proton. The existence of a positively charged particle, a
proton, in the nucleus was proved by Sir Ernest Rutherford in 1919. The proton's charge is equal but opposite to
the negative charge of the electron. The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom determines what kind of
chemical element it is. A proton has a mass of 1.67 x 10-27 kilograms.

The neutron is the other type of particle found in the nucleus. It was discovered by a British physicist, Sir James
Chadwick. The neutron carries no electrical charge and has the same mass as the proton. With a lack of electrical
charge, the neutron is not repelled by the cloud of electrons or by the nucleus, making it a useful tool for probing the
structure of the atom.

Even the individual protons and neutrons have internal structure, called quarks. Six types of quarks exist. These
subatomic particles cannot be freed and studied in isolation. Current research continues into the structure of the
atom.

Atomic Isotopes
A major characteristic of an atom is its atomic number, which is defined as the number of protons. The chemical
properties of an atom are determined by its atomic number and is denoted by the symbol Z. The total number of
nucleons (protons and neutrons) in an atom is the atomic mass number. This value is denoted by the symbol A. The
number of neutrons in an atom is denoted by N. Thus the mass of an atom is A = N + Z.

Nuclear Isotopes

Atoms with the same atomic number but with different atomic masses are called isotopes. Isotopes have identical
chemical properties, yet have very different nuclear properties. For example, there are three isotopes of hydrogen.
Two of these isotopes are stable, (not radioactive), but tritium (one proton and two neutrons) is unstable. Most
elements have stable isotopes. Radioactive isotopes can also be created for many elements.
 Einstein's Equation
The mass of the nucleus is about 1 percent smaller than the mass of its individual protons and neutrons. This
difference is called the mass defect. The mass defect arises from the energy released when the nucleons (protons and
neutrons) bind together to form the nucleus. This energy is called the binding energy. The binding energy determines
which nuclei are stable and how much energy is released in a nuclear reaction. Very heavy nuclei and very light
nuclei have low binding energies. This implies that a heavy nucleus will release energy when it splits apart (fission),
and two light nuclei will release energy when they join (fusion).

The hydrogen 2 nucleus, for example, composed of one proton and one neutron, can be separated completely by
supplying 2.23 million electron volts (MeV) of energy. Conversely, when a slowly moving neutron and proton
combine to form a hydrogen 2 nucleus, 2.23 MeV are liberated.

The mass defect and binding energy are related by Albert Einstein's formula, E = mc2. In 1905, Einstein developed
the special theory of relativity. One of the implications of this theory was that matter and energy are interchangeable
with one another. This equation states, a mass (m) can be converted into an amount of energy (E), where c is the
speed of light. Because the speed of light is a large number and thus c squared is huge, a small amount of matter can
be converted into a tremendous amount of energy. This equation is the key to the power of nuclear weapons and
nuclear reactors.

proton
A proton is a positively charge particle that resides within the atomic nucleus. The number of protons in the atomic
nucleus is what determines the atomic number of an element, as outlined in the periodic table of the elements.

The proton has charge +1 (or, alternately, 1.602 x 10-19 Coulombs), the exact opposite of the -1 charge contained by
the electron. In mass, however, there is no contest - the proton's mass is approximately 1,836 times that of an
electron.

Discovery of the Proton

The proton was discovered by Ernest Rutherford in 1918 (though the concept had been earlier suggested by the
work of Eugene Goldstein). The proton was long believed to be an elementary particle until the discovery of quarks.
In the quark model, it is now understood that the proton is comprised of two up quarks and one down quark,
mediated by gluons in the Standard Model of quantum physics.

neutron
A neutron is a subatomic particle contained in the atomic nucleus. It has no net electric charge, unlike the proton's
positive electric charge. The number of neutrons in an atomic nucleus determines the isotope of that element.

Discovery of the Neutron

The first hint of the neutron's existence came in 1930, when Walther Bothe and H. Becker found that when alpha
radiation fell on elements like lithium and boron a new form of radiation was emitted. Initially, this radiation was
believed to be a type of gamma radiation, but it was more penetrating than any known gamma radiation. Work by
Irene Joliot-Curie and Frederic Joliot in 1932, though not disproving the gamma radiation hypothesis, did not
particularly support it either.

In 1932, James Chadwick proved that these results couldn't be explained by gamma rays and proposed an alternate
explanation of uncharged particles approximately the same size as a proton. He was able to experimentally verify
this conjecture and thus prove that the neutron existed.
 nucleus

The nucleus is a membrane bound structure that contains the cell's hereditary information and controls the cell's
growth and reproduction. It is commonly the most prominent organelle in thecell.

The nucleus is surrounded by a structure called the nuclear envelope. This membrane separates the contents of the
nucleus from the cytoplasm. The cell's chromosomes are also housed within the nucleus. Chromosomes
contain DNA which provides the genetic information necessary for the production of other cell components and for
the reproduction of life.

Radioactive Decay
Radioactivity is the spontaneous disintegration of atomic nuclei. This phenomenon was first reported in 1896 by the
French physicist Henri Becquerel. Marie Curie and her husband Pierre Curie contributed further to the
understanding of radioactivity. Their research led to the discovery of two new radioactive elements, polonium and
radium, and forced scientists to change their ideas about the structure of the atom.

Radioactivity is the result of an atom trying to reach a more stable nuclear configuration. The process of radioactive
decay, can be achieved via three primary methods; a nucleus can change one of its neutrons into a proton with the
simultaneous emission of an electron (beta decay), by emitting a helium nucleus (alpha decay), or by spontaneous
fission (splitting) into two fragments. Often associated with these events is the release of high energy photons or
gamma rays. There are some other method of radioactive decay, but they are more exotic in nature.

Each individual radioactive substance has a characteristic decay period or half-life. A half-life is the interval of time
required for one-half of the atomic nuclei of a radioactive sample to decay. The radioactive isotope cobalt 60, which
is used in radiation cancer therapy, has, for example, a half-life of 5.26 years. Thus after that interval, a sample
originally containing 16 grams of cobalt 60 would contain only 8 grams of cobalt 60 and would emit only half as
much radiation. After another interval of 5.26 years, the sample would contain only 4 grams of cobalt 60. Half-lives
can range from thousands of years to milliseconds.

Sometimes after undergoing radioactive decay, the new atom is still left in a radioactive form. This means that the
atom will decay again as it attempts to reach a stable nuclear state.

Alpha rays
In alpha rays, a positively charged particle, identical to the nucleus of helium 4, is emitted spontaneously. This
particle, also known as an alpha particle, consists of two protons and two neutrons. It was discovered and named
by Sir Ernest Rutherford in 1899.
 Alpha rays

Alpha decay usually occurs in heavy nuclei such as uranium or plutonium, and therefore is a major part of the
radioactive fallout from a nuclear explosion. Since an alpha particle is relatively more massive than other forms of
radioactive decay, it can be stopped by a sheet of paper and cannot penetrate human skin. A 4 MeV alpha particle
can only travel about 1 inch through the air.

Although the range of an alpha particle is short, if an alpha decaying element is ingested, the alpha particle can do
considerable damage to the surrounding tissue. This is why plutonium, with a long half-life, is extremely hazardous
if ingested.

Beta rays
Atoms emit beta particles through a process known as beta ray. Beta ray occurs when an atom has either too many
protons or too many neutrons in its nucleus. Two types of beta decay can occur. One type (positive beta decay)
releases a positively charged beta particle called a positron, and a neutrino; the other type (negative beta decay)
releases a negatively charged beta particle called an electron, and an antineutrino. The neutrino and the antineutrino
are high energy elementary particles with little or no mass and are released in order to conserve energy during the
decay process. Negative beta decay is far more common than positive beta decay.

Beta rays

This form of radioactive decay was discovered by Sir Ernest Rutherford in 1899, although the neutrino was not
observed until the 1960s. Beta particles have all the characteristics of electrons. At the time of their emission, they
travel at nearly the speed of light. A typical .5 MeV particle will travel about 10 feet through the air, and can be
stopped by 1-2 inches of wood.

Gamma Rays
Gamma rays are a type of electromagnetic radiation that results from a redistribution of electric charge within a
nucleus. Gamma rays are essentially very energetic X rays ; the distinction between the two is not based on their
intrinsic nature but rather on their origins. X rays are emitted during atomic processes involving energetic electrons.
Gamma radiation is emitted by excited nuclei or other processes involving subatomic particles; it often accompanies
alpha or beta radiation, as a nucleus emitting those particles may be left in an excited (higher-energy) state.

Gamma rays are more penetrating than either alpha or beta radiation, but less
ionizing. Gamma rays from nuclear fallout would probably cause the largest number
of casualties in the event of the use of nuclear weapons in a nuclear war. They
produce damage similar to that caused by X-rays such as burns, cancer, and genetic
mutations