Cable Calculations Worked Examples

Worked example of cable calculation
(see Fig. G65)
The installation is supplied through a 630 kVA transformer. The process requires a high degree of
supply continuity and part of the installation can be supplied by a 250 kVA standby generator. The
global earthing system is TN-S, except for the most critical loads supplied by an isolation transformer
with a downstream IT configuration.
The single-line diagram is shown in Figure G65 below. The results of a computer study for the circuit
from transformer T1 down to the cable C7 is reproduced on Figure G66. This study was carried out
with Ecodial (a Schneider Electric software).
This is followed by the same calculations carried out by the simplified method described in this
guide.
Fig. G65: Example of single-line diagram
Calculation using software Ecodial
General network characteristics Number of poles and 4P4d

protected poles
Earthing system TN-S Tripping unit Micrologic 2.3
Neutral distributed No Overload trip Ir (A) 510
Voltage (V) 400 Short-delay trip Im / Isd (A) 5100
Frequency (Hz) 50 Cable C3
Upstream fault level (MVA) 500 Length 20
Resistance of MV network (m) 0.0351 Maximum load current (A) 509
Reactance of MV network (m) 0.351 Type of insulation PVC
Transformer T1 Ambient temperature (C) 30
Rating (kVA) 630 Conductor material Copper
Short-circuit impedance voltage 4 Single-core or multi-core Single

(%) cable
Transformer resistance RT (m) 3.472 Installation method F
Transformer reactance XT (m) 10.64 Phase conductor selected csa 2 x 95

(mm2)
3-phase short-circuit current 21.54 Neutral conductor selected 2 x 95

Ik3 (kA)
csa (mm2)
Cable C1 PE conductor selected csa 1 x 95

(mm2)
Length (m) 5 Cable voltage drop U (%) 0.53
Maximum load current (A) 860 Total voltage drop U (%) 0.65
Type of insulation PVC 3-phase short-circuit current 19.1

Ik3 (kA)
Ambient temperature (C) 30 1-phase-to-earth fault current 11.5

Id (kA)
Conductor material Copper Switchboard B6
Single-core or multi-core cable Single Reference Linergy 800
Installation method F Rated current (A) 750
Number of layers 1 Circuit-breaker Q7
Phase conductor selected csa 2 x 240 Load current (A) 255

(mm2)
Neutral conductor selected csa 2 x 240 Type Compact

(mm2)
PE conductor selected csa 1 x 120 Reference NSX400F

(mm2)
Voltage drop U (%) 0.122 Rated current (A) 400
3-phase short-circuit current 21.5 Number of poles and 3P3d

Ik3 (kA) protected poles
Courant de dfaut phase-terre Id 15.9 Tripping unit Micrologic 2.3

(kA)
Circuit-breaker Q1 Overload trip Ir (A) 258
Load current (A) 860 Short-delay trip Im / Isd (A) 2576
Type Compact Cable C7
Reference NS1000N Length 5
Rated current (A) 1000 Maximum load current (A) 255
Number of poles and protected 4P4d Type of insulation PVC

poles
Tripping unit Micrologic 5.0 Ambient temperature (C) 30
Overload trip Ir (A) 900 Conductor material Copper
Short-delay trip Im / Isd (A) 9000 Single-core or multi-core Single

cable
Tripping time tm (ms) 50 Installation method F
Switchboard B2 Phase conductor selected csa 1 x 95

(mm2)
Reference Linergy 1250 Neutral conductor selected -

csa (mm2)
Rated current (A) 1050 PE conductor selected csa 1 x 50

(mm2)
Circuit breaker Q3 Cable voltage drop U (%) 0.14
Load current (A) 509 Total voltage drop U (%) 0.79
Type Compact 3-phase short-circuit current 18.0

Ik3 (kA)
Reference NSX630F 1-phase-to-earth fault current 10.0

Id (kA)
Rated current (A) 630
Fig. G66: Partial results of calculation carried out with Ecodial software (Schneider Electric). The calculation is
performed according to Cenelec TR50480
The same calculation using the simplified method recommended in this guide
Dimensioning circuit C1
The MV/LV 630 kVA transformer has a rated no-load voltage of 420 V. Circuit C1 must be suitable for
a current of:
per phase
Two single-core PVC-insulated copper cables in parallel will be used for each phase.These cables
will be laid on cable trays according to method F.
Each conductor will therefore carry 433A. Figure G21a indicates that for 3 loaded conductors with
PVC isolation, the required c.s.a. is 240mm2.
The resistance and the inductive reactance, for the two conductors in parallel, and for a length of 5
metres, are:
(cable resistance: 23.7 m.mm2/m)
(cable reactance: 0.08 m/m)

Circuit C3 supplies two 150kW loads with cos = 0.85, so the total load current is:
Two single-core PVC-insulated copper cables in parallel will be used for each phase. These cables
will be laid on cable trays according to method F.
The resistance and the inductive reactance, for the two conductors in parallel, and for a length of 20
metres, are:
Circuit C7 supplies one 150kW load with cos = 0.85, so the total load current is:
One single-core PVC-insulated copper cable will be used for each phase. The cables will be laid on
cable trays according to method F.
The resistance and the inductive reactance for a length of 20 metres is:
Calculation of short-circuit currents for the selection of circuit-breakers Q1, Q3, Q7
(see Fig. G67)
Circuit components R (m) X (m) Z (m) Ikmax (kA)

Upstream MV network, 500MVA fault level (see Fig. G34) 0,035 0,351
Transformer 630kVA, 4% (see Fig. G35) 2.9 10.8
Cable C1 0.23 0.4
Sub-total 3.16 11.55 11.97 20.2
Cable C3 2.37 1.6
Sub-total 5.53 13.15 14.26 17
Cable C7 1.18 0.4
Sub-total 6.71 13.55 15.12 16
Fig. G67: Example of short-circuit current evaluation
The protective conductor
When using the adiabatic method, the minimum c.s.a. for the protective earth conductor (PE) can be
calculated by the formula given in Figure G58:
For circuit C1, I = 20.2kA and k = 143.
t is the maximum operating time of the MV protection, e.g. 0.5s
This gives:
A single 120 mm2 conductor is therefore largely sufficient, provided that it also satisfies the
requirements for indirect contact protection (i.e. that its impedance is sufficiently low).
Generally, for circuits with phase conductor c.s.a. Sph 50 mm 2, the PE conductor minimum c.s.a.
will be Sph / 2. Then, for circuit C3, the PE conductor will be 95mm 2, and for circuit C7, the PE
conductor will be 50mm2.
Protection against indirect-contact hazards
For circuit C3 of Figure G65, Figures F41 and F40, or the formula given TN system - Protection
against indirect contact may be used for a 3-phase 4-wire circuit.
The maximum permitted length of the circuit is given by:
(The value in the denominator 630 x 11 is the maximum current level at which the instantaneous
short-circuit magnetic trip of the 630 A circuit-breaker operates).
The length of 20 metres is therefore fully protected by instantaneous over-current devices.
Voltage drop
The voltage drop is calculated using the data given in Figure G28, for balanced three-phase circuits,
motor power normal service (cos = 0.8).
The results are summarized on Figure G68
The total voltage drop at the end of cable C7 is then: 0.77%.
C1 C3 C7
c.s.a. 2 x 240mm2 2 x 95mm2 1 x 95mm2
0.22 0.43 0.43

U per conductor(V/A/km)
see Fig. G28
Load current (A) 866 509 255

Length (m) 5 20 5
Voltage drop (V) 0.48 2.19 0.55
Voltage drop (%) 0.12 0.55 0.14
Fig. G68: Voltage drop introduced by the different cables.

3-phase short-circuit current (Isc) at any point within a LV installation.
In a 3-phase installation Isc at any point is given by:
where
U20 = phase-to-phase voltage of the open circuited secondary windings of the power supply
transformer(s).
ZT = total impedance per phase of the installation upstream of the fault location (in )
Method of calculating ZT
Each component of an installation (MV network, transformer, cable, busbar, and so on...) is
characterized by its impedance Z, comprising an element of resistance (R) and an inductive
reactance (X). It may be noted that capacitive reactances are not important in short-circuit current
calculations.
The parameters R, X and Z are expressed in ohms, and are related by the sides of a right angled
triangle, as shown in the impedance diagram of Figure G33.
Fig. G33: Impedance diagram
The method consists in dividing the network into convenient sections, and to calculate the R and X
values for each.
Where sections are connected in series in the network, all the resistive elements in the section are
added arithmetically; likewise for the reactances, to give RT and XT.
The impedance (ZT) for the combined sections concerned is then calculated
from
Any two sections of the network which are connected in parallel, can, if predominantly both resistive
(or both inductive) be combined to give a single equivalent resistance (or reactance) as follows:
Let R1 and R2 be the two resistances connected in parallel, then the equivalent resistance R3 will
be given by:
or for reactances
It should be noted that the calculation of X3 concerns only separated circuit without mutual
inductance. If the circuits in parallel are close togother the value of X3 will be notably higher.
Determination of the impedance of each component
Network upstream of the MV/LV transformer
(see Fig. G34)
The 3-phase short-circuit fault level PSC, in kA or in MVA[1] is given by the power supply authority
concerned, from which an equivalent impedance can be deduced.
Psc Uo (V) Ra (m) Xa (m)
250 MVA 420 0.07 0.7
500 MVA 420 0.035 0.351
Fig. G34: The impedance of the MV network referred to the LV side of the MV/LV transformer
A formula which makes this deduction and at the same time converts the impedance to an
equivalent value at LV is given, as follows:
where
Zs = impedance of the MV voltage network, expressed in milli-ohms

Uo = phase-to-phase no-load LV voltage, expressed in volts
Psc = MV 3-phase short-circuit fault level, expressed in kVA
The upstream (MV) resistance Ra is generally found to be negligible compared with the
corresponding Xa, the latter then being taken as the ohmic value for Za. If more accurate
calculations are necessary, Xa may be taken to be equal to 0.995 Za and Ra equal to 0.1 Xa.
Figure G36 gives values for Ra and Xa corresponding to the most common MV[2] short-circuit levels
in utility power-supply networks, namely, 250 MVA and 500 MVA.
Transformers
(see Fig. G35)
The impedance Ztr of a transformer, viewed from the LV terminals, is given by the formula:
where:
U20 = open-circuit secondary phase-to-phase voltage expressed in volts

Sn = rating of the transformer (in VA)
Usc = the short-circuit impedance voltage of the transformer expressed in %
The transformer windings resistance Rtr can be derived from the total load-losses as follows:
so that in milli-ohms
where
Pcu = total load-losses in watts

In = nominal full-load current in amps
Rtr = resistance of one phase of the transformer in milli-ohms (the LV and corresponding MV
winding for one LV phase are included in this resistance value).
Note: for an approximate calculation, in the absence of more precise information on transformer
characteristics, Cenelec 50480 suggests to use the following guidelines:
if U20 is not known, it may be assumed to be 1.05 Un
in the absence of more precise information, the following values may be used: Rtr = 0.31 Ztr
and Xtr = 0.95 Ztr
Example: for a transformer of 630kVA with Usc=4% / Un = 400V, approximate calculation gives:
U20 = 400 x 1.05 = 420V
Ztr = 4202 / 630000 x 4% = 11 m
Rtr = 0.31 x Ztr = 3.5 m and Xtr = 0.95 x Ztr = 10.6 m
Rated Power kVA) Oil-immersed Cast-resin
Usc (%) Rtr (m) Xtr (m) Ztr (m) Usc (%) Rtr (m) Xtr (m) Ztr (m)
100 4 37.9 59.5 70.6 6 37.0 99.1 105.8
160 4 16.2 41.0 44.1 6 18.6 63.5 66.2
200 4 11.9 33.2 35.3 6 14.1 51.0 52.9
250 4 9.2 26.7 28.2 6 10.7 41.0 42.3

315 4 6.2 21.5 22.4 6 8.0 32.6 33.6
400 4 5.1 16.9 17.6 6 6.1 25.8 26.5
500 4 3.8 13.6 14.1 6 4.6 20.7 21.2
630 4 2.9 10.8 11.2 6 3.5 16.4 16.8
800 6 2.9 12.9 13.2 6 2.6 13.0 13.2
1,000 6 2.3 10.3 10.6 6 1.9 10.4 10.6
1,250 6 1.8 8.3 8.5 6 1.5 8.3 8.5
1,600 6 1.4 6.5 6.6 6 1.1 6.5 6.6
2,000 6 1.1 5.2 5.3 6 0.9 5.2 5.3
Fig. G35: Resistance, reactance and impedance values for typical distribution 400 V transformers (no-load voltage =
420 V) with MV windings 20 kV
Busbars
The resistance of busbars is generally negligible, so that the impedance is practically all reactive,
and amounts to approximately 0.15 m/metre[3] length for LV busbars (doubling the spacing between
the bars increases the reactance by about 10% only).
In practice, it's almost never possible to estimate the busbar length concerned by a short-circuit
downstream a switchboard.
Circuit conductors
The resistance of a conductor is given by the formula:

where
= the resistivity of the conductor material at the normal operating temperature
has to be considered:
at cold state (20C) to determine maximum short-circuit current,
at steady state (normal operating temperature) to determine minimum short-circuit current.
L = length of the conductor in m

S = c.s.a. of conductor in mm2
20 C PR/XLPE 90 C PVC 70 C
Copper 18.51 23.69 22.21
Alu 29.41 37.65 35.29
Fig. G35b: Values of as a function of the temperature, cable insulation and cable core material, according to
IEC60909-0 and Cenelec TR 50480 (in m mm2/m).
Cable reactance values can be obtained from the manufacturers. For c.s.a. of less than 50
mm2 reactance may be ignored. In the absence of other information, a value of 0.08 m/metre may
be used (for 50 Hz systems) or 0.096 m/metre (for 60 Hz systems). For busways (busbar trunking
systems) and similar pre-wired ducting systems, the manufacturer should be consulted.
Motors
At the instant of short-circuit, a running motor will act (for a brief period) as a generator, and feed
current into the fault.
In general, this fault-current contribution may be ignored. However, if the total power of motors
running simultaneously is higher than 25% of the total power of transformers, the influence of motors
must be taken into account. Their total contribution can be estimated from the formula:
Iscm = 3.5 In from each motor i.e. 3.5m In for m similar motors operating concurrently.
The motors concerned will be the 3-phase motors only; single-phase-motor contribution being
insignificant.
Fault-arc resistance
Short-circuit faults generally form an arc which has the properties of a resistance. The resistance is
not stable and its average value is low, but at low voltage this resistance is sufficient to reduce the
fault-current to some extent. Experience has shown that a reduction of the order of 20% may be
expected. This phenomenon will effectively ease the current-breaking duty of a CB, but affords no
relief for its fault-current making duty.
Recapitulation table
(see Fig. G36)
Parts of power-supply system R (m) X (m)
Xa = 0.995 Za
Supply network
Figure G34
Transformer
where
Figure G35
Rtr is often negligible compared to Xtr for transformers
> 100 kVA
Circuit-breaker Not considered in practice
Busbars Negligible for S > 200 mm2 in the XB = 0.15 m/m

[a]
formula:
Circuit Cables: Xc = 0.08 m/m

conductors[b]
[a]
Motors See 3-phase short-circuit current (Isc) at any point

within a LV installation Motors
(often negligible at LV)
Three-phase
maximum
circuit current in
kA
[a] = resistivity at 20C
[b] If there are several conductors in parallel per phase, then divide the resistance of one conductor by the number of
conductors. The reactance remains practically unchanged.
U20: Phase-to-phase no-load secondary voltage of MV/LV transformer (in volts).
Psc: 3-phase short-circuit power at MV terminals of the MV/LV transformers (in kVA).
Pcu: 3-phase total losses of the MV/LV transformer (in watts).
Sn: Rating of the MV/LV transformer (in kVA).
Usc: Short-circuit impedance voltage of the MV/LV transfomer (in %).
RT : Total resistance. XT: Total reactanc
Fig. G36: Recapitulation table of impedances for different parts of a power-supply system
Example of short-circuit calculations
(see Fig. G37)
LV installation R (m) X (m) RT XT

(m) (m)
0.035 0.351
MV network
Psc = 500
MVA
Transformer 20 2.35 8.5
kV / 420 V
Pn = 1000 kVA
Usc = 5%
Pcu = 13.3 x
103 watts
Single-core Xc = 2.48 9.25 Isc1 = 25 kA

cables 0.08 x 5
5 m copper = 0.40
4 x 240
mm2/phase
Main circuit- Not considered in practice

breaker
Busbars 10 m Not considered in practice
Three-core Xc = 22 17.3 Isc3 = 8.7 kA

cable 100 x
100 m 0.08 = 8
95 mm2copper
Three-core Xc = 20 59 18.9 Isc4 = 3.9 kA

cable x 0.08 =
20 m 1.6
10 mm2copper
final circuits
RT : Total resistance. XT: Total reactance. Isc : 3-phase maximum short-circuit current Calculations made a
G36
Fig. G37: Example of maximum short-circuit current calculations for a LV installation supplied at 400 V (nominal)
from a 1000 kVA MV/LV transformer
Notes
1. ^ Short-circuit MVA: EL Isc where:
EL = phase-to-phase nominal system voltage expressed in kV (r.m.s.)
Isc = 3-phase short-circuit current expressed in kA (r.m.s.)
2. ^ up to 36 kV
3. ^ For 50 Hz systems, but 0.18 m/m length at 60 Hz.

Location of protective devices.
General rule
(see Fig. G7a)
A protective device is necessary at the origin of each circuit where a reduction of permissible
maximum current level occurs.
Possible alternative locations in certain circumstances
(see Fig. G7b)
The protective device may be placed part way along the circuit:
If AB is not in proximity to combustible material, and
If no socket-outlets or branch connections are taken from AB
Three cases may be useful in practice:
Consider case (1) in the diagram
AB 3 metres, and
AB has been installed to reduce to a practical minimum the risk of a short-circuit

(wires in heavy steel conduit for example)
Consider case (2)
The upstream device P1 protects the length AB against short-circuits in accordance
Consider case (3)
The overload device (S) is located adjacent to the load. This arrangement is
convenient for motor circuits. The device (S) constitutes the control (start/stop) and overload
protection of the motor while (SC) is: either a circuit-breaker (designed for motor protection) or
fuses type aM
The short-circuit protection (SC) located at the origin of the circuit conforms with the
principles of Calculation of minimum levels of short-circuit current .
Circuits with no protection
(see Fig. G7c)
Either
The protective device P1 is calibrated to protect the cable S2 against overloads and short-
circuits
Or
Where the breaking of a circuit constitutes a risk, e.g.
Excitation circuits of rotating machines
circuits of large lifting electromagnets
the secondary circuits of current transformers
No circuit interruption can be tolerated, and the protection of the cabling is of secondary importance.
a. b.
c.
Short-circuit current at the secondary terminals of a MV/LV distribution

transformer.
The case of one transformer
In a simplified approach, the impedance of the MV system is assumed to be negligibly small,

so that:
where
and:
S = kVA rating of the transformer

U20 = phase-to-phase secondary volts on open circuit
In = nominal current in amps
Isc = short-circuit fault current in amps
Usc = short-circuit impedance voltage of the transformer in %.
Typical values of Usc for distribution transformers are given in Figure G31
Transformer rating (kVA) Usc in %
Oil-immersed Cast-resin dry type
50 to 750 4 6
800 to 3,200 6 6
Fig. G31: Typical values of Usc for different kVA ratings of transformers with MV windings 20 kV
Example
400 kVA transformer, 420 V at no load
Usc = 4%
The case of several transformers in parallel feeding a busbar
The value of fault current on an outgoing circuit immediately downstream of the busbars
(see Fig. G32) can be estimated as the sum of the Isc from each transformer calculated separately.
It is assumed that all transformers are supplied from the same MV network, in which case the values
obtained from Figure G31when added together will give a slightly higher fault-level value than would
actually occur.
Other factors which have not been taken into account are the impedance of the busbars and of the
cable between transformers and circuit breakers.
The conservative fault-current value obtained however, is sufficiently accurate for basic installation
design purposes. The choice of circuit breakers and incorporated protective devices against short-
circuit and fault currents is described in Selection of a circuit-breaker .
Fig. G32: Case of several transformers in parallel.
Conductor sizing: methodology and definition.

Methodology
(see Figure G1)
Following a preliminary analysis of the power requirements of the installation, as described in The
consumer substation with LV metering, a study of cabling[1] and its electrical protection is undertaken,
starting at the origin of the installation, through the intermediate stages to the final circuits.
The cabling and its protection at each level must satisfy several conditions at the same time, in order
to ensure a safe and reliable installation, e.g. it must:
Carry the permanent full load current, and normal short-time overcurrents
Not cause voltage drops likely to result in an inferior performance of certain loads, for
example: an excessively long acceleration period when starting a motor, etc.
Moreover, the protective devices (circuit-breakers or fuses) must:
Protect the cabling and busbars for all levels of overcurrent, up to and including short-circuit
currents
Ensure protection of persons against indirect contact hazards, particularly in TN- and IT-
earthed systems, where the length of circuits may limit the magnitude of short-circuit currents,
thereby delaying automatic disconnection (it may be remembered that TT- earthed installations
are necessarily protected at the origin by a RCD, generally rated at 300 mA).
The cross-sectional areas of conductors are determined by the general method described
in Practical method for determining the smallest allowable cross-sectional area of circuit
conductors of this Chapter. Apart from this method some national standards may prescribe a
minimum cross-sectional area to be observed for reasons of mechanical endurance. Particular loads
(as noted in Chapter Characteristics of particular sources and loads) require that the cable supplying
them be oversized, and that the protection of the circuit be likewise modified.
Fig. G1: Flow-chart for the selection of cable size and protective device rating for a given circuit
Definitions
Maximum load current: IB
At the final circuits level, this design current (according to IEV "International Electrotechnical
Vocabulary" ref 826-11-10) corresponds to the rated kVA of the load. In the case of motor-starting,
or other loads which take a high in-rush current, particularly where frequent starting is concerned
(e.g. lift motors, resistance-type spot welding, and so on) the cumulative thermal effects of the
overcurrents must be taken into account. Both cables and thermal type relays are affected.
At all upstream circuit levels this current corresponds to the kVA to be supplied, which takes
account of the diversity and utilization factors, ks and ku respectively, as shown in Figure G2.
Fig. G2: Calculation of maximum load current IB
Maximum permissible current: Iz
Current carrying capacity Iz is the maximum permissible that the cabling for the circuit can carry
indefinitely, without reducing its normal life expectancy.
The current depends, for a given cross sectional area of conductors, on several parameters:
Constitution of the cable and cable-way (Cu or Alu conductors; PVC or EPR etc. insulation;
number of active conductors)
Ambient temperature
Method of installation
Influence of neighbouring circuits
Overcurrents
An overcurrent occurs each time the value of current exceeds the maximum load current IB for the
load concerned.
This current must be cut off with a rapidity that depends upon its magnitude, if permanent damage to
the cabling (and appliance if the overcurrent is due to a defective load component) is to be avoided.
Overcurrents of relatively short duration can however, occur in normal operation; two types of
overcurrent are distinguished:
Overloads
These overcurrents can occur in healthy electric circuits, for example, due to a number of
small short-duration loads which occasionally occur co-incidentally: motor starting loads, and
so on. If either of these conditions persists however beyond a given period (depending on
protective-relay settings or fuse ratings) the circuit will be automatically cut off.
Short-circuit currents
These currents result from the failure of insulation between live conductors or/and between
live conductors and earth (on systems having low-impedance-earthed neutrals) in any
combination, viz:
3 phases short-circuited (and to neutral and/or earth, or not)
2 phases short-circuited (and to neutral and/or earth, or not)
1 phase short-circuited to neutral (and/or to earth).
Overcurrent protection principles.

A protective device is provided at the origin of the circuit concerned (see Fig. G3 and Fig. G4 ).
Acting to cut-off the current in a time shorter than that given by the I2t characteristic of the
circuit cabling
But allowing the maximum load current IB to flow indefinitely
The characteristics of insulated conductors when carrying short-circuit currents can, for periods up to
5 seconds following short-circuit initiation, be determined approximately by the formula:
I2t = k2 S2
which shows that the allowable heat generated is proportional to the squared cross-sectional-area of
the condutor.
where
t = Duration of short-circuit current (seconds)
S = Cross sectional area of insulated conductor (mm2)
I = Short-circuit current (A r.m.s.)
k = Insulated conductor constant (values of k2 are given in Figure G52)
For a given insulated conductor, the maximum permissible current varies according to the
environment. For instance, for a high ambient temperature (a1 > a2), Iz1 is less than Iz2
(see Fig. G5). means temperature.
Note:
ISC: 3-phase short-circuit current

ISCB: rated 3-ph. short-circuit breaking current of the circuit-breaker
Ir (or Irth)[1]: regulated nominal current level; e.g. a 50 A nominal circuit-breaker can be
regulated to have a protective range, i.e. a conventional overcurrent tripping level
(see Fig. G6) similar to that of a 30 A circuit-breaker.
Fig. G3: Circuit protection by circuit breaker

Fig. G4: Circuit protection by fuses
Fig. G5: I2t characteristic of an insulated conductor at two different ambient temperatures.
Practical values for a protective scheme.

General rules
A protective device (circuit-breaker or fuse) functions correctly if:

Its nominal current or its setting current In is greater than the maximum load current IB but
less than the maximum permissible current Iz for the circuit, i.e. IB In Iz corresponding to zone
a in Figure G6
Its tripping current I2 conventional setting is less than 1.45 Iz which corresponds to zone b
in Figure G6
The conventional setting tripping time may be 1 hour or 2 hours according to local
standards and the actual value selected for I2. For fuses, I2 is the current (denoted If) which
will operate the fuse in the conventional time.
Its 3-phase short-circuit fault-current breaking rating is greater than the 3-phase short-circuit
current existing at its point of installation. This corresponds to zone c in Figure G6.
Fig. G6: Current levels for determining circuir breaker or fuse characteristics IB In Iz zone a I2
1.45 Iz zone b ISCB ISC zone c
Applications
Protection by circuit-breaker
Criteria for circuit-breakers: IB In Iz and ISCB ISC.
By virtue of its high level of precision the current I2 is always less than 1.45 In (or 1.45 Ir) so that the
condition I2 1.45 Iz (as noted in the general rules above) will always be respected.
Particular case
If the circuit-breaker itself does not protect against overloads, it is necessary to ensure that,
at a time of lowest value of short-circuit current, the overcurrent device protecting the circuit
will operate correctly. This particular case is examined in Calculation of minimum levels of
short-circuit current.
Protection by fuses
Criteria for fuses: IB In Iz/k3 and ISCF ISC.
The condition I2 1.45 Iz must be taken into account, where I2 is the fusing (melting level) current,
equal to k2 x In (k2 ranges from 1.6 to 1.9) depending on the particular fuse concerned.
A further factor k3 has been introduced such that I2 1.45 Iz
will be valid if In Iz/k3.
For fuses type gG:
In < 16 A k3 = 1.31
In 16 A k3 = 1.10
Moreover, the short-circuit current breaking capacity of the fuse ISCF must exceed the level of 3-
phase short-circuit current at the point of installation of the fuse(s).
Association of different protective devices
The use of protective devices which have fault-current ratings lower than the fault level existing at
their point of installation are permitted by IEC and many national standards in the following
conditions:
There exists upstream, another protective device which has the necessary short-circuit
rating, and
The amount of energy allowed to pass through the upstream device is less than that which
can be withstood without damage by the downstream device and all associated cabling and
appliances.
In pratice this arrangement is generally exploited in:
The association of circuit-breakers/fuses
The technique known as cascading or series rating in which the strong current-limiting
performance of certain circuit-breakers effectively reduces the severity of downstream short-
circuits
Possible combinations which have been tested in laboratories are indicated in certain manufacturers
catalogues.
General method for cable sizing.

Possible methods of installation for different types of conductors or cables
The different admissible methods of installation are listed in Figure G8, in conjonction with the
different types of conductors and cables.
Conductors cables Method of installation
Cable Cable On Sup

Without Clipped Condu Cable trunking ducting ladder, insulat port
fixings direct it systems systems ors wire
syste (including skirting Cable
ms trunking,
tray,
flush floor Cable
trunking) rackets
Bare conductors - - - - - - + -
[b] [a]
Insulated conductors - - + + + - + -
Sheathed Multi- + + + + + + 0 +
cables core
Single 0 + + + + + 0 +
(including -core
armoured and
mineral
insulated)
+ : Permitted.
: Not Permitted.
0 : Not applicable, or not normally used in practice.
[a] Insulated conductors are admitted if the cable trunking systems provide at least he degree of protection IP4X or
IPXXD and if the cover can only be removed by means of a tool or a deliberate action.
[b] Insulated conductors which are used as protective conductors or protective bonding conductors may use any
appropriate method of installation and need not be laid in conduits, trunking or ducting systems.
Fig. G8: Selection of wiring systems (table A.52.1 of IEC 60364-5-52)
Possible methods of installation for different situations:
Different methods of installation can be implemented in different situations. The possible

combinations are presented in Figure G9.
The number given in this table refer to the different wiring systems considered.
Situations Method of installation
Without Clipped Conduit Cable Cable Cable On Support

fixings direct Systems trunking ducting ladder, insulators wire
(including systems cable
skirting tray,
trunking, cable
flush floor brackets
trunking)
Building Accessible 40 33 41, 42 6, 7, 8, 43, 44 30, 31, - 0

voids 9,12 32, 33,
34
Not 40 0 41, 42 0 43 0 0 0
accessible
Cable channel 56 56 54, 55 0 30, 31, - -

32, 34
Buried in ground 72, 73 0 70, 71 - 70, 71 0 - -

Embedded in structure 57, 58 3 1, 2, 59, 50, 51, 52, 46, 45 0 - -
60 53
Surface mounted - 20, 21, 4, 5 6, 7, 8, 9, 6, 7, 8, 9 30, 31, 36 -

22, 23, 12 32, 34
33
Overhead/free in air - 33 0 10, 11 10, 11 30, 31, 36 35

32, 34
Window frames 16 0 16 0 0 0 - -
Architrave 15 0 15 0 0 0 - -
Immersed 1 + + + - + 0 - -
: Not permitted.
0 : Not applicable or not normally used in practice.
+ : Follow manufacturers instructions.
Note: The number in each box, e.g. 40, 46, refers to the number of the method of installation in Table A.52.3.
Fig. G9: Erection of wiring systems (table A.52.2 of IEC 60364-5-52)
Examples of wiring systems and reference methods of installations
An illustration of some of the many different wiring systems and methods of installation is provided
in Figure G10.
Several reference methods are defined (with code letters A to G), grouping installation methods
having the same characteristics relative to the current-carrying capacities of the wiring systems.
Item Methods of installation Description Reference method of installation to be

No. used to obtain current-carrying capacity
1 Insulated conductors or single-core A1

cables in conduit in a thermally
insulated wall
Room
2 Multi-core cables in conduit in a A2
thermally insulated wall
Room
4 Insulated conductors or single-core B1

cables in conduit on a wooden, or
masonry wall or spaced less than
0,3 x conduit diameter from it
5 Multi-core cable in conduit on a B2

wooden, or mansonry wall or
spaced less than 0,3 x conduit
diameter from it
20 Single-core or multi-core cables: - C

fixed on, or sapced less than 0.3 x
cable diameter from a wooden wall
C
30 Single-core or multi-core cables:
On unperforated tray run
horizontally or vertically
31 Single-core or multi-core cables: E or F
On perforated tray run horizontally
or vertically
36 Bare or insulated conductors on G

insulators
70 Multi-core cables in conduit or in D1

cable ducting in the ground
71 Single-core cable in conduit or in D1

cable ducting in the ground
Fig. G10: Examples of methods of installation (part of table A.52.3 of IEC 60364-5-52)
Maximum operating temperature:
The current-carrying capacities given in the subsequent tables have been determined so that the
maximum insulation temperature is not exceeded for sustained periods of time.
For different type of insulation material, the maximum admissible temperature is given
in Figure G11.
Type of insulation Temperature limit

C
Polyvinyl-chloride (PVC) 70 at the conductor
Cross-linked polyethylene (XLPE) and ethylene propylene rubber 90 at the conductor

(EPR)
Mineral (PVC covered or bare exposed to touch) 70 at the sheath
Mineral (bare not exposed to touch and not in contact with 105 at the seath
combustible material)
Fig. G11: Maximum operating temperatures for types of insulation (table 52.1 of IEC 60364-5-52)
Correction factors
In order to take environment or special conditions of installation into account, correction factors have
been introduced.
The cross sectional area of cables is determined using the rated load current IB divided by different
correction factors, k1, k2, ...:
IB is the corrected load current, to be compared to the current-carrying capacity of the considered
cable.
Ambient temperature
The current-carrying capacities of cables in the air are based on an average air temperature equal to
30 C. For other temperatures, the correction factor is given in FigureG12 for PVC, EPR and XLPE
insulation material.
The related correction factor is here noted k1.
Ambient temperature C Insulation
PVC XLPE and EPR
10 1.22 1.15
15 1.17 1.12
20 1.12 1.08
25 1.06 1.04
30 1 1
35 0.94 0.96
40 0.87 0.91
45 0.79 0.87
50 0.71 0.82
55 0.61 0.76
60 0.50 0.71
65 - 0.65
70 - 0.58
75 - 0.50
80 - 0.41
Fig. G12: Correction factors for ambient air temperatures other than 30 C to be applied to the current-carrying
capacities for cables in the air (from table B.52.14 of IEC 60364-5-52)
The current-carrying capacities of cables in the ground are based on an average ground
temperature equal to 20 C. For other temperatures, the correction factor is given in Figure G13 for
PVC, EPR and XLPE insulation material.

Ground temperature C Insulation
PVC XLPE and EPR
10 1.10 1.07
15 1.05 1.04
20 1 1
25 0.95 0.96
30 0.89 0.93
35 0.84 0.89
40 0.77 0.85
45 0.71 0.80
50 0.63 0.76
55 0.55 0.71
60 0.45 0.65
65 - 0.60
70 - 0.53
75 - 0.46
80 - 0.38
Fig. G13: Correction factors for ambient ground temperatures other than 20 C to be applied to the current-carrying
capacities for cables in ducts in the ground (from table B.52.15 of IEC 60364-5-52)
Soil thermal resistivity
The current-carrying capacities of cables in the ground are based on a ground resistivity equal to 2.5
Km/W. For other values, the correction factor is given in Figure G14.
Thermal resistivity, Km/W 0.5 0.7 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Correction factor for cables in buried ducts 1.28 1.20 1.18 1.1 1.05 1 0.96
Correction factor for direct buried cables 1.88 1.62 1.5 1.28 1.12 1 0.90
Note 1: The correction factors given have been averaged over the range of conductor sizes and types of installation
included in Tables B.52.2 to B.52.5. The overall accuracy of correction factors is within 5 %.
Note 2: The correction factors are applicable to cables drawn into buried ducts; for cables laid direct in the ground the
correction factors for thermal resistivities less than 2.5 Km/W will be higher. Where more precise values are required
they may be calculated by methods given in the IEC 60287 series.
Note 3: The correction factors are applicable to ducts buried at depths of up to 0.8 m.
Note 4: It is assumed that the soil properties are uniform. No allowance had been made for the possibility of moisture
migration which can lead to a region of high thermal resistivity around the cable. If partial drying out of the soil is
foreseen, the permissible current rating should be derived by the methods specified in the IEC 60287 series.
Fig. G14: Correction factors for cables in buried ducts for soil thermal resistivities other than 2.5 K.m/W to be applied
to the current-carrying capacities for reference method D (table B.52.16 of IEC 60364-5-52)
Based on experience, a relationship exist between the soil nature and resistivity. Then, empiric
values of correction factors k3 are proposed in Figure G15, depending on the nature of soil.
Nature of soil k3
Very wet soil (saturated) 1.21
Wet soil 1.13
Damp soil 1.05
Dry soil 1.00
Very dry soil (sunbaked) 0.86
Fig. G15: Correction factor k3 depending on the nature of soil
Grouping of conductors or cables

The current-carrying capacities given in the subsequent tables relate to single circuits
consisting of the following numbers of loaded conductors:
Two insulated conductors or two single-core cables, or one twin-core cable (applicable to
single-phase circuits);
Three insulated conductors or three single-core cables, or one three-core cable (applicable
to three-phase circuits).
Where more insulated conductors or cables are installed in the same group, a group reduction factor
(here noted k4) shall be applied.
Examples are given in Figures G16 to G18 for different configurations (installation methods, in free
air or in the ground).
Figure G16 gives the values of correction factor k4 for different configurations of unburied cables or
conductors, grouping of more than one circuit or multi-core cables.
Arrangement Number of circuits or multi-core cables Reference methods

(cables
touching)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 12 16 20
Bunched in air, on 1.00 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.6 0.5 0.54 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.41 0.38 Methods A
a surface,
embedded
orenclosed 0 0 5 0 7 2 0 5 to F
Single layer on 1.00 0.8 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.72 0.7 0.7 No further Method C
wall, floor or 5 9 5 3 2 1 0 reduction factor
unperforated tray for more than
nine circuits or
multi-core cables
Single layer fixed 0.95 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.63 0.6 0.6
directly under a 1 2 8 6 4 2 1
wooden ceiling
Single layer on a 1.00 0.8 0.8 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.73 0.7 0.7 Methods E and F
perforated 8 2 7 5 3 2 2
horizontal or
vertical tray
Single layer on 1.00 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.7 0.79 0.7 0.7
ladder support or 7 2 0 0 9 8 8
cleats etc.
Fig. G16: Reduction factors for groups of more than one circuit or of more than one multi-core cable (table B.52.17 of
IEC 60364-5-52)
Figure G17 gives the values of correction factor k4 for different configurations of unburied cables or
conductors, for groups of more than one circuit of single-core cables in free air.
Method of installation Number of Number of three-phase Use as a

tray circuits multiplier to
rating for
1 2 3
Perforated trays 31 1 0.98 0.91 0.87 Three cables

in horizontal
formation
2 0.96 0.87 0.81
3 0.95 0.85 0.78
Vertical perforated trays 31 1 0.96 0.86 Three cables

in vertical
2 0.95 0.84 formation
Ladder supports, cleats, 32 1 1.00 0.97 0.96 Three cables

etc... formation in horizontal
formation
33 2 0.98 0.93 0.89
34 3 0.97 0.90 0.86
Perforated trays 31 1 1.00 0.98 0.96 Three cables

in trefoil
formation
2 0.97 0.93 0.89
3 0.96 0.92 0.86
Vertical perforated trays 31 1 1.00 0.91 0.89
2 1.00 0.90 0.86
Ladder supports, cleats, 32 1 1.00 1.00 1.00

etc...
33 2 0.97 0.95 0.93
34 3 0.96 0.94 0.90
Fig. G17: Reduction factors for groups of more than one circuit of single-core cables to be applied to reference rating
for one circuit of single-core cables in free air - Method of installation F. (table B.52.21 of IEC 60364-5-52)
Figure G18 gives the values of correction factor k4 for different configurations of cables or
conductors laid directly in the ground.
Number of Cable to cable clearance(a)

circuits
Nil (cables One cable 0.125 0.25 m 0.5 m

touching) diameter m
2 0.75 0.80 0.85 0.90 0.90
3 0.65 0.70 0.75 0.80 0.85
4 0.60 0.60 0.70 0.75 0.80
5 0.55 0.55 0.65 0.70 0.80
6 0.50 0.55 0.60 0.70 0.80
7 0.45 0.51 0.59 0.67 0.76
8 0.43 0.48 0.57 0.65 0.75
9 0.41 0.46 0.55 0.63 0.74
12 0.36 0.42 0.51 0.59 0.71
16 0.32 0.38 0.47 0.56 0.38
20 0.29 0.35 0.44 0.53 0.66

(a) for Multi-
core cables
(a) for Single-

core cables
Fig. G18: Reduction factors for more than one circuit, single-core or multi-core cables laid directly in the ground.
Installation method D. (table B.52.18 of IEC 60364-5-52)
Harmonic current
The current-carrying capacity of three-phase, 4-core or 5-core cables is based on the assumption
that only 3 conductors are fully loaded.
However, when harmonic currents are circulating, the neutral current can be significant, and even
higher than the phase currents. This is due to the fact that the 3 rd harmonic currents of the three
phases do not cancel each other, and sum up in the neutral conductor.
This of course affects the current-carrying capacity of the cable, and a correction factor noted here
k5 shall be applied.
In addition, if the 3rd harmonic percentage h3 is greater than 33%, the neutral current is greater than
the phase current and the cable size selection is based on the neutral current. The heating effect of
harmonic currents in the phase conductors has also to be taken into account.
The values of k5 depending on the 3rd harmonic content are given in Figure G19.
Third harmonic content of Correction factor

phase current %
Size selection is based on Size selection is based on

phase current neutral current
0 - 15 1.0
15 - 33 0.86
33 - 45 0.86
> 45 1.0[a]
[a] If the neutral current is more than 135 % of the phase current and the cable size is selected on the basis of the
neutral current then the three phase conductors will not be fully loaded. The reduction in heat generated by the phase
conductors offsets the heat generated by the neutral conductor to the extent that it is not necessary to apply any
reduction factor to the current carrying capacity for three loaded conductors.
Fig. G19: Correction factors for harmonic currents in four-core and five-core cables (table E.52.1 of IEC 60364-5-52)
Admissible current as a function of nominal cross-sectional area of conductors
IEC standard 60364-5-52 proposes extensive information in the form of tables giving the admissible
currents as a function of cross-sectional area of cables. Many parameters are taken into account,
such as the method of installation, type of insulation material, type of conductor material, number of
loaded conductors.
As an example, Figure G20 gives the current-carrying capacities for different methods of installation
of PVC insulation, three loaded copper or almunium conductors, free air or in ground.
Nominal cross-sectional Installation methods of Table B.52.1

area of
conductors(mm2)
A1 A2 B1 B2 C D1 D2
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Copper
1.5 13.5 13 15.5 15 17.5 18 19

2.5 18 17.5 21 20 24 24 24
4 24 23 28 27 32 30 33
6 31 29 36 34 41 38 41
10 42 39 50 46 57 50 54
16 56 52 68 62 76 64 70
25 73 68 89 80 96 82 92
35 89 83 110 99 119 98 110
50 108 99 134 118 144 116 130
70 136 125 171 149 184 143 162
95 164 150 207 179 223 169 193
120 188 172 239 206 259 192 220
150 216 196 262 225 299 217 246
185 245 223 296 255 341 243 278
240 286 261 346 297 403 280 320
300 328 298 394 339 464 316 359

Aluminium
2.5 14 13.5 16.5 15.5 18.5 18.5
4 18.5 17.5 22 21 25 24
6 24 23 28 27 32 30
10 32 31 39 36 44 39
16 43 41 53 48 59 50 53
25 57 53 70 62 73 64 69
35 70 65 86 77 90 77 83
50 84 78 104 92 110 91 99
70 107 98 133 116 140 112 122
95 129 118 161 139 170 132 148
120 149 135 186 160 197 150 169
150 170 155 204 176 227 169 189
185 194 176 230 199 259 190 214
240 227 207 269 232 305 218 250

300 261 237 306 265 351 247 282
Note: In columns 3, 5, 6, 7 and 8, circular conductors are assumed for sizes up to and including 16 mm2. Values for
larger sizes relate to shaped conductors and may safely be applied to circular conductors.
Fig. G20: Current-carrying capacities in amperes for different methods of installation, PVC insulation, three loaded
conductors, copper or aluminium, conductor temperature: 70 C, ambient temperature: 30 C in air, 20 C in ground
(table B.52.4 of IEC 60364-5-52).
3-phase short-circuit current (Isc) at any point within a LV installation.

In a 3-phase installation Isc at any point is given by:
where
U20 = phase-to-phase voltage of the open circuited secondary windings of the power supply
transformer(s).
ZT = total impedance per phase of the installation upstream of the fault location (in )
Method of calculating ZT
Each component of an installation (MV network, transformer, cable, busbar, and so on...) is
characterized by its impedance Z, comprising an element of resistance (R) and an inductive
reactance (X). It may be noted that capacitive reactances are not important in short-circuit current
calculations.
The parameters R, X and Z are expressed in ohms, and are related by the sides of a right angled
triangle, as shown in the impedance diagram of Figure G33.
Fig. G33: Impedance diagram
The method consists in dividing the network into convenient sections, and to calculate the R and X
values for each.
Where sections are connected in series in the network, all the resistive elements in the section are
added arithmetically; likewise for the reactances, to give RT and XT.
The impedance (ZT) for the combined sections concerned is then calculated
from
Any two sections of the network which are connected in parallel, can, if predominantly both resistive
(or both inductive) be combined to give a single equivalent resistance (or reactance) as follows:
Let R1 and R2 be the two resistances connected in parallel, then the equivalent resistance R3 will
be given by:
or for reactances
It should be noted that the calculation of X3 concerns only separated circuit without mutual
inductance. If the circuits in parallel are close togother the value of X3 will be notably higher.
Determination of the impedance of each component
Network upstream of the MV/LV transformer
(see Fig. G34)
The 3-phase short-circuit fault level PSC, in kA or in MVA[1] is given by the power supply authority
concerned, from which an equivalent impedance can be deduced.
Psc Uo (V) Ra (m) Xa (m)
250 MVA 420 0.07 0.7
500 MVA 420 0.035 0.351
Fig. G34: The impedance of the MV network referred to the LV side of the MV/LV transformer
A formula which makes this deduction and at the same time converts the impedance to an
equivalent value at LV is given, as follows:
where
Zs = impedance of the MV voltage network, expressed in milli-ohms

Uo = phase-to-phase no-load LV voltage, expressed in volts
Psc = MV 3-phase short-circuit fault level, expressed in kVA
The upstream (MV) resistance Ra is generally found to be negligible compared with the
corresponding Xa, the latter then being taken as the ohmic value for Za. If more accurate
calculations are necessary, Xa may be taken to be equal to 0.995 Za and Ra equal to 0.1 Xa.
Figure G36 gives values for Ra and Xa corresponding to the most common MV[2] short-circuit levels
in utility power-supply networks, namely, 250 MVA and 500 MVA.
Transformers
(see Fig. G35)
The impedance Ztr of a transformer, viewed from the LV terminals, is given by the formula:
where:
U20 = open-circuit secondary phase-to-phase voltage expressed in volts

Sn = rating of the transformer (in VA)
Usc = the short-circuit impedance voltage of the transformer expressed in %
The transformer windings resistance Rtr can be derived from the total load-losses as follows:
so that in milli-ohms
where
Pcu = total load-losses in watts

In = nominal full-load current in amps
Rtr = resistance of one phase of the transformer in milli-ohms (the LV and corresponding MV
winding for one LV phase are included in this resistance value).
Note: for an approximate calculation, in the absence of more precise information on transformer
characteristics, Cenelec 50480 suggests to use the following guidelines:
if U20 is not known, it may be assumed to be 1.05 Un
in the absence of more precise information, the following values may be used: Rtr = 0.31 Ztr
and Xtr = 0.95 Ztr
Example: for a transformer of 630kVA with Usc=4% / Un = 400V, approximate calculation gives:
U20 = 400 x 1.05 = 420V
Ztr = 4202 / 630000 x 4% = 11 m
Rtr = 0.31 x Ztr = 3.5 m and Xtr = 0.95 x Ztr = 10.6 m
Rated Power kVA) Oil-immersed Cast-resin
Usc (%) Rtr (m) Xtr (m) Ztr (m) Usc (%) Rtr (m) Xtr (m) Ztr (m)
100 4 37.9 59.5 70.6 6 37.0 99.1 105.8
160 4 16.2 41.0 44.1 6 18.6 63.5 66.2
200 4 11.9 33.2 35.3 6 14.1 51.0 52.9
250 4 9.2 26.7 28.2 6 10.7 41.0 42.3
315 4 6.2 21.5 22.4 6 8.0 32.6 33.6
400 4 5.1 16.9 17.6 6 6.1 25.8 26.5
500 4 3.8 13.6 14.1 6 4.6 20.7 21.2
630 4 2.9 10.8 11.2 6 3.5 16.4 16.8
800 6 2.9 12.9 13.2 6 2.6 13.0 13.2

1,000 6 2.3 10.3 10.6 6 1.9 10.4 10.6
1,250 6 1.8 8.3 8.5 6 1.5 8.3 8.5
1,600 6 1.4 6.5 6.6 6 1.1 6.5 6.6
2,000 6 1.1 5.2 5.3 6 0.9 5.2 5.3
Fig. G35: Resistance, reactance and impedance values for typical distribution 400 V transformers (no-load voltage =
420 V) with MV windings 20 kV
Busbars
The resistance of busbars is generally negligible, so that the impedance is practically all reactive,
and amounts to approximately 0.15 m/metre[3] length for LV busbars (doubling the spacing between
the bars increases the reactance by about 10% only).
In practice, it's almost never possible to estimate the busbar length concerned by a short-circuit
downstream a switchboard.
Circuit conductors
The resistance of a conductor is given by the formula:
where
= the resistivity of the conductor material at the normal operating temperature
has to be considered:
at cold state (20C) to determine maximum short-circuit current,
at steady state (normal operating temperature) to determine minimum short-circuit current.

L = length of the conductor in m
S = c.s.a. of conductor in mm2
20 C PR/XLPE 90 C PVC 70 C
Copper 18.51 23.69 22.21

Alu 29.41 37.65 35.29
Fig. G35b: Values of as a function of the temperature, cable insulation and cable core material, according to
IEC60909-0 and Cenelec TR 50480 (in m mm2/m).
Cable reactance values can be obtained from the manufacturers. For c.s.a. of less than 50
mm2 reactance may be ignored. In the absence of other information, a value of 0.08 m/metre may
be used (for 50 Hz systems) or 0.096 m/metre (for 60 Hz systems). For busways (busbar trunking
systems) and similar pre-wired ducting systems, the manufacturer should be consulted.
Motors
At the instant of short-circuit, a running motor will act (for a brief period) as a generator, and feed
current into the fault.
In general, this fault-current contribution may be ignored. However, if the total power of motors
running simultaneously is higher than 25% of the total power of transformers, the influence of motors
must be taken into account. Their total contribution can be estimated from the formula:
Iscm = 3.5 In from each motor i.e. 3.5m In for m similar motors operating concurrently.
The motors concerned will be the 3-phase motors only; single-phase-motor contribution being
insignificant.
Fault-arc resistance
Short-circuit faults generally form an arc which has the properties of a resistance. The resistance is
not stable and its average value is low, but at low voltage this resistance is sufficient to reduce the
fault-current to some extent. Experience has shown that a reduction of the order of 20% may be
expected. This phenomenon will effectively ease the current-breaking duty of a CB, but affords no
relief for its fault-current making duty.
Recapitulation table
(see Fig. G36)
Parts of power-supply system R (m) X (m)

Xa = 0.995 Za
Supply network
Figure G34
Transformer
with
Figure G35 where
Rtr is often negligible compared to Xtr for
transformers > 100 kVA
Circuit-breaker Not considered in practice

Busbars Negligible for S > 200 mm2 in the XB = 0.15 m/m
[a]
formula:
Circuit Cables: Xc = 0.08 m/m
conductors[b]
[a]
Motors See 3-phase short-circuit current (Isc) at

any point within a LV installation Motors
(often negligible at LV)
Three-phase
maximum
circuit current in
kA
[a] = resistivity at 20C
[b] If there are several conductors in parallel per phase, then divide the resistance of one conductor by the number of
conductors. The reactance remains practically unchanged.
U20: Phase-to-phase no-load secondary voltage of MV/LV transformer (in volts).
Psc: 3-phase short-circuit power at MV terminals of the MV/LV transformers (in kVA).
Pcu: 3-phase total losses of the MV/LV transformer (in watts).
Sn: Rating of the MV/LV transformer (in kVA).
Usc: Short-circuit impedance voltage of the MV/LV transfomer (in %).
RT : Total resistance. XT: Total reactanc
Fig. G36: Recapitulation table of impedances for different parts of a power-supply system
Example of short-circuit calculations
(see Fig. G37)

LV installation R (m) X (m) RT XT
(m) (m)
0.035 0.351
MV network
Psc = 500
MVA
Transformer 20 2.35 8.5

kV / 420 V
Pn = 1000 kVA
Usc = 5%
Pcu = 13.3 x
103 watts
Single-core Xc = 2.48 9.25 Isc1 = 25 kA
cables 0.08 x 5
5 m copper = 0.40
4 x 240
mm2/phase
Main circuit- Not considered in practice
breaker
Busbars 10 m Not considered in practice
Three-core Xc = 22 17.3 Isc3 = 8.7 kA
cable 100 x
100 m 0.08 = 8
95 mm2copper
Three-core Xc = 20 59 18.9 Isc4 = 3.9 kA
cable x 0.08 =
20 m 1.6
10 mm2copper
final circuits
RT : Total resistance. XT: Total reactance. Isc : 3-phase maximum short-circuit current Calculations
made as described in figure G36
Fig. G37: Example of maximum short-circuit current calculations for a LV installation supplied at 400 V (nominal)
from a 1000 kVA MV/LV transformer
Notes
1. ^ Short-circuit MVA: EL Isc where:
EL = phase-to-phase nominal system voltage expressed in kV (r.m.s.)
Isc = 3-phase short-circuit current expressed in kA (r.m.s.)

2. ^ up to 36 kV
3. ^ For 50 Hz systems, but 0.18 m/m length at 60 Hz.
Isc at the receiving end of a feeder as a function of the Isc at its

sending end.
The network shown in Figure G38 typifies a case for the application of Figure G39 , derived by the
method of composition (mentioned in chapter Protection against electric shocks and electric
fires ). These tables give a rapid and sufficiently accurate value of short-circuit current at a point in a
network, knowing:
The value of short-circuit current upstream of the point considered
The length and composition of the circuit between the point at which the short-circuit current
level is known, and the point at which the level is to be determined
It is then sufficient to select a circuit-breaker with an appropriate short-circuit fault rating immediately
above that indicated in the tables.
If more precise values are required, it is possible to make a detailed calculation or to use a software
package, such as Ecodial. In such a case, moreover, the possibility of using the cascading technique
should be considered, in which the use of a current limiting circuit-breaker at the upstream position
would allow all circuit-breakers downstream of the limiter to have a short-circuit current rating much
lower than would otherwise be necessary (See chapter LV switchgear: functions and selection ).
Method
Select the c.s.a. of the conductor in the column for copper conductors (in this example the c.s.a. is
47.5 mm2).
Search along the row corresponding to 47.5 mm2 for the length of conductor equal to that of the
circuit concerned (or the nearest possible on the low side). Descend vertically the column in which
the length is located, and stop at a row in the middle section (of the 3 sections of the Figure)
corresponding to the known fault-current level (or the nearest to it on the high side).
In this case 30 kA is the nearest to 28 kA on the high side. The value of short-circuit current at the
downstream end of the 20 metre circuit is given at the intersection of the vertical column in which the
length is located, and the horizontal row corresponding to the upstream Isc (or nearest to it on the
high side).
This value in the example is seen to be 14.7 kA.

The procedure for aluminium conductors is similar, but the vertical column must be ascended into
the middle section of the table.
In consequence, a DIN-rail-mounted circuit-breaker rated at 63 A and Isc of 25 kA (such as a NG

125N unit) can be used for the 55 A circuit in Figure G38.
A Compact rated at 160 A with an Isc capacity of 25 kA (such as a NS160 unit) can be used to
protect the 160 A circuit.
Fig. G38: Determination of downstream short-circuit current level Isc using Figure G39
Copper 230 V / 400 V
c.s.a.of Length of circuit (in metres)

phase
conductor
s (mm2)
1.5 1.3 1.8 2.6 3. 5.2 7.3 1

6 0
3
2.5 1.1 1.5 2.1 3.0 4.3 6. 8.6 12. 1

1 1 7
2
4 1.2 1.7 2.4 3.4 4.9 6.9 9. 13. 19. 2
7 7 4 7
6 1.8 2.6 3.6 5.2 7.3 10. 1 21 29 4

3 4. 1
6
10 2. 3.0 4.3 6.1 8.6 12.2 17. 2 34 49 6

2 2 4 9
16 1. 2 3. 4.9 6.9 9.7 13. 19.4 27 3 55 78 1

7 . 4 8 9 0
4
25 1 1. 2. 3 5. 7.6 10. 15. 21 30 43 6 86 121 1

. 9 7 . 4 8 2 1 7
3 8 2
35 1 2. 3. 5 7. 10. 15. 21 30 43 60 8 120 170 2

. 7 8 . 5 6 1 5 4
9 3 0
47.5 1 2 3. 5. 7 10 14. 20 29 41 58 82 1 163 231 3

. . 6 1 . .2 4 1 2
8 6 2 5 6
70 2 3 5. 7. 1 15 21 30 43 60 85 120 1 240 340

. . 3 5 0 .1 7
7 8 . 0
7
95 2. 3 5 7. 10 1 20 29 41 58 82 115 163 2 326 461

6 . . 2 .2 4 3
6 1 . 1
5
120 1. 2. 3. 4 6 9. 12 1 26 37 52 73 103 146 206 2 412

6 3 2 . . 1 .9 8 9
6 5 . 1
3
150 1.2 1. 2. 3. 5 7 9. 14 1 28 40 56 79 112 159 224 3 448
8 5 5 . . 9 .0 9 1
0 0 . 7
8
185 1.5 2. 2. 4. 5 8 11 16 2 33 47 66 94 133 187 265 3 529

1 9 2 . . .7 .6 3 7
9 3 4
240 1.8 2. 3. 5. 7 1 4. 21 2 41 58 83 117 165 233 330 4 659

6 7 2 . 0 6 9 6
3 . 6
3
300 2.2 3. 4. 6. 8 1 17 25 3 50 70 99 140 198 280 396 5

1 4 2 . 2 .6 5 6
8 . 1
4
2x120 2.3 3. 4. 6. 9 1 18 26 3 52 73 103 146 206 292 412 5

2 6 5 . 2 .3 7 8
1 . 3
9
2x150 2.5 3. 5. 7. 9 1 20 28 4 56 79 112 159 224 317 448 6

5 0 0 . 4 0 3
9 . 4
0
2x185 2.9 4. 5. 8. 1 1 23 33 4 66 94 133 187 265 375 530 7

2 9 3 1 6 7 4
. . 9
7 6
3x120 3.4 4. 6. 9. 1 1 27 39 5 77 110 155 219 309 438 619

9 9 7 3 9 5
. .
7 4
3x150 3.7 5. 7. 10 1 2 30 42 6 84 119 168 238 336 476 672

3 5 .5 4 1 0
.
9
3x185 4.4 6. 8. 12 1 2 35 50 7 10 141 199 281 398 562
2 8 .5 7 5 0 0
.
6
Isc Isc downstream (in kA)

upstream
(in kA)
100 93 9 87 82 7 7 62 54 4 37 29 22 17. 12. 9.3 6.7 4. 3.5 2.5 1

0 7 0 5 0 6 9 8
90 84 8 79 75 7 6 58 51 4 35 28 22 16. 12. 9.2 6.7 4. 3.5. 2.5 1

2 1 5 3 7 5 8 8
80 75 7 71 68 6 5 54 47 4 34 27 21 16. 12. 9.1 6.6 4. 3.5 2.5 1

4 4 9 0 3 2 8 8
70 66 6 63 61 5 5 49 44 3 32 26 20 15. 12. 8.9 6.6 4. 3.4 2.5 1

5 8 4 8 8 0 8 8
60 57 5 55 53 5 4 44 39 3 29 24 20 15. 11.6 8.7 6.5 4. 3.4 2.5 1

6 1 8 5 2 7 8
50 48 4 46 45 4 4 38 35 3 27 22 18. 14. 11.2 8.5 6.3 4. 3.4 2.4 1

7 3 1 1 3 5 6 7
40 39 3 38 37 3 3 32 30 2 24 20 16. 13. 10. 8.1 6.1 4. 3.3 2.4 1

8 6 4 7 8 5 6 5 7
35 34 3 33 33 3 3 29 27 2 22 18. 15. 12. 10. 7.9 6.0 4. 3.3 2.4 1

4 2 0 4 8 8 9 2 5 7
30 29 2 29 28 2 2 25 24 2 20 17. 14. 12. 9.8 7.6 5.8 4. 3.2 2.4 1

9 7 7 2 3 7 2 4 7
25 25 2 24 24 2 2 22 21 1 17 15. 13. 11.2 9.2 7.3 5.6 4. 3.2 2.3 1

4 3 3 9 .4 5 4 2 7
.
1
20 20 2 19 19 1 1 17 17 1 14 13. 11.8 10. 8.4 6.8 5.3 4. 3.1 2.3 1

0 .4 .2 8 8 .8 .0 6 .9 4 1 1 7
. . .
8 4 1
15 14. 4 14 14 1 1 13 3. 1 11 11.0 9.9 8.7 7.4 6.1 4.9 3. 2.9 2.2 1

8 1. .7 .5 4 4 .7 3 2 .9 8 6
8 . . .
3 1 7
10 9.9 9. 9. 9. 9 9 9. 9. 8 8. 8.0 7.4 6.7 5.9 5.1 4.2 3. 2.7 2.0 1

9 8 8 . . 4 2 . 5 4 5
7 6 9
7 7.0 6. 6. 6. 6 6 6. 6. 6 6. 6.0 5.6 5.2 4.7 4.2 3.6 3. 2.4 1.9 1

9 9 9 . . 7 6 . 2 0 4
9 8 4
5 5.0 5. 5. 4. 4 4 4. 4. 4 4. 4.5 4.3 4.0 3.7 3.4 3.0 2. 2.1 1.7 1

0 0 9 . . 9 8 . 6 5 3
9 9 7
4 4.0 4. 4. 4. 4 3 3. 3. 3 3. 3.6 3.5 3.3 3.1 2.9 2.6 2. 1.9 1.6 1

0 0 0 . . 9 9 . 7 2 2
0 9 8
3 3.0 3. 3. 3. 3 3 2. 2. 2 2. 2.8 2.7 2.6 2.5 2.3 2.1 1. 1.6 1.4 1

0 0 0 . . 9 9 . 9 9 1
0 0 9
2 2.0 2. 2. 2. 2 2 2. 2. 1 1. 1.9 1.9 1.8 1.8 1.7 1.6 1. 1.3 1.1 1

0 0 0 . . 0 0 2 9 4 0
0 0 .
0
1 1.0 1. 1. 1. 1 1 1. 1. 1 1. 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.9 0.9 0.9 0. 0.8 0.7 0

0 0 0 . . 0 0 . 0 8 6
0 0 0
Note: for a 3-phase system having 230 V between phases, divide the above lengths by
Fig. G39: Isc at a point downstream, as a function of a known upstream fault-current value and the length and c.s.a.
of the intervening conductors, in a 230/400 V 3-phase system.
Calculation of minimum levels of short-circuit current.

If a protective device in a circuit is intended only to protect against short-circuit faults, it is essential that it will
operate with certainty at the lowest possible level of short-circuit current that can occur on the circuit
In general, on LV circuits, a single protective device protects against all levels of current, from the
overload threshold through the maximum rated short-circuit current breaking capability of the device.
The protection device should be able to operate in a maximum time to ensure people and circuit
safety, for all short-circuit current or fault current that may occur. To check that behavior, calculation
of minimal short-circuit current or fault current is mandatory.
In addition, in certain cases overload protective devices and separate short-circuit protective devices
are used.
Examples of such arrangements
Figures G40 to G42 show some common arrangements where overload and short-circuit
protections are achieved by separate devices.
Fig. G40: Circuit protected by aM fuses

Fig. G41: Circuit protected by circuit breaker without thermal overload relay
Fig. G42a: Circuit breaker D provides protection against short-circuit faults as far as and including
the load
As shown in Figures G40 and G41, the most common circuits using separate devices control and
protect motors.
Figure G42a constitutes a derogation in the basic protection rules, and is generally used on circuits
of prefabricated bustrunking, lighting rails, etc.
Variable speed drive
Figure G42b shows the functions provided by the variable speed drive, and if necessary some
additional functions provided by devices such as circuit-breaker, thermal relay, RCD.
Protection to be Protection generally Additional protection if not
provided provided by the variable provided by the variable
speed drive speed drive
Cable overload Yes CB / Thermal relay
Motor overload Yes CB / Thermal relay
Downstream short- Yes

circuit
Variable speed drive Yes

overload
Overvoltage Yes
Undervoltage Yes
Loss of phase Yes
Upstream short-circuit Circuit-breaker
(short-circuit tripping)
Internal fault Circuit-breaker
(short-circuit and overload
tripping)
Downstream earth fault (self protection) RCD 300 mA or CB in TN

(indirect contact) earthing system
Direct contact fault RCD 30 mA
Fig. G42b: Protection to be provided for variable speeed drive applications
Conditions to be fulfilled
The protective device must fulfill:
instantaneous trip setting Im < Iscmin for a circuit-breaker

fusion current Ia < Iscmin for a fuse
The protective device must therefore satisfy the two following conditions:
Its breaking capacity must be greater than Isc, the 3-phase short-circuit current at its point of
installation
Elimination of the minimum short-circuit current possible in the circuit, in a time tc compatible
with the thermal constraints of the circuit conductors, where:
(valid for tc < 5 seconds)
where S is the cross section area of the cable, k is a factor depending of the cable conductor
material, the insulation material and initial temperature.
Example: for copper XLPE, initial temperature 90 C, k = 143 (see IEC60364-4-43 434.3.2 table
43A).
Comparison of the tripping or fusing performance curve of protective devices, with the limit curves of
thermal constraint for a conductor shows that this condition is satisfied if:
Isc (min) > Im (instantaneous or short timedelay circuit-breaker trip setting current level),
(see Fig. G43 )
Isc (min) > Ia for protection by fuses. The value of the current Ia corresponds to the crossing
point of the fuse curve and the cable thermal withstand curve (see Fig. G44 and Fig. G45)
Fig. G43: Protection by circuit breaker

Fig. G44: Protection by aM-type fuses
Fig. G45: Protection by gG-type fuses
Practical method of calculating Lmax
In practice this means that the length of circuit downstream of the protective device must not exceed a
calculated maximum length:
The limiting effect of the impedance of long circuit conductors on the value of short-circuit currents
must be checked and the length of a circuit must be restricted accordingly.
The method of calculating the maximum permitted length has already been demonstrated in TN- and
IT- earthed schemes for single and double earth faults, respectively. Two cases are considered
below:
1 - Calculation of Lmax for a 3-phase 3-wire circuit

The minimum short-circuit current will occur when two phase wires are short-circuited at the remote
end of the circuit (see Fig. G46).
Fig. G46: Definition of L for a 3-phase 3-wire circuit
Using the conventional method, the voltage at the point of protection P is assumed to be 80% of
the nominal voltage during a short-circuit fault, so that 0.8 U = Isc Zd, where:
Zd = impedance of the fault loop

Isc = short-circuit current (ph/ph)
U = phase-to-phase nominal voltage
For cables 120 mm2, reactance may be neglected, so that [1]
where:
= resistivity of conductor material at the average temperature during a short-circuit,

Sph = c.s.a. of a phase conductor in mm2
L = length in metres
The condition for the cable protection is Im Isc with Im = magnetic trip current setting of the CB.
This leads to which gives
with U = 400 V
= 0.023 .mm2/m[2] (Cu)
therefore
with Lmax = maximum circuit length in metres
In general, the value of Im is given with +/- 20% tolerance, so Lmax should be calculated for
Im+20% (worst case).
k factor values are provided in the following table, taking into account these 20%, and as a function
of cross-section for Sph > 120 mm2[1]
Cross-section (mm2) 120 150 185 240 300
k (for 400 V) 5800 5040 4830 4640 4460
2 - Calculation of Lmax for a 3-phase 4-wire 230/400 V circuit
The minimum Isc will occur when the short-circuit is between a phase conductor and the neutral at
the end of the circuit.
A calculation similar to that of example 1 above is required, but for a single-phase fault (230V).
If Sn (neutral cross-section) = Sph
Lmax = k Sph / Im with k calculated for 230V, as shown in the table below
Cross-section (mm2) 120 150 185 240 300
k (for 400 V) 3333 2898 2777 2668 2565
If Sn (neutral cross-section) < Sph, then (for cable cross-section 120mm 2)
Tabulated values for Lmax
Figure G47 below gives maximum circuit lengths (Lmax) in metres, for:
3-phase 4-wire 400 V circuits (i.e. with neutral) and
1-phase 2-wire 230 V circuits
protected by general-purpose circuit-breakers.
In other cases, apply correction factors (given in Figure G51) to the lengths obtained.
In general, the value of Im is given with +/- 20% tolerance.
Lmax values below are therefore calculated for Im+20% (worst case).
For the 50 mm2 c.s.a., calculation are based on a 47.5 mm2 real c.s.a.
Operating current level Im of the instantaneous c.s.a. (nominal cross-sectional-area) of conductors (in mm2)
magnetic tripping element (in A)
1.5 2.5 4 6 10 16 25 35 50 70 95 12
50 100 167 26 400

7
63 79 133 21 317
2
80 63 104 16 250 41
7 7
100 50 83 13 200 33
3 3
125 40 67 10 160 26 427

7 7
160 31 52 83 125 20 333

8
200 25 42 67 100 16 267 417

7
250 20 33 53 80 13 213 333 46

3 7
320 16 26 42 63 10 167 260 36 495

4 5
400 13 21 33 50 83 133 208 29 396
2
500 10 17 27 40 67 107 167 23 317

3
560 9 15 24 36 60 95 149 20 283 41

8 7
630 8 13 21 32 53 85 132 18 251 37

5 0
700 7 12 19 29 48 76 119 16 226 33 452

7 3
800 6 10 17 25 42 67 104 14 198 29 396

6 2
875 6 10 15 23 38 61 95 13 181 26 362 45

3 7
1000 5 8 13 20 33 53 83 117 158 23 317 40

3
1120 4 7 12 18 30 48 74 10 141 20 283 35

4 8
1250 4 7 11 16 27 43 67 93 127 18 253 32

7
1600 5 8 13 21 33 52 73 99 14 198 25
6
2000 4 7 10 17 27 42 58 79 117 158 20
2500 5 8 13 21 33 47 63 93 127 16
3200 4 6 10 17 26 36 49 73 99 12
4000 5 8 13 21 29 40 58 79 10
5000 4 7 11 17 23 32 47 63 80
6300 5 8 13 19 25 37 50 63
8000 4 7 10 15 20 29 40 50
10000 5 8 12 16 23 32 40
12500 4 7 9 13 19 25 32
Fig. G47: Maximum circuit lengths in metres for copper conductors (for aluminium, the lengths must be multiplied by
0.62)
Figures G48 to G50 give maximum circuit length (Lmax) in metres for:
3-phase 4-wire 400 V circuits (i.e. with neutral) and
1-phase 2-wire 230 V circuits

protected in both cases by domestic-type circuit-breakers or with circuit-breakers having
similar tripping/current characteristics.
In other cases, apply correction factors to the lengths indicated.
These factors are given in Figure G51.
Circuit-breaker rating (A) c.s.a. (nominal cross-sectional-area) of conductors (in mm2)
1.5 2.5 4 6 10 16 25
6 200 333 533 800
10 120 200 320 480 800
16 75 125 200 300 500 800
20 60 100 160 240 400 640
25 48 80 128 192 320 512 800
32 37 62 100 150 250 400 625
40 30 50 80 120 200 320 500
50 24 40 64 96 160 256 400
63 19 32 51 76 127 203 317
80 15 25 40 60 100 160 250
100 12 20 32 48 80 128 200
125 10 16 26 38 64 102 160
Fig. G48: Maximum length of copper-conductor circuits in metres protected by B-type circuit-breakers
1.5 2.5 4 6 10 16 25
6 100 167 267 400 667

10 60 100 160 240 400 640
16 37 62 100 150 250 400 625
20 30 50 80 120 200 320 500
25 24 40 64 96 160 256 400
32 18.0 31 50 75 125 200 313
40 15.0 25 40 60 100 160 250
50 12.0 20 32 48 80 128 200
63 9.5 16.0 26 38 64 102 159
80 7.5 12.5 20 30 50 80 125
100 6.0 10.0 16.0 24 40 64 100
125 5.0 8.0 13.0 19.0 32 51 80
Fig. G49: Maximum length of copper-conductor circuits in metres protected by C-type circuit-breakers
1.5 2.5 4 6 10 16 25
1 429 714
2 214 357 571 857

3 143 238 381 571 952
4 107 179 286 429 714
6 71 119 190 286 476 762
10 43 71 114 171 286 457 714
16 27 45 71 107 179 286 446
20 21 36 57 86 143 229 357
25 17.0 29 46 69 114 183 286
32 13.0 22 36 54 89 143 223
40 11.0 18.0 29 43 71 114 179
50 9.0 14.0 23 34 57 91 143
63 7.0 11.0 18.0 27 45 73 113
80 5.0 9.0 14.0 21 36 57 89
100 4.0 7.0 11.0 17.0 29 46 71
125 3.0 6.0 9.0 14.0 23 37 57
Fig. G50: Maximum length of copper-conductor circuits in metres protected by D-type circuit-breakers
Circuit detail
3-phase 3-wire 400 V circuit or 1-phase 2-wire 400 V circuit (no neutral)
1-phase 2-wire (phase and neutral) 230 V circuit
3-phase 4-wire 230/400 V circuit or 2-phase 3-wire 230/400 V circuit (i.e with neutral) Sph / S neutra
Sph / S neutra
Fig. G51: Correction factor to apply to lengths obtained from Figures G47 to G50
Note: IEC 60898 accepts an upper short-circuit-current tripping range of 10-50 In for type D circuit-
breakers. European standards, and Figure G50 however, are based on a range of 10-20 In, a range
which covers the vast majority of domestic and similar installations.
Examples
Example 1
In a 3-phase 3-wire 400 V installation the protection is provided by a 50 A circuit-breaker type

NS80HMA, the instantaneous short-circuit current trip, is set at 500 A (accuracy of 20%), i.e. in the
worst case would require 500 x 1,2 = 600 A to trip. The cable c.s.a. = 10 mm 2 and the conductor
material is copper.
In Figure G47, the row Im = 500 A crosses the column c.s.a. = 10 mm2 at the value for Lmax of 67
m. The circuit-breaker protects the cable against short-circuit faults, therefore, provided that its
length does not exceed 67 metres.
Example 2
In a 3-phase 3-wire 400 V circuit (without neutral), the protection is provided by a 220 A circuit-
breaker type NSX250N with an instantaneous short-circuit current trip unit type MA set at 2,000 A (
20%), i.e. a worst case of 2,400 A to be certain of tripping. The cable c.s.a. = 120 mm 2 and the
conductor material is copper.
In Figure G47 the row Im = 2,000 A crosses the column c.s.a. = 120 mm2 at the value for Lmax of
200 m. Being a 3-phase 3-wire 400 V circuit (without neutral), a correction factor
from Figure G51 must be applied. This factor is seen to be 1.73.
The circuit-breaker will therefore protect the cable against short-circuit current, provided that its
length does not exceed 200 x 1.73 = 346 metres.
Notes
1. ^ a b For larger c.s.a.s, the resistance calculated for the conductors must be increased to
account for the non-uniform current density in the conductor (due to skin and proximity
effects Suitable values are as follows:
150 mm2: R + 15 %
185 mm2: R + 20 %
240 mm2: R + 25 %
300 mm2: R + 30 %
2. ^ Resistivity for copper EPR/XLPE cables when passing short-circuit current, eg for the max
temperature they can withstand = 90C (cf Figure G35b).
Verification of the withstand capabilities of cables under short-circuit

conditions.
Thermal constraints
When the duration of short-circuit current is brief (several tenths of a second up to five seconds
maximum) all of the heat produced is assumed to remain in the conductor, causing its temperature
to rise. The heating process is said to be adiabatic, an assumption that simplifies the calculation and
gives a pessimistic result, i.e. a higher conductor temperature than that which would actually occur,
since in practice, some heat would leave the conductor and pass into the insulation.
For a period of 5 seconds or less, the relationship I2t = k2S2 characterizes the time in seconds during
which a conductor of c.s.a. S (in mm 2) can be allowed to carry a current I, before its temperature
reaches a level which would damage the surrounding insulation.
The factor k is given in Figure G52 below.
Conductor insulation
PVC 300 mm2 PVC > 300 mm2 EPR XLPE Rubber 60 C
Initial temperature C 70 70 90 60
Final temperature C 160 140 250 200
Material of conductor
Copper 115 103 143 141
Aluminium 76 68 94 93
Fig. G52: Value of the constant k according to table 43A of IEC 60364-4-43
The method of verification consists in checking that the thermal energy I 2t per ohm of conductor
material, allowed to pass by the protecting circuit-breaker (from manufacturers catalogues) is less
than that permitted for the particular conductor (as given in Figure G53 below).
S (mm2) PVC XLPE
Copper Aluminium Copper Aluminium
1.5 0.0297 0.0130 0.0460 0.0199
2.5 0.0826 0.0361 0.1278 0.0552
4 0.2116 0.0924 0.3272 0.1414
6 0.4761 0.2079 0.7362 0.3181
10 1.3225 0.5776 2.0450 0.8836
16 3.3856 1.4786 5.2350 2.2620

25 8.2656 3.6100 12.7806 5.5225
35 16.2006 7.0756 25.0500 10.8241
50[a] 29.839 13.032 46.133 19.936
[a] For 50mm2 cable, the values are calculated for the actual cross-section of 47.5mm2
Fig. G53: Maximum allowable thermal stress for cables I2t (expressed in ampere2 x second x 106)
Example
Is a copper-cored XLPE cable of 4 mm2 c.s.a. adequately protected by a iC60N circuit-breaker?

(see Fig. G53b)
Figure G53 shows that the I2t value for the cable is 0.3272 x 106, while the maximum let-through
value by the circuit-breaker, as given in the manufacturers catalogue, is considerably less ( <
0.1.106 A2s).
The cable is therefore adequately protected by the circuit-breaker up to its full rated breaking
capability.
Electrodynamic constraints
For all type of circuit (conductors or bus-trunking), it is necessary to take electrodynamic effects into
account.
To withstand the electrodynamic constraints, the conductors must be solidly fixed and the connection
must be strongly tightened.
For bus-trunking, rails, etc. it is also necessary to verify that the electrodynamic withstand
performance is satisfactory when carrying short-circuit currents. The peak value of current, limited by
the circuit-breaker or fuse, must be less than the busbar system rating. Tables of coordination
ensuring adequate protection of their products are generally published by the manufacturers and
provide a major advantage of such systems.
Fig. G53b: Example of energy limitation of a MCB for different ratings.
Connection and choice for protective earthing conductor.

Protective (PE) conductors provide the bonding connection between all exposed and extraneous
conductive parts of an installation, to create the main equipotential bonding system. These
conductors conduct fault current due to insulation failure (between a phase conductor and an
exposed conductive part) to the earthed neutral of the source. PE conductors are connected to the
main earthing terminal of the installation.
The main earthing terminal is connected to the earthing electrode (see Chapter E) by the earthing
conductor (grounding electrode conductor in the USA).
PE conductors must be:
Insulated and coloured yellow and green (stripes)
Protected against mechanical and chemical damage

In IT and TN-earthed schemes it is strongly recommended that PE conductors should be installed in
close proximity (i.e. in the same conduits, on the same cable tray, etc.) as the live cables of the
related circuit. This arrangement ensures the minimum possible inductive reactance in the earth-fault
current carrying circuits.
It should be noted that this arrangement is originally provided by bus-trunking.
Connection
PE conductors must:
Not include any means of breaking the continuity of the circuit (such as a switch, removable
links, etc.)
Connect exposed conductive parts individually to the main PE conductor, i.e. in parallel, not
in series, as shown in Figure G54
Have an individual terminal on common earthing bars in distribution boards.
Fig. G54: A poor connection in a series arrangement will leave all downstream appliances
unprotected
TT scheme
The PE conductor need not necessarily be installed in close proximity to the live conductors of the
corresponding circuit, since high values of earth-fault current are not needed to operate the RCD-
type of protection used in TT installations.
IT and TN schemes
The PE or PEN conductor, as previously noted, must be installed as close as possible to the
corresponding live conductors of the circuit and no ferro-magnetic material must be interposed
between them. A PEN conductor must always be connected directly to the earth terminal of an
appliance, with a looped connection from the earth terminal to the neutral terminal of the appliance
(see Fig. G55).
TN-C scheme (the neutral and PE conductor are one and the same, referred to as a PEN
conductor)
The protective function of a PEN conductor has priority, so that all rules governing PE
conductors apply strictly to PEN conductors
TN-C to TN-S transition

The PE conductor for the installation is connected to the PEN terminal or bar
(see Figure G56) generally at the origin of the installation. Downstream of the point of
separation, no PE conductor can be connected to the neutral conductor.
Fig. G55: Direct connection of the PEN conductor to the earth terminal of an appliance
Fig. G56: The TN-C-S scheme
Types of materials
Materials of the kinds mentioned below in Figure G57 can be used for PE conductors, provided that
the conditions mentioned in the last column are satisfied.
Type of protective earthing IT scheme TN scheme TT Conditions to be respected

conductor(PE) scheme
Supplementary In the same cable Strongly Strongly Correct The PE conductor must be
conductor as the phases, or ecommended recommended insulated to the same level as
in the same cable the phases
run
Independent of Possible[a] Possible[a][b] Correct

the phase The PE conductor may
conductors
be bare or insulated[b]
Metallic housing of bus-trunking or of Possible[c] PE possible[c] Correct

other prefabricated prewired ducting[e] PEN possible[h] The electrical
[c] [c]
External sheath of extruded, mineral- Possible PE possible Possible continuity must be assured
insulated conductors (e.g. PEN not
pyrotenax type systems) recommended[b][c] by protection against
[d] [d]
Certain extraneous conductive Possible PE possible Possible deterioration by mechanical,
elements[f] such as:
PEN forbidden chemical and
Steel building structure electrochemical hazards
Machine frames Their conductance
must be adequate
[g]
Water pipes
Metallic cable ways, such as, Possible[d] PE possible[d] Possible
conduits[i]ducts, trunking, trays, PEN not
ladders, and so on recommended[b][d]
Forbidden for use as PE conductors, are: metal conduits[i], gas pipes, hot-water pipes, cable-armouring tapes[i]or wires[i]
[a] In TN and IT schemes, fault clearance is generally achieved by overcurrent devices (fuses or circuit-breakers) so
that the impedance of the fault-current loop must be sufficiently low to assure positive protective device operation.
The surest means of achieving a low loop impedance is to use a supplementary core in the same cable as the circuit
conductors (or taking the same route as the circuit conductors). This solution minimizes the inductive reactance and
therefore the impedance of the loop.
[b] The PEN conductor is a neutral conductor that is also used as a protective earth conductor. This means that a
current may be flowing through it at any time (in the absence of an earth fault). For this reason an insulated conductor
is recommended for PEN operation.
[c] The manufacturer provides the necessary values of R and X components of the impedances (phase/PE,
phase/PEN) to include in the calculation of the earth-fault loop impedance.

[d] Possible, but not recomended, since the impedance of the earth-fault loop cannot be known at the design stage.
Measurements on the completed installation are the only practical means of assuring adequate protection for
persons.
[e] It must allow the connection of other PE conductors. Note: these elements must carry an indivual green/yellow
striped visual indication, 15 to 100 mm long (or the letters PE at less than 15 cm from each extremity).
[f] These elements must be demountable only if other means have been provided to ensure uninterrupted continuity
of protection.
[g] With the agreement of the appropriate water authorities.
[h] In the prefabricated pre-wired trunking and similar elements, the metallic housing may be used as a PEN
conductor, in parallel with the corresponding bar, or other PE conductor in the housing.
[i] Forbidden in some countries only. Universally allowed to be used for supplementary equipotential conductors.
Fig. G57: Choice of protective conductors (PE).
Choice of earthing method implementation.
After consulting applicable regulations, Figure E16 and Figure E17 can be used as an aid in
deciding on divisions and possible galvanic isolation of appropriate sections of a proposed
installation.
Division of source
This technique concerns the use of several transformers instead of employing one high-rated unit. In
this way, a load that is a source of network disturbances (large motors, furnaces, etc.) can be
supplied by its own transformer.
The quality and continuity of supply to the whole installation are thereby improved.
The cost of switchgear is reduced (short-circuit current level is lower).
The cost-effectiveness of separate transformers must be determined on a case by case basis.
Network islands
The creation of galvanically-separated islands by means of LV/LV transformers makes it possible to

optimise the choice of earthing methods to meet specific requirements (see Fig. E18 and Fig. E19).
Fig. E18: TN-S island within an IT system
Fig. E19: IT islands within a TN-S system
Conclusion
The optimisation of the performance of the whole installation governs the choice of earthing system.
Including:
Initial investments, and
Future operational expenditures, hard to assess, that can arise from insufficient reliability,
quality of equipment, safety, continuity of service, etc.
An ideal structure would comprise normal power supply sources, local reserve power supply sources
(see Selection criteria for the TT, TN and IT systems ) and the appropriate earthing arrangements.
Installation and measurements of earth electrodes.
A very effective method of obtaining a low-resistance earth connection is to bury a conductor in the form of a
closed loop in the soil at the bottom of the excavation for building foundations.
The resistance R of such an electrode (in homogeneous soil) is given (approximately) in ohms by:
where
L = length of the buried conductor in metres

= soil resistivity in ohm-metres
The quality of an earth electrode (resistance as low as possible) depends essentially on two factors:
Installation method
Type of soil
Installation methods
Three common types of installation will be discussed:
Buried ring
(see Fig. E20)
This solution is strongly recommended, particularly in the case of a new building.
The electrode should be buried around the perimeter of the excavation made for the foundations. It
is important that the bare conductor be in intimate contact with the soil (and not placed in the gravel
or aggregate hard-core, often forming a base for concrete). At least four (widely-spaced) vertically
arranged conductors from the electrode should be provided for the installation connections and,
where possible, any reinforcing rods in concrete work should be connected to the electrode.
The conductor forming the earth electrode, particularly when it is laid in an excavation for
foundations, must be in the earth, at least 50 cm below the hard-core or aggregate base for the
concrete foundation. Neither the electrode nor the vertical rising conductors to the ground floor,
should ever be in contact with the foundation concrete.
For existing buildings, the electrode conductor should be buried around the outside wall of the
premises to a depth of at least 1 metre. As a general rule, all vertical connections from an electrode
to above-ground level should be insulated for the nominal LV voltage (600-1,000 V).
The conductors may be:
Copper: Bare cable ( 25 mm2) or multiple-strip ( 25 mm2) and ( 2 mm thick)
Aluminium with lead jacket: Cable ( 35 mm2)
Galvanised-steel cable: Bare cable ( 95 mm2) or multiple-strip ( 100 mm2 and 3 mm

thick)
The approximate resistance R of the electrode in ohms:
where
L = length of conductor in metres

= resistivity of the soil in ohm-metres (see Influence of the type of soil )
Fig. E20: Conductor buried below the level of the foundations, i.e. not in the concrete
Earthing rods
(see Fig. E21)
For n rods:
Vertically driven earthing rods are often used for existing buildings, and for improving (i.e. reducing
the resistance of) existing earth electrodes.
The rods may be:
Copper or (more commonly) copper-clad steel. The latter are generally 1 or 2 metres long
and provided with screwed ends and sockets in order to reach considerable depths, if necessary
(for instance, the water-table level in areas of high soil resistivity)
Galvanised[1] steel pipe 25 mm diameter or rod 15 mm diameter, 2 metres long in each

case.
Fig. E21: Earthing rods connected in parallel
It is often necessary to use more than one rod, in which case the spacing between them should
exceed the depth to which they are driven, by a factor of 2 to 3.
The total resistance (in homogeneous soil) is then equal to the resistance of one rod, divided by the
number of rods in question.
The approximate resistance R obtained is: if the distance separating the rods > 4L
where
L = the length of the rod in metres

= resistivity of the soil in ohm-metres (see Influence of the type of soil)
n = the number of rods
Vertical plates
(see Fig. E22)
For a vertical plate electrode:
Rectangular plates, each side of which must be 0.5 metres, are commonly used as earth
electrodes, being buried in a vertical plane such that the centre of the plate is at least 1 metre below
the surface of the soil.
The plates may be:
Copper of 2 mm thickness
Galvanised[1] steel of 3 mm thickness
The resistance R in ohms is given (approximately), by:
where
L = the perimeter of the plate in metres

= resistivity of the soil in ohm-metres (see Influence of the type of soil)
Fig. E22: Vertical plate - 2 mm thickness (Cu)
Influence of the type of soil
Measurements on earth electrodes in similar soils are useful to determine the resistivity value to be applied for
the design of an earth-electrode system
Type of soil Mean value of resistivity in m
Swampy soil, bogs 1 - 30
Silt alluvium 20 - 100
Humus, leaf mould 10 - 150
Peat, turf 5 - 100
Soft clay 50
Marl and compacted clay 100 - 200
Jurassic marl 30 - 40
Clayey sand 50 - 500
Siliceous sand 200 - 300
Stoney ground 1,500 - 3,000
Grass-covered-stoney sub-soil 300 - 500
Chalky soil 100 - 300
Limestone 1,000 - 5,000
Fissured limestone 500 - 1,000
Schist, shale 50 - 300
Mica schist 800
Granite and sandstone 1,500 - 10,000
Modified granite and sandstone 100 - 600
Fig. E23: Resistivity (m) for different types of soil
Type of soil Average value of resistivity in m
Fertile soil, compacted damp fill 50
Arid soil, gravel, uncompacted non-uniform fill 500
Stoney soil, bare, dry sand, fissured rocks 3000

Fig. E24: Average resistivity (m) values for approximate earth-elect
Measurement and constancy of the resistance between an earth electrode and the
earth
The resistance of the electrode/earth interface rarely remains constant
Among the principal factors affecting this resistance are the following:
Humidity of the soil

The seasonal changes in the moisture content of the soil can be significant at depths of up to
2 meters.
At a depth of 1 metre the resistivity and therefore the resistance can vary by a ratio of 1 to 3
between a wet winter and a dry summer in temperate regions
Frost
Frozen earth can increase the resistivity of the soil by several orders of magnitude. This is
one reason for recommending the installation of deep electrodes, in particular in cold
climates
Ageing
The materials used for electrodes will generally deteriorate to some extent for various
reasons, for example:
Chemical reactions (in acidic or alkaline soils)
Galvanic: due to stray DC currents in the earth, for example from electric railways, etc. or
due to dissimilar metals forming primary cells. Different soils acting on sections of the
same conductor can also form cathodic and anodic areas with consequent loss of surface
metal from the latter areas. Unfortunately, the most favourable conditions for low earth-
electrode resistance (i.e. low soil resistivity) are also those in which galvanic currents can
most easily flow.
Oxidation
Brazed and welded joints and connections are the points most sensitive to oxidation.
Thorough cleaning of a newly made joint or connection and wrapping with a suitable
greased-tape binding is a commonly used preventive measure.
Measurement of the earth-electrode resistance
There must always be one or more removable links to isolate an earth electrode so that it can be
tested.
There must always be removable links which allow the earth electrode to be isolated from the
installation, so that periodic tests of the earthing resistance can be carried out. To make such tests,
two auxiliary electrodes are required, each consisting of a vertically driven rod.
Ammeter method (see Fig. E25)
Fig. E25: Measurement of the resistance to earth of the earth electrode of an installation by means
of an ammeter
When the source voltage U is constant (adjusted to be the same value for each test) then:
In order to avoid errors due to stray earth currents (galvanic -DC- or leakage currents from power
and communication networks and so on) the test current should be AC, but at a different frequency
to that of the power system or any of its harmonics. Instruments using hand-driven generators to
make these measurements usually produce an AC voltage at a frequency of between 85 Hz and 135
Hz.
The distances between the electrodes are not critical and may be in different directions from the
electrode being tested, according to site conditions. A number of tests at different spacings and
directions are generally made to cross-check the test results.
Use of a direct-reading earthing-resistance ohmmeter
These instruments use a hand-driven or electronic-type AC generator, together with two auxiliary
electrodes, the spacing of which must be such that the zone of influence of the electrode being
tested should not overlap that of the test electrode (C). The test electrode (C) furthest from the
electrode (X) under test, passes a current through the earth and the electrode under test, while the
second test electrode (P) picks up a voltage. This voltage, measured between (X) and (P), is due to
the test current and is a measure of the contact resistance (of the electrode under test) with earth. It
is clear that the distance (X) to (P) must be carefully chosen to give accurate results. If the distance
(X) to (C) is increased, however, the zones of resistance of electrodes (X) and (C) become more
remote, one from the other, and the curve of potential (voltage) becomes more nearly horizontal
about the point (O).
In practical tests, therefore, the distance (X) to (C) is increased until readings taken with electrode
(P) at three different points, i.e. at (P) and at approximately 5 metres on either side of (P), give
similar values. The distance (X) to (P) is generally about 0.68 of the distance (X) to (C).
[a] the principle of [b] showing the
measurement is based on effect on the
assumed homogeneous soil potential gradient
conditions. Where the zones of when (X) and (C)
influence of electrodes C and X are widely spaced.
overlap, the location of test The location of test
electrode P is difficult to electrode P is not
determine for satisfactory critical and can be
results. easily determined.
Fig. E26: Measurement of the resistance to the mass of earth of electrode (X) using an earth-electrode-testing
ohmmeter
Notes
1. ^ a b Where galvanised conducting materials are used for earth electrodes, sacrificial cathodic
protection anodes may be necessary to avoid rapid corrosion of the electrodes where the
soil is aggressive. Specially prepared magnesium anodes (in a porous sack filled with a
suitable soil) are available for direct connection to the electrodes. In such circumstances, a
specialist should be consulted.
Selection criteria for the TT, TN and IT systems.
Selection does not depend on safety criteria.
The three systems are equivalent in terms of protection of persons if all installation and operating rules are
correctly followed.
The selection criteria for the best system(s) depend on the regulatory requirements, the required continuity of
service, operating conditions and the types of network and loads
In terms of the protection of persons, the three system earthing arrangements (SEA) are equivalent
if all installation and operating rules are correctly followed. Consequently, selection does not depend
on safety criteria.
It is by combining all requirements in terms of regulations, continuity of service, operating conditions

and the types of network and loads that it is possible to determine the best system(s) (see Fig. E16).
Selection is determined by the following factors:
Above all, the applicable regulations which in some cases impose certain types of SEA
Secondly, the decision of the owner if supply is via a private MV/LV transformer (MV
subscription) or the owner has a private energy source (or a separate-winding transformer)
If the owner effectively has a choice, the decision on the SEA is taken following discussions with the
network designer (design office, contractor).
The discussions must cover:
First of all, the operating requirements (the required level of continuity of service) and the
operating conditions (maintenance ensured by electrical personnel or not, in-house personnel or
outsourced, etc.)
Secondly, the particular characteristics of the network and the loads (see Fig. E17 ).
TN- TN- IT1[a] IT2[b] Comments

TT S C
Electrical characteristics
Fault current - -- -- + --
Fault voltage - - - + -
Touch voltage +/- - - + -

-
Protection
Protection of persons against indirect contact + + + + +
Protection of persons with emergency generating sets + - - + -
Protection against fire (with an RCD) + + Not + +

allowed
Overvoltages
Continuous overvoltage + + + - +
Transient overvoltage + - - + -
Overvoltage if transformer - + + + +
breakdown(primary/secondary)
Electromagnetic compatibility
Immunity to nearby lightning strikes - + + + +

Immunity to lightning strikes on MV lines - - - - -
Continuous emission of an electromagnetic field + + - + +
Transient non-equipotentiality of the PE + - - + -
Continuity of service
Interruption for first fault - - - + +
Voltage dip during insulation fault + - - + -
Installation
Special devices - + + - -
Number of earth electrodes - + + -/+ -/+

Number of cables - - + - -
Maintenance
Cost of repairs - -- -- - --
Installation damage + - - ++ -
[a] IT-net when a first fault occurs.
[b] IT-net when a second fault occurs.
Fig. E16: Comparison of system earthing arrangements
Type of network Advised
Very large network with high-quality earth electrodes for exposed conductive parts (10 max.)
Very large network with low-quality earth electrodes for exposed conductive parts (> 30 ) TN
Disturbed area (storms) (e.g. television or radio transmitter) TN
Network with high leakage currents (> 500 mA) TN[d]
Network with outdoor overhead lines TT[e]
Emergency standby generator set IT
Type of loads
Loads sensitive to high fault currents (motors, etc.) IT
Loads with a low insulation level (electric furnaces,welding machines, heating elements, TN[i]
immersion heaters, equipment in large kitchens)
Numerous phase-neutral single-phase loads (mobile, semi-fixed, portable) TT[j]

TN-S
Loads with sizeable risks (hoists, conveyers, etc.) TN[k]
Numerous auxiliaries (machine tools) TN-S

Miscellaneous
Supply via star-star connected power transformer[n] TT
Premises with risk of fire IT[o]
Increase in power level of LV utility subscription, requiring a private substation TT[p]
Installation with frequent modifications TT[q]
Installation where the continuity of earth circuits is uncertain (work sites, old installations) TT[s]
Electronic equipment (computers, PLCs) TN-S
Machine control-monitoring network, PLC sensors and actuators IT[t]
[a] When the SEA is not imposed by regulations, it is selected according to the level of operating characteristics
(continuity of service that is mandatory for safety reasons or desired to enhance productivity, etc.). Whatever the
SEA, the probability of an insulation failure increases with the length of the network. It may be a good idea to break
up the network, which facilitates fault location and makes it possible to implement the system advised above for each
type of application.
[b] The risk of flashover on the surge limiter turns the isolated neutral into an earthed neutral. These risks are high for
regions with frequent thunder storms or installations supplied by overhead lines. If the IT system is selected to ensure
a higher level of continuity of service, the system designer must precisely calculate the tripping conditions for a
second fault.
[c] Risk of RCD nuisance tripping.
[d] Whatever the SEA, the ideal solution is to isolate the disturbing section if it can be easily identified.
[e] Risks of phase-to-earth faults affecting equipotentiality.

[f] Insulation is uncertain due to humidity and conducting dust.
[g] The TN system is not advised due to the risk of damage to the generator in the case of an internal fault. What is
more, when generator sets supply safety equipment, the system must not trip for the first fault.
[h] The phase-to-earth current may be several times higher than In, with the risk of damaging or accelerating the
ageing of motor windings, or of destroying magnetic circuits.
[i] To combine continuity of service and safety, it is necessary and highly advised, whatever the SEA, to separate
these loads from the rest of the installation (transformers with local neutral connection).
[j] When load equipment quality is not a design priority, there is a risk that the insulation resistance will fall rapidly.
The TT system with RCDs is the best means to avoid problems.
[k] The mobility of this type of load causes frequent faults (sliding contact for bonding of exposed conductive parts)
that must be countered. Whatever the SEA, it is advised to supply these circuits using transformers with a local
neutral connection.
[l] Requires the use of transformers with a local TN system to avoid operating risks and nuisance tripping at the first
fault (TT) or a double fault (IT).
[l2] With a double break in the control circuit.
[m] Excessive limitation of the phase-to-neutral current due to the high value of the zero-phase impedance (at least 4
to 5 times the direct impedance). This system must be replaced by a star-delta arrangement.
[n] The high fault currents make the TN system dangerous. The TN-C system is forbidden.
[o] Whatever the system, the RCD must be set to n 500 mA.
[p] An installation supplied with LV energy must use the TT system. Maintaining this SEA means the least amount of
modifications on the existing network (no cables to be run, no protection devices to be modified).
[q] Possible without highly competent maintenance personnel.
[r] This type of installation requires particular attention in maintaining safety. The absence of preventive measures in
the TN system means highly qualified personnel are required to ensure safety over time.
[s] The risks of breaks in conductors (supply, protection) may cause the loss of equipotentiality for exposed
conductive parts. A TT system or a TN-S system with 30 mA RCDs is advised and is often mandatory. The IT system
may be used in very specific cases.
[t] This solution avoids nuisance tripping for unexpected earth leakage.
Fig. E17: Influence of networks and loads on the selection of system earthing arrangements.
Characteristics of TT, TN and IT systems.

TT system
(see Fig. E12)

The TT system:
Technique for the protection of persons: the exposed conductive parts are earthed and residual current
devices (RCDs) are used
Operating technique: interruption for the first insulation fault
Fig. E12: TT system
Note: If the exposed conductive parts are earthed at a number of points, an RCD must be installed
for each set of circuits connected to a given earth electrode.
Main characteristics
Simplest solution to design and install. Used in installations supplied directly by the public LV
distribution network.
Does not require continuous monitoring during operation (a periodic check on the RCDs may
be necessary).
Protection is ensured by special devices, the residual current devices (RCD), which also
prevent the risk of fire when they are set to 500 mA.
Each insulation fault results in an interruption in the supply of power, however the outage is
limited to the faulty circuit by installing the RCDs in series (selective RCDs) or in parallel (circuit
selection).
Loads or parts of the installation which, during normal operation, cause high leakage
currents, require special measures to avoid nuisance tripping, i.e. supply the loads with a
separation transformer or use specific RCDs (see TT system - Protective measures).
TN system
see (Fig. E13 and Fig. E14)
The TN system:
Technique for the protection of persons:
Interconnection and earthing of exposed conductive parts and the neutral are mandatory
Interruption for the first fault using overcurrent protection (circuit-breakers or fuses)
Operating technique: interruption for the first insulation fault
Fig. E13: TN-C system
Fig. E14: TN-S system
Generally speaking, the TN system:
Requires the installation of earth electrodes at regular intervals throughout the

installation
Requires that the initial check on effective tripping for the first insulation fault be
carried out by calculations during the design stage, followed by mandatory measurements to
confirm tripping during commissioning
Requires that any modification or extension be designed and carried out by a

qualified electrician
May result, in the case of insulation faults, in greater damage to the windings of
rotating machines
May, on premises with a risk of fire, represent a greater danger due to the higher
fault currents
In addition, the TN-C system:
At first glance, would appear to be less expensive (elimination of a device pole and of
a conductor)
Requires the use of fixed and rigid conductors
Is forbidden in certain cases:
Premises with a risk of fire
For computer equipment (presence of harmonic currents in the neutral)
In addition, the TN-S system:
May be used even with flexible conductors and small conduits
Due to the separation of the neutral and the protection conductor, provides a clean
PE (computer systems and premises with special risks)
IT system
(see Fig. E15)
IT system:
Protection technique:
Interconnection and earthing of exposed conductive parts
Indication of the first fault by an insulation monitoring device (IMD)
Interruption for the second fault using overcurrent protection (circuit-breakers or fuses)
Operating technique:
Monitoring of the first insulation fault
Mandatory location and clearing of the fault
Interruption for two simultaneous insulation faults
Fig. E15: IT system
Solution offering the best continuity of service during operation
Indication of the first insulation fault, followed by mandatory location and clearing, ensures
systematic prevention of supply outages
Generally used in installations supplied by a private MV/LV or LV/LV transformer

Requires maintenance personnel for monitoring and operation
Requires a high level of insulation in the network (implies breaking up the network if it is very
large and the use of circuit-separation transformers to supply loads with high leakage currents)
The check on effective tripping for two simultaneous faults must be carried out by
calculations during the design stage, followed by mandatory measurements during commissioning
on each group of interconnected exposed conductive parts
Protection of the neutral conductor must be ensured as indicated in Protection of the neutral
conductor inside chapter Sizing and protection of conductors.
Definition of standardised earthing schemes.
he different earthing schemes (often referred to as the type of power system or system earthing arrangements)
described characterise the method of earthing the installation downstream of the secondary winding of a MV/LV
transformer and the means used for earthing the exposed conductive-parts of the LV installation supplied from it
The choice of these methods governs the measures necessary for protection against indirect-contact
hazards.
The earthing system qualifies three originally independent choices made by the designer of an
electrical distribution system or installation:
The type of connection of the electrical system (that is generally of the neutral conductor)
and of the exposed parts to earth electrod (s)
A separate protective conductor or protective conductor and neutral conductor being a single
conductor
The use of earth fault protection of overcurrent protective switchgear which clear only
relatively high fault currents or the use of additional relays able to detect and clear small insulation
fault currents to earth
In practice, these choices have been grouped and standardised as explained below.
Each of these choices provides standardised earthing systems with three advantages and
drawbacks:
Connection of the exposed conductive parts of the equipment and of the neutral conductor to
the PE conductor results in equipotentiality and lower overvoltages but increases earth fault
currents
A separate protective conductor is costly even if it has a small cross-sectional area but it is
much more unlikely to be polluted by voltage drops and harmonics, etc. than a neutral conductor
is. Leakage currents are also avoided in extraneous conductive parts
Installation of residual current protective relays or insulation monitoring devices are much
more sensitive and permits in many circumstances to clear faults before heavy damage occurs
(motors, fires, electrocution). The protection offered is in addition independent with respect to
changes in an existing installation
TT system (earthed neutral)
(see Fig. E3)
One point at the supply source is connected directly to earth. All exposed- and extraneous-
conductive-parts are connected to a separate earth electrode at the installation. This electrode may
or may not be electrically independent of the source electrode. The two zones of influence may
overlap without affecting the operation of protective devices.
Fig. E3: TT System
TN systems (exposed conductive parts connected to the neutral)

The source is earthed as for the TT system (above). In the installation, all exposed- and extraneous-
conductive-parts are connected to the neutral conductor. The several versions of TN systems are
shown below.
TN-C system
(see Fig. E4)
The neutral conductor is also used as a protective conductor and is referred to as a PEN
(Protective Earth and Neutral) conductor. This system is not permitted for conductors of less than 10
mm2 or for portable equipment.
The TN-C system requires an effective equipotential environment within the installation with
dispersed earth electrodes spaced as regularly as possible since the PEN conductor is both the
neutral conductor and at the same time carries phase unbalance currents as well as 3 rd order
harmonic currents (and their multiples).
The PEN conductor must therefore be connected to a number of earth electrodes in the installation.
Caution: In the TN-C system, the protective conductor function has priority over the neutral
function. In particular, a PEN conductor must always be connected to the earthing terminal of a load
and a jumper is used to connect this terminal to the neutral terminal.
Fig. E4: TN-C system
TN-S system
(see Fig. E5)

The TN-S system (5 wires) is obligatory for circuits with cross-sectional areas less than 10 mm 2 for
portable equipment.
The protective conductor and the neutral conductor are separate. On underground cable systems
where lead-sheathed cables exist, the protective conductor is generally the lead sheath. The use of
separate PE and N conductors (5 wires) is obligatory for circuits with cross-sectional areas less than
10 mm2 for portable equipment.
Fig. E5: TN-S system
TN-C-S system
(see Fig. E6 and Fig. E7)
The TN-C and TN-S systems can be used in the same installation. In the TN-C-S system, the TN-C
(4 wires) system must never be used downstream of the TN-S (5 wires) system, since any accidental
interruption in the neutral on the upstream part would lead to an interruption in the protective
conductor in the downstream part and therefore a danger.
Fig. E6: TN-C-S system
Fig. E7: Connection of the PEN conductor in the TN-C system
IT system (isolated or impedance-earthed neutral)
IT system (isolated neutral)
No intentional connection is made between the neutral point of the supply source and earth
(see Fig. E8).
Fig. E8: IT system (isolated neutral)
Exposed- and extraneous-conductive-parts of the installation are connected to an earth electrode.

In practice all circuits have a leakage impedance to earth, since no insulation is perfect. In parallel
with this (distributed) resistive leakage path, there is the distributed capacitive current path, the two
paths together constituting the normal leakage impedance to earth (see Fig. E9).
Fig. E9: IT system (isolated neutral)
Example (see Fig. E10)
In a LV 3-phase 3-wire system, 1 km of cable will have a leakage impedance due to C1, C2, C3 and
R1, R2 and R3 equivalent to a neutral earth impedance Zct of 3,000 to 4,000 , without counting the
filtering capacitances of electronic devices.
Fig. E10: Impedance equivalent to leakage impedances in an IT system
IT system (impedance-earthed neutral)
An impedance Zs (in the order of 1,000 to 2,000 ) is connected permanently between the neutral
point of the transformer LV winding and earth (see Fig. E11). All exposed- and extraneous-
conductive-parts are connected to an earth electrode. The reasons for this form of power-source
earthing are to fix the potential of a small network with respect to earth (Zs is small compared to the
leakage impedance) and to reduce the level of overvoltages, such as transmitted surges from the
MV windings, static charges, etc. with respect to earth. It has, however, the effect of slightly
increasing the first-fault current level.
Fig. E11: IT system (impedance-earthed neutral).
Earthing connections.
In a building, the connection of all metal parts of the building and all exposed conductive parts of electrical
equipment to an earth electrode prevents the appearance of dangerously high voltages between any two
simultaneously accessible metal parts
Definitions
National and international standards (IEC 60364) clearly define the various elements of earthing
connections. The following terms are commonly used in industry and in the literature. Bracketed
numbers refer to Figure E1
Fig. E1: An example of a block of flats in which the main earthing terminal (6) provides the main
equipotential connection; the removable link (7) allows an earth-electrode-resistance check
Earth electrode (1): A conductor or group of conductors in intimate contact with, and
providing an electrical connection with Earth (cf details in section 1.6 of Chapter E.)
Earth: The conductive mass of the Earth, whose electric potential at any point is
conventionally taken as zero
Electrically independent earth electrodes: Earth electrodes located at such a distance from
one another that the maximum current likely to flow through one of them does not significantly
affect the potential of the other(s)
Earth electrode resistance: The contact resistance of an earth electrode with the Earth
Earthing conductor (2): A protective conductor connecting the main earthing terminal (6) of
an installation to an earth electrode (1) or to other means of earthing (e.g. TN systems);
Exposed-conductive-part: A conductive part of equipment which can be touched and which is

not a live part, but which may become live under fault conditions
Protective conductor (3): A conductor used for some measures of protection against electric
shock and intended for connecting together any of the following parts:
Exposed-conductive-parts
Extraneous-conductive-parts
The main earthing terminal
Earth electrode(s)
The earthed point of the source or an artificial neutral
Extraneous-conductive-part: A conductive part liable to introduce a potential, generally earth

potential, and not forming part of the electrical installation (4).
For example:
Non-insulated floors or walls, metal framework of buildings
Metal conduits and pipework (not part of the electrical installation) for water, gas, heating,
compressed-air, etc. and metal materials
associated with them
Bonding conductor (5): A protective conductor providing equipotential bonding
Main earthing terminal (6): The terminal or bar provided for the connection of protective
conductors, including equipotential bonding conductors, and conductors for functional earthing, if
any, to the means of earthing.
Connections
The main equipotential bonding system

The bonding is carried out by protective conductors and the aim is to ensure that, in the event of an
incoming extraneous conductor (such as a gas pipe, etc.) being raised to some potential due to a
fault external to the building, no difference of potential can occur between extraneous-conductive-
parts within the installation.
The bonding must be effected as close as possible to the point(s) of entry into the building, and be
connected to the main earthing terminal (6).
However, connections to earth of metallic sheaths of communications cables require the

authorisation of the owners of the cables.
Supplementary equipotential connections
These connections are intended to connect all exposed-conductive-parts and all extraneous-
conductive-parts simultaneously accessible, when correct conditions for protection have not been
met, i.e. the original bonding conductors present an unacceptably high resistance.
Connection of exposed-conductive-parts to the earth electrode(s)
The connection is made by protective conductors with the object of providing a low-resistance path
for fault currents flowing to earth.
Components
(see Fig. E2)
Effective connection of all accessible metal fixtures and all exposed-conductive-parts of electrical
appliances and equipment, is essential for effective protection against electric shocks.
Component parts to consider:
as exposed-conductive-parts as extraneous-conductive-parts
Elements used in building construction

Cableways
Metal or reinforced concrete (RC):

Conduits
Steel-framed structure
Impregnated-paper-insulated lead-covered cable,
armoured or unarmoured Reinforcement rods
Mineral insulated metal-sheathed cable (pyrotenax, Prefabricated RC panels
etc.)
Switchgear Surface finishes:
cradle of withdrawable switchgear Floors and walls in reinforced concrete
Appliances without further
Exposed metal parts of class 1 insulated appliances surface treatment
Tiled surface
Metallic covering:
Metallic wall covering

Non-electrical elements Building services elements other than electrical
metallic fittings associated with cableways (cable Metal pipes, conduits, trunking, etc. for gas,water
trays, cable ladders, etc.) and heating systems, etc.
Metal objects: Related metal components (furnaces,
tanks,reservoirs, radiators)
Close to aerial conductors or to busbars
Metallic fittings in wash rooms, bathrooms, toilets,

In contact with electrical equipment.
etc.
Metallised papers
Component parts not to be considered:
as exposed-conductive-parts as extraneous-conductive-parts
Diverse service channels, ducts, etc.
Wooden-block floors
Conduits made of insulating material
Rubber-covered or linoleum-covered floors

Mouldings in wood or other insulating material
Dry plaster-block partition

Conductors and cables without metallic sheaths
Brick walls
Carpets and wall-to-wall carpeting

Switchgear

Enclosures made of insulating material
Appliances

All appliances having class II insulation regardless of
the type of exterior envelope
Fig. E2: List of exposed-conductive-parts and extraneous-conductive-parts.
Cables and busways.

Distribution and installation methods
(see Fig. E36)
Distribution takes place via cableways that carry single insulated conductors or cables and include a
fixing system and mechanical protection.
Fig. E36: Radial distribution using cables in a hotel
Busbar trunking (busways)
Busways, also referred to as busbar trunking systems, stand out for their ease of installation, flexibility and
number of possible connection points
Busbar trunking is intended to distribute power (from 20 A to 5000 A) and lighting (in this application,
the busbar trunking may play a dual role of supplying electrical power and physically holding the
lights).
Busbar trunking system components
A busbar trunking system comprises a set of conductors protected by an enclosure (see Fig. E37).
Used for the transmission and distribution of electrical power, busbar trunking systems have all the
necessary features for fitting: connectors, straights, angles, fixings, etc. The tap-off points placed at
regular intervals make power available at every point in the installation.
Fig. E37: Busbar trunking system design for distribution of currents from 25 to 4000A
The various types of busbar trunking:
Busbar trunking systems are present at every level in electrical distribution: from the link between
the transformer and the low voltage switch switchboard (MLVS) to the distribution of power sockets
and lighting to offices, or power distribution to workshops.
Fig. E38: Radial distribution using busways
We talk about a distributed network architecture.
There are essentially three categories of busways.
Transformer to MLVS busbar trunking

Installation of the busway may be considered as permanent and will most likely never be
modified. There are no tap-off points.
Frequently used for short runs, it is almost always used for ratings above 1,600 /2,000 A, i.e.
when the use of parallel cables makes installation impossible. Busways are also used
between the MLVS and downstream distribution switchboards.
The characteristics of main-distribution busways authorize operational currents from1,000 to
5,000 A and short-circuit withstands up to 150 kA.
Sub-distribution busbar trunking with low or high tap-off densities

Downstream of main-distribution busbar trunking , two types of applications must be
supplied:
Mid-sized premises (industrial workshops with injection presses and metalwork machines or
large supermarkets with heavy loads).
The short-circuit and current levels can be fairly high (respectively 20 to 70 kA and 100 to
1,000 A)
Small sites (workshops with machine-tools, textile factories with small

machines,supermarkets with small loads). The short-circuit and current levels are lower
(respectively 10 to 40 kA and 40 to 400 A)
Sub-distribution using busbar trunking meets user needs in terms of:
Modifications and upgrades given the high number of tap-off points
Dependability and continuity of service because tap-off units can be connected under
energized conditions in complete safety
The sub-distribution concept is also valid for vertical distribution in the form of 100 to 5,000 A
risers in tall buildings.
Lighting distribution busbar trunking

Lighting circuits can be distributed using two types of busbar trunking according to whether
the lighting fixtures are suspended from the busbar trunking or not.
busbar trunking designed for the suspension of lighting fixtures

These busways supply and support light fixtures (industrial reflectors, discharge lamps, etc.).
They are used in industrial buildings, supermarkets, department stores and warehouses. The
busbar trunkings are very rigid and are designed for one or two 25 A or 40 A circuits. They
have tap-off outlets every 0.5 to 1 m.
busbar trunking not designed for the suspension of lighting fixtures

Similar to prefabricated cable systems, these busways are used to supply all types of lighting
fixtures secured to the building structure. They are used in commercial buildings (offices,
shops, restaurants, hotels, etc.), especially in false ceilings. The busbar trunking is flexible
and designed for one 20 A circuit. It has tap-off outlets every 1.2 m to 3 m.
Busbar trunking systems are suited to the requirements of a large number of buildings.
Industrial buildings: garages, workshops, farm buildings, logistic centers, etc.
Commercial areas: stores, shopping malls, supermarkets, hotels, etc.

Tertiary buildings: offices, schools, hospitals, sports rooms, cruise liners, etc.
Standards
Busbar trunking systems must meet all rules stated in IEC 61439-6.
This defines the manufacturing arrangements to be complied with in the design of busbar trunking
systems (e.g.: temperature rise characteristics, short-circuit withstand, mechanical strength, etc.) as
well as test methods to check them.
The new standard IEC61439-6 describes in particular the design verifications and routine
verifications required to ensure compliance.
By assembling the system components on the site according to the assembly instructions, the
contractor benefits from conformity with the standard.
The advantages of busbar trunking systems
Flexibility
Easy to change configuration (on-site modification to change production line configuration or

extend production areas).
Reusing components (components are kept intact): when an installation is subject to major
modifications, the busbar trunking is easy to dismantle and reuse.
Power availability throughout the installation (possibility of having a tap-off point every
meter).
Wide choice of tap-off units.
Simplicity
Design can be carried out independently from the distribution and layout of current
consumers.
Performances are independent of implementation: the use of cables requires a lot of derating
coefficients.
Clear distribution layout
Reduction of fitting time: the trunking system allows fitting times to be reduced by up to 50%
compared with a traditional cable installation.
Manufacturers guarantee.
Controlled execution times: the trunking system concept guarantees that there are no
unexpected surprises when fitting. The fitting time is clearly known in advance and a quick solution
can be provided to any problems on site with this adaptable and scalable equipment.
Easy to implement: modular components that are easy to handle, simple and quick to
connect.
Dependability
Reliability guaranteed by being factory-built
Fool-proof units
Sequential assembly of straight components and tap-off units making it impossible to make
any mistakes
Continuity of service
The large number of tap-off points makes it easy to supply power to any new current
consumer. Connecting and disconnecting is quick and can be carried out in complete safety even
when energized. These two operations (adding or modifying) take place without having to stop
operations.
Quick and easy fault location since current consumers are near to the line
Maintenance is non existent or greatly reduced
Major contribution to sustainable development
Busbar trunking systems allow circuits to be combined. Compared with a traditional cable
distribution system, consumption of raw materials for insulators is divided by 4 due to the busbar
trunking distributed network concept (see Fig. E39).
Reusable device and all of its components are fully recyclable.
Does not contain PVC and does not generate toxic gases or waste.
Reduction of risks due to exposure to electromagnetic fields.
Fig. E39: Example of a set of 14 x 25A loads distributed along 34 meters (for busway, Canalis KS
250A)
New functional features for Canalis
Busbar trunking systems are getting even better. Among the new features we can mention:
Increased performance with a IP55 protection index and new ratings of 160 A through to
1000 A (Ks).
New lighting offers with pre-cabled lights and new light ducts.
New fixing accessories. Quick fixing system, cable ducts, shared support with VDI (voice,
data, images) circuits.
Busbar trunking systems are perfectly integrated with the environment:
white color to enhance the working environment, naturally integrated in a range of electrical
distribution products.
conformity with European regulations on reducing hazardous materials (RoHS).
Examples of Canalis busbar trunking systems
Fig. E41: Rigid busbar trunking able to support light fittings: Canalis KBA or KBB (25 and 40 A)
Fig. E43: A busway for medium power distribution: Canalis KN (40 up to 160 A)
Fig. E44: A busway for medium power distribution: Canalis KS (100 up to 1000A)
Fig. E45: A busway for high power distribution: Canalis KT (800 up to 5000A).
The architecture design.

The architecture design considered in this document starts at the preliminary design stage
(see Fig. D3 step1). It generally covers the levels of MV/LV main distribution, LV power distribution,
and exceptionally the terminal distribution level. (see Fig. D2).
In buildings all consumers are connected in low voltage. It means that MV distribution consists in:
connection to utility,
distribution to MV/LV substation(s),
MV/LV substation(s) itself.

Fig. D2: Example of single-line diagram
The design of an electrical distribution architecture can be described by a 3-stage process, with
iterative possibilities. This process is based on taking account of the installation characteristics and
criteria to be satisfied.
Internal MV circuits.
Internal MV circuits are dedicated to the supply of the secondary MV/LV substations dispersed in the
installation. They are three typical principles commonly used for this purpose Fig. D11:
Single feeder
Dual feeder
Open ring.
Comparison of these three typical principles of internal distribution is given Fig. D12.
MV circuit configuration
Characteristic to Single feeder Open ring Dual feeder

consider
Site topology Any Single or several Single or several

buildings buildings
Power demand Any > 1250kVA > 2500kVA
Disturbance Long interruption Short interruption Short interruption not

sensitivity acceptable acceptable acceptable
Fig. D12: Comparison of the typical internal circuits.
Number of MV/LV transformers.

For every MV/LV substation, the definition of the number of MV/LV transformers takes into account
the following criteria:
Total power supplied by the substation
Standardization of the rated power to reduce the number of spare transformers
Limit of the rated power. It is recommended to set this limit at 1250 kVA in order to facilitate
the handling and the replacement of the transformers
Scalability of the installation
Need to separate the loads having a high level of sensitivity to the electrical perturbations
Need to dedicate a transformer to the load generating a high level of perturbation such as
voltage dips, harmonics, flicker
Need for partial or total redundancy. When required, two transformers each sized for the full
load and equipped with an automatic change-over are installed
Loads requiring a dedicated neutral system. IT for example to ensure the continuity of
operation in case of phase to earth fault.
LV distribution - centralized or distributed layout.

Layout
Position of the main MV and LV equipment on the site or in the building.
This layout choice is applied to the results of stage 1.
Selection guide
As recommended in IEC60364-8-1 6.3, MV/LV substation location can be determined by using the
barycenter method:
taking into account service conditions: in dedicated premises if the layout in the workshop is
too restrictive (temperature, vibrations, dust, etc.)
Placing heavy equipment (transformers, generators, etc.) close to walls or to main exits for
ease of maintenance.
A layout example is given in the following diagram (Fig. D13):

Fig. D13: The position of the global load barycentre guides the positioning of power sources
Centralized or distributed layout of LV distribution
In centralized layout, each load is connected directly to the power source. (Fig. D14):
Fig. D14: Example of centralized layout with point to point links
In distributed layout, loads are connected to sources via a busway. This type of distribution is well
adapted to supply many loads that are spread out, where easy change is requested or future new
connection (need of flexibility) (Fig. D15):
Fig. D15: Example of distributed layout, with busway
Factors in favour of centralized layout (see summary table in Fig. D16):
Installation flexibility: no,

Load distribution: localized loads (high unit power loads).
Factors in favor of distributed layout:
Installation flexibility: "Implementation" flexibility (moving of workstations, etc),
Load distribution: uniform distribution of low or medium unit power loads
Load distribution

Flexibility (see Installation Localized Intermediate Uniformly

flexibilityfor definition of the loads distribution distributed
flexibility levels) loads loads
No flexibility Centralized Decentralized
Flexibility of design
Implementation flexibility Centralized Decentralized
Operation flexibility
Fig. D16: Recommendations for centralized or distributed layout
Centralized distribution gives greater independence of circuits, reducing the consequences of a

failure from power availability point of view.
The use of decentralized distribution with busway is a way to merge all the circuits in one: it makes it
possible to take into account the diversity factor (ks), which means cost savings on conductor sizing
(See Fig. D17). The choice between centralized and decentralized solutions, according to the
diversity factor, allows to find an economic optimum between investment costs, installation costs and
operating costs.
These two distribution modes are often combined.

Fig. D17: Example of a set of 14 x 25A loads distributed along 34 meters (for busway, Canalis KS
250A).
Presence of LV back-up generators.
LV backup-up generator is the association of an alternator mechanically powered by a thermal

engine.
No electrical power can be delivered until the generator has reached its rated speed. This type of
device is therefore not suitable for an uninterrupted power supply. Depending, if the generator is
sized to supply power to all or only part of the installation, there is either total or partial redundancy.
A back-up generator runs generally disconnected from the network. A source changeover and an
interlocking system is therefore required (see Fig. D18).
The generator back-up time depends on the quantity of available fuel.

Fig. D18: Connection of a back-up generator
The main characteristics to consider for implementing LV back-up generator:
Sensitivity of loads to power interruption (see Voltage Interruption Sensitivity for definition),
Availability of the public distribution network (see Service reliability for the definition),
Other constraints (e.g.: generators compulsory in hospitals or high buildings)
In addition the presence of generators can be decided to reduce the energy bill or due to the
opportunity for co-generation. These two aspects are not taken into account in this guide.
The presence of a back-up generator is essential if the loads cannot be shed (only short interruption
acceptable) or if the utility network availability is low.
Determining the number of back-up generator units is in line with the same criteria as determining
the number of transformers, as well as taking account of economic and availability considerations
(redundancy, start-up reliability, maintenance facility).
Determining the generator apparent power, depends on:
installation power demand of loads to be supplied,

transient constraints that can occur by motors inrush current for example.
Configuration of LV circuits.
Single feeder configuration
Fig. D20
This is the reference configuration and the most simple. A load is connected to one single source.
This configuration provides a minimum level of availability, since there is no redundancy in case of
power source failure.
Fig. D20: Single feeder configuration
Parallel transformers configuration
Fig. D21
The power supply is provided by more than 1 transformer generally connected in parallel to the
same main LV switchboard.
Fig. D21: Parallel transformers configuration

Variant: Normally open coupled transformers
Fig. D22
In order to increase the availability it is possible to split the main LV switchboard into 2 parts, with a
normally open bus-coupler (NO). This configuration may require an Automatic Transfer Switch
between the coupler and transformer incomers.
These 2 configurations are more often used when power demand is greater than 1 MVA.
Fig. D22: Normally open coupled transformers
Main LV switchboard interconnected by a busway
Fig. D23
Transformers are physically distant, and operated in parallel. They are connected by a busway, the
load can always be supplied in the case of failure of one of the sources. The redundancy can be:
Total: each transformer being able to supply all of the installation,
Partial: each transformer only being able to supply part of the installation. In this case, part of
the loads must be disconnected (load-shedding) in the case of one of transformer failure.
Fig. D23: Main LV switchboard interconnected by a busway
LV ring configuration
Fig. D24
This configuration can be considered as an extension of the previous configuration with

interconnection between switchboards. Typically, 4 transformers connected in parallel to the same
MV line, supply a ring using busway. A given load is then supplied by several transformers. This
configuration is well suited to large sites, with high load density (in kVA/m 2). If all of the loads can be
supplied by 3 transformers, there is total redundancy in the case of failure of one of the transformers.
In fact, each busbar can be fed by one or other of its ends. Otherwise, downgraded operation must
be considered (with partial load shedding). This configuration requires special design of the
protection plan in order to ensure discrimination in all of the fault circumstances.
As the previous configuration this type of installation is commonly used in automotive industry or
large site manufacturing industry.
Fig. D24: Ring configuration
Double-ended power supply
Fig. D25
This configuration is implemented in cases where maximum availability is required. The principle
involves having 2 independent power sources, e.g.:
2 transformers supplied by different MV lines,
1 transformer and 1 generator,
1 transformer and 1 UPS.
An automatic transfer switch (ATS) is used to avoid the sources being parallel connected. This
configuration allows preventive and curative maintenance to be carried out on all of the electrical
distribution system upstream without interrupting the power supply.
Fig. D25: Double-ended configuration with automatic transfer switch
Configuration combinations
Fig. D26
An installation can be made up of several sub-asssemblies with different configurations, according to

requirements for the availability of the different types of load. E.g.: generator unit and UPS, choice
by sectors (some sectors supplied by cables and others by busways).
Fig. D26: Example of a configuration combination 1: Single feeder, 2: Main LV switchboard

interconnected by a busway, 3: Double-ended
For the different possible configurations, the most probable and usual set of characteristics is given
in the following table:
Characteristic to be Configuration
considered
Single feeder Parallel transformer or Main LV switchboard LV ring

(fig. D20) transformers connected via a interconnected by a busway
coupler (fig. D21-D22) (fig D24)
Site topology Any Any 1 level 5000 to 25000 m2 1 level 5000 to

m2
Power demand < 2500kVA Any 2500kVA > 2500kVA
Location latitude Any Any Medium or high Medium or high
Load distribution Localized Localized loads Intermediate or uniform load Intermediate or

loads distribution uniform load
distribution
Maintainability Minimal Standard Standard Standard
Disturbances Low sensitivity High sensitivity High sensitivity High sensitivity

sensitivity
Fig. D27: Recommendations for the configuration of LV circuits.
Example: electrical installation in a printworks.

Brief description
Printing of personalized mailshots intended for mail order sales.
Installation characteristics
Characteristic Category
Activity Mechanical
Site topology single storey building 10000m2 (8000m2 dedicated to the process,
2000m2 for ancillary areas)
Layout latitude High
Service reliability Standard
Maintainability Standard
Installation flexibility
No flexibility planned:
HVAC
Process utilities
Office power supply
Possible flexibility:
finishing, putting in envelopes
special machines, installed at a later date
rotary machines (uncertainty at the draft design
stage)
Power demand 3500kVA
Load distribution Intermediate distribution
Power interruptions
sensitivity
Sheddable circuits:
offices (apart from PC power sockets)
air conditioning, office heating
social premises
maintenance premises
long interruptions acceptable:
printing machines
workshop HVAC (hygrometric control
Finishing, envelope filling
Process utilities (compressor, recycling of cooled
water)
No interruptions acceptable:
servers, office PCs

Disturbance sensitivity
Average sensitivity:
motors, lighting
High sensitivity:
IT
No special precaution to be taken due to the connection to the EdF
network (low level of disturbance)
Disturbance capability Non disturbing
Other constraints
Building with lightning classification: lightning surge
arresters installed
Power supply by overhead single feeder line
Technological characteristics
Criteria Category
Service conditions
IP: standard (no dust, no water protection)
IK: standard (use of technical pits, dedicated
premises)
C: standard (temperature regulation)

Required service index 211
Offer availability by country No problem (project carried out in Europe)
Other criteria Not applicable
Architecture assessment criteria
Criteria Category
On-site work time Standard
Environmental impact Minimal: compliance with European standard regulations
Preventive maintenance costs Standard
Power supply availability Tier 1
Step 1: Architecture fundamentals
Choice Main criteria Solution
Connection to upstream Isolated site, 3500 kVA MV single-line service

network
MV Circuits Layout + criticality single feeder

Number of transformers Power > 2500kVA 2 x 2000kVA
Number and distribution of Surface area and power 2 possible solutions: 1 substation or 2 substations
substations distribution
if 1 substations: Normaly open bus-coupler
between MLVS
if 2 substations: Main LV switchboard
interconnected by a busway
MV Generator Site activity No
Fig. D31: Two possible single-line diagrams
Step 2: Architecture details
Layout Service conditions Dedicated premises

LV circuit 2 transformers, requested by Solution from fig.D22 or D23 are possible
configuration the power demand
Centralized or Uniform loads, distributed

distributed layout power, scalability possibilities Decentralized with busbar trunking:
Non-uniform loads, direct link finishing sector, envelope filling
from MLVS
Centralized with cables:
special machines, rotary machines, HVAC,
process utilities, offices (2 switchboards), office air
conditioning, social premises, maintenance

Presence of back- Criticality low No back-up generator
up generator
Network availability: standard
Presence of UPS Criticality UPS unit for IT devices and office workstations
Fig. D32: Detailed single-line diagram (1 substation based on fig.D22)

Fig. D33: Detailed single-line diagram (2 substation based on fig.D24)
Choice of technological solutions
MV/LV substation Service conditions indoor (dedicated premises)
MV switchboard Offer availability by country SM6 (installation in Europe)
Transformers Service conditions cast resin transfo (avoids constraints related to oil)
LV switchboard Service conditions, service index for LV MLVS: Prisma P

switchboards
Sub-distribution: Prisma
Busway Load distribution Canalis KS (fig.D32 or D33)

Canalis KT for main distribution (fig D33)
UPS units Installed power to be supplied, back-up Galaxy PW

time
Power factor correction Reactive power to provide for the minimum

up to the full load without harmonic (see
chapter Power Factor Correction for more
information), presence of harmonics.
MCBs.
Instantaneous Trip Setting.
6, 8, 10, 13, 16, 20, 25, 32, 40, 50, 63, 80, 100 and 125 A.
Instantaneous tripping less than 0.1 sec. for tripping.
B. 3 5 of the rated continuous Suitable for resistive loads,

currents. heaters, lighting etc.
C. 5 10 of the rated continuous Suitable for the reactive loads
currents. motors, general lighting etc.
D. 10 20 of the rated continuous Suitable for high reactive loads
currents. transformers, motors etc.
Permissible I2t (let-through energy) in A2s for circuit-breakers type B with rated
current up to and including 63A.
Permissible I2t (let-through energy) in A2s for circuit-breakers type C with rated
current up to and including 63A.
Cables withstanding capacities.
The application of fault current protective devices to cable protection is

detailed in BS 7671
and is given by:
I2t k2S2
Where:
I2t is the energy let-through value of the protective device
k2S2 is the energy withstand of the cable.
The code allows the breaking capacity of a circuit-breaker to be less than its
associated prospective fault current when back-up protection is employed in
cascading through a suitable upstream protective devices. Back-up protection
consists of an upstream short-circuit protective device (SCPD) that helps a
downstream circuit-breaker to break fault currents greater than its maximum
breaking current. However, where an MCCB, MCB or fuse is the upstream SCPD, and
the downstream SCPD is an MCB, coordination tests can be used to validate that the
I2t of the specific combination will not exceed the I2t value of the downstream MCB
at its maximum breaking capacity.
The I 2t of the upstream SCPD A and downstream MCB B operating together at
20 kA, will be equal to or less than the I 2t of MCB B at 10 kA. The I 2t to be used
in the conductor fault current assessment would be that of MCB B at 10 kA.
MCCBs.
(MCCBs) may have fixed or adjustable protection settings, normally a three position
toggle operating handle giving on-off-tripped indication plus reset function, and a
performance level relative to the incoming supply such that they can be installed at
a point close to the supply transformer.
Ratings: 16A to 1600A (may be upto 3200A), with the short circuit withstanding
capacities upto 100kA in selections.
Rated Short-Time Withstand Current.
Circuit-breakers of Selectivity Category B have a short-time delay (STD)
allowing timegraded
selectivity between circuit-breakers in series.
Icw is the fault current the circuit-breaker will withstand for the maximum
short-time
delay time.
Preferred times are: 0.05, 0.1, 0.25, 0.5 and 1.0 second.
In order to provide protection against electric shock in accordance with the

Wiring, it is necessary to determine the maximum value of Zs that will give
the required disconnection time. This will give the max. length of the circuits
downstream of the device for achieving the protections at around 80% of the
phase to N voltages. No tolerance may be required for the IT trippings,
but a 20% may be considered in the case of instantaneous types.
Calculation Methodology
This calculation is based on IEEE Std 80 (2000), "Guide for safety in AC substation grounding".
There are two main parts to this calculation:
Earthing grid conductor sizing
Touch and step potential calculations
IEEE Std 80 is quite descriptive, detailed and easy to follow, so only an overview will be
presented here and IEEE Std 80 should be consulted for further details (although references
will be given herein).
Prerequisites
The following information is required / desirable before starting the calculation:
A layout of the site
Maximum earth fault current into the earthing grid
Maximum fault clearing time
Ambient (or soil) temperature at the site
Soil resistivity measurements at the site (for touch and step only)
Resistivity of any surface layers intended to be laid (for touch and step only)
Earthing Grid Conductor Sizing
Determining the minimum size of the earthing grid conductors is necessary to ensure
that the earthing grid will be able to withstand the maximum earth fault current. Like a
normal power cable under fault, the earthing grid conductors experience an adiabatic
short circuit temperature rise. However unlike a fault on a normal cable, where the
limiting temperature is that which would cause permanent damage to the cable's
insulation, the temperature limit for earthing grid conductors is the melting point of the
conductor. In other words, during the worst case earth fault, we don't want the
earthing grid conductors to start melting!
The minimum conductor size capable of withstanding the adiabatic temperature rise
associated with an earth fault is given by re-arranging IEEE Std 80 Equation 37:
Where is the minimum cross-sectional area of the earthing grid conductor

(mm2)
is the energy of the maximum earth fault (A2s)
is the maximum allowable (fusing) temperature (C)
is the ambient temperature (C)
is the thermal coefficient of resistivity (C - 1)
is the resistivity of the earthing conductor (.cm)
is
is the thermal capacity of the conductor per unit volume(Jcm - 3C - 1)
The material constants Tm, r, r and TCAP for

common conductor materials can be found in
IEEE Std 80 Table 1. For example. commercial
hard-drawn copper has material constants:
Tm = 1084 C
r = 0.00381 C - 1
r = 1.78 .cm
TCAP = 3.42 Jcm - 3C - 1.
As described in IEEE Std 80 Section 11.3.1.1, there are alternative methods to formulate
this equation, all of which can also be derived from first principles).
There are also additional factors that should be considered (e.g. taking into account
future growth in fault levels), as discussed in IEEE Std 80 Section 11.3.3.
Touch and Step Potential Calculations
When electricity is generated remotely and there are no return paths for earth faults
other than the earth itself, then there is a risk that earth faults can cause dangerous
voltage gradients in the earth around the site of the fault (called ground potential rises).
This means that someone standing near the fault can receive a dangerous electrical
shock due to:
Touch voltages - there is a dangerous potential difference between the earth and a
metallic object that a person is touching
Step voltages - there is a dangerous voltage gradient between the feet of a person
standing on earth
The earthing grid can be used to dissipate fault currents to remote earth and reduce the
voltage gradients in the earth. The touch and step potential calculations are performed in
order to assess whether the earthing grid can dissipate the fault currents so that
dangerous touch and step voltages cannot exist.
Step 1: Soil Resistivity
The resistivity properties of the soil where the earthing grid will be laid is an important
factor in determining the earthing grid's resistance with respect to remote earth. Soils
with lower resistivity lead to lower overall grid resistances and potentially smaller
earthing grid configurations can be designed (i.e. that comply with safe step and touch
potentials).
It is good practice to perform soil resistivity tests on the site. There are a few standard
methods for measuring soil resistivity (e.g. Wenner four-pin method). A good discussion
on the interpretation of soil resistivity test measurements is found in IEEE Std 80 Section
13.4.
Sometimes it isn't possible to conduct soil resistivity tests and an estimate must suffice.
When estimating soil resistivity, it goes without saying that one should err on the side of
caution and select a higher resistivity. IEEE Std 80 Table 8 gives some guidance on range
of soil resistivities based on the general characteristics of the soil (i.e. wet organic soil =
10 .m, moist soil = 100 .m, dry soil = 1,000 .m and bedrock = 10,000 .m).
Step 2: Surface Layer Materials
Applying a thin layer (0.08m - 0.15m) of high resistivity material (such as gravel, blue
metal, crushed rock, etc) over the surface of the ground is commonly used to help
protect against dangerous touch and step voltages. This is because the surface layer
material increases the contact resistance between the soil (i.e. earth) and the feet of a
person standing on it, thereby lowering the current flowing through the person in the
event of a fault.
IEEE Std 80 Table 7 gives typical values for surface layer material resistivity in dry and
wet conditions (e.g. 40mm crushed granite = 4,000 .m (dry) and 1,200 .m (wet)).
The effective resistance of a person's feet (with respect to earth) when standing on a
surface layer is not the same as the surface layer resistance because the layer is not thick
enough to have uniform resistivity in all directions. A surface layer derating factor needs
to be applied in order to compute the effective foot resistance (with respect to earth) in
the presence of a finite thickness of surface layer material. This derating factor can be
approximated by an empirical formula as per IEEE Std 80 Equation 27:
Where is the surface layer

derating factor
is the soil resistivity (.m)
is the resistivity of the surface layer material (.m)
is the thickness of the surface layer (m)
This derating factor will be used later in Step 5 when calculating the maximum allowable
touch and step voltages.
Step 3: Earthing Grid Resistance
A good earthing grid has low resistance (with respect to remote earth) to minimise
ground potential rise (GPR) and consequently avoid dangerous touch and step voltages.
Calculating the earthing grid resistance usually goes hand in hand with earthing grid
design - that is, you design the earthing grid to minimise grid resistance. The earthing
grid resistance mainly depends on the area taken up by the earthing grid, the total length
of buried earthing conductors and the number of earthing rods / electrodes.
IEEE Std 80 offers two alternative options for calculating the earthing grid resistance
(with respect to remote earth) - 1) the simplified method (Section 14.2) and 2) the
Schwarz equations (Section 14.3), both of which are outlined briefly below. IEEE Std 80
also includes methods for reducing soil resistivity (in Section 14.5) and a treatment for
concrete-encased earthing electrodes (in Section 14.6).
Simplified Method
IEEE Std 80 Equation 52 gives the simplified method as modified by Sverak to include the
effect of earthing grid depth:
Where is the earthing grid resistance with respect to remote earth ()
is the soil resistivitiy (.m)
is the total length of buried conductors (m)
is the total area occupied by the earthing grid (m2)
is the depth of the earthing grid (m)
Schwarz Equations
The Schwarz equations are a series of equations that are more accurate in modelling the
effect of earthing rods / electrodes. The equations are found in IEEE Std 80 Equations 53,
54, 55(footnote) and 56, as follows:
Where is the earthing grid resistance with respect to remote earth ()
is the earth resistance of the grid conductors ()

is the earth resistance of the earthing electrodes ()
is the mutual earth resistance between the grid conductors and earthing electrodes
()
And the grid, earthing electrode and mutual earth resistances are:
Where is the soil resistivity (.m)
is the total length of buried grid conductors (m)
is for conductors buried at depth metres and with cross-sectional

radius metres, or simply for grid conductors on the surface
is the total area covered by the grid conductors (m2)
is the length of each earthing electrode (m)
is number of earthing electrodes in area
is the cross-sectional radius of an earthing electrode (m)
and are constant coefficients depending on the geometry of the grid
The coefficient can be approximated by the following:
(1) For depth :
(2) For depth :
(3) For depth :
The coefficient can be approximated by the following:
(1) For depth :
(2) For depth :

(3) For depth :
Where in both
cases, is
the length-to-
width ratio of th
earthing grid.
Step 4:
Maximum Gri
Current
The maximum
grid current is t
worst case eart
fault current tha
would flow via
the earthing gri
back to remote
earth. To
calculate the
maximum grid
current, you
firstly need to
calculate the
worst case
symmetrical
earth fault
current at the
facility that wou
have a return
path through
remote earth (c
this ). This
can be found
from the power
systems studies
or from manual
calculation.
Generally
speaking, the
highest relevan
earth fault level
will be on the
primary side of
the largest
distribution
transformer (i.e
either the
terminals or the
delta windings).
Current Division
Factor
Not all of the

earth fault
current will flow
back through
remote earth. A
portion of the
earth fault
current may ha
local return pat
(e.g. local
generation) or
there could be
alternative retu
paths other tha
remote earth
(e.g. overhead
earth return
cables, buried
pipes and cable
etc). Therefore
current division
factor must
be applied to
account for the
proportion of th
fault current
flowing back
through remote
earth.
Computing the
current division
factor is a task
that is specific t
each project an
the fault locatio
and it may
incorporate som
subjectivity (i.e
"engineeing
judgement"). In
any case, IEEE
Std 80 Section
15.9 has a good
discussion on
calculating the
current division
factor. In the
most
conservative
case, a current
division factor
of can
be applied,
meaning that
100% of earth
fault current
flows back
through remote
earth.
The symmetrica
grid current
calculated by:
Decrement Fact
The symmetrica
current is not th
maximum grid c
because of asym
in short circuits
namely a dc cur
offset. This is ca
by the decreme
factor, which ca
calculated from
Std 80 Equation
Where is t
decrement facto
is the duration of the fault (s)
is the dc time offset constant (see below)

The dc time offs
derived from IE
Equation 74:
Where is th
fault location
is the system frequency (Hz)
The maximum g
calculated by:
Step 5: Touch
One of the goal

protect people a
the event of an
ac electric curre
human body ca
range of 60 to 1
fibrillation and h
duration of an e
the risk of mort
faults are cleare
need to prescrib
touch and step
lethal shocks.
The maximum t
touch scenarios
from IEEE Std S
50kg and 70kg:
Touch voltage li
difference betw
the potential of
during a fault (d
50kg person:
70kg person:
Step voltage lim

surface potentia
distance of 1m
earthed object:
50kg person:
70kg person:
Where
is the step voltage limit (V)
is the surface layer derating factor (as calculated in Step 2)
is the soil resistivity (.m)
is the maximum fault clearing time (s)
The choice of bo
expected weigh
women are exp
to choose 50kg.
Step 6: Groun
Normally, the p
around the site
they are at the
(where the faul
flow of current
gradients in and
difference betw
ground potentia
a maximum po
potentials aroun
fault.
The maximum G
Where
is the maximum grid current found earlier in Step 4 (A)
is the earthing grid resistance found earlier in Step 3 ()

Step 7: Earth
Now we just ne
and step potent
exceed either o
the grid design
However if it do
further analysis
of the maximum
16.5.
Mesh Voltage C
The mesh volta

earthing grid an
Where :: is
is the geometric spacing factor (see below)
is the irregularity factor (see below)
is the effective buried length of the grid (see below)

Geometric Sp
The geometric s
Where is th
is the depth of buried grid conductors (m)
is the cross-sectional diameter of a grid conductor (m)
is a weighting factor for depth of burial =
is a weighting factor for earth electrodes /rods on the corner mesh
for grids with earth electrodes along the grid perimeter or corners
for grids with no earth electrodes on the corners or on the perimeter
is a geometric factor (see below)

Geometric Fac
The geometric f
With
for square grids, or otherwise
for square and rectangular grids, or otherwise
for square, rectangular and L-shaped grids, or otherwise
Where is th
is the length of grid conductors on the perimeter (m)
is the total area of the grid (m2)
and are the maximum length of the grids in the x and y directions (m)
is the maximum distance between any two points on the grid (m)
Irregularity Fa
The irregularity
Where is the
Effective Buri
The effective bu
For grids wi
Where is th
is the total length of earthing electrodes / rods (m)
For grids wi
Where is th
is the length of each earthing electrode / rod (m)
and are the maximum length of the grids in the x and y directions (m)
Step Voltage Ca
The maximum a
Where :: is
is the geometric spacing factor (see below)
is the irregularity factor (as derived above in the mesh voltage calculation)
is the effective buried length of the grid (see below)

Geometric Sp
The geometric s
Where is th
is the depth of buried grid conductors (m)

is a geometric factor (as derived above in the mesh voltage calculation)
Effective Buri
The effective bu
Where is th

What Now?
Now that the m
, and
then the earthin
If not, however,
Redesign the earthing grid to lower the grid resistance (e.g. more grid conductors,
more earthing electrodes, increasing cross-sectional area of conductors, etc). Once

this is done, re-compute the earthing grid resistance (see Step 3) and re-do the touch
and step potential calculations.
Limit the total earth fault current or create alternative earth fault return paths
Consider soil treatments to lower the resistivity of the soil
Greater use of high resistivity surface layer materials
Worked Ex
In this example
line and a delta
Step 1: Soil
The soil resistiv
Step 2: Surf
A thin 100mm l
Step 3: Eart
Figure 1. Propose
A rectangular e
Length of 90m and a width of 50m
6 parallel rows and 7 parallel columns
Grid conductors will be 120 mm2 and buried at a depth of 600mm
22 earthing rods will be installed on the corners and perimeter of the grid
Each earthing rod will be 3m long
Using the simpl

Step 4: Max
Suppose that th
The X/R ratio at
The decrement
Fianlly, the max
kA
Step 5: Touc
Based on the av
The maximum a
V
The maximum a
Step 6: Gro
The maximum g
The GPR far exc
Step 7: Eart
Mesh Voltage
The component
and is the number of parallel rows and columns respectively (e.g. 6 and 7)
m
m
V.
ntroduction
Number of Earthing Electrode and Earthing Resistance depends on the resistivity of
soil and time for fault current to pass through (1 sec or 3 sec). If we divide the area for
earthing required by the area of one earth plate gives the number of earth pits
required.
There is no general rule to calculate the exact number of earth pits and size of
earthing strip, but discharging of leakage current is certainly dependent on the
cross section area of the material so for any equipment the earth strip size is
calculated on the current to be carried by that strip.
First the leakage current to be carried is calculated and then size of the strip is
determined.
For most of the electrical equipment like transformer, diesel generator set etc., the
general concept is to have 4 number of earth pits. 2 nos for body earthing with 2
separate strips with the pits shorted and 2 nos for Neutral with 2 separate strips with
the pits shorted.
The Size of Neutral Earthing Strip should be capable to carry neutral current of that equipment.
The Size of Body Earthing should be capable to carry half of neutral Current.
For example for 100kVA transformer, the full load current is around 140A.
The strip connected should be capable to carry at least 70A (neutral current) which
means a strip of GI 25x3mm should be enough to carry the current and for body a
strip of 253 will do the needful. Normally we consider the strip size that is generally
used as standards.
However a strip with lesser size which can carry a current of 35A can be used for body
earthing. The reason for using 2 earth pits for each body and neutral and then shorting
them is to serve as back up. If one strip gets corroded and cuts the continuity is
broken and the other leakage current flows through the other run thery by completing
the circuit.
Similarly for panels the no of pits should be 2 nos. The size can be decided on the
main incomer circuit breaker.
For example if main incomer to breaker is 400A, then body earthing for panel can have a strip
size of 256 mm which can easily carry 100A.
Number of earth pits is decided by considering the total fault current to be dissipated
to the ground in case of fault and the current that can be dissipated by each earth pit.
Normally the density of current for GI strip can be roughly 200 amps per square cam.
Based on the length and dia of the pipe used the number of earthing pits can be
finalized.
1. Calculate numbers of pipe earthing

A. Earthing resistance and number of rods for
isolated earth pit
(without buried earthing strip)
The earth resistance of single rod or pipe electrode is calculated as per BS 7430:
R=/23.14xL (loge (8xL/d)-1)

Where:
= Resistivity of soil ( meter),

L = Length of electrode (meter),
D = Diameter of electrode (meter)
Example:
Calculate isolated earthing rod resistance. The earthing rod is 4 meter long and having
12.2mm diameter, soil resistivity 500 meter.
R=500/ (23.144) x (Loge (84/0.0125)-1) =156.19 .
The earth resistance of single rod or pipe electrode is calculated as per IS 3040:
R=100x/23.14xL (loge(4xL/d))
Where:

L = Length of electrode (cm),
D = Diameter of electrode (cm)
Example:
Calculate number of CI earthing pipe of 100mm diameter, 3 meter length. System has
fault current 50KA for 1 sec and soil resistivity is 72.44 -Meters.
Current Density At The Surface of Earth Electrode (As per IS 3043):
Max. allowable current density I = 7.571000/(xt) A/m2

Max. allowable current density = 7.571000/(72.44X1) = 889.419 A/m2
Surface area of one 100mm dia. 3 meter Pipe = 2 x 3.14 x r x L = 2 x 3.14 x 0.05 x3 =
0.942 m2
Max. current dissipated by one Earthing Pipe = Current Density x Surface area of
electrode
Max. current dissipated by one earthing pipe = 889.419x 0.942 = 837.83 A say 838
Amps
Number of earthing pipe required = Fault Current / Max.current dissipated by one
earthing pipe.
Number of earthing pipe required = 50000/838 = 59.66 Say 60 Nos.
Total number of earthing pipe required = 60 Nos.
Resistance of earthing pipe (isolated) R = 100x/23.14xLx(loge (4XL/d))
Resistance of earthing pipe (isolated) R = 10072.44 /23.14x300x(loge (4X300/10)) =
7.99 /Pipe
Overall resistance of 60 no of earthing pipe = 7.99/60 = 0.133 .
Top
B. Earthing resistance and number of rods for

isolated earth pit
(with buried earthing strip)
Resistance of earth strip (R) As per IS 3043:
R=/23.14xLx (loge (2xLxL/wt))

Example:
Calculate GI strip having width of 12mm , length of 2200 meter buried in ground at
depth of 200mm, soil resistivity is 72.44 -meter.
Resistance of earth strip(Re) = 72.44/23.14x2200x(loge (2x2200x2200/.2x.012))

= 0.050
From above calculation overall resistance of 60 no of earthing pipes (Rp) = 0.133 .
And it connected to bury earthing strip. Here net earthing resistance = (RpxRe)/(Rp+Re)
Net eatrthing resistance = (0.1330.05)/(0.133+0.05) = 0.036 .
C. Total earthing resistance and number of electrode

for group
(parallel)
In cases where a single electrode is not sufficient to provide the desired earth
resistance, more than one electrode shall be used. The separation of the electrodes
shall be about 4 m. The combined resistance of parallel electrodes is a complex
function of several factors, such as the number and configuration of electrode the
array.
The total resistance of group of electrodes in different configurations as per BS 7430:
Ra=R (1+a/n) where a=/2X3.14xRxS

Where:
S = Distance between adjustment rod (meter),

= Factor given in table below,
n = Number of electrodes,
R = Resistance of single rod in isolation ()
Factors for parallel electrodes in line (BS 7430)
Number of electrodes (n) Factor ()
2 1.0
3 1.66
4 2.15
5 2.54
6 2.87
7 3.15
3.39
8
9 3.61
10 3.8
For electrodes equally spaced around a hollow square, e.g. around the perimeter of a
building, the equations given above are used with a value of taken from following
table.
For three rods placed in an equilateral triangle, or in an L formation, a value of =

1.66 may be assumed.
Factors for electrodes in a hollow square (BS

7430)
Number of electrodes (n) Factor ()
2 2.71
3 4.51
4 5.48
5 6.13
6 6.63
7 7.03
8 7.36
9 7.65
10 7.9
12 8.3
14 8.6
16 8.9
18 9.2
20 9.4
For Hollow square total number of electrodes (N) = (4n-1).
The rule of thumb is that rods in parallel should be spaced at least twice their length to
utilize the full benefit of the additional rods. If the separation of the electrodes is much
larger than their lengths and only a few electrodes are in parallel, then the resultant
earth resistance can be calculated using the ordinary equation for resistances in
parallel.
In practice, the effective earth resistance will usually be higher than calculation.
Typically, a 4 spike array may provide an improvement 2.5 to 3 times. An 8 spike

array will typically give an improvement of maybe 5 to 6 times.
The Resistance of Original Earthing Rod will be lowered by Total of 40% for Second
Rod, 60% for third Rod,66% for forth rod.
Example:
Calculate Total Earthing Rod Resistance of 200 Number arranges in Parallel having 4
Meter Space of each and if it connects in Hollow Square arrangement. The Earthing
Rod is 4 Meter Long and having 12.2mm Diameter, Soil Resistivity 500 .
First Calculate Single Earthing Rod Resistance:

R = 500/ (23.144) x (Loge (84/0.0125)-1) =136.23 .
Now calculate total resistance of earthing rod of 200 number in parallel
condition:
a = 500/(23.14x136x4) =0.146
Ra (Parallel in Line) =136.23x (1+100.146/200) = 1.67 .
If earthing rod is connected in Hollow square than rod in each side of square is 200 =
(4n-1) so n = 49 No.
Ra (in hollow square) =136.23x (1+9.40.146/200) = 1.61 .
(1) Demand factor (in IEC, Max.Utilization factor (Ku)):
The word demand itself says the meaning of Demand Factor. The ratio of the maximum coincident demand
of a system, or part of a system, to the total connected load of the system.
Demand Factor = Maximum demand / Total connected load
For example, an over sized motor 20 Kw drives a constant 15 Kw load whenever it is ON. The motor
demand factor is then 15/20 =0.75= 75 %.
Demand Factor is express as a percentage (%) or in a ratio (less than 1).
Demand factor is always < =1.
Demand Factor is always change with the time to time or hours to hours of use and it will not constant.
The connected load is always known so it will be easy to calculate the maximum demand if the demand
factor for a certain supply is known at different time intervals and seasons.
The lower the demand factor, the less system capacity required to serve the connected load.
Calculation:
(1) A Residence Consumer has 10 Nos Lamp of 400 W but at the same time It is possible that only 9 Nos of
Bulbs are used at the same time. Here Total Connected load is 1040=400 W. Consumer maximum demand is
940=360 W. Demand Facto of this Load = 360/400 =0.9 or 90%.
(2) One Consumer have 10 lights at 60 Kw each in Kitchen, the load is 60 Kw x 10 = 600 KW. This will be
true only if All lights are Turns ON the same time (Demand factor=100% or 1)
For this Consumer it is observed that only half of the lights being turned ON at a time so we can say that the
demand factor is 0.5 (50%). The estimated load = 600 Kw X 0.5 = 300 Kw.
Use of demand factors:
Feeder conductors should have sufficient Ampere Capacity to carry the load. The Ampere Capacity does not
always be equal to the total of all loads on connected branch-circuits.
This factor must be applied to each individual load, with particular attention to electric motors, which are very
rarely operated at full load.
As per National Electrical Code (NEC) demand factor may be applied to the total load. The demand factor
permits a feeder ampearcity to be less than 100 percent of all the branch-circuit loads connected to it.
Demand factor can be applied to calculate the size of the sub-main which is feeding a Sub panel or a fixed
load like a motor etc. If the panel have total load of 250 kVA , considering a Demand factor of 0.8, we can size the
feeder cable for 250 x 0.8= 200 kVA.
Demand factors for buildings typically range between 50 and 80 % of the connected load.
In an industrial installation this factor may be estimated on an average at 0.75 for motors.
For incandescent-lighting loads, the factor always equals 1.
Demand Factor For Industrial Load
Text Book of Design of Elect. Installation- Jain
Electrical Load Demand Factor
1 No of Motor 1
Up to 10 Nos of Motor 0.75
Demand Factor
Text Book of Design of Elect. Installation- Jain

Utility Demand Factor
Office ,School 0.4
Hospital 0.5
Air Port, Bank, Shops, 0.6
Restaurant, Factory, 0.7
Work Shop, Factory (24Hr Shift) 0.8
Arc Furnace 0.9
Compressor 0.5
Hand tools 0.4
Inductance Furnace 0.8
Demand Factor
Saudi Electricity Company Distribution Standard

Residential 0.6
Commercial 0.7
Flats 0.7
Hotel 0.75
Mall 0.7
Restaurant 0.7
Office 0.7
School 0.8
Common Area in building 0.8
Public Facility 0.75
Street Light 0.9
Indoor Parking 0.8
Outdoor Parking 0.9
Park / Garden 0.8

Hospital 0.8
Workshops 0.6
Ware House 0.7
Farms 0.9
Fuel Station 0.7
Factories 0.9
Demand Factor
Text Book of Principal of Power System-V.K.Mehta
Residence Load (<0.25 KW) 1
Residence Load (<0.5 KW) 0.6
Residence Load (>0.1 KW) 0.5
Restaurant 0.7
Theatre 0.6
Hotel 0.5
School 0.55
Small Industry 0.6
Store 0.7
Motor Load (up to 10HP) 0.75
Motor Load (10HP to 20HP) 0.65
Motor Load (20HP to 100HP) 0.55
Motor Load (Above 100HP) 0.50
(2) Diversity factor:
Diversity Factor is ratio of the sum of the individual maximum demands of the various sub circuit of a system
to the maximum demand of the whole system.
Diversity Factor = Sum of Individual Maximum Demands / Maximum Demand of the

System.
Diversity Factor = Installed load / Running load.
The diversity factor is always >= 1.
Diversity Factor is always >1 because sum of individual max. Demands >Max. Demand.
In other terms, Diversity Factor (0 to 100%) is a fraction of Total Load that is particular item contributed to
peak demand. 70% diversity means that the device operates at its nominal or maximum load level 70% of the
time that it is connected and turned ON.
It is expressed as a percentage (%) or a ratio more than 1.
If we use diversity value in % than it should be multiply with Load and if we use in numerical value
(>1) than it should be divided with Load.
Diversity occurs in an operating system because all loads connected to the System are not operating
simultaneously or are not simultaneously operating at their maximum rating. The diversity factor shows that the
whole electrical load does not equal the sum of its parts due to this time Interdependence (i.e. diverseness).
In general terms we can say that diversity factor refers to the percent of time available that a machine. 70%
diversity means that the device operates at its nominal or maximum load level 70% of the time that it is connected
and turned ON.
Consider two Feeders with the same maximum demand but that occur at different intervals of time. When
supplied by the same feeder, the demand on such is less the sum of the two demands. In electrical design, this
condition is known as diversity.
Diversity factor is an extended version of demand factor. It deals with maximum demand of different units at
a time/Maximum demand of the entire system.
Greater the diversity factor, lesser is the cost of generation of power.
Many designers prefer to use unity as the diversity factor in calculations for planning conservatism because
of plant load growth uncertainties. Local experience can justify using a diversity factor larger than unity, and
smaller service entrance conductors and transformer requirements chosen accordingly.
The diversity factor for all other installations will be different, and would be based upon a local evaluation of
the loads to be applied at different moments in time. Assuming it to be 1.0 may, on some occasions, result in a
supply feeder and equipment rating that is rather larger than the local installation warrants, and an over-
investment in cable and equipment to handle the rated load current. It is better to evaluate the pattern of usage of
the loads and calculate an acceptable diversity factor for each particular case.
Calculation:
One Main Feeder have two Sub feeder (Sub Feeder A and Sub Feeder B), Sub Feeder-A have demand at a
time is 35 KW and Sub Feeder-B have demands at a time is 42 KW, but the maximum demand of Main Feeder is
70 KW.
Total individual Maximum Demand =35+42=77 KW.
Maximum Demand of whole System=70 KW
So Diversity factor of The System= 77/70 =1.1
Diversity factor can shoot up above 1.
Use of diversity factor:
The Diversity Factor is applied to each group of loads (e.g. being supplied from a distribution or sub-
distribution board).
Diversity factor is commonly used for a complete a coordination study for a system. This diversity factor is
used to estimate the load of a particular node in the system.
Diversity factor can be used to estimate the total load required for a facility or to size the Transformer
Diversity factors have been developed for main feeders supplying a number of feeders, and typically 1.2 to
1.3 for Residence Consumer and 1.1 to 1.2 for Commercial Load. 1.50 to 2.00 for power and lighting loads.
Note: Reciprocal of the above ratio (will be more than 1) also is used in some other countries.
Diversity factor is mostly used for distribution feeder size and transformer as well as to determine the
maximum peak load and diversity factor is always based on knowing the process. You have to understand what
will be on or off at a given time for different buildings and this will size the feeder. Note for typical buildings
diversity factor is always one. You have to estimate or have a data records to create 24 hours load graph and you
can determine the maximum demand load for node then you can easily determine the feeder and transformer
size.
The diversity factor of a feeder would be the sum of the maximum demands of the individual consumers
divided by the maximum demand of the feeder. In the same manner, it is possible to compute the diversity factor
on a substation, a transmission line or a whole utility system.
The residential load has the highest diversity factor. Industrial loads have low diversity factors usually of 1.4,
street light practically unity and other loads vary between these limits.
Diversity Factor in distribution Network
(Standard Handbook for Electrical Engineers by Fink and Beaty)
General
Elements of System Residential Commercial Large Industrial
Power
Between individual users 2.00 1.46 1.45
Between transformers 1.30 1.30 1.35 1.05
Between feeders 1.15 1.15 1.15 1.05
Between substations 1.10 1.10 1.10 1.10
From users to
transformers 2.00 1.46 1.44
From users to feeder 2.60 1.90 1.95 1.15
From users to substation 3.00 2.18 2.24 1.32
From users to generating

station 3.29 2.40 2.46 1.45
Diversity Factor for Distribution Switchboards

Number of circuits Diversity Factor in % (ks)
Assemblies entirely tested 2 and 3 90%
4 and 5 80%
6 to 9 70%
10 and more 60%
Assemblies partially tested in every case choose 100%
Diversity Factor as per IEC 60439
Circuits Function Diversity Factor in % (ks)
Lighting 90%
Heating and air conditioning 80%
Socket-outlets 70%
Lifts and catering hoist
For the most powerful motor 100%
For the second most powerful motor 75%

For all motors 80%
Diversity Factor for Apartment block
Apartment Diversity Factor in % (ks)
2 To 4 1
5To 19 0.78
10To 14 0.63
15To 19 0.53
20To 24 0.49
25To 29 0.46
30 To 34 0.44
35 To 39 0.42
40To 40 0.41
50 To Above 0.40
Diversity Factor
Text Book of Principal of Power System-V.K.Mehta
Area Residence Ltg Commercial Ltg Ind. Ltg
Between Consumer 3 1.5 1.5
Between Transformer 1.3 1.3 1.3
Between Feeder 1.2 1.2 1.2
Between S.S 1.1 1.1 1.1
(3) Load factor:
The ratio of the Actual Load of equipment to Full load of equipment.
Load Factor=Actual Load / Full Load
It is the ratio of actual kilowatt-Hours used in a given period, divided by the total possible kilowatt -hours that
could have been used in the same period at the peak KW level.
Load Factor = ( energy (kWh per month) ) / ( peak demand (kW) x hours/month )
In other terms Load factor is defined as the ratio of Average load to maximum demand during a given period.
Load Factor= Average Load / Maximum Demand during given Time Period
The Load factor is always <=1.
Load Factor is always less than 1 because maximum demand is always more than average demand.
Load Factor can be calculated for a single day, for a month or for a year.
Load factor in other terms of efficiency.
It is used for determining the overall cost per unit generated.
Higher the load factor is GOOD and it will more Output of Plan, lesser the cost per unit which means an
electricity generator can sell more electricity at a higher spark spread, Fixed costs are spread over more kWh of
output. A power plant may be highly efficient at High load factors.
Low load factor is a BED. A low load factor will use electricity inefficiently relative to what we could be if we
were controlling our peak demand. A power plant may be less efficient at low load factors.
For almost constant loads, the load factor is close to unity.
For Varying Load Factor is closed Zero.
Load Factor is a measure of the effective utilization of the load and distribution equipment, i.e. higher load
factor means better utilization of the transformer, line or cable.
A high load factor means power usage is relatively constant. Low load factor shows that occasionally a high
demand is set. To service that peak, capacity is sitting idle for long periods, thereby imposing higher costs on the
system. Electrical rates are designed so that customers with high load factor are charged less overall per kWh.
Sometimes utility companies will encourage industrial customers to improve their load factors.
Load factor is term that does not appear on your utility bill, but does affect electricity costs. Load
factor indicates how efficiently the customer is using peak demand.
Calculation:
Motor of 20 hp drives a constant 15 hp load whenever it is on.
The motor load factor is then 15/20 = 75%.
Demand Factor & Load Factor
Introduction to Power Requirement for Building J. Paul Guyer,
Utility Demand Factor (%) Load Factor (%)
Communications buildings 60-65 70-75
Telephone exchange building 55-70 20-25
Air passenger terminal building 65-80 28-32
Aircraft fire and rescue station 25-35 13-17
Aircraft line operations building 65-80 24-28
Academic instruction building 40-60 22-26

Applied instruction building 35-65 24-28
Chemistry and Toxicology Laboratory 70-80 22-28
Materials Laboratory 30-35 27-32
Physics Laboratory 70-80 22-28
Electrical and electronics laboratory 20-30 3-7
Cold storage warehouse 70-75 20-25
General warehouse 75-80 23-28
Controlled humidity warehouse 60-65 33-38
Hazardous/flammable storehouse 75-80 20-25
Disposal, salvage, scrap building 35-40 25-20
Hospital 38-42 45-50
Laboratory 32-37 20-25
K-6 schools 75-80 10-15

7-12 schools 65-70 12-17
Churches 65-70 5-25
Post Office 75-80 20-25
Retail store 65-70 25-32
Bank 75-80 20-25
Supermarket 55-60 25-30
Restaurant 45-75 15-25
Auto repair shop 40-60 15-20
Hobby shop, art/crafts 30-40 25-30
Bowling alley 70-75 10-15
Gymnasium 70-75 20-45
Skating rink 70-75 10-15
Indoor swimming pool 55-60 25-50
Theatres 45-55 8-13

Library 75-80 30-35
Golf clubhouse 75-80 15-20
Museum 75-80 30-35
(4) Coincidence factor (in IEC, Factor of simultaneity (ks)):
The reciprocal of diversity factor is coincidence factor

The coincidence factor is the ratio of the maximum demand of a system, or part under consideration, to the
sum of the individual maximum demands of the subdivisions
Coincidence factor = Maximum demand / Sum of individual maximum demands
Expressed as a percentage (%) or a ratio less than 1.
The Confidence Factor is always <=1.
Usually Confidence Factor will decrease as the number of connected customers increases.
The factor ks is applied to each group of loads (e.g. distribution or sub-distribution board).
The determination of these factors is the responsibility of the designer, since it requires a detailed knowledge
of the installation and the conditions in which the individual circuits are to be exploited. For this reason, it is not
possible to give precise values for general application.
(5) Maximum demand:
The maximum demand of an installation is the maximum rate of consumption expressed in amperes, kW or
kVA. It is generally taken as the average rate of consumption over a period of time. Example the 15-minute
maximum kW demand for the week was 150 kW. Maximum demand does not include motor starting currents or
other transient effects. Fault currents and overload currents are also excluded. Maximum demand in KW is
relevant only for metering/tariff purposes.
Maximum demand (often referred to as MD) is the largest current normally carried by circuits, switches and
protective devices. It does not include the levels of current flowing under overload or short circuit conditions.
Maximum Demand is a greatest of all demands that occur during a specific time
The major disadvantage of allocating load using the diversity factors is that most utilities will not have a table
of diversity factors and sometime it is not viable to determine accurate Diversity Factor. In this situation Maximum
Demand is very helpful to calculate size of Feeder or TC.
The kVA rating of all distribution transformers is always known for a feeder. The metered readings can be
taken to each transformer based upon the transformer rating. An allocation factor (AF) can be calculate.
Allocation Factor= Metered Demand (KVA) / Total KVA.
Equipment Demand= AF x Total KVA of Equipments
Calculation:
Actual Loading or Size of TC-1 and TC-2.
Total Load on TC-1 =10+11+12+08= 41 KW.
Maximum Diversity Demand of TC-1= 41 / 1.1 = 37.3 KW.
Total Load on TC-2 =4+3+12+02= 21 KW.
Maximum Diversity Demand of TC-2= 21 / 1.2 = 17.5 KW.
Total Load= 37.3 + 17.5 =54.8 KW.
Allocating Factor (AF)= M.D / Total Load
Allocating Factor (AF)= 0.27.
Actual Load on TC-1=0.2737.3 = 1.20 KW.
Actual Load on TC-2=0.2717.5 = 4.8 KW.
Assessment of maximum demand is very easy for Resistive Load , For example, the maximum demand of a
240 V single-phase 8 kW shower heater can be calculated by dividing the power (8 kW) by the voltage (240 V) to
give a current of 33.3 A. This calculation assumes a power factor of unity, which is a reasonable assumption for
such a purely resistive load.
Lighting circuits pose a special problem when determining MD. Discharge lamps are particularly difficult to
assess, and current cannot be calculated simply by dividing lamp power by supply voltage. The reasons for this
are Control gear losses result in additional current, the power factor is usually less than unity so current is greater,
and Chokes and other control gear usually distort the waveform of the current so that it contains harmonics which
are additional to the fundamental supply current.
So long as the power factor of a discharge lighting circuit is not less than 0.85, the current demand for the
circuit can be calculated from:
current (A) = (lamp power x 1.8) / supply voltage (V)
For example, the steady state current demand of a 240 V circuit supplying ten 65 W fluorescent lamps would
be: I = 10X65X1.8A / 240 = 4.88A
Switches for circuits feeding discharge lamps must be rated at twice the current they are required to carry,
unless they have been specially constructed to withstand the severe arcing resulting from the switching of such
inductive and capacitive loads.
Where to use Demand and Diversity factor:
There is generally confusion between Demand factor and Diversity factor. Demand factors should be
ideally applied to individual loads and diversity factor to a group of loads.
When you talk about diversity, there are naturally more than one or many loads involved.
Demand factor can be applied to calculate the size of the sub-main, which is feeding a Sub panel or a fixed
load like a motor etc, individual Load.
Demand factors are more conservative and are used by NEC for service and feeder sizing.
If the Sub panel have total load is 250 kVA , considering a Demand factor of 0.8, we can size the feeder
cable for 250 x 0.8= 200 kVA.
The Diversity Factor is applied to each group of loads (e.g. being supplied from a distribution or sub-
distribution board), size the Transformer.
Demand factors and diversity factors are used in design. For example, the sum of the connected loads
supplied by a feeder is multiplied by the demand factor to determine the load for which the feeder must be sized.
This load is termed the maximum demand of the feeder. The sum of the maximum demand loads for a number of
sub feeders divided by the diversity factor for the sub feeders will give the maximum demand load to be supplied
by the feeder from which the sub feeders are derived.
Calculate Size of Electrical Switchgear by Demand & Diversity

Factor:
The estimated electrical demand for all feeders served directly from the service entrance is calculated by
multiplying the total connected loads by their demand factors and then adding all of these together. This sum is
divided by the diversity factor (frequently assumed to be unity) to calculate the service entrance
demand which is used to determine ampacity requirements for the service entrance conductors.
When used Diversity and Demand Factor in an electrical design it should be applied as follows, the sum of
the connected loads supplied by a feeder-circuit can be multiplied by the demand factor to determine the load
used to size the components of the system.
The sum of the maximum demand loads for two or more feeders is divided by the diversity factor for the
feeders to derive the maximum demand load.
Example-1: Calculate Size of Transformer having following details:
Feeder Breaker-1 Demand Load= Feeder Breaker-1xDemand Factor.

Feeder Breaker-1 Demand Load=20000.7=1400 KVA
Total Feeder Breaker Demand=1400+900+500=2800KVA
Transformer Demand Load= Total Feeder Breaker Demand / Diversity Factor.
Transformer Demand Load=2800/1.1 =2545 KVA
If we Calculated Total Load on Transformer without any Demand & Diversity=2000+1500+1000=4500KVA.
But after Calculating Demand & Diversity Factor Total Load on Transformer =2545 KVA
Example-2: Calculate Size of Main Feeder of Main Transformer having following Details:
Sum of Maximum Demand of Customer on TC-1 =10 KWx0.65 =6.5 KW
Sum of Maximum Demand of Customer on TC-2 =20 KWx0.75 =15 KW
Sum of Maximum Demand of Customer on TC-3 =30 KWx0.65 =19.5 KW
As Diversity of Consumer Connected on TC-1 is 1.5 so,
Maximum Demand on TC-1 =6.5 KW/1.5 = 4 KW.
Maximum Demand on TC-2 =15 KW/1.1 = 14 KW
Maximum Demand on TC-3 =19.5 KW/1.5 = 13 KW.
Individual Maximum Demand on Main Transformer =04+14+13= 31 KW.
Maximum Demand on Main Feeder =04+14+13 / 1.3 =24 KW
Significance of Load Factor and Diversity Factor
Load factor and diversity factor play an important part in the cost of the supply of electrical energy. Higher
the values of load factor and diversity factors, lower will be the overall cost per unit generated.
The capital cost of the power station depends upon the capacity of the power station. Lower the maximum
demand of the power station, the lower is the capacity required and therefore lower is the capital cost of the
plant. With a given number of consumers the higher the diversity factor of their loads, the smaller will be the
capacity of the plant required and consequently the fixed charges due to capital investment will be much reduced.
Similarly higher load factor means more average load or more number of units generated for a given
maximum demand and therefore overall cost per unit of electrical energy generated is reduced due to distribution
of standing charges which are proportional to maximum demand and independent of number of units generated.
Thus the suppliers should always try to improve the load factor as well as diversity factor by inducing the
consumers to use the electrical energy during off peak hours and they may be charged at lower rates for such
schemes.
Main-Tie-Main.
Load Configuration.
Both Bus#1 & Bus#2 are supplying normal loads that mean interruption for PT1 or PT2 is accepted for fault located
between M2-PT2 and main supply.
No critical load (instantaneous interruption is not allowed) connected on Bus #1 and Bus #2. It shall be supplied
from UPS.
Load on Bus #1 has a standby load on Bus#2 or vice versa, so if the bus #2 fail, load on bus #1 is operated.
Basic Operation.
This diagram may be useful for our discussion. The basic M1-T-M2 configuration is shown. During normal
operation M1 & M2 breakers are closed and tie breaker T is opened. Supply coming from PT-1 and PT-2.
This drawing indicate when M2 open, T and M1 CBs are closed (abnormal condition). This condition is done for
maintenance purpose for equipment located between M2 to upstream (main source). Load transfer from
bus #2 to bus #1 can be carried out without interruption done by ATS scheme.
If fault located on bus #2 to tie breaker T or bus #1 to tie breaker T, load transfer is prohibited by ATS
scheme. But for fault located from M2 to upstream load transfer is allowed with deenergizing bus #2 loads
first, then tie-breaker T closed by ATS scheme. Loads may be in service after this tranfer, if the loads is set
in auto position.
We cannot maintain the supply on fault bus (e.g. bus #2 or bus #1) before correction is made.
A redundant bus tie or switch isolator acting as maintenance bypass to ATS operation.
Based on discussion above, I do not know, where we have to install those equipment to maintain supply
for fault on respectively bus.
Normally Closed Tie Breaker Operation.
It is possible to operate tie breaker in closed position, but we have to consider a short-circuit level on that
bus. By calculation (Short-circuit study), a fault on bus #1 or bus #2 the magnitude become double. So, we
have to ensure the equipment s.c. rating (buse, breakers, feeder loads, feeder breakers, and etc) meet the
requirements for tie-in in closed position.
Note:
Temporary closing three breakers for maintenance purpose is allowed within 3 cycles to 1 (one) second is
accepted.
Relay application.
1). Bus differential for bus#1 and bus #2 may be applied (we apply on 4.16 kV systems).
2). Directional relay may be applied on incoming breaker M1 & M2 if the NC for tie breaker T is applied.
3). Restrictive earth fault is applied for transformer with low resistance grounding.
4). Please consider to provide better coordination for instantaneous relay between incoming breaker and
load breakers as well as ground fault protection.
5). Syncheck relay is required for synchronising bus # & bus #2 before closing tie breaker T. We provide
permissive closed for ATS schecme. ATS can only be operated if the upstream system is in synchronising
condition (Generating buses are in remote but located closed to each other).
Conclusions.
1). We cannot maintain load on bus faulted before repairing is made.
2). I do not know the location for instaling redudant bus tie breaker or isolator to prevent faulted bus total
failure.
3). Comprehensive study shall be caried out to operate tie breaker in NC. Especially in selecting electrical
equipment and relay coordination.
4). Pay more attention on safety aspect in establishing the ATS scheme.
http://www.sayedsaad.com/substation/index_SF6circuitbreaker.html.
Basic electrical design of a PLC panel (Wiring diagrams).
Building the PLC panel

It is uncommon for engineers to build their own PLC panel designs (but not impossible
of course). For example, once the electrical designs are complete, they must be built
by an electrician. Therefore, it is your responsibility to effectively communicate your
design intentions to the electricians through drawings. In some factories, the
electricians also enter the ladder logic and do debugging .
This article discusses the design issues in implementation that must be considered by
the designer.
Electrical wiring diagrams of a PLC panel

In an industrial setting a PLC is not simply plugged into a wall socket. The electrical
design for each machine must include at least the following components.
1. Transformers to step down AC supply voltages to lower levels

2. Power contacts to manually enable/disable power to the machine with e-stop
buttons
3. Terminals to connect devices
4. Fuses or circuit breakers will cause power to fail if too much current is drawn
5. Grounding to provide a path for current to flow when there is an electrical fault
6. Enclosure to protect the equipment, and users from accidental contact
A control system of a PLC panel will normally use AC and DC power at different voltage
levels. Control cabinets are often supplied with single phase AC at 220/440/550V, or two
phase AC at 220/440V AC, or three phase AC at 330/550V.
This power must be dropped down to a lower voltage level for the controls and DC
power supplies. 110Vac is common in North America, and 220 V AC Is common in
Europe and the Commonwealth countries. It is also common for a control cabinet to
supply a higher voltage to other equipment, such as motors.
Motor controller example
An example of a wiring diagram for a motor controller is shown in Figure 1. Note
that symbols are discussed in detail later).
Dashed lines indicate a single purchased component. This system uses 3 phase AC
power (L1, L2 and L3) connected to the terminals. The three phases are then
connected to a power interrupter. Next, all three phases are supplied to a motor starter
that contains three contacts, M, and three thermal overload relays (breakers).
Figure 1 A Motor Controller Schematic
The contacts, M, will be controlled by the coil, M. The output of the motor starter goes
to a three phase AC motor. Power is supplied by connecting a step down
transformer to the control electronics by connecting to phases L2 and L3. The lower
voltage is then used to supply power to the left and right rails of the ladder below. The
neutral rail is also grounded.
The logic consists of two push buttons:

Start push button is normally open, so that if something fails the motor cannot be
started.
Stop push button is normally closed, so that if a wire or connection fails the system
halts safely.
The system controls the motor starter coil M, and uses a spare contact on the
starter, M, to seal in the motor starter.
The diagram also shows numbering for the wires in the device. This is essential for
industrial control systems that may contain hundreds or thousands of wires. These
numbering schemes are often particular to each facility, but there are tools to help
make wire labels that will appear in the final controls cabinet.
Figure 2 A
Physical Layout for the Control Cabinet
Once the electrical design is complete, a layout for the controls cabinet is developed, as
shown in Figure 2. The physical dimensions of the devices must be considered, and adequate
space is needed to run wires between components.
In the cabinet the AC power would enter at the terminal block, and be connected to the main
breaker.
It would then be connected to the contactors and overload relays that constitute the
motor starter. Two of the phases are also connected to the transformer to power the
logic. The start and stop buttons are at the left of the box (note: normally these are
mounted elsewhere, and a separate layout drawing would be needed).
The final layout in the cabinet might look like the one shown in Figure 1.
Figure 3 Final PLC Panel Wiring
When being built the system will follow certain standards that may be company policy,
or legal requirements. This often includes items such as;
Hold downs the will secure the wire so they dont move
Labels wire labels help troubleshooting
Strain reliefs these will hold the wire so that it will not be pulled out of screw
terminals
Grounding grounding wires may be needed on each metal piece for safety
A photograph of an industrial controls cabinet is shown in Figure 4:
Figure 4
An industrial control cabinet with wire runs, terminal strip, buttons on PLC panel
front, etc.
When including a PLC in the ladder diagram still remains. But, it does tend to become
more complex. Figure 5 below shows a schematic diagram for a PLC based motor
control system, similar to the previous motor control example.
This figure shows the E-stop wired to cutoff power to all of the devices in the circuit,
including the PLC. All critical safety functions should be hardwired this way.
Figure 5 An Electrical Schematic with a PLC.
Measurement of NPE loop resistance in TN, TT and IT systems.
NPE loop resistance

Up-to-date test instruments, with built in modern electronics, can measure loop
resistance even between the neutral N and protection PE conductors in spite of
possible high currents in the neutral conductor. The current, which is driven by phase
voltages through different linear and non-linear loads, causes voltage drops of
extremely irregular (non sine wave) shape.
The voltage drops interfere with the test voltage and thereby disturb the measurement.
Internal test voltage (approx. 40V, AC, <15 mA) is used, as there is no mains voltage
between neutral and protection conductors.
Important advantage of this measurement against Fault Loop test (LPE) is, that the RCD
does definitly not trip during the measurement, this is due to the low test current.
Used test instrument Eurotest 61557 uses special (patented) measurement principle
to filter the test signal and therefore assures correct measurement results.
What can we deduce from the measurement?

The following conclusions can be reached on the basis of the measurement
result:
1. Type of used protection conductor connection (TN, TT or IT-system)

2. Earth Resistance value for TT-system
3. In case of TT or TN-system, the result is quite similar to the Fault Loop
Resistance value, this is why the test instrument can also calculate the Fault
Loop Prospective Short circuit current.
Generally about the measurement principle

As there is no mains voltage between the N and PE terminals which could be used as
a test voltage the instrument must generate an internal one. This voltage may
be either DC or AC. Used instrument uses AC test voltage, measurement is
done following the U-I method according to the figure below.
Fi
gure 1 NPE loop resistance measurement principle
Result = Ut / It = RN-PE
Where:
Ut Test voltage measured by the V-meter.

It Test current measured by the A-meter.
RN-PE Resistance of N-PE loop.
1. Measurement of NPE loop resistance in TN-

system
The test instrument measures the resistance of the neutral and the
protection conductors from the power transformer to the measurement site (the loop
is marked with a bold line on upper figure).
The test result in this case is quite low (maximum a couple of ohms), showing that
a TN-system is involved.
Figure 2
Resistance measurement between neutral and protection conductor in TN-system
Result 1 = RN + RPE
Result 2 = Ipsc = 230V 1,06 / (RN + RPE)

Where:
RN Resistance of neutral conductor (marked with bold line)

RPE Resistance of protection conductor (marked with bold dotted line)
Ipsc Prospective short circuit current of fault loop
2. Measurement of NPE loop resistance in TT-

system
The test instrument measures the resistance in the following
loop Neutral conductor from power transformer to measurement site (mains outlet),
protection conductor from the mains outlet to earth electrode and then back to the
power transformer via soil and the transformers earthing system (the loop is marked
with a bold line on the figure 3 below).
The test result in this case is quite high (in excess of ten ohms), showing that a TT-
system is involved.
Figure 3
Resistance measurement between the neutral and the protection conductor in a TT-
system
Result 1 = RN + RPE + RE + RO
Result 2 = Ipsc = 230V 1,06 / (RN + RPE + RE + RO)
As it could be presumed, that resistance R E is much higher than the sum of all
other resistances, the following can be noted:
Result 1 RE
Result 2 = Ipsc = 230V 1,06 / RE

Where:
RN Resistance of neutral conductor from power transformer to measurement site

(mains outlet)
RPE Resistance of protection conductor from the mains outlet to earthing electrode
RE Earth resistance of protection earth electrode
RO Earth resistance of transformers earthing system
Ipsc Prospective short circuit fault loop current
3. Measurement of NPE loop resistance in IT-

system
As can be seen from the Figure 4, there is no hard wired connection between the
neutral and protection conductor in an IT-system. The test result is therefore very
high (it can even be out of display range), showing that an IT-system is involved.
Figure 4
Resistance measurement between neutral and protection conductor in IT-system
Attention! A high test result in itself is not sufficient evidence that an IT-system is involved
(it could be just an interrupted protection conductor in a TN or TT-system).
Detailed calculation of currents and power according to the type of load.
Calculation of currents & power

Currents and power analysis are key factors in any design or redesign of an
installation they will enable the source(s) to be sized according to the purpose of the
installation, the intended use of the circuits and the receivers to be supplied.
The current consumed Ia corresponds to the nominal current consumed by a receiver

independently of the utilisation factor and the coincidence factor, but taking into
account the aspects of efficiency ( factor), displacement factor or phase shift (cos )
for motors or other inductive or capacitive loads.
For non-linear (or distorting) loads, the quadratic sum of the fundamental current and the
harmonic currents must be calculated in order to obtain the actual rms current.
Lets break the calculation of the power into few parts, so we can easily follow:
1. Purely resistive load

The current consumed Ia of a purely resistive load is calculated by simply applying
the formulas. For single phase:
and for the three-phase:
But beware, very few loads are totally resistive. Incandescent lighting is losing ground to
solutions that offer higher performance levels, but which are on the other hand less pure
from an electrical viewpoint.
Go back to currents and power calculations
2. Non-distorting load that is not purely resistive

The nominal power (Pn) of a motor corresponds to the mechanical power available on
its shaft. The actual power consumed (Pa) corresponds to the active power carried
by the line.
This is dependent on the efficiency of the motor:
The current consumed (Ia) is given by the following formulae. For single-phase:
and for the three-phase:

Where:
Ia rms current consumed (in A)

Pn nominal power (in W; this is the useful power)
U voltage between phases in three-phase, and between phase and neutral in single-
phase (in V)
efficiency
cos displacement factor.
3. Calculation of the current consumed by several

receivers
The example described below shows that the current and power calculations must
be carried out in accordance with precise mathematical rules in order to clearly
distinguish the different components.
Example of asynchronous motors

A group of circuits consists of two three-phase asynchronous motors M 1 and
M2 connected to the same panel (mains supply: 400V AC 50 hz). The nominal power
of the motors are respectively: Pn1 = 22 kW and Pn2 = 37 kW.
The displacement factors are cos 1 = 0.92 for M1 and cos2 = 0.72 for M2 the efficiencies are
1 = 0.91 and 2 = 0.93 respectively.
Calculation of the power consumed:

The reactive power can in this case be calculated by determining the value of tan
from cos. the relationship with the tangent is given by the formula:
Calculation of the reactive power:
Calculation of the apparent power:
Calculation of the total current consumption for M1, M2, M1 + M2 and the
corresponding power factor:
The active power (in W) and the reactive power (in VAr) can be added together algebraically,
while the apparent power and currents can only be added together geometrically.
Presentation of the results

All power analyses must show, as in the table below, at least for each group of:
Active power circuits which corresponds (to the nearest efficiency) to the energy
supplied,
Reactive power so that the compensation devices (capacitors) can be sized,
Apparent power so that the power of the source can be determined and
Current consumed so that the trunking and protection devices can be calculated.
M1 M2 M1 + M2 (Total t)
Active power: P [kW] Pa1 = 24.18 Pa2 = 39.78 Pt = 63.96
Reactive power: Q [kVAR] Q1 = 10.30 Q2 = 38.35 Qt = 48.65
Apparent power: S [kVA] S1 = 26.28 S2 = 55.26 St = 80.36
Current consumed: Ia [A] Ia1 = 38 Ia2 = 80 Iat = 116
cos 0.92 0.72 0.80

4. Overloads on conductors according to the total
harmonic distortion
The current circulating in each phase is equal to the quadratic sum of the
fundamental current (referred to as 1st harmonic order) and all the harmonic
currents (of the following orders):
The THDi (Total Harmonic Distortion) expresses the ratio between the share of all the
harmonic currents and the total current as a percentage.
I1 being the rms value of the fundamental and in In the rms value of the nth order
harmonic. The principle is to apply a current reduction factor that can be calculated
based on the THDi.
For a permissible THDi value of 33%, the current must thus in theory be reduced in
each phase by a factor K:
If the factor is not applied, the current will then be increased by:
This remains acceptable and explains why the standard does not recommend any
derating or oversizing of cross-sections up to 33% THDi.
Above 33%. the standard recommends an increase in the current IB which results in
necessary oversizing of the neutral conductor.
Reduction of the current or oversizing of multi-core cables may also be necessary for
the phase conductors. It should be noted that the standard recommends a
reduction factor of 0.84. which in fact corresponds to a pessimistic THDi of 65%.
Related to the neutral conductor, it is considered that if all the harmonics are 3rd order
and its multiples, they will be added together and the current due to the harmonics in
the neutral will then be IN = 3 Iph, which can be expressed using an equivalent
notation, THDn = 3 THDi.
Devices whose load is said to be non-linear do not consume a current that is a reflection
of the voltage applied. This leads to unnecessary power consumption: the distorting power
that generates an additional current, the consequences of which must not be overlooked.
But this current is never expressed directly because it involves a fairly complex
mathematical calculation, the fourier transform, to ascertain its relative overall part (THDi:
total harmonic distortion) or the value order by order: ih 2, ih3, ih4, ih5,..ihn.
With no precise measurements, it is difficult to know exactly the current level that
corresponds to each harmonic order. It is therefore preferable to simply increase the
cross-section of the neutral conductor as a precaution, since it is known that the main
3rd order harmonics and their multiples are added together in the neutral. and to adapt
the protection of this conductor.
Standard IEC 60364 indicates the increasing factors to be applied to the cross-section
of the neutral conductor according the percentage of 3rd order harmonics.
In principle, the neutral must be the same cross-section as the phase conductor in all
single-phase circuits. In three-phase circuits with a cross-section greater than 16
mm2 [25 mm2 aluminium]. The cross-section of the neutral can be reduced to cross-
section/2.
However this reduction is not permitted if:
The loads are not virtually balanced

The total 3rd order harmonic currents are greater than 15%
If this total is greater than 33%, the cross-section of the active conductors of multi-core
cables is chosen by increasing the current In by a fixed multiplication factor of 1.65.
For single-core cables, only the cross-section of the neutral is increased.
In practice, the increase of the current Ia in the neutral is compensated by an increase

of its cross-section. When the neutral is loaded, a reduction factor of 0.86 is applied to the
permissible current of cables with 3 or 1 conductors.
The current reduction factor KN or rather its inverse which will be used to oversize
the neutral conductor will then be:
With a total 3rd order harmonic distortion of 65%, the current of the phase
conductors must be increased by 119% and that in the neutral conductor by 163%.
If the THDi were to reach 100%, 1/KN would theoretically reach 2.12. This value
would be impossible to reach as it would mean that the harmonic had totally replaced
the fundamental.
The theoretical overcurrent limit for the neutral in relation to the phases is:
These calculations demonstrate that the harmonic currents above all must not be ignored both
in terms of hidden power consumption and in terms of sizing the conductors which may
be overloaded. The relative complexity of the calculations leads to the use of generic derating
values which normally cover most cases, just as software is used elsewhere.
Example of following the standards for defining a

protection device with neutral overloaded by harmonics
For a 3P+N circuit, intended for 170 A, with TNS system, with total 3rd order harmonic
distortion of more than 33%. When sizing the phase cables, the reduction factor of
0.84 (loaded neutral, see above) must be included.
This requires a minimum cross-section of 70 mm2 per phase. The neutral conductor
must be sized to withstand a current of 1.45 170 A = 247 A, i.e. a cross-section
of 95 mm2.
A circuit breaker must therefore be chosen that is capable of withstanding the current
that may cross the neutral:
In device IB neutral In = 250 A

But the device must be set according to the current that may flow in the phases:
Ir IB phases Ir 170 A (and < 206 A, limit of the cable)

A 250 A unprotected interrupted neutral circuit breaker, set to 0.7 is therefore suitable for
this application.

5. Distorting load that is not purely resistive
The current consumed (Ia) is given by the following formulae:
where:
Ia rms current consumed (in A)

Pn nominal power (in W; this is the useful power)
U voltage between phases in three-phase, and between phase and neutral in single-
phase (in V)
efficiency
PF power factor
Example of a fluorescent luminaire and electronic ballast

The nominal active power consumed by the luminaire is 9 W, and the measured
apparent power is 16 VA. The measured displacement factor is cos = 0.845 and the
power factor PF = 0.56.
The measured current consumed Ia is 0.07 A. As cos and the power factor are
different, it is not possible to calculate the value of the tan or that of the reactive
power Q (VAR) for the receiver in question.
The measured cos and power Q which would be calculated can only be calculated for the
reactive power part connected with the sinusoidal component of the signal, in fact the current
of the fundamental at 50Hz: 0.045 A measured in this case.
The powers relative to this linear and sinusoidal part of the load can be calculated as
follows
S = 230 0.045 = 10.3 VA

P = S cos = 10.3 0.85 = 8.7 W
Q = 5.5 VAR which is confirmed by the calculation of the power triangles Q2 = P2 S2
or by the tan:
Q = P tan = 8.7 0.63 = 5.5 VAR
Therefore not all the apparent power consumed is linear as there is a significant difference
between the measured total apparent power S (16 VA) and the calculated theoretical
sinusoidal power (10.3 VA).
It can also be seen that the sinusoidal active power of the device 8.7 W is very similar
to the measured total active power 9 W. It can therefore be deduced that a large part
of power S (16 10.3 = 5.7 VA) is consumed without producing any active power. The
fluorescent luminaire and electronic ballast in the example consumes unproductive
power in the form of harmonic currents.
The total harmonic distortion is easy to calculate and represents expressed as a rate.
The spectral decomposition of the signal carried out on this luminaire shows that
the main harmonic is 3rd order (34 mA) but that all the following odd-order
harmonics are present and decaying. The main purpose of the above example is to
demonstrate that active power information (in W) only for a non-linear receiver is very
inadequate.
The cos has no real relevance or meaning as it is only applicable to the fundamental
signal. Only the apparent power and power factor (PF or ?\.,) information can really quantify
and qualify the power that must be supplied by the source.
In the example given, it can be seen that an active power of approximately 9 W

corresponds to a consumed power of 16 VA.
Many modern devices (light bulbs, computer equipment, domestic appliances and
electronic equipment) have this particular feature of consuming non-linear currents.
For domestic use, where only the power in W is billed (sic), the power savings shown
for these products is attractive. In practice, the currents consumed are higher than it
seems and the energy distributor is supplying wasted energy.
In large commercial or industrial installations the situation is different. A poor
power factor results in consumption of reactive power that is billed. Compensation of

non-linear loads thus becomes meaningful and useful here, but also at the design
stage when it prevents oversizing of the energy sources, which it must be
remembered supply VA (volt-amperes) and not W (watts).
Important: Unlike linear loads (page 29), for non-linear loads the active powers (in W)
can be added together algebraically, the apparent powers must only be added
together geometrically, and likewise the currents which must be the same order.
The reactive powers Q must not be added together except to as certain the relative
part of the power associated with the sinusoidal fundamental signal and the part
connected with the harmonic signals.
Reference // Power balance and choice of power supply solutions by Legrand.
Pick Up Current | Current Setting | Plug Setting Multiplier and Time Setting
Multiplier of Relay.
Pick Up Current of Relay
In all electrical relays, the moving contacts are not free to move. All the
contacts remain in their respective normal position by some force applied on
them continuously. This force is called controlling force of the relay. This
controlling force may be gravitational force, may be spring force, may be
magnetic force.
The force applied on the relays moving parts for changing the normal
position of the contacts, is called deflecting force. This deflecting force is
always in opposition of controlling force and presents always in the relay.
Although the deflecting force always presents in the relay directly connected
to live line, but as the magnitude of this force is less than controlling force in
normal condition, the relay does not operate. If the actuating current in the
relay coil increases gradually, the deflecting force in electro mechanical relay,
is also increased. Once, the deflecting force crosses the controlling force, the
moving parts of the relay initiate to move to change the position of the
contacts in the relay. The current for which the relay initiates it operation is
called pick up current of relay.
Current Setting of Relay

The minimum pick up value of the deflecting force of an electrical relay is
constant. Again the deflecting force of the coil is proportional to its number
of turns and current flowing through the coil.
Now, if we can change the number of active turns of any coil, the required
current to reach at minimum pick value of the deflecting force, in the coil
also changes. That means if active turns of the relay coil is reduced, then
proportionately more current is required to produce desired relay actuating
force. Similarly if active turns of the relay coil is increased, then
proportionately reduced current is required to produce same desired
deflecting force. Practically same model relays may be used in different
systems. As per these systems requirement the pick up current of relay is
adjusted. This is known as current setting of relay. This is achieved by
providing required number of tapping in the coil. These taps are brought out
to a plug bridge. The number of active turns in the coil can be changed by
inserting plug in different points in the bridge. The current setting of
relay is expressed in percentage ratio of relay pick up current to rated
secondary current of CT.
That means, For

example, suppose, you want that, an over current relay should operate when
the system current just crosses 125% of rated current. If the relay is rated
with 1 A, the normal pick up current of the relay is 1 A and it should be
equal to secondary rated current of current transformer connected to the
relay. Then, the relay will be operated when the current of CT secondary
becomes more than or equal 1.25 A. As per definition,
The current setting is sometimes

referred as current plug setting. The current setting of over current relay is
generally ranged from 50 % to 200 %, in steps of 25 %. For earth fault relay
it is from 10% to 70% in steps of 10%.
Plug Setting Multiplier of Relay
Plug setting multiplier of relay is referred as ratio of fault current in the

relay to its pick up current.
Suppose we have
connected on protection CT of ratio 200/1 A and current setting is 150%.
Hence, pick up current of the relay is, 1 150 % = 1.5 A Now, suppose fault
current in the CT primary is 1000 A. Hence, fault current in the CT secondary
i.e. in the relay coil is, 1000 1/200 = 5A Therefore PSM of the relay is, 5 /
1.5 =3.33
Time Setting Multiplier of Relay
The operating time of an electrical relay mainly depends upon two factors :
1. How long distance to be traveled by the moving parts of the relay for
closing relay contacts and
2. How fast the moving parts of the relay cover this distance.
So far adjusting relay operating time, both of the factors to be adjusted. The
adjustment of travelling distance of an electromechanical relay is commonly
known as time setting. This adjustment is commonly known as time setting
multiplier of relay. The time setting dial is calibrated from 0 to 1 in steps
0.05 sec. But by adjusting only time setting multiplier, we can not set the
actual time of operation of an electrical relay. As we already said, the time of
operation also depends upon the speed of operation. The speed of moving
parts of relay depends upon the force due to current in the relay coil. Hence,
it is clear that, speed of operation of an electrical relay depends upon the
level of fault current. In other words, time of operation of relay depends
upon plug setting multiplier. The relation between time of operation and plug
setting multiplier is plotted on a graph paper and this is known as time /
PSM graph. From this graph one can determine, the total time taken by the
moving parts of an electromechanical relay, to complete its total travelling
distance for different PSM. In time setting multiplier, this total travelling
distance is divided and calibrated from 0 to 1 in steps of 0.05. So when time
setting is 0.1, the moving parts of the relay has to travel only 0.1 times of
the total travelling distance, to close the contact of the relay. So, if we get
total operating time of the relay for a particular PSM from time / PSM graph
and if we multiply that time with the time setting multiplier, we will get,
actual time of operation of relay for said PSM and TSM. For getting clear
idea, let us have a practical example. Say a relay has time setting 0.1 and
you have to calculate actual time of operation for PSM 10. From time / PSM
graph of the relay as shown below, we can see the total operating time of
the relay is 3 seconds. That means, the moving parts of the relay take total
3 seconds to travel 100 % travelling distance. As the time setting multiplier
is 0.1 here, actually the moving parts of the relay have to travel only 0.1
100% or 10% of the total travel distance, to close the relay contacts. Hence,
actual operating time of the relay is 3 0.1 = 0.3 sec. i.e. 10% of 3 sec.
Time vs PSM Curve of Relay
This is relation curve between operating time and plug setting multiplier of
an electrical relay. The x-axis or horizontal axis of the Time / PSM graph
represents, PSM and Y-axis or vertical axis represents time of operation of
the relay. The time of operation represents in this graph is that, which
required to operate the relay when time setting multiplier set at 1. From the
Time / PSM curve of a typical relay shown below, it is seen that, if PSM is 10,
the time of operation of relay is 3 sec. That means, the relay will take 3
seconds to complete its operation, with time setting 1. It is also seen from
the curve that, for lower value of plug setting multiplier, i.e. for lower value
of fault current, the time of operation of the relay is inversely proportional to
the fault current. But when PSM becomes more than 20, the operating time
of relay becomes almost constant. This feature is necessary in order to
ensure discrimination on very heavy fault current flowing through sound
feeders.
Calculation of Relay Operation Time
For calculating actual relay operating time, we need to know these following
operation.
1. Current setting.
2. Fault current level.
3. Ratio of current transformer.
4. Time / PSM curve.
5. Time setting.
Step-1 From CT ratio, we first see the rated secondary current of CT. Say
the CT ratio is 100 / 1 A, i.e. secondary current of CT is 1 A. Step-2 From
current setting we calculate the trick current of the relay. Say current setting
of the relay is 150 % therefore pick up current of the relay is 1 150% =
1.5 A. Step-3 Now we have to calculate PSM for the specified faulty current
level. For that, we have to first divide primary faulty current by CT ratio to
get relay faulty current. Say the faulty current level is 1500 A, in the CT
primary, hence secondary equivalent of faulty current is 1500/(100/1) = 15
A Step-4 Now, after
calculating PSM, we have to find out the total time of operation of the relay
from Time / PSM curve. From the curve, say we found the time of operation
of relay is 3 second for PSM = 10. Step-5 Finally that operating time of relay
would be multiplied with time setting multiplier, in order to get actual time of
operation of relay. Hence say time setting of the relay is 0.1. Therefore
actual time of operation of the relay for PSM 10, is 3 0.1 = 0.3 sec or 300
ms.
Working Principle of Over Current Relay
In an over current relay, there would be essentially a current coil. When

normal current flows through this coil, the magnetic effect generated by the
coil is not sufficient to move the moving element of the relay, as in this
condition the restraining force is greater than deflecting force. But when the
current through the coil increased, the magnetic effect increases, and after
certain level of current, the deflecting force generated by the magnetic effect
of the coil, crosses the restraining force, as a result, the moving element
starts moving to change the contact position in the relay.
Types of Over Current Relay
Depending upon time of operation, there are various types of Over Current
relays, such as,
1. Instantaneous over current relay.
2. Definite time over current relay.
3. Inverse time over current relay.
Inverse time over current relay or simply inverse OC relay is again
subdivided as inverse definite minimum time (IDMT), very inverse
time, extremely inverse time over current relay or OC relay.
Instantaneous Over Current Relay
Construction and working principle of instantaneous over current
relay quite simple.
Here generally a magnetic core is wound by current coil. A piece of iron is so
fitted by hinge support and restraining spring in the relay, that when there is
not sufficient current in the coil, the NO contacts remain open. When current
in the coil crosses a present value, the attractive force becomes sufficient to
pull the iron piece towards the magnetic core and consequently the no
contacts are closed.
The preset value of current in the relay coil is referred as pick up setting
current. This relay is referred as instantaneous over current relay, as
ideally, the relay operates as soon as the current in the coil gets higher than
pick up setting current. There is no intentional time delay applied. But there
is always an inherent time delay which can not be avoided practically. In
practice the operating time of an instantaneous relay is of the order of a few
milliseconds. Fig.
Definite Time Over Current Relay
This relay is created by applying intentional time delay after crossing pick up
value of the current. A definite time over current relay can be adjusted
to issue a trip output at definite amount of time after it picks up. Thus, it has
a time setting adjustment and pick up adjustment.
Inverse Time Over Current Relay
Inverse time is a natural character of any induction type rotating device. This
means the speed of rotation of rotating art of the device is faster if input
current is increased. In other words, time of operation inversely varies with
input current. This natural characteristic of electromechanical induction disc
relay in very suitable for over current protection. This is because, in this
relay, if fault is more severe, it would be cleared more faster. Although time
inverse characteristic is inherent to electromechanical induction disc relay,
but the same characteristic can be achieved in microprocessor based relay
also by proper programming.
Inverse Definite Minimum Time Over Current Relay or IDMT O/C Relay
Ideal inverse time characteristics can not be achieved, in an over current

relay. As the current in the system increases, the secondary current of
the current transformer is increased proportionally. The secondary current is
fed to the relay current coil. But when the CT becomes saturated, there
would not be further proportional increase of CT secondary current with
increased system current.
From this phenomenon it is clear that from trick value to certain range of
faulty level, an inverse time relay shows exact inverse characteristic. But
after this level of fault, the CT becomes saturated and relay current does not
increase further with increasing faulty level of the system. As the relay
current is not increased further, there would not be any further reduction in
time of operation in the relay. This time is referred as minimum time of
operation. Hence, the characteristic is inverse in the initial part, which tends
to a definite minimum operating time as the current becomes very high.
That is why the relay is referred as inverse definite minimum time over
current relay or simply IDMT relay.
Motor Protection Relay for High Voltage Induction Motor.

Above 90% of motors used in an industry are induction motors, because
they are cheap, robust & easy to maintain. For higher HP (>250HP) motors
we prefer high voltage, because it will reduce operating current and the size
of the motor.
Why we require protection of motors?
To understand this we need to know the cost associated with the failure of
motor, i.e.
Loss of production (Cost of production)
Replacement of motor (Replacement cost)
Cost of repair
Cost of man hours due to this emergency
The basic function of a protective relay is to identify the fault and
isolate it from the healthy part of the system. This will improve the
reliability of power system. For protection of motor, we have to identify
the various causes of failure and to address the same. The various causes of
failure are as below.
Thermal stress on winding
Single phasing
Earth fault
Short circuit
Locked rotor
Number of hot starts
Bearing failure
Thermal Stress on Winding If a motor runs continuously more
than its rated capacity then this will over heat the winding and insulation.
Subsequently deteriorate the winding insulation resulting in failure of
motor. If the voltage is less than the designed value then also it will over
heat the winding at rated load and fail the motor.
Single Phasing Loss of one phase supplied to the motor (in case
of 3-phase motor) leads to single phasing. If we start the motor on load,
then the motor will fail due to unbalance.
Earth Fault If any part of winding comes in contact with the ground
then we can say the motor is earthed. If we start the motor then it will
lead to failure of motor.
Short Circuit If there is a contact between two phases of a three
phase winding or between the turns of a phase, then this will termed as
short circuit.
Locked Rotor If the driven equipment is in jammed condition or the
motor shaft is jam, then this is known as locked rotor. If we start the
motor then it will fail.
Number of Hot Start Each motor is designed to withstand a certain
number of hot starts. Consider a motor is in running condition, if we stop
the motor & immediately start the same, then this is called as hot start.
Depending upon the thermal curve of a motor we have to give certain
time to bring down the temperature of winding.
Bearing Failure If bearing fails then rubbing of rotor on stator will
occur, resulting physical damage of insulation and winding. The bearing
failure can be avoided by monitoring the bearing temperature. Bearing
temperature detector (BTD) is used for monitoring and tripping of motor
in case of abnormality.
All motor protection relays operate on the basis of current taken by the
motor. Motor protection relay is used for high voltage area having the
following features
Thermal overload protection
Short circuit protection
Single phasing protection
Earth fault protection
Locked rotor protection
Number of start protection
For setting of the relay we require the CT ratio & full load current of the
motor. The setting of different element is listed below
Thermal over Load Element - To set this element we have to
identify the % of Full load current on which the motor is running
continuously. Thermal setting = (Full load current x % of Full load) / CT
ratio.
Short circuit Element - The range available for this element is 1 to 5
times of starting current. Time delay is also available. We normally set at
2 times of I starting with a time delay of 0.1 second.
Single Phasing Element - This element will operate, if there is an
unbalance in current of three phases. It is also called as unbalance
protection. The element is set for 1/3rd of starting current. If it tripped
during starting, then the parameter will changed to 1/2 of starting
current.
Earth Fault Protection - This element measures the neutral current
of star connected CT secondary. The range available for this element is
0.02 to 2 times of CT primary current. Time delay is also available. We
normally set at 0.1 times of CT primary current with a time delay of 0.2
seconds. If tripped during starting of motor, then the time setting can be
raised to 0.5 sec.
Locked rotor protection - The range available for this element is 1
to 5 times of full load current. Time delay is also available. We normally
set at 2 times of FLC. The time delay will be more than the starting time
of the motor. "Starting time means the time require by the motor to reach
its full speed."
Number of hot start protection - Here we will provide the number
of start allowed in specified time duration. By this we will limit the number
of hot start given to the motor.
The schematic diagram to connect a motor protection relay is as below
Modern digital motor protection relays are having some extra features, i.e.
protection against no load running of a motor and thermal protection. In
case of no load running, the relay senses the motor current. If it is less than
the specified value then it will trip the motor. We can also connect the
temperature probe to the relay, which will monitor the bearing and winding
temperature and trip the motor if it exceeds the specified value.
Feeder Protection Relays.
Distance Protection Relay
One of the important protections in Power System Protection is Feeder

Protection. Different types of relays were used for feeder protection
like electromagnetic type relays, static type relays etc. But now a day we are
using Numerical relays for all protections. The benefits of Numerical relays
are,
1. Accurate tripping,
2. Less tolerance,
3. Fault events and counter storage
4. Display of fault parameters on screen
(Fault parameters means current, voltage, resistance and reactance values
during fault and fault distance, Numerical relays can store thousands of
tripping events). The main inputs needed for distance protection
is Voltage and Current from corresponding feeder PT and CT.
According to site condition we will set certain impedance values in relay

settings (i.e., R and X values) for fault detection. Relay will monitor Current
& Voltage in the feeder line (PT and CT secondary), and from these values,
the relay will calculate Impedance value Z. i.e., Z=V/I. In normal load
condition the impedance values on line will be high. But when fault comes on
the feeder line, the impedance will decrease and becomes less than the
impedance setting in the relay, then the distance relay will trip with in 40 ms
in zone 1 (different zones are there and that will be explained later) and
isolate power equipments from fault. I.e., during fault, relay will trip and
shows the fault parameters like fault current, voltage, reactance, resistance
and fault distance on relay screen. Suppose if the fault is on 25km, then
relay will show Fault Distance (FD) = 25km, and thus it becomes easy to
identify the location where there is fault. For Distance protection now a day
Quadrilateral characteristics is used. We already discussed that for fault
identification we have to set different parameters in relay. i.e.,
1. Forward and Backward Resistance (RF, RB),

2. Forward and backward Reactance (XF, XB),
3. RCA (Relay Characteristics Angle) and
4. Line Impedance per km.
These parameters are used for making Quadrilateral characteristics. Suppose
if RCA=70 and we are using parallelogram characteristics (Quadrilateral),
we can plot the graph by setting Forward Resistance (RF) value in positive X
axis, Backward Resistance (RB) in negative X axis, Forward Reactance (XF)
value in positive Y axis, and Backward Reactance (XB) in negative Y axis.
And plot parallelogram with a slope of RCA angle. Thus we will get a
parallelogram graph and the protection zone is inside the parallelogram.
Means during fault the impedance will reach inside the parallelogram then
the relay will trip. In graph there are 4 quadrants of operation
1. First quadrant (R and X values + ve) If the load is inductive and

the fault is in forward direction from Relay, then the relay will trip in this
quadrant values.
2. Second quadrant (R ve and X + ve) If the load is capacitive and
the fault is in reverse direction from Relay, then the relay will trip in this
quadrant values.
3. Third quadrant (R ve and X - ve) If the load is inductive and the
fault is in reverse direction from Relay, then the relay will trip in this
quadrant values.
4. Fourth quadrant (R + ve and X - ve) If the load is capacitive and
the fault is in forward direction from Relay, then the relay will trip in this
quadrant values.
Different Zones of operation, fault distance calculation and other feeder
protection relays etc. will be explained in next article... Remark: A model of
quadrilateral characteristics is shown below.
Types of Electrical Protection Relays or Protective Relays.
Definition of Protective Relay
A relay is automatic device which senses an abnormal condition of electrical

circuit and closes its contacts. These contacts in turns close and complete
the circuit breaker trip coil circuit hence make the circuit breaker tripped for
disconnecting the faulty portion of the electrical circuit from rest of the
healthy circuit. Now lets have a discussion on some terms related to
protective relay. Pickup Level of Actuating Signal: The value of actuating
quantity (voltage or current) which is on threshold above which the relay
initiates to be operated. If the value of actuating quantity is increased, the
electromagnetic effect of the relay coil is increased and above a certain level
of actuating quantity the moving mechanism of the relay just starts to move.
Reset Level: The value of current or voltage below which a relay opens its
contacts and comes in original position. Operating Time of Relay: Just
after exceeding pickup level of actuating quantity the moving mechanism
(for example rotating disc) of relay starts moving and it ultimately close the
relay contacts at the end of its journey. The time which elapses between the
instant when actuating quantity exceeds the pickup value to the instant
when the relay contacts close. Reset Time of Relay: The time which
elapses between the instant when the actuating quantity becomes less than
the reset value to the instant when the relay contacts returns to its normal
position. Reach of Relay: A distance relay operates whenever the distance
seen by the relay is less than the pre-specified impedance. The actuating
impedance in the relay is the function of distance in a distance protection
relay. This impedance or corresponding distance is called reach of the relay.
Power system protection relays can be categorized into different types of
relays.
Types of Relays
Types of protection relays are mainly based on their characteristic, logic, on

actuating parameter and operation mechanism. Based on operation
mechanism protection relay can be categorized as electromagnetic relay,
static relay and mechanical relay. Actually relay is nothing but a combination
of one or more open or closed contacts. These all or some specific contacts
the relay change their state when actuating parameters are applied to the
relay. That means open contacts become closed and closed contacts become
open. In electromagnetic relay these closing and opening of relay contacts
are done by electromagnetic action of a solenoid. In mechanical relay these
closing and opening of relay contacts are done by mechanical displacement
of different gear level system. In static relay it is mainly done
by semiconductor switches like thyristor. In digital relay on and off state can
be referred as 1 and 0 state. Based on Characteristic the protection relay
can be categorized as-
1. Definite time relays
2. Inverse time relays with definite minimum time(IDMT)
3. Instantaneous relays.
4. IDMT with inst.
5. Stepped characteristic.
6. Programmed switches.
7. Voltage restraint over current relay.
Based on of logic the protection relay can be categorized as-
1. Differential.
2. Unbalance.
3. Neutral displacement.
4. Directional.
5. Restricted earth fault.
6. Over fluxing.
7. Distance schemes.
8. Bus bar protection.
9. Reverse power relays.
10. Loss of excitation.
11. Negative phase sequence relays etc.
Based on actuating parameter the protection relay can be categorized as-
1. Current relays.
2. Voltage relays.
3. Frequency relays.
4. Power relays etc.
Based on application the protection relay can be categorized as-
1. Primary relay.
2. Backup relay.
Primary relay or primary protection relay is the first line of power system
protection whereas backup relay is operated only when primary relay fails to
be operated during fault. Hence backup relay is slower in action than
primary relay. Any relay may fail to be operated due to any of the following
reasons,
1. The protective relay itself is defective.
2. DC Trip voltage supply to the relay is unavailable.
3. Trip lead from relay panel to circuit breaker is disconnected.
4. Trip coil in the circuit breaker is disconnected or defective.
5. Current or voltage signals from CT or PT respectively is unavailable.
As because backup relay operates only when primary relay fails, backup
protection relay should not have anything common with primary protection
relay. Some examples of Mechanical Relay are-
1. Thermal
o OT trip (Oil Temperature Trip)
o WT trip (Winding Temperature Trip)
o Bearing temp trip etc.
2. Float type
o Buchholz
o OSR
o PRV
o Water level Controls etc.
3. Pressure switches.
4. Mechanical interlocks.
5. Pole discrepancy relay.
List Different Protective Relays are used for Different Power System
Equipment Protection
Now lets have a look on which different protective relays are used in
different power system equipment protection schemes.
Relays for Transmission & Distribution Lines Protection
Lines to be
SL Relays to be used
protected
400 KV Main-I: Non switched or Numerical Distance Scheme

1
Transmission Line Main-II: Non switched or Numerical Distance Scheme
Main-I : Non switched distance scheme (Fed from Bus

PTs)
220 KV
2 Main-II: Switched distance scheme (Fed from line CVTs)
Transmission Line
With a changeover facility from bus PT to line CVT and
vice-versa.
Main Protection : Switched distance scheme (fed from bus

PT).
132 KV
3 Backup Protection: 3 Nos. directional IDMT O/L Relays
Transmission Line
and
1 No. Directional IDMT E/L relay.
4 33 KV lines Non-directional IDMT 3 O/L and 1 E/L relays.
5 11 KV lines Non-directional IDMT 2 O/L and 1 E/L relays.
Relays for Transformer Protection
Voltage Ratio
and Common
SL Relays on HV Side Relays on LV Side
Capacity of Relays
Transformer
1 11/132 KV 3 nos Non-Directional -- Differential

Generator O/L Relay Relay or
Transformer 1 no Non-Directional Overall
E/L Relay differential
Relay
Overflux
Relay
Buchholz
Relay
and/or standby E/F +
OLTC
REF Relay
Buchholz
Relay
PRV Relay
OT Trip Relay
WT Trip Relay
Differential
Relay or
Overall
differential
Relay
13.8/220 KV 3 nos Non-Directional
Overflux
15.75/220 KV O/L Relay
Relay
18/400 KV 1 no Non-Directional
2 -- Buchholz
21/400 KV E/L Relay
Relay
Generator and/or standby E/F +
OLTC
Transformer REF Relay
Buchholz
Relay
PRV Relay
OT Trip Relay
WT Trip Relay
Differential
Relay
Overflux
3 nos Non-Directional Relay
O/L Relay Buchholz
220 /6.6KV 3 nos Non-
1 no Non-Directional Relay
3 Station Directional O/L
E/L Relay OLTC
Transformer Relay
and/or standby E/F + Buchholz
REF Relay Relay
PRV Relay
OT Trip Relay
WT Trip Relay
Differential
Relay
Overflux
Relay
Buchholz
3 nos Non-
Gen-volt/6.6KV 3 nos Non-Directional Relay
4 Directional O/L
UAT O/L Relay OLTC
Relay
Buchholz
Relay
PRV Relay
OT Trip Relay
WT Trip Relay
Buchholz
Relay
OLTC
132/33/11KV 3 nos O/L Relay 2 nos O/L Relays Buchholz
5
upto 8 MVA 1 no E/L Relay 1 no E/L Relay Relay
PRV Relay
OT Trip Relay
WT Trip Relay
Differential
Relay
Buchholz
Relay
132/33/11KV 3 nos O/L Relay
3 nos O/L Relay OLTC
6 above 8 MVA & 1 no Directional E/L
1 no E/L Relay Buchholz
below 31.5 MVA Relay
Relay
PRV Relay
OT Trip Relay
WT Trip Relay
7 132/33KV, 31.5 3 nos O/L Relay 3 nos O/L Relay Differential

MVA & above 1 no Directional E/L 1 no E/L Relay Relay
Relay Overflux
Relay
Buchholz
Relay
OLTC
Buchholz
Relay
PRV Relay
OT Trip Relay
WT Trip Relay
Differential
Relay
Overflux
Relay
220/33 KV,
Buchholz
31.5MVA & 3 nos O/L Relay 3 nos O/L Relay
Relay
8 50MVA 1 no Directional E/L 1 no Directional E/L
OLTC
220/132KV, 100 Relay Relay
Buchholz
MVA
Relay
PRV Relay
OT Trip Relay
WT Trip Relay
Differential
Relay
Overflux
3 nos Directional O/L Relay
Relay 3 nos Directional Buchholz
(with dir.highset) O/L Relay Relay
400/220KV 1 no Directional E/L (with dir.highset) OLTC
9
315MVA relay. 1 no Directional E/L Buchholz
Restricted E/F relay relay. Relay
3 nos Directional O/L Restricted E/F relay PRV Relay
Relay for action OT Trip Relay
WT Trip Relay
Over Load
(Alarm) Relay
Points to be remembered in respect of protection of transformers

1. No Buchholz relay for transformers below 500 KVA capacity.
2. Transformers up to 1500 KVA shall have only Horn gap protection.
3. Transformers above 1500 KVA and upto 8000 KVA of 33/11KV ratio
shall have one group control breaker on HV side and individual LV
breakers if there is more than one transformer.
4. Transformers above 8000 KVA shall have individual HV and LV circuit
breakers.
5. The relays indicate above shall be provided on HV and LV.
6. LAs to be provided on HV and LV for transformers of all capacities and
voltage class.
7. OLTC out of step protection is to be provided where master follower
scheme is in operation.
8. Fans failure and pumps failure alarms to be connected.
9. Alarms for O.T., W.T., Buchholz (Main tank AND OLTC) should be
connected.
Equivalent Circuit of Transformer referred to Primary and Secondary.
Equivalent Circuit of Transformer
Equivalent impedance of transformer is essential to be calculated because

the electrical power transformer is an electrical power system equipment for
estimating different parameters of electrical power system which may be
required to calculate total internal impedance of an electrical power
transformer, viewing from primary side or secondary side as per
requirement. This calculation requires equivalent circuit of transformer
referred to primary or equivalent circuit of transformer referred to
secondary sides respectively. Percentage impedance is also very essential
parameter of transformer. Special attention is to be given to this parameter
during installing a transformer in an existing electrical power system.
Percentage impedance of different power transformers should be properly
matched during parallel operation of power transformers. The percentage
impedance can be derived from equivalent impedance of transformer so,
it can be said that equivalent circuit of transformer is also required
during calculation of % impedance.
Equivalent Circuit of Transformer Referred to Primary
For drawing equivalent circuit of transformer referred to primary, first

we have to establish general equivalent circuit of transformer then, we
will modify it for referring from primary side. For doing this, first we need to
recall the complete vector diagram of a transformer which is shown in the
figure below. Let us
consider the transformation ratio be,
In the figure above, the applied voltage to the primary is V1 and voltage
across the primary winding is E1. Total current supplied to primary is I1. So
the voltage V1 applied to the primary is partly dropped by I1Z1 or I1R1 +
j.I1X1 before it appears across primary winding. The voltage appeared across
winding is countered by primary induced emf E1. So voltage equation of this
portion of the transformer can be written as,
The equivalent circuit for that equation can be drawn as below,
From the vector diagram above,

it is found that the total primary current I1 has two components, one is no -
load component Io and the other is load component I2. As this
primary current has two components or branches, so there must be a
parallel path with primary winding of transformer. This parallel path of
current is known as excitation branch of equivalent circuit of transformer.
The resistive and reactive branches of the excitation circuit can be
represented as
The load component

I2 flows through the primary winding of transformer and
induced voltage across the winding is E1 as shown in the figure right. This
induced voltage E1transforms to secondary and it is E2 and load component
of primary current I2 is transformed to secondary as secondary current I2.
Current of secondary is I2. So the voltage E2 across secondary winding is
partly dropped by I2Z2 or I2R2 + j.I2X2 before it appears across load. The
load voltage is V2.
The complete equivalent circuit of transformer is shown below.
Now if we
see the voltage drop in secondary from primary side, then it would be K
times greater and would be written as K.Z2.I2. Again I2.N1 = I2.N2
Therefore,
From above equation, secondary impedance of transformer referred to

primary is,
So, the complete equivalent circuit of transformer referred to primary is

shown in the figure below,
Approximate Equivalent Circuit of Transformer

Since Io is very small compared to I1, it is less than 5% of full load primary
current, Iochanges the voltage drop insignificantly. Hence, it is good
approximation to ignore the excitation circuit in approximate equivalent
circuit of transformer. The winding resistance and reactance being in series
can now be combined into equivalent resistance and reactance of
transformer, referred to any particular side. In this case it is side 1 or
primary side.
Equivalent Circuit of Transformer Referred to Secondary
In similar way, approximate equivalent circuit of transformer referred to

secondary can be drawn. Where equivalent impedance of
transformer referred to secondary, can be derived as.
Knee Point Voltage of Current Transformer PS Class.
Current Transformer PS Class
Before understanding Knee Point Voltage of Current

Transformer and current transformer PS class we should recall the
terms instrument security factor of CT and accuracy limit factor.
Instrument Security Factor or ISF of Current Transformer
Instrument security factor is the ratio of instrument limit

primary current to the rated primary current. Instrument limit current of a
metering current transformer is the maximum value of primary current
beyond which current transformer core becomes saturated. Instrument
security factor of CT is the significant factor for choosing the metering
instruments which to be connected to the secondary of the CT. Security or
Safety of the measuring unit is better, if ISF is low. If we go through the
example below it would be clear to us.
Suppose one current transformer has rating 100/1 A and ISF is 1.5 and
another current transformer has same rating with ISF 2. That means, in first
CT, the metering core would be saturated at 1.5 100 or 150 A, whereas is
second CT, core will be saturated at 2 100 or 200 A. That means whatever
may be the primary current of both CTs, secondary current will not increase
further after 150 and 200 A of primary current of the CTs respectively. Hence
maximum secondary current of the CTs would be 1.5 and 2.0 A.
As the maximum current can flow through the instrument connected to the
first CT is 1.5 A which is less than the maximum value of current can flow
through the instrument connected to the second CT i.e. 2 A. Hence security
or safety of the instruments of first CT is better than later.
Another significance of ISF is during huge electrical fault, the short circuit
current, flows through primary of the CT does not affect destructively,
the measuring instrument attached to it as because, the secondary current
of the CT will not rise above the value of rated secondary current multiplied
by ISF.
Accuracy Limit Factor or ALF of Current Transformer
For protection current transformer, the ratio of accuracy limit primary current
to the rated primary current. First we will explain, what is rated accuracy
limit primary current?.
Broadly, this is the maximum value of primary current, beyond which core of
the protection CT or simply protection core of of a CT starts saturated. The
value of rated accuracy limit primary current is always many times more
than the value of instrument limit primary current. Actually CT transforms
the fault current of the electrical power system for operation of
the protection relays connected to the secondary of that CT. If the core of
the CT becomes saturated at lower value of primary current, as in the case
of metering CT, the system fault will not reflect properly to the secondary,
which may cause, the relays remain inoperative even the fault level of the
system is large enough. That is why the core of the protection CT is made
such a way that saturation level of that core must be high enough. But still
there is a limit as because, it is impossible to make one magnetic core with
infinitely high saturation level and secondly most important reason is that
although the protection care should have high saturation level but that must
be limited up to certain level otherwise total transformation of primary
current during huge fault may badly damage the protection relays. So it is
clear from above explanation, rated accuracy limit primary current, should
not be so less, that it will not at all help the relays to be operated on the
other hand this value must not be so high that it can damage the relays.
So, accuracy limit factor or ALF should not have the value nearer to unit
and at the same time it should not be as high as 100. The standard values of
ALF as per IS-2705 are 5, 10, 15, 20 and 30.
Knee Point Voltage of Current Transformer
This is the significance of saturation level of a CT core mainly used for

protection purposes. The sinusoidal voltage of rated frequency applied to the
secondary terminals of current transformer, with other winding being open
circuited, which when increased by 10% cause the exiting current to
increase 50%. The CT core is made of CRGO steel. It has its won saturation
level. The EMF induced in the CT secondary windings is
E2 = 4.44fT2
Where, f is the system frequency, is the maximum magnetic flux in Wb.
T2 is the number of turns of the secondary winding. The flux in the core, is
produced by excitation current Ie. We have a non-liner relationship between
excitation current and magnetizing flux. After certain value of excitation
current, flux will not further increase so rapidly with increase in excitation
current. This non-liner relation curve is also called B - H curve. Again from
the equation above, it is found that, secondary voltage of acurrent
transformer is directly proportional to flux . Hence one typical curve can be
drawn from this relation between secondary voltage and excitation current
as shown below. It is clear from the curve that, linear relation between V
and Ie is maintained from point A and K. The point A is known as ankle
point and point K is known as Knee Point.
In differential and restricted earth fault (REF) protection scheme, accuracy

class and ALF of the CT may not ensure the reliability of the operation. It is
desired that, differential and REF relays should not be operated when fault
occurs outside the protected transformer. When any fault occurs outside the
differential protection zone, the faulty current flows through the CTs of both
sides of electrical power transformer. The both LV and HV CTs have
magnetizing characteristics. Beyond the knee point, for slight increase in
secondary emf a large increasing in excitation current is required. So after
this knee point excitation current of both current transformers will be
extremely high, which may cause mismatch between secondary current of
LV & HV current transformers. This phenomena may cause unexpected
tripping of power transformer. So the magnetizing characteristics of both LV
& HV sides CTs, should be same that means they have same knee point
voltage Vk as well as same excitation current I eat Vk/2. It can be again said
that, if both knee point voltage of current transformer and magnetizing
characteristic of CTs of both sides of power transformer differ, there must be
a mismatch in high excitation currents of the CTs during fault which
ultimately causes the unbalancing between secondary current of both groups
of CTs and transformer trips.
So for choosing CT for differential protection of transformer, one should

consider current transformer PS class rather its convectional protection
class. PS stands for protection special which is defined by knee point
voltage of current transformer Vk and excitation current Ie at Vk/2.
Why CT Secondary Should Not Be Kept Open?
The electrical power system load current always flows through current
transformer primary; irrespective of whether the current transformer is open
circuited or connected to burden at its secondary.
If CT secondary is open circuited,

all the primary current will behave as excitation current, which ultimately
produce huge voltage. Every current transformer has its won non-linear
magnetizing curve, because of which secondary open circuit voltage should
be limited by saturation of the core. If one can measure the rms voltage
across the secondary terminals, he or she will get the value which may not
appear to be dangerous. As the CT primary current is sinusoidal in nature, it
zero 100 times per second.(As frequency of the current is 50 Hz). The rate
of change of flux at every current zero is not limited by saturation and is
high indeed. This develops extremely high peaks or pulses of voltage. This
high peaks of voltage may not be measured by conventional voltmeter. But
these high peaks of induced voltage may breakdown the CT insulation, and
may case accident to personnel. The actual open-circuit voltage peak is
difficult to measure accurately because of its very short peaks. That is why
CT secondary should not be kept open.
Theory of Transformer
We have discussed about the theory of ideal transformer for better

understanding of actual elementary theory of transformer. Now we will go
through the practical aspects one by one of an electrical power
transformer and try to draw vector diagram of transformer in every step.
As we said that, in an ideal transformer; there are no core losses in
transformer i.e. loss free core of transformer. But in practical transformer,
there are hysteresis and eddy current losses in transformer core.
Theory of Transformer on No-Load
Theory of Transformer On No-load, and Having No Winding Resistance and

No Leakage Reactance of Transformer
Let us consider one electrical transformer with only core losses, which
means, it has only core losses but no copper loss and no leakage reactance
of transformer. When an alternating source is applied in the primary, the
source will supply the current for magnetizing the core of transformer.
But this current is not the actual magnetizing current, it is little bit greater
than actual magnetizing current. Actually, total current supplied from the
source has two components, one is magnetizing current which is merely
utilized for magnetizing the core and other component of the source current
is consumed for compensating the core losses in transformer. Because of this
core loss component, the source current in transformer on no-
load condition supplied from the source as source current is not exactly at
90 lags of supply voltage, but it lags behind an angle is less than 90. If
total current supplied from source is I o, it will have one component in phase
with supply voltage V1 and this component of the current I w is core loss
component. This component is taken in phase with source voltage, because
it is associated with active or working losses in transformer. Other
component of the source current is denoted as I . This component produces
the alternating magnetic flux in the core, so it is watt-less; means it is
reactive part of the transformer source current. Hence I will be in
quadrature with V1 and in phase with alternating flux .
Hence, total primary current in transformer on no-load condition can be

represented as
Now you have seen how simple is to explain the theory of transformer in
no-load.
Theory of Transformer on Load
Theory of Transformer On Load But Having No Winding Resistance and

Leakage Reactance
Now we will examine the behavior of above said transformer on load, that
means load is connected to the secondary terminals. Consider, transformer
having core loss but no copper loss and leakage reactance. Whenever load is
connected to the secondary winding, load current will start to flow through
the load as well as secondary winding. This load current solely depends upon
the characteristics of the load and also upon secondary voltage of
the transformer. This current is called secondary current or load current,
here it is denoted as I2. As I2 is flowing through the secondary, a self mmf in
secondary winding will be produced. Here it is N2I2, where, N2 is the number
of turns of the secondary winding of transformer.
This mmf or magneto

motive force in the secondary winding produces flux 2. This 2 will oppose
the main magnetizing flux and momentarily weakens the main flux and tries
to reduce primary self induced emf E1. If E1 falls down below the primary
source voltage V1, there will be an extra current flowing from source to
primary winding. This extra primary current I2 produces extra flux in the
core which will neutralize the secondary counter flux 2. Hence the main
magnetizing flux of core, remains unchanged irrespective of load.
So total current, this transformer draws from source can be divided into two
components, first one is utilized for magnetizing the core and compensating
the core loss i.e. Io. It is no-load component of the primary current. Second
one is utilized for compensating the counter flux of the secondary winding. It
is known as load component of the primary current. Hence total no load
primary current I1 of a electrical power transformer having no
winding resistance and leakage reactance can be represented as follows
Where, 2 is the angle between Secondary Voltage and Secondary Current of

transformer. Now we will proceed one further step toward more practical
aspect of a transformer.
Theory of Transformer On Load, With Resistive Winding, But No Leakage

Reactance
Now, consider the winding resistance of transformer but no leakage

reactance. So far we have discussed about the transformer which has ideal
windings, means winding with no resistance and leakage reactance, but now
we will consider one transformer which has internal resistance in the winding
but no leakage reactance. As the windings are resistive, there would be
a voltage drop in the windings.
We have proved earlier
that, total primary current from the source on load is I1. The voltage drop in
the primary winding with resistance, R1 is R1I1. Obviously, induced emf
across primary winding E1, is not exactly equal to source voltage V1. E1 is
less than V1 by voltage drop I1R1.
Again in the case of secondary, the voltage induced across the secondary
winding, E2 does not totally appear across the load since it also drops by an
amount I2R2, where R2 is the secondary winding resistance and I2 is
secondary current or load current. Similarly, voltage equation of the
secondary side of the transformer will be
Theory of Transformer On Load, With Resistance As Well As Leakage

Reactance in Transformer Windings
Now we will consider the condition, when there is leakage reactance of

transformer as well as winding resistance of transformer.
Let leakage reactances
of primary and secondary windings of the transformer are X1 and
X2respectively. Hence total impedance of primary and secondary winding of
transformer with resistance R1 and R2 respectively, can be represented as,
We have already established the voltage equation of a transformer on

load, with only resistances in the windings, where voltage drops in the
windings occur only due to resistive voltage drop. But when we consider
leakage reactances of transformer windings, voltage drop occurs in the
winding not only because of resistance, it is because of impedance of
transformer windings. Hence, actual voltage equation of a transformer can
easily be determined by just replacing resistances R1 & R2 in the previously
established voltage equations by Z1 and Z2.
Therefore, the voltage equations are,

Resistance drops are in the direction of current vector but, reactive drop will
be perpendicular to the current vector as shown in the above vector
diagram of transformer.
Small and Large Motor Protection Scheme.
The abnormalities in motor or motor faults may appear due to mainly two
reasons -
1. Conditions imposed by the external power supply network,
2. Internal faults, either in the motor or in the driven plant.
Unbalanced supply voltages, under-voltage, reversed phase sequence and
loss of synchronism (in the case of synchronous motor) come under former
category. The later category includes bearing failures, stator winding faults,
motor earth faults and overload etc.
The degree of motor protection system depends on the costs and

applications of the electrical motor.
Small Motor Protection Scheme
Generally motors up to 30 hp are considered in small category. The small

motor protection in this case is arranged by HRC fuse, bimetallic relay and
under voltage relay - all assembled into the motor contractor - starter itself.
Most common cause of motor burn outs on LV fuse protected system is due
to single phasing. This single phasing may remain undetected even if the
motors are protected by conventional bimetallic relay. It can not be detected
by a set of voltage relays connected across the lines. Since, even when one
phase is dead, the motor maintains substantial back emf on its faulty phase
terminal and hence voltage across the voltage relay is prevented from
dropping - off. The difficulties of detecting single phasing can be overcome
by employing a set of three current operated relays as shown in the small
motor protection circuit given below. The current operated relays are very
simple instantaneous relays. There are mainly two parts in this relay one is a
current coil and other is one or more normally open contacts (NO Contacts).
The NO contacts are operated by the mmf of the current coil. This relay is
connected in series with each phase of the supply and backup by HRC fuse.
When the electrical motor starts and runs the supply current passes through
the current coil of the protective relay. The mmf of the current coil makes
the NO contacts closed. If suddenly a single phasing occurs the
corresponding current through the current coil will falls and the contacts of
the corresponding relay will become to its normal open position. The NO
contacts of the all three relays are connected in series to hold - in the motor
contractor. So if any one relay contact opens, results to release of motor
contractor and hence motor will stop running.
Large Motor Protection
Large motor specially induction motors require protection against-

1. Motor bearing failure,
2. Motor over heating,
3. Motor winding failure,
4. Reverse motor rotation.
Motor Bearing Failure

Ball and roller bearings are used for the motor up to 500 hp and beyond this
size sleeve bearings are used. failure of ball or roller bearing usually causes
the motor to a standstill very quickly. Due to sudden mechanical jamming in
motor bearing, the input current of the motor becomes very high. Current
operated protection, attached to the input of the motor can not serve
satisfactorily. Since this motor protection system has to be set to override
the high motor starting current. The difficulty can be over come by providing
thermal over load relay. As the starting current of the motor is high but
exists only during starting so for that current the there will be no over
heating effect. But over current due mechanical jamming exists for longer
time hence there will be a over heating effect. So stalling motor protection
can be offered by the thermal overload relay. Stalling protection can also be
provided by separate definite time over current relay which is operated only
after a certain predefined time if over current persists beyond that period. In
the case of sleeve bearing, a temperature sensing device embedded in the
bearing itself. This scheme of motor protection is more reliable and sensitive
to motor bearing failure since the thermal withstand limit of the motor is
quite higher than that of bearing. If we allow the bearing over heating and
wait for motor thermal relay to trip, the bearing may be permanently
damaged. The temperature sensing device embedded in the bearing stops
the motor if the bearing temperature rises beyond its predefined limit.
Motor Over Heating
The main reason of motor over heating that means over heating of motor
winding is due to either of mechanical over loading, reduced supply voltage,
unbalanced supply voltage and single phasing. The over heating may cause
deterioration of insulation life of motor hence it must be avoided by
providing proper motor protection scheme. To avoid over heating, the motor
should be isolated in 40 to 50 minutes even in the event of small overloads
of the order of 10 %. The protective relay should take into account the
detrimental heating effects on the motor rotor due to negative sequence
currents in the stator arising out of unbalance in supply voltage. The motor
should also be protected by instantaneous motor protection relay against
single phasing such as a stall on loss of one phase when running at full load
or attempting to start with only two of three phases alive.
Motor Winding Failure
The motor protection relay should should have instantaneous trip

elements to detect motor winding failure such as phase to phase and
phase to earth faults. Preferably phase to phase fault unit should be
energized from positive phase sequence component of the motor current and
another instantaneous unit connected in the residual circuit of the current
transformers be used for earth faults protection.
Reverse Motor Rotation
Specially in the case of conveyor belt, the reverse motor rotation must be
avoided. The reverse rotation during starting can be caused due to
inadvertent reversing of supply phases. A comprehensive motor protection
relay with an instantaneous negative sequence unit will satisfy this
requirement. If such relay has not been provided, a watt-meter type relay
can be employed. NB: However, we have to provide some additional
motor protection system for synchronous motor which is discussed
in details in synchronous motor protection topic.
Motor Thermal Overload Protection.
For understanding motor thermal overload protection in induction
motor we can discuss the operating principle of three phase induction motor.
There is one cylindrical stator and a three phase winding is symmetrically
distributed in the inner periphery of the stator. Due to such symmetrical
distribution, when three phase power supply is applied to the stator winding,
a rotating magnetic field is produced. This field rotates at synchronous
speed. The rotor is created in induction motor mainly by numbers solid
copper bars which are shorted at both ends in such a manner that they form
a cylinder cage like structure. This is why this motor is also referred as
squirrel cage induction motor. Anyway let's come to the basic point of three
phase induction motor - which will help us to understand clearly
about motor thermal overload protection.As the rotating magnetic
flux cuts each of the bar conductor of rotor, there will be an induced
circulating current flowing through the bar conductors. At starting the rotor
is stand still and stator field is rotating at synchronous speed, the relative
motion between rotating field and rotor is maximum.
Hence, the rate of cuts of flux with rotor bars is maximum, the induced
current is maximum at this condition. But as the cause of induced current is,
this relative speed, the rotor will try to reduce this relative speed and hence
it will start rotating in the direction of rotating magnetic field to catch the
synchronous speed. As soon as the rotor will come to the synchronous speed
this relative speed between rotor and rotating magnetic field becomes zero,
hence there will not be any further flux cutting and consequently there will
not be any induced current in the rotor bars. As the induced current
becomes zero, there will not be any further need of maintaining zero relative
speed between rotor and rotating magnetic field hence rotor speed falls. As
soon as the rotor speed falls the relative speed between rotor and rotating
magnetic field again acquires a non zero value which again causes induced
current in the rotor bars then rotor will again try to achieve the synchronous
speed and this will continue till the motor is switch on. Due to this
phenomenon the rotor will never achieve the synchronous speed as well as it
will never stop running during normal operation. The difference between the
synchronous speed with rotor speed in respect of synchronous speed, is
termed as slip of induction motor.
The slip in a normally running induction motor typically varies from 1 % to 3

% depending upon the loading condition of the motor. Now we will try to
draw speed current characteristics of induction motor lets have an
example of large boiler fan. In the

characteristic Y axis is taken as time in second, X axis is taken as % of
stator current. When rotor is stand still that is at starting condition, the slip
is maximum hence the induced current in the rotor is maximum and due to
transformation action, stator will also draw a heavy current from the supply
and it would be around 600 % of the rated full load stator current. As the
rotor is being accelerated the slip is reduced, consequently the rotor current
hence stator current falls to around 500 % of the full load rated current
within 12 seconds when the rotor speed attains 80 % of synchronous speed.
After that the stator current falls rapidly to the rated value as the rotor
reaches its normal speed.
Now we will discuss about thermal over loading of electrical motor or
over heating problem of electric motor and the necessity of motor thermal
overload protection. Whenever we think about the overheating of a motor,
the first thing strikes in our mind is over loading. Due to mechanical over
loading of the motor draws higher current from the supply which leads to
excessive over heating of the motor. The motor can also be excessively over
heated if the rotor is mechanically locked i.e. becomes stationary by any
external mechanical force. In this situation the motor will draw excessively
high current from the supply which also leads to thermal over loading of
electrical motor or excessive over heating problem. Another cause of
overheating is low supply voltage. As the power id drawn by the motor from
the supply depends upon the loading condition of the motor, for lower supply
voltage, motor will draw higher current from mains to maintain required
torque. Single phasing also causes thermal over loading of motor. When
one phase of the supply is out of service, the remaining two phases draw
higher current to maintain required load torque and this leads to overheating
of the motor. Unbalance condition between three phases of supply also
causes over heating of the motor winding, as because unbalance system
results to negative sequence current in the stator winding. Again, due to
sudden loss and reestablish of supply voltage may cause excessive heating
of the motor. Since due to sudden loss of supply voltage, the motor is de-
accelerated and due to sudden reestablishment of voltage the motor is
accelerated to achieve its rated speed and hence for that motor draws higher
current form the supply. As the thermal over loading or over heating of the
motor may lead to insulation failure and damage of winding, hence for
proper motor thermal overload protection, the motor should be
protected against the following conditions
1. Mechanical over loading,

2. Stalling of motor shaft,
3. Low supply voltage,
4. Single phasing of supply mains,
5. Unbalancing of supply mains,
6. Sudden Loss and rebuilding of supply voltage.
The most basic protection scheme of the motor is thermal over load
protection which primarily covers the protection of all the above mentioned
condition. To understand the basic principle of thermal over load protection
lets examine the schematic diagram of basic motor control scheme.
In the
figure above, when START push is closed, the starter coil is energized
through the transformer. As the starter coil is energized, normally open (NO)
contacts 5 are closed hence motor gets supply voltage at its terminal and it
starts rotating. This start coil also closes contact 4 which makes the starter
coil energized even the START push button contact is released from its close
position. To stop the motor there are several normally closed (NC) contacts
in series with the starter coil as shown in the figure. One of them is STOP
push button contact. If the STOP push button is pressed, this button contact
opens and breaks the continuity of the starter coil circuit consequently
makes the starter coil de-energized. Hence the contact 5 and 4 come back to
their normally open position. Then, in absence of voltage at motor terminals
it will ultimately stop running. Similarly any of the other NC contacts (1, 2 &
3) connected in series with starter coil if open; it will also stop the motor.
These NC contacts are electrically coupled with various protection relays to
stop operation of the motor in different abnormal conditions. Lets look at
the thermal over load relay and its function in motor thermal overload
protection. The secondary of the CTs in series with motor supply circuit, are
connected with a bimetallic strip of the thermal over load relay (49). As
shown in the figure below, when current through the secondary of any of the
CTs, crosses its predetermined values for a predetermined time, the bi-
metallic strip is over heated and it deforms which ultimately causes to
operate the relay 49. As soon as the relay 49 is operated, the NC contacts 1
and 2 are opened which de-energizes the starter coil and hence stop the
motor. An
other thing we have to remember during providing motor thermal overload
protection. Actually every motor does have some predetermined overload
tolerance value. That means every motor may run beyond its rated load for
a specific allowable period depending on its loading condition. How long a
motor can run safely for a particular load is specified by the manufacturer.
The relation between different loads on motor and corresponding allowable
periods for running the same in safe condition is referred as thermal limit
curve of the motor. Lets look at the curve of a particular motor, given below.
Here Y axis or
vertical axis represents the allowable time in seconds and X axis or
horizontal axis represents percentage of overload. Here it is clear from the
curve that, motor can run safely without any damage due to overheating for
prolonged period at 100 % of the rated load. It can run safely 1000 seconds
at 200 % of normal rated load. It can run safely 100 seconds at 300 % of
normal rated load. It can run safely 15 seconds at 600 % of normal rated
load. The upper portion of the curve represents the normal running condition
of the rotor and the lower most portion represents the mechanical locked
condition of the rotor. Now the operating time Vs actuating current curve of
the chosen thermal over load relay should be situated below the thermal
limit curve of the motor for satisfactory and safe operation. Lets have a
discussion on more details-
Remember the
characteristics of starting current of the motor During start up of the
induction motor, the stator current goes beyond 600 % of normal rated
current but it stays up to 10 to 12 seconds after that stator current suddenly
falls to normal rated value. So if the thermal overload relay is operated
before that 10 to 12 seconds for the current 600 % of normal rated then the
motor cannot be started. Hence, it can be concluded that the operating time
Vs actuating current curve of the chosen thermal over load relay should be
situated below the thermal limit curve of the motor but above the starting
current characteristics curve of the motor. Probable position of the thermal
current relay characteristics is bounded by these two said curves as shown in
the graph by highlighted area.
Another thing has to be remembered during choosing of thermal overload

relay. This relay is not an instantaneous relay. It has a minimum delay in
operation as the bimetallic strip required a minimum time to be heated up
and deformed for maximum value of operating current. From the graph it is
found that the thermal relay will be operated after 25 to 30 seconds if either
the rotor is suddenly mechanically blocked or motor is fail to start. At this
situation the motor will draw a huge current from the supply. If the motor is
not isolated sooner, severer damage may occur.
This
problem is overcome by providing time over current relay with high pickup.
The time current characteristics of these over current relays are so chosen
that for lower value of over load, the relay will not operate since thermal
overload relay will be actuated before it. But for higher value of overload and
for blocked rotor condition time over load relay will be operated instead of
thermal relay because former will actuate much before the latter. Hence both
the bimetallic over load relay and time over current relay are provided for
complete motor thermal overload protection. There is one main
disadvantage of bimetallic thermal over load relay, as the rate of heating and
cooling of bi-metal is affected by ambient temperature, the performance of
the relay may differ for different ambient temperatures. This problem can be
overcome by using RTD or resistance temperature detector. The bigger and
more sophisticated motors are protected against thermal over load more
accurately by using RTD. In stator slots, RTDs are placed along with stator
winding. Resistance of the RTD changes with changing temperature and this
changed resistive value is sensed by a Wheatstone bridge circuit. This motor
thermal overload protection scheme is very simple. RTD of stator is used as
one arm of balanced Wheatstone bridge. The amount of current through the
relay 49 depends upon the degree of unbalancing of the bridge. As the
temperature of the stator winding is increased, the electrical resistance of
the detector increases which disturbs the balanced condition of the bridge.
As a result current start flowing through the relay 49 and the relay will be
actuated after a predetermined value of this unbalanced current and
ultimately starter contact will open to stop the supply to the motor.
Electrical Fault Calculation | Positive Negative Zero Sequence Impedance.

Before applying proper electrical protection system, it is necessary to have
through knowledge of the conditions of electrical power system during faults.
The knowledge of electrical fault condition is required to deploy proper
different protective relays in different locations of electrical power system.
Information regarding values of maximum and minimum fault
currents, voltages under those faults in magnitude and phase relation with
respect to the currents at different parts of power system, to be gathered for
proper application of protection relay system in those different parts of the
electrical power system. Collecting the information from different parameters
of the system is generally known as electrical fault calculation.
Fault calculation broadly means calculation of fault current in any electrical

power system. There are mainly three steps for calculating faults in a
system.
1. Choice of impedance rotations.

2. Reduction of complicated electrical power system network to single
equivalent impedance.
3. Electrical fault currents and voltages calculation by using symmetrical
component theory.
Impedance Notation of Electrical Power System
If we look at any electrical power system, we will find, these are several
voltage levels. For example, suppose a typical power system where electrical
power is generated at 6.6 kV then that 132 kV power is transmitted to
terminal substation where it is stepped down to 33 kV and 11 kV levels and
this 11 kV level may further step down to 0.4kv. Hence from this example it
is clear that a same power system network may have different voltage
levels. So calculation of fault at any location of the said system becomes
much difficult and complicated it try to calculate impedance of different parts
of the system according to their voltage level. This difficulty can be avoided
if we calculate impedance of different part of the system in reference to a
single base value. This technique is called impedance notation of power
system. In other wards, before electrical fault calculation, the system
parameters, must be referred to base quantities and represented as uniform
system of impedance in either ohmic, percentage, or per unit values.
Electrical power and voltage are generally taken as base quantities. In three
phase system, three phase power in MVA or KVA is taken as base power and
line to line voltage in KV is taken as base voltage. The base impedance of
the system can be calculated from these base power and base voltage, as
follows, Per unit is an impedance value of any system is

nothing but the radio of actual impedance of the system to the base
impedance value. Percentage impedance value can be

calculated by multiplying 100 with per unit value. Again it
is sometimes required to convert per unit values referred to new base
values for simplifying different electrical fault calculations. In that case,
The choice of impedance notation depends upon the complicity of the

system. Generally base voltage of a system is so chosen that it requires
minimum number of transfers. Suppose, one system as a large number of
132 KV over head lines, few numbers of 33 KV lines and very few number of
11 KV lines. The base voltage of the system can be chosen either as 132 KV
or 33 KV or 11 KV, but here the best base voltages 132 KV, because it
requires minimum number of transfer during fault calculation.
Network Reduction
After choosing the correct impedance notation, the next step is to reduce
network to a single impedance. For this first we have to convert the
impedance of all generators, lines, cables, transformer to a common base
value. Then we prepare a schematic diagram of electrical power system
showing the impedance referred to same base value of all those generators,
lines, cables and transformers. The network then reduced to a common
equivalent single impedance by using star/delta transformations. Separate
impedance diagrams should be prepared for positive, negative and zero
sequence networks. There phase faults are unique since they are balanced
i.e. symmetrical in three phase, and can be calculated from the single phase
positive sequence impedance diagram. Therefore three phase fault current
is obtained by, Where, I f is the total three phase fault current, v is

the phase to neutral voltage z 1 is the total positive sequence impedance of
the system; assuming that in the calculation, impedance are represented in
ohms on a voltage base.
Symmetrical Component Analysis
The above fault calculation is made on assumption of three phase balanced

system. The calculation is made for one phase only as the current and
voltage conditions are same in all three phases. When actual faults occur in
electrical power system, such as phase to earth fault, phase to phase fault
and double phase to earth fault, the system becomes unbalanced means,
the conditions of voltages and currents in all phases are no longer
symmetrical. Such faults are solved by symmetrical component analysis.
Generally three phase vector diagram may be replaced by three sets of
balanced vectors. One has opposite or negative phase rotation, second has
positive phase rotation and last one is co-phasal. That means these vectors
sets are described as negative, positive and zero sequence, respectively.
The equation between phase and sequence quantities are,
Therefore,
Where all quantities are referred to the reference

phase r. Similarly a set of equations can be written for sequence currents
also. From, voltage and current equations, one can easily determine the
sequence impedance of the system. The development of symmetrical
component analysis depends upon the fact that in balanced system of
impedance, sequence currents can give rise only to voltage drops of the
same sequence. Once the sequence networks are available, these can be
converted to single equivalent impedance. Let us consider Z1, Z2 and Z0 are
the impedance of the system to the flow of positive, negative and zero
sequence current respectively. For earth fault
Phase to phase faults Double phase to earth
faults Three phase faults

If fault current in any particular branch of the network is required, the same
can be calculated after combining the sequence components flowing in that
branch. This involves the distribution of sequence components currents as
determined by solving the above equations, in their respective network
according to their relative impedance. Voltages it any point of the network
can also be determine once the sequence component currents and sequence
impedance of each branch are known.
Sequence Impedance
Positive Sequence Impedance
The impedance offered by the system to the flow of positive sequence

current is called positive sequence impedance.
Negative Sequence Impedance
The impedance offered by the system to the flow of negative sequence

current is called negative sequence impedance.
Zero Sequence Impedance
The impedance offered by the system to the flow of zero sequence current is
known as zero sequence impedance. In previous fault calculation, Z1,
Z2 and Z0 are positive, negative and zero sequence impedance respectively.
The sequence impedance varies with the type of power system
components under consideration:-
1. In static and balanced power system components like transformer and
lines, the sequence impedance offered by the system are the same for
positive and negative sequence currents. In other words, the positive
sequence impedance and negative sequence impedance are same
for transformers and power lines.
2. But in case of rotating machines the positive and negative
sequence impedance are different.
3. The assignment of zero sequence impedance values is a more
complex one. This is because the three zero sequence current at any point
in a electrical power system, being in phase, do not sum to zero but must
return through the neutral and /or earth. In three phase transformer and
machine fluxes due to zero sequence components do not sum to zero in
the yoke or field system. The impedance very widely depending upon the
physical arrangement of the magnetic circuits and winding.
1. The reactance of transmission lines of zero sequence currents
can be about 3 to 5 times the positive sequence current, the lighter
value being for lines without earth wires. This is because the spacing
between the go and return(i.e. neutral and/or earth) is so much
greater than for positive and negative sequence currents which return
(balance) within the three phase conductor groups.
2. The zero sequence reactance of a machine is compounded of
leakage and winding reactance, and a small component due to winding
balance (depends on winding tritch).
3. The zero sequence reactance of transformers depends both on
winding connections and upon construction of core.
External and Internal Faults in Transformer.
External Faults in Power Transformer
External Short - Circuit of Power Transformer
The short - circuit may occurs in two or three phases of electrical

power system. The level of fault current is always high enough. It depends
upon the voltage which has been short - circuited and upon the impedance
of the circuit up to the fault point. The copper loss of the fault feeding
transformer is abruptly increased. This increasing copper loss causes internal
heating in the transformer. Large fault current also produces severe
mechanical stresses in the transformer. The maximum mechanical stresses
occurs during first cycle of symmetrical fault current.
High Voltage Disturbance in Power Transformer
High voltage disturbance in power transformer are of two kinds,

1. Transient Surge Voltage
2. Power Frequency Over Voltage
Transient Surge Voltage
High voltage and high frequency surge may arise in the power system due to
any of the following causes,
Arcing ground if neutral point is isolated.
Switching operation of different electrical equipment.
Atmospheric Lightening Impulse.
Whatever may be the causes of surge voltage, it is after all a traveling wave
having high and steep wave form and also having high frequency. This wave
travels in the electrical power system network, upon reaching in the power
transformer, it causes breakdown the insulation between turns adjacent to
line terminal, which may create short circuit between turns.
Power Frequency Over Voltage
There may be always a chance of system over voltage due to sudden
disconnection of large load. Although the amplitude of this voltage is higher
than its normal level but frequency is same as it was in normal condition.
Over voltage in the system causes an increase in stress on the insulation of
transformer. As we know that, voltage V = 4.44.f.T V , increased
voltage causes proportionate increase in the working flux. This therefore
causes, increased in iron loss and dis - proportionately large increase in
magnetizing current. The increase flux is diverted from the transformer core
to other steel structural parts of the transformer. Core bolts which normally
carry little flux, may be subjected to a large component of flux diverted from
saturated region of the core alongside. Under such condition, the bolt may
be rapidly heated up and destroys their own insulation as well as winding
insulation.
Under Frequency Effect in Power Transformer
As, voltage V = 4.44.f.T V .f as the number of turns in the winding is
fixed. Therefore, V/f From, this equation it is clear that if frequency
reduces in a system, the flux in the core increases, the effect are more or
less similar to that of the over voltage.
Internal Faults in Power Transformer
The principle faults which occurs inside a power transformer are categorized
as,
1. Insulation breakdown between winding and earth
2. Insulation breakdown in between different phases
3. Insulation breakdown in between adjacent turns i.e. inter - turn fault
4. Transformer core fault
Internal Earth Faults in Power Transformer
Internal Earth Faults in a Star Connected Winding with Neutral Point Earthed
through an Impedance
In this case the fault current is dependent on the value of earthing
impedance and is also proportional to the distance of the fault point from
neutral point as the voltage at the point depends upon, the number of
winding turns come under across neutral and fault point. If the distance
between fault point and neutral point is more, the number of turns come
under this distance is also more, hence voltage across the neutral point and
fault point is high which causes higher fault current. So, in few words it can
be said that, the value of fault current depends on the value of earthing
impedance as well as the distance between the faulty point and neutral
point. The fault current also depends up on leakage reactance of the portion
of the winding across the fault point and neutral. But compared to the
earthing impedance,it is very low and it is obviously ignored as it comes in
series with comparatively much higher earthing impedance.
Internal Earth Faults in a Star Connected Winding with Neutral Point Solidly
Earthed
In this case, earthing impedance is ideally zero. The fault current is
dependent up on leakage reactance of the portion of winding comes across
faulty point and neutral point of transformer. The fault current is also
dependent on the distance between neutral point and fault point in the
transformer. As said in previous case the voltage across these two points
depends upon the number of winding turn comes across faulty point and
neutral point. So in star connected winding with neutral point solidly
earthed, the fault current depends upon two main factors, first the leakage
reactance of the winding comes across faulty point and neutral point and
secondly the distance between faulty point and neutral point. But the
leakage reactance of the winding varies in complex manner with position of
the fault in the winding. It is seen that the reactance decreases very rapidly
for fault point approaching the neutral and hence the fault current is highest
for the fault near the neutral end. So at this point, the voltage available for
fault current is low and at the same time the reactance opposes the fault
current is also low, hence the value of fault current is high enough. Again at
fault point away from the neutral point, the voltage available for fault current
is high but at the same time reactance offered by the winding portion
between fault point and neutral point is high. It can be noticed that the fault
current stays a very high level throughout the winding. In other word, the
fault current maintain a very high magnitude irrelevant to the position of the
fault on winding.
Internal Phase to Phase Faults in Power Transformer
Phase to phase fault in the transformer are rare. If such a fault does occur, it
will give rise to substantial current to operate instantaneous over current
relay on the primary side as well as the differential relay.
Inter Turns Fault in Power Transformer
Power Transformer connected with electrical extra high voltage transmission

system, is very likely to be subjected to high magnitude, steep fronted and
high frequency impulse voltage due to lightening surge on the transmission
line. The voltage stresses between winding turns become so large, it can not
sustain the stress and causing insulation failure between inter - turns in
some points. Also LV winding is stressed because of the transferred surge
voltage. Very large number of Power Transformer failure arise from fault
between turns. Inter turn fault may also be occurred due to mechanical
forces between turns originated by external short circuit.
Core Fault in Power Transformer
In any portion of the core lamination is damaged, or lamination of the core is

bridged by any conducting material causes sufficient eddy current to flow,
hence, this part of the core becomes over heated. Some times, insulation of
bolts (Used for tightening the core lamination together) fails which also
permits sufficient eddy current to flow through the bolt and causing over
heating. These insulation failure in lamination and core bolts causes severe
local heating. Although these local heating, causes additional core loss but
can not create any noticeable change in input and output current in the
transformer, hence these faults can not be detected by normal electrical
protection scheme. This is desirable to detect the local over heating
condition of the transformer core before any major fault occurs. Excessive
over heating leads to breakdown of transformer insulating oil with evolution
of gases. These gases are accumulated in Buchholz relay and actuating
Buchholz Alarm.
Backup Protection of Transformer | Over Current and Earth Fault.
Over Current and Earth Fault Protection of Transformer
Backup protection of electrical transformer is simple Over Current
and Earth Fault protection applied against external short circuit and
excessive over loads. These over current and earth Fault relays may be of
Inverse Definite Minimum Time (IDMT) or Definite Time type relays.
Generally IDMT relays are connected to the in-feed side of the transformer.
The over current relays can not distinguish between external short circuit,
over load and internal faults of the transformer. For any of the above
fault, backup protection i.e. over current and earth fault
protection connected to in-feed side of the transformer will operate.
Backup protection is although generally installed at in feed side of the

transformer, but it should trip both the primary and secondary circuit
breakers of the transformer. Over

Current and Earth Fault protection relays may be also provided in load side
of the transformer too, but it should not inter trip the primary side circuit
breaker like the case of backup protection at in-feed side. The operation is
governed primarily by current and time settings and the characteristic curve
of the relay. To permit use of over load capacity of the transformer and co-
ordination with other similar relays at about 125 to 150 % of full load
current of the transformer but below the minimum short circuit current.
Backup protection of transformer has four elements, three over current

relays connected each in each phase and one earth fault relay connected to
the common point of three over current relays as shown in the figure. The
normal range of current settings available on IDMT over current relays is 50
% to 200 % and on earth fault relay 20 to 80 %.
Another range of setting on earth fault relay is also available and may be
selected where the earth fault current is restricted due to insertion of
impedance in the neutral grounding. In the case of transformer winding with
neutral earthed, unrestricted earth fault protection is obtained by connecting
an ordinary earth fault relay across a neutral current transformer. The
unrestricted over current and earth fault relays should have proper time lag
to co-ordinate with the protective relays of other circuit to avoid
indiscriminate tripping.
Transformer Protection and Transformer Fault.
There are different kinds of transformers such as two winding or three
winding electrical power transformers, auto transformer, regulating
transformers, earthing transformers, rectifier transformers etc. Different
transformers demand different schemes of transformer
protection depending upon their importance, winding connections, earthing
methods and mode of operation etc.It is common practice to
provide Buchholz relay protection to all 0.5 MVA and above transformers.
While for all small size distribution transformers, only high voltage fuses are
used as main protective device. For all larger rated and important
distribution transformers, over current protection along with restricted earth
fault protectionis applied. Differential protection should be provided in
the transformers rated above 5 MVA.
Depending upon the normal service condition, nature of transformer faults,

degree of sustained over load, scheme of tap changing, and many other
factors, the suitable transformer protection schemes are chosen.
Nature of Transformer Faults
Although an electrical power transformer is a static device, but internal

stresses arising from abnormal system conditions, must be taken into
consideration. A transformer generally suffers from following types of
transformer fault-
1. Over current due to overloads and external short circuits,
2. Terminal faults,
3. Winding faults,
4. Incipient faults.
All the above mentioned transformer faults cause mechanical and thermal
stresses inside the transformer winding and its connecting terminals.
Thermal stresses lead to overheating which ultimately affect the insulation
system of transformer. Deterioration of insulation leads to winding faults.
Some time failure of transformer cooling system, leads to overheating of
transformer. So the transformer protection schemes are very much required.
The short circuit current of an electrical transformer is normally limited by its

reactance and for low reactance, the value of short circuit current may be
excessively high. The duration of external short circuits which a transformer
can sustain without damage as given in BSS 171:1936.
Transformer % reactance Permitted fault duration in seconds
4% 2
5% 3
6% 4
7 % and over 5
The general winding faults in transformer are either earth faults or inter-
turns faults. Phase to phase winding faults in a transformer is rare. The
phase faults in an electrical transformer may be occurred due to bushing
flash over and faults in tap changer equipment. Whatever may be the faults,
the transformer must be isolated instantly during fault otherwise major
breakdown may occur in the electrical power system. Incipient faults are
internal faults which constitute no immediate hazard. But it these faults are
over looked and not taken care of, these may lead to major faults. The faults
in this group are mainly inter-lamination short circuit due to insulation failure
between core lamination, lowering the oil level due to oil leakage, blockage
of oil flow paths. All these faults lead to overheating. So transformer
protection scheme is required for incipient transformer faults also. The earth
fault, very nearer to neutral point of transformer star winding may also be
considered as an incipient fault. Influence of winding connections and
earthing on earth fault current magnitude. There are mainly two conditions
for earth fault current to flow during winding to earth faults,
1. A current exists for the current to flow into and out of the winding.
2. Ampere-turns balance is maintained between the windings.
The value of winding earth fault current depends upon position of the fault
on the winding, method of winding connection and method of earthing. The
star point of the windings may be earthed either solidly or via a resistor. On
delta side of the transformer the system is earthed through an earthing
transformer. Grounding or earthing transformer provides low impedance path
to the zero sequence current and high impedance to the positive and
negative sequence currents.
Star Winding with Neutral Resistance Earthed

In this case the neutral point of the transformer is earthed via a resistor and
the value of impedance of it, is much higher than that of winding impedance
of the transformer. That means the value of transformer winding impedance
is negligible compared to impedance of earthing resistor. The value of earth
current is, therefore, proportional to the position of the fault in the winding.
As the fault current in the primary winding of the transformer is proportional
to the ratio of the short circuited secondary turns to the total turns on the
primary winding, the primary fault current will be proportional to the square
of the percentage of winding short circuited. The variation of fault current
both in the primary and secondary winding is shown below.
Star Winding with Neutral Solidly Earthed
In this case the earth fault current magnitude is limited solely by the winding
impedance and the fault is no longer proportional to the position of the fault.
The reason for this non linearity is unbalanced flux linkage.
Protection of Lines or Feeder.
As the length of electrical power transmission line is generally long enough
and it runs through open atmosphere, the probability of occurring fault in
electrical power transmission line is much higher than that of electrical
power transformers and alternators. That is why a transmission line requires
much more protective schemes than a transformer and an
alternator.Protection of line should have some special features, such as-
1. During fault, the only circuit breaker closest to the fault point should
be tripped.
2. If the circuit breaker closest the faulty point, fails to trip the circuit
breaker just next to this breaker will trip as back up.
3. The operating time of relay associated with protection of line should be
as minimum as possible in order to prevent unnecessary tripping of circuit
breakers associated with other healthy parts of power system.
These above mentioned requirements cause protection of transmission
line much different from protection of transformer and other equipment of
power systems. The main three methods of transmission line
protection are -
1. Time graded over current protection.

2. Differential protection.
3. Distance protection.
Time Graded Over Current Protection
This may also be referred simply as over-current protection of electrical

power transmission line. Let' discuss different schemes of time graded over
current protection.
Protection of Radial Feeder
In radial feeder, the power flows in one direction only, that is from source to
load. This type of feeders can easily protected by using either definite time
relays or inverse time relays.
Line Protection by Definite Time Relay
This protection scheme is very simple. Here total line is divided into different
sections and each section is provided with definite time relay. The relay
nearest to the end of the line has minimum time setting while time setting of
other relays successively increased, towards the source. For example,
suppose there is a source at point A, in the figure below
At point D the circuit breaker CB-3 is installed with definite time of relay
operation 0.5 sec. Successively, at point C an other circuit breaker CB-2 is
installed with definite time of relay operation 1 sec. The next circuit breaker
CB-1 is installed at point B which is nearest of the point A. At point B, the
relay is set at time of operation 1.5 sec.
Now, assume a fault occurs at point F. Due to this fault, the faulty current
flow through all the current transformers or CTs connected in the line. But as
the time of operation of relay at point D is minimum the CB-3, associated
with this relay will trip first to isolate the faulty zone from rest part of the
line. In case due to any reason, CB-3 fails to trip, then next higher timed
relay will operate the associated CB to trip. In this case, CB-2 will trip. If CB-
2 also fails to trip, then next circuit breaker i.e. CB-1 will trip to isolate
major portion of the line.
Advantages of Definite Time Line Protection

The main advantage of this scheme is simplicity. The second major
advantage is, during fault, only nearest CB towards the source from fault
point will operate to isolate the specific position of the line.
Disadvantage of Definite Time Line Protection
If the number of sections in the line is quite large, the time setting of relay
nearest to the source, would be very long. So during any fault nearer to the
source will take much time to be isolated. This may cause severe destructive
effect on the system.
Over Current Line Protection by Inverse Relay
The drawback as we discussed just in definite time over current protection

of transmission line, can easily be overcome by using inverse time relays. In
inverse relay the time of operation is inversely proportional to fault current.
In the above figure, overall time setting of relay at point D is minimum and
successively this time setting is increased for the relays associated with the
points towards the point A. In case of any fault at point F will obviously trip
CB-3 at point D. In failure of opening CB-3, CB-2 will be operated as overall
time setting is higher in relay at point C. Although, the time setting of relay
nearest to the source is maximum but still it will trip in shorter period, if
major fault occurs near the source, as the time of operation of relay is
inversely proportional to faulty current.
Over Current Protection of Parallel Feeders
For maintaining stability of the system it is required to feed a load from

source by two or more than two feeders in parallel. If fault occurs in any of
the feeders, only that faulty feeder should be isolated from the system in
order to maintain continuity of supply from source to load. This requirement
makes the protection of parallel feeders little bit more complex than simple
non direction over current protection of line as in the case of radial feeders.
The protection of parallel feeder requires to use directional relays and to
grade the time setting of relay for selective tripping.
There are two feeders connected in parallel from source to load. Both of the
feeders have non-directional over current relay at source end. These relays
should be inverse time relay. Also both of the feeders have directional relay
or reverse power relay at their load end. The reverse power relays used here
should be instantaneous type. That means these relays should be operated
as soon as flow of power in the feeder is reversed. The normal direction of
power from source to load. Now, suppose a fault occurs at point F, say the
fault current is If. This fault will get two parallel paths from source, one
through circuit breaker A only and other via CB-B, feeder-2, CB-Q, load bus
and CB-P. This is clearly shown in figure below, where IA and IB are current of
fault shared by feeder-1 and feeder-2 respectively.
As per Kirchoff's current law, IA + IB = If.
Now, IA is flowing through CB-A, IB is flowing through CB-P. As the direction

of flow of CB-P is reversed it will trip instantly. But CB-Q will not trip as flow
of current (power) in this circuit breaker is not reversed. As soon as CB-P is
tripped, the fault current IB stops flowing through feeder and hence there is
no question of further operating of inverse time over current relay. I A still
continues to flow even CB-P is tripped. Then because of over current I A, CB-
A will trip. In this way the faulty feeder is isolated from system.
Differential Pilot Wire Protection
This is simply a differential protection scheme applied to feeders. Several

differential schemes are applied for protection of line but Mess Price Voltage
balance system and Translay Scheme are most popularly used.
Merz Price Balance System
The working principle of Merz Price Balance system is quite simple. In this
scheme of line protection, identical CT is connected to each of the both ends
of the line. The polarity of the CTs are same. The secondary of these current
transformer and operating coil of two instantaneous relays are formed a
closed loop as shown in the figure below. In the loop pilot wire is used to
connect both CT secondary and both relay coil as shown.
Now, from the figure it is quite clear that when the system is under normal
condition, there would not be any current flowing through the loop. As the
secondary current of one CT will cancel out secondary current of other CT.
Now, if any fault occurs in the portion of the line between these two CTs, the
secondary current of one CT will no longer equal and opposite of secondary
current of other CT. Hence there would be a resultant circulating current in
the loop. Due this circulating current, the coil of both relays will close the
trip circuit of associate circuit breaker. Hence, the faulty line will be isolated
from both ends.
Busbar Protection | Busbar Differential Protection Scheme.
In early days only conventional over current relays were used for busbar
protection. But it is desired that fault in any feeder
or transformer connected to the busbar should not disturb busbar system. In
viewing of this time setting of busbar protection relays are made lengthy. So
when faults occurs on busbar itself, it takes much time to isolate the bus
from source which may came much damage in the bus system.In recent
days, the second zone distance protection relays on incoming feeder, with
operating time of 0.3 to 0.5 seconds have been applied for busbar
protection. But this scheme has also a main disadvantage. This scheme of
protection can not discriminate the faulty section of the busbar. Now
days, electrical power system deals with huge amount of power. Hence any
interruption in total bus system causes big loss to the company. So it
becomes essential to isolate only faulty section of busbar during bus fault.
Another drawback of second zone distance protection scheme is that,
sometime the clearing time is not short enough to ensure the system
stability. To overcome the above mentioned difficulties, differential busbar
protection scheme with an operating time less than 0.1 sec., is commonly
applied to many SHT bus systems.
Differential Busbar Protection
Current Differential Protection
The scheme of busbar protection, involves, Kirchoffs current law, which

states that, total current entering an electrical node is exactly equal to total
current leaving the node. Hence, total current entering into a bus section is
equal to total current leaving the bus section.
The principle of differential busbar protection is very simple. Here,

secondaries of CTs are connected parallel. That means, S1 terminals of all
CTs connected together and forms a bus wire. Similarly S 2 terminals of all
CTs connected together to form another bus wire. A tripping relay is
connected across these two bus wires.
Here, in the figure above we assume that at normal condition feed, A, B, C,

D, E and F carries current IA, IB, IC, ID, IE and IF. Now, according to Kirchoffs
current law,
Essentially all the CTs used for differential busbar protection are of same
current ratio. Hence, the summation of all secondary currents must also be
equal to zero. Now, say current through the relay connected in parallel with
all CT secondaries, is iR, and iA, iB, iC, iD, iE and iF are secondary currents.
Now, let us apply KCL at node X. As per KCL at node X,
So, it is clear that under normal condition there is no current flows through
the busbar protection tripping relay. This relay is generally referred as
Relay 87. Now, say fault is occurred at any of the feeders, outside the
protected zone. In that case, the faulty current will pass through primary of
the CT of that feeder. This fault current is contributed by all other feeders
connected to the bus. So, contributed part of fault current flows through the
corresponding CT of respective feeder. Hence at that faulty condition, if we
apply KCL at node K, we will still get, iR = 0.
That means, at external faulty condition, there is no current flows through
relay 87. Now consider a situation when fault is occurred on the bus itself.
At this condition, also the faulty current is contributed by all feeders

connected to the bus. Hence, at this condition, sum of all contributed fault
current is equal to total faulty current. Now, at faulty path there is no CT. (in
external fault, both fault current and contributed current to the fault by
different feeder get CT in their path of flowing).
The sum of all secondary currents is no longer zero. It is equal to secondary

equivalent of faulty current. Now, if we apply KCL at the nodes, we will get a
non zero value of iR. So at this condition current starts flowing through 87
relay and it makes trip the circuit breakercorresponding to all the feeders
connected to this section of the busbar. As all the incoming and outgoing
feeders, connected to this section of bus are tripped, the bus becomes dead.
This differential busbar protection scheme is also referred as current
differential protection of busbar.
Differential Protection of Sectionalized Bus
During explaining working principle of current differential protection of

busbar, we have shown a simple non sectionalized busbar. But in moderate
high voltage system electrical bus sectionalized in than one sections to
increase stability of the system. It is done because, fault in one section of
bus should not disturb other section of the system. Hence during bus fault,
total bus would be interrupted.
Let us draw and discuss about protection of busbar with two sections.
Here, bus section A or zone A is bounded by CT 1, CT2 and CT3 where CT1 and
CT2 are feeder CTs and CT3 is bus CT. Similarly bus section B or zone B is
bounded by CT4, CT5 and CT6where CT4 is bus CT, CT5 and CT6 are feeder CT.
Therefore, zone A and B are overlapped to ensure that, there is no zone left
behind this busbar protection scheme. ASI terminals of CT1, 2 and 3 are
connected together to form secondary bus ASI BSI terminals of CT 4, 5 and 6
are connected together to form secondary bus BSI. S 2 terminals of all CTs
are connected together to form a common bus S 2. Now, busbar protection
relay 87A for zone A is connected across bus ASI and S 2. Relay 87B for zone
B is connected across bus BSI and S 2. This section busbar differential
protection scheme operates in some manner simple current differential
protection of busbar. That is, any fault in zone A, with trip only CB 1, CB2and
bus CB. Any fault in zone B, will trip only CB 5, CB6 and bus CB. Hence, fault in
any section of bus will isolate only that portion from live system. In current
differential protection of busbar, if CT secondary circuits, or bus wires is open
the relay may be operated to isolate the bus from live system. But this is not
desirable.
DC Circuit of Differential Busbar Protection

A typical DC circuit for busbar differential protection scheme is given
below. Here, CSSA and

CSSB are two selector switch which are used to put into service, the busbar
protection system for zone A and zone B respectively. If CSSA is in IN
position, protection scheme for zone A is in service. If CSSB is in IN
position, protection for zone B is in service. Generally both of the switches
are in IN position in normal operating condition. Here, relay coil of 96A and
96B are in series with differential busbar protection relay contact 87A-1 and
87B-1 respectively. 96A relay is multi contacts relay. Each circuit breaker in
zone A is connected with individual contact of 96A. Similarly, 96B is multi
contacts relay and each circuit breaker in zone-B is connected with individual
contacts of 96B. Although here we use only one tripping relay per protected
zone, but this is better to use one individual tripping relay per feeder. In this
scheme one protective relay is provided per feeder circuit breaker, whereas
two tripping relays one for zone A and other for zone B are provided to bus
section or bus coupler circuit breaker. On an interval fault in zone A or bus
section A, the respective bus protection relay 87A, be energized whereas
during internal fault in zone B, the respective relay 87B will be energized. As
soon as relay coil of 87A or 87B is energized respective no. contact 87A-1 or
87B-1 is closed.Hence, the tripping relay 96 will trip the breakers connected
to the faulty zone. To indicate whether zone A or B busbar protection
operated, relay 30 is used. For example, if relay 87A is operated,
corresponding No contact 87A-2 is closed which energized relay 30A. Then
the No contact 30A-1 of relay 30A is closed to energized alarm relay 74.
Supervision relay 95 of respective zone is also energized during internal
fault, but it has a time delay of 3 second. So, it reset as soon as the fault is
cleared and therefore does not pick up zone bus wire shorting relay 95x
which in turn shorts out the bus wires. An alarm contact is also given to this
auxiliary 95x relay to indicate which CT is open circuited. No volt relay 80 is
provided in both trip and non-trip section of the DC circuit of differential
busbar protection system to indicate any discontinuity of D. C. supply.
Voltage Differential Protection of Busbar
The current differential scheme is sensitive only when the CTs do not get
saturated and maintain same current ratio, phase angle error under
maximum faulty condition. This is usually not 80, particularly, in the case of
an external fault on one of the feeders. The CT on the faulty feeder may be
saturated by total current and consequently it will have very large errors.
Due to this large error, the summation of secondary current of all CTs in a
particular zone may not be zero. So there may be a high chance of tripping
of all circuit breakers associated with this protection zone even in the case of
an external large fault. To prevent this maloperation of current
differential busbar protection, the 87 relays are provided with high pick up
current and enough time delay. The greatest troublesome cause of current
transformer saturation is the transient dc component of the short circuit
current. This difficulties can be overcome by using air core CTs. This current
transformer is also called linear coupler. As the core of the CT does not use
iron the secondary characteristic of these CTs, is straight line. In voltage
differential busbar protection the CTs of all incoming and outgoing feeders
are connected in series instead of connecting them in parallel.
The secondaries of all CTs and differential relay form a closed loop. If
polarity of all CTs are properly matched, the sum of voltage across all CT
secondaries is zero. Hence there would be no resultant voltage appears
across the differential relay. When a buss fault occurs, sum of the all CT
secondary voltage is no longer zero. Hence, there would be current circulate
in the loop due to the resultant voltage. As this loop current also flows
through the differential relay, the relay is operated to trip all the circuit
beaker associated with protected bus zone. Except when ground fault
current is severally limited by neutral impedance there is usually no
selectivity problem when such a problem exists, it is solved by use of an
additional more sensitive relaying equipment including a supervising
protective relay.
Protection of Capacitor Bank.
Like other electrical equipments, shunt capacitor may also be subjected to
internal and external electrical faults. Hence this equipment is also to be
protected from internal and external faults. There are numbers of schemes
available for protection of capacitor bank, but during applying any of the
schemes, we should remember the initial investment on that capacitor for
economical point of view. We should compare the initial investment in the
capacitor and the cost of the protection applying on it. There are mainly 3
types of protection arrangement are applied to a capacitor bank.
1. Element Fuse.
2. Unit. Fuse.
3. Bank Protection.
Element Fuses
Manufacturers of capacitor unit commonly provide inbuilt fuse in each

element of the unit. In this case, if any fault occurs in any element itself, it is
automatically disconnected from rest of the unit. In this case, the unit still
serves its purpose, but with smaller output. In smaller rated capacitor bank
only these inbuilt protection scheme is applied to avoid the expenditure of
other special protective equipments.
Unit Fuse
The unit fuse protection is generally provided to limit the duration of arc
inside a faulty capacitor unit. As the arc duration is limited, there is less
chance of major mechanical deformation and huge production of gas in the
faulty unit, and hence the neighborhood units of the bank are saved. If each
unit of a capacitor bank is individually protected against fuse, then in case of
failure of one unit, the capacitor bank can still be running without
interruption before removing and replacing the faulty unit. Another major
advantage of providing fuse protection to each unit of the bank is that, it
indicates the exact location of the faulty unit. But during choosing the size of
the fuse for this purpose, it should be taken into consideration that the fuse
element must withstand the excessive loading due to harmonics in the
system. In the view of that the current rating of the fuse element for this
purpose is taken as 65 % above the full load current. Whenever the
individual unit of capacitor bank is protected by fuse, it is necessary to
provide discharge resistance in each of the units.
Bank Protection
Although in general fuse protection is provided with each of the capacitor

units, but when a capacitor unit is under fault and the associated fuse
element is blown out, the voltage stress increases to the other capacitor
units connected in series in same row. Generally, each capacitor unit is
designed for withstanding 110% of its normal rated voltage. If any other
capacitor unit further becomes out of service, in the same row where
previously one unit is damaged, the voltage stress upon other healthy units
of that row will increase further and easily crosses the limit of maximum
allowable, voltage of these units. Hence it is always desirable to replace
damaged capacitor unit from the bank as soon as possible to avoid excess
voltage stress on the other healthy units. Hence, there must be some
indicating arrangement to identify the exact faulty unit. As soon as the faulty
unit is identified in a bank, the bank should be removed from the service for
replacing the faulty unit. There are several methods of sensing unbalance
voltage caused by failure of capacitor unit. The figure below is showing the
most common arrangement of capacitor bank protection. Here, the
capacitor bank is connected in star formation. Primary of a potential
transformer is connected across each phase. The secondary of all
three potential transformers are connected in series to form an open delta
and a voltage sensitive relay is connected across this open delta. In exact
balanced condition there must not be any voltage appears across the voltage
sensitive relay because summation of balanced 3 phase voltages is zero. But
when there would be any voltage unbalancing due to failure of capacitor
unit, the resultant voltage will appear across the relay and the relay will be
actuated for providing an alarm and trip signals.
The voltage sensitive relay can be so adjusted that up to a certain voltage

unbalancing only alarm contacts would be closed and for certain higher
voltage level the trip contacts along with alarm contacts would be closed.
The potential transformer connected across the capacitors of each phase
also serves for discharging of the bank after being switched off.
In another scheme, the
capacitors in each phase are divided into two equal parts connected in
series. Discharge coil is connected across each of the parts as shown in the
figure. In between the secondary of discharge coil and the sensitive voltage
unbalance the relay an auxiliary transformer is connected which serves to
regulate the voltage difference between secondary voltages of discharge coil
under normal conditions.
Here the capacitor
bank is connected in star and the neutral point is connected to the ground
through a potential transformer. A voltage sensitive relay is connected across
the secondary of the potential transformer. As soon as there is any
unbalance between the phases, the resultant voltage will appear across the
potential transformer and hence the voltage sensitive relay will be actuated
beyond a preset value.
Here, the capacitor bank of each phase is divided into two equal parts
connected in parallel and the star points of both parts are interconnected
through a current transformer. The secondary of the current transformer are
connected across a current sensitive relay. In case any misbalancing occurs
between the two parts of the bank, there would be a unbalance current
flowing through the current transformer and hence the current sensitive
relay will actuate. In this scheme for discharging the bank after switching
off, discharge coil may be connected across the capacitors in each phase.
In another scheme of
protection of capacitor bank, the star point of a three phase capacitor bank
is connected to the ground through a current transformer and a current
sensitive relay is connected across the secondary of the current transformer.
As soon as there is any unbalancing between the phases of capacitor bank,
there must be a current flowing to the ground through the current
transformer and hence the current sensitive relay will be actuated to trip
the circuit breaker associated with the capacitor bank.
Basic electrical design of a PLC panel (Wiring diagrams).
Building the PLC panel

It is uncommon for engineers to build their own PLC panel designs (but not impossible
of course). For example, once the electrical designs are complete, they must be built
by an electrician. Therefore, it is your responsibility to effectively communicate your
design intentions to the electricians through drawings. In some factories, the
electricians also enter the ladder logic and do debugging .
This article discusses the design issues in implementation that must be considered by
the designer.
Electrical wiring diagrams of a PLC panel

In an industrial setting a PLC is not simply plugged into a wall socket. The electrical
design for each machine must include at least the following components.
1. Transformers to step down AC supply voltages to lower levels

2. Power contacts to manually enable/disable power to the machine with e-stop
buttons
3. Terminals to connect devices
4. Fuses or circuit breakers will cause power to fail if too much current is drawn
5. Grounding to provide a path for current to flow when there is an electrical fault
6. Enclosure to protect the equipment, and users from accidental contact
A control system of a PLC panel will normally use AC and DC power at different voltage
levels. Control cabinets are often supplied with single phase AC at 220/440/550V, or two
phase AC at 220/440V AC, or three phase AC at 330/550V.
This power must be dropped down to a lower voltage level for the controls and DC
power supplies. 110Vac is common in North America, and 220 V AC Is common in
Europe and the Commonwealth countries. It is also common for a control cabinet to
supply a higher voltage to other equipment, such as motors.
Motor controller example

An example of a wiring diagram for a motor controller is shown in Figure 1. Note
that symbols are discussed in detail later).
Dashed lines indicate a single purchased component. This system uses 3 phase AC
power (L1, L2 and L3) connected to the terminals. The three phases are then
connected to a power interrupter. Next, all three phases are supplied to a motor starter
that contains three contacts, M, and three thermal overload relays (breakers).
Figure 1 A Motor Controller Schematic
The contacts, M, will be controlled by the coil, M. The output of the motor starter goes
to a three phase AC motor. Power is supplied by connecting a step down
transformer to the control electronics by connecting to phases L2 and L3. The lower
voltage is then used to supply power to the left and right rails of the ladder below. The
neutral rail is also grounded.
The logic consists of two push buttons:

Start push button is normally open, so that if something fails the motor cannot be
started.
Stop push button is normally closed, so that if a wire or connection fails the system
halts safely.
The system controls the motor starter coil M, and uses a spare contact on the
starter, M, to seal in the motor starter.
The diagram also shows numbering for the wires in the device. This is essential for
industrial control systems that may contain hundreds or thousands of wires. These
numbering schemes are often particular to each facility, but there are tools to help
make wire labels that will appear in the final controls cabinet.
Figure 2 A
Physical Layout for the Control Cabinet
Once the electrical design is complete, a layout for the controls cabinet is developed, as
shown in Figure 2. The physical dimensions of the devices must be considered, and adequate
space is needed to run wires between components.
In the cabinet the AC power would enter at the terminal block, and be connected to the main
breaker.
It would then be connected to the contactors and overload relays that constitute the
motor starter. Two of the phases are also connected to the transformer to power the
logic. The start and stop buttons are at the left of the box (note: normally these are
mounted elsewhere, and a separate layout drawing would be needed).
The final layout in the cabinet might look like the one shown in Figure 1.
Figure 3 Final PLC Panel Wiring
When being built the system will follow certain standards that may be company policy,
or legal requirements. This often includes items such as;
Hold downs the will secure the wire so they dont move
Labels wire labels help troubleshooting
Strain reliefs these will hold the wire so that it will not be pulled out of screw
terminals
Grounding grounding wires may be needed on each metal piece for safety
A photograph of an industrial controls cabinet is shown in Figure 4:
Figure 4
An industrial control cabinet with wire runs, terminal strip, buttons on PLC panel
front, etc.
When including a PLC in the ladder diagram still remains. But, it does tend to become
more complex. Figure 5 below shows a schematic diagram for a PLC based motor
control system, similar to the previous motor control example.
This figure shows the E-stop wired to cutoff power to all of the devices in the circuit,
including the PLC. All critical safety functions should be hardwired this way.
Figure 5 An Electrical
Schematic with a PLC.
Electrical Distribution Architecture In Water Treatment Plants.
Water treatment plants
For both drinking water and wastewater treatment, 4 different sizes of plants have
been distinguished. The size of plants can be expressed in quantity of treated water
per day, or in corresponding number of inhabitants.
Four different types of (waste) water treatment plants have been distinguished,
depending on destination and size:
T1 Autonomous water treatment plant // See single-line diagram

T2 Small water or wastewater treatment plant // See single line diagram
T3 Medium sized water or wastewater treatment plant
See single line diagrams //
Double-radial architecture and
Open medium voltage loop
T4 Large water or wastewater treatment plant
See single line diagrams //
Radial-double feed
Open medium voltage loop
Characteristics T1 T2 T3 T4
m3/day 1K-5K 5K-50K 50K-200K 200K-1000K

(drinking water or waste water)
Inhabitants 1K-10K 10K-100K 100K-500K 500K-1000K

Power demand 25-125 kVA 125-1250 kVA 1.25-5 MVA 5-25 MVA
Electrical Distribution
Guidance is given for the selection of Electrical Distribution architecture in water

treatment plants. This includes the selection between different possible configurations
of MV and LV circuits and the implementation of back-up power sources.
The most relevant characteristics of the electrical installation are taken into
account, such as typology, power demand, sensitivity to power interruptions,
Connection to the utility network

MV circuit configuration
Configurations of LV circuits
Backup generators
Presence of uninterruptible power supply (UPS) .
Commissioning tests of protection relays at site (before set to work).
Installation of protection relays
Installation of protection relays at site creates a number of possibilities for errors in

the implementation of the scheme to occur. Even if the scheme has been
thoroughly tested in the factory, wiring to the CTs and VTs on site may be incorrectly
carried out, or the CTs/VTs may have been incorrectly installed.
The impact of such errors may range from simply being a nuisance (tripping occurs
repeatedly on energisation, requiring investigation to locate and correct the errors) through
to failure to trip under fault conditions, leading to major equipment damage, disruption to
supplies and potential hazards to personnel.
The strategies available to remove these risks are many, but all involve some kind
of testing at site. Commissioning tests at site are therefore invariably performed
before protection equipment is set to work. The aims of commissioning tests are:
1. To ensure that the equipment has not been damaged during transit or installation
2. To ensure that the installation work has been carried out correctly
3. To prove the correct functioning of the protection scheme as a whole
The tests carried out will normally vary according to the protection scheme
involved, the relay technology used, and the policy of the client. In many cases, the
tests actually conducted are determined at the time of commissioning by mutual
agreement between the clients representative and the commissioning team.
The following tests are invariably carried out, since the protection scheme will
not function correctly if faults exist.
Wiring diagram check, using circuit diagrams showing all the reference numbers of the
interconnecting wiring
General inspection of the equipment, checking all connections, wires on relays
terminals, labels on terminal boards, etc.
Insulation resistance measurement of all circuits [details]
Perform relay self-test procedure and external communications checks on
digital/numerical relays [details]
Test main current transformers
Polarity check
Magnetisation Curve
Test main voltage transformers
Polarity check
Ratio check
Phasing check
Check that protection relay alarm/trip settings have been entered correctly [details]
Tripping and alarm circuit checks to prove correct functioning
In addition, the following checks may be carried out, depending on the factors noted
above (not covered in this technical article):
Secondary injection test on each relay to prove operation at one or more setting values
Primary injection tests on each relay to prove stability for external faults and to
determine the effective current setting for internal faults (essential for some types of
electromechanical relays)
Testing of protection scheme logic
Insulation resistance tests
All the deliberate earth connections on the wiring to be tested should first be removed,
for example earthing links on current transformers, voltage transformers and
DC supplies. Some insulation testers generate impulses with peak voltages
exceeding 5kV. In these instances any electronic equipment should be disconnected
while the external wiring insulation is checked.
The insulation resistance should be measured to earth and between electrically
separate circuits. The readings are recorded and compared with subsequent routine
tests to check for any deterioration of the insulation.
The insulation resistance measured depends on the amount of wiring involved, its
grade, and the site humidity. Generally, if the test is restricted to one cubicle, a reading
of several hundred megohms should be obtained. If long lengths of site wiring are
involved, the reading could be only a few megohms.
Protection relay self-test procedure
Digital and numerical relays will have a self-test procedure that is detailed in the
appropriate relay manual. These tests should be followed to determine if the relay is
operating correctly.
This will normally involve checking of the relay watchdog circuit, exercising all
digital inputs and outputs and checking that the relay analogue inputs are within
calibration by applying a test current or voltage.
For these tests, the relay outputs are normally disconnected from the remainder of the
protection scheme, as it is a test carried out to prove correct relay, rather than
scheme, operation.
To shorten
testing and commissioning times of SIPROTEC relays, extensive test and diagnostic
functions are available to the user in DIGSI 5
Unit protection schemes involve relays that need to communicate with each
other. This leads to additional testing requirements. The communications path
between the relays is tested using suitable equipment to ensure that the path is
complete and that the received signal strength is within specification. Numerical relays
may be fitted with loopback test facilities that enable either part of or the entire
communications link to be tested from one end.
After completion of these tests, it is usual to enter the relay settings required. This
can be done manually via the relay front panel controls, or using a portable PC and
suitable software.
Whichever, method is used, a check by a second person that the correct settings have
been used is desirable, and the settings recorded. Programmable scheme logic that is
required is also entered at this stage.
SIPRO
TEC relay wiring test editor for monitoring and testing of binary inputs, binary
outputs and LED (click to expand)
Go back to Commissioning tests
Current transformer tests
The following tests are normally carried out prior to energisation of the main circuits :
checking of polarity and current transformer magnetisation curve.
Polarity checks.
Each current transformer should be individually tested to verify that the primary and
secondary polarity markings are correct (see Figure 1).
The ammeter connected to the secondary of the current transformer should be a

robust moving coil, permanent magnet, centre-zero type. A low voltage battery is used,
via a single-pole push-button switch, to energise the primary winding. On closing the
push-button, the DC ammeter, A, should give a positive flick and on opening, a
negative flick.
Figure 1 Current
transformer polarity check
Checking of magnetisation curve
Several points should be checked on each current transformer magnetisation

curve. This can be done by energising the secondary winding from the local mains
supply through a variable auto-transformer while the primary circuit remains open. See
Figure 2.
The characteristic is measured at suitable intervals of applied voltage, until the magnetising
current is seen to rise very rapidly for a small increase in voltage. This indicates the
approximate knee-point or saturation flux level of the current transformer.
The magnetising current should then be recorded at similar voltage intervals as it is
reduced to zero.
Figure 2 Testing current transformer magnetising curve
Care must be taken that the test equipment is suitably rated. The short-time
current rating must be in excess of the CT secondary current rating, to allow for
measurement of the saturation current. This will be in excess of the CT secondary
current rating. As the magnetising current will not be sinusoidal, a moving iron or
dynamometer type ammeter should be used.
It is often found that current transformers with secondary ratings of 1A or less have a knee-
point voltage higher than the local mains supply. In these cases, a step-up interposing
transformer must be used to obtain the necessary voltage to check the magnetisation curve.
Voltage transformer tests

Voltage transformers require testing for polarity, ratio and phasing.
Polarity check of voltage transformer
The voltage transformer polarity can be checked using the method for CT polarity
tests. Care must be taken to connect the battery supply to the primary winding, with
the polarity ammeter connected to the secondary winding. If the voltage transformer is
of the capacitor type, then the polarity of the transformer at the bottom of the capacitor
stack should be checked.
Ratio check of VT
This check can be carried out when the main circuit is first made live. The voltage
transformer secondary voltage is compared with the secondary voltage shown on the
nameplate.
Na
mplate of a single phase voltage transformer (photo credit: emadrlc.blogspot.com)
Phasing check of VT
The secondary connections for a three-phase voltage transformer or a bank of three

single-phase voltage transformers must be carefully checked for phasing. With the
main circuit alive, the phase rotation is checked using a phase rotation meter
connected across the three phases, as shown in Figure 3 below.
Provided an existing proven VT is available on the same primary system, and that
secondary earthing is employed, all that is now necessary to prove correct phasing is
a voltage check between, say, both A phase secondary outputs. There should be
nominally little or no voltage if the phasing is correct.
However, this test does not detect if the phase sequence is correct, but the phases are
displaced by 120o from their correct position, i.e. phase A occupies the position of phase C or
phase B in Figure 3.
This can be checked by removing the fuses from phases B and C (say) and measuring
the phase-earth voltages on the secondary of the VT. If the phasing is correct, only
phase A should be healthy, phases B and C should have only a small residual voltage.
Figure 3
Voltage transformer phasing check
Correct phasing should be further substantiated when carrying out on load tests
on any phase-angle sensitive relays, at the relay terminals. Load current in a known
phase CT secondary should be compared with the associated phase to neutral VT
secondary voltage.
The phase angle between them should be measured, and should relate to the
power factor of the system load.
If the three-phase voltage transformer has a broken-delta tertiary winding, then a

check should be made of the voltage across the two connections from the broken
delta VN and VL, as shown in Figure 3 above. With the rated balanced three- phase
supply voltage applied to the voltage transformer primary windings, the broken-delta
voltage should be below 5V with the rated burden connected.
Protection relay setting checks (alarm and trip settings)
At some point during commissioning, the alarm and trip settings of the relay
elements involved will require to be entered and/or checked. Where the complete
scheme is engineered and supplied by a single contractor, the settings may already
have been entered prior to despatch from the factory, and hence this need not be
repeated.
The method of entering settings varies according to the relay technology used.
For electromechanical and static relays , manual entry of the settings for each relay
element is required. This method can also be used for digital/numerical relays.
However, the amount of data to be entered is much greater, and therefore it is usual to use
appropriate software, normally supplied by the manufacturer, for this purpose. The
software also makes the essential task of making a record of the data entered much easier.
The maximum allowable step potential is 5,664V, which exceeds the step
voltage calculated above and the earthing system passes the step potential
criteria. Having passed both touch and step potential criteria, we can
conclude that the earthing system is safe. Once the data has been entered, it
should be checked for compliance with the recommended settings as calculated from
the protection setting study. Where appropriate software is used for data entry, the
checks can be considered complete if the data is checked prior to download of the
settings to the relay.
Otherwise, a check may required subsequent to data entry by inspection and

recording of the relay settings, or it may be considered adequate to do this at the time
of data entry. The recorded settings form an essential part of the commissioning
documentation provided to the client.
FAULT CURRENT COMPUTATION USING SEQUENCE NETWORKS

In this section we shall demonstrate the use of sequence networks in the calculation of fault currents
using sequence network through some examples.
Example 8.4
Consider the network shown in Fig. 8.10. The system parameters are given below
Generator G : 50 MVA, 20 kV, X" = X1 = X2 = 20%, X0 = 7.5%
Motor M : 40 MVA, 20 kV, X" = X1 = X2 = 20%, X0 = 10%, Xn = 5%
Transformer T1 : 50 MVA, 20 kV /110 kVY, X = 10%
Transformer T2 : 50 MVA, 20 kV /110 kVY, X = 10%
Transmission line: X1 = X2 = 24.2 , X0 = 60.5
We shall find the fault current for when a (a) 1LG, (b) LL and (c) 2LG fault occurs at bus-2.
Fig. 8.10 Radial power system of Example 8.4.
Let us choose a base in the circuit of the generator. Then the per unit impedances of the generator are:
The per unit impedances of the two transformers are
The MVA base of the motor is 40, while the base MVA of the total circuit is 50. Therefore the per unit
impedances of the motor are
For the transmission line
Therefore
Example 8.5
Let us now assume that a 2LG fault has occurred in bus-4 instead of the one in bus-2. Therefore
Also we have
Hence
per unit
Also
per unit
per unit
Therefore the fault currents flowing in the line are
We shall now compute the currents contributed by the generator and the motor to the fault. Let us
denote the current flowing to the fault from the generator side by Ig , while that flowing from the motor
by Im . Then from Fig. 8.11 using the current divider principle, the positive sequence currents contributed
by the two buses are
per unit
per unit
Similarly from Fig. 8.12, the negative sequence currents are given as
per unit
per unit
Finally notice from Fig. 8.13 that the zero sequence current flowing from the generator to the fault is 0.
Then we have
per unit
Therefore the fault currents flowing from the generator side are
and those flowing from the motor are
It can be easily verified that adding Ig and Im we get If given above.
In the above two examples we have neglected the phase shifts of the Y/ transformers. However
according to the American standard, the positive sequence components of the high tension side lead
those of the low tension side by 30 , while the negative sequence behavior is reverse of the positive
sequence behavior. Usually the high tension side of a Y/ transformer is Y-connected. Therefore as we
have seen in Fig. 7.16, the positive sequence component of Y side leads the positive sequence
component of the side by 30 while the negative sequence component of Y side lags that of the side
by 30 . We shall now use this principle to compute the fault current for an unsymmetrical fault.
Let us do some more examples.
Example 8.6
Let us consider the same system as given in Example 8.5. Since the phase shift does not alter the zero
sequence, the circuit of Fig. 8.13 remains unchanged. The positive and the negative sequence circuits
must however include the respective phase shifts. These circuits are redrawn as shown in Figs. 8.14 and
8.15.
Note from Figs. 8.14 and 8.15 that we have dropped the 3 vis--vis that of Fig. 7.16. This is because
the per unit impedances remain unchanged when referred to the either high tension or low tension side of
an ideal transformer. Therefore the per unit impedances will also not be altered.
Fig. 8.14 Positive sequence network of the power system of Fig. 8.10 including transformer
phase shift.
Fig. 8.15 Negative sequence network of the power system of Fig. 8.10 including transformer
phase shift.
Since the zero sequence remains unaltered, these currents will not change from those computed in
Example 8.6. Thus
and per unit
Now the positive sequence fault current from the generator Iga1 , being on the Y-side of the Y/
transformer will lead I ma1 by 30 . Therefore
per unit
per unit
Finally the negative sequence current I ga2 will lag I ma2 by 30 . Hence we have
per unit
per unit
Therefore
Also the fault currents flowing from the motor remain unaltered. Also note that the currents flowing into the
fault remain unchanged. This implies that the phase shift of the Y/ transformers does not affect the fault
currents.
Example 8.7
Let us consider the same power system as given in Example 1.2, the sequence diagrams of which are
given in Figs. 7.18 to 7.20. With respect to Fig. 7.17, let us define the system parameters as:
Generator G1 : 200 MVA, 20 kV, X" = 20%, X0 = 10%
Generator G2 : 300 MVA, 18 kV, X" = 20%, X0 = 10%
Generator G3 : 300 MVA, 20 kV, X " = 25%, X0 = 15%
Transformer T1 : 300 MVA, 220Y/22 kV, X = 10%
Transformer T2 : Three single-phase units each rated 100 MVA, 130Y/25 kV, X = 10%
Transformer T3 : 300 MVA, 220/22 kV, X = 10%
Line B-C : X1 = X2 = 75 , X0 = 100
Line C-D : X1 = X2 = 75 , X0 = 100
Line C-F : X1 = X2 = 50 , X0 = 75
Let us choose the circuit of Generator 3 as the base, the base MVA for the circuit is 300. The base
voltages are then same as those shown in Fig. 1.23. Per unit reactances are then computed as shown
below.
Generator G1 :
, X0 = 0.15
Generator G2 :
, X0 = 0.0656
Generator G3 : , X0 = 0.15
Transformer T1 :
Transformer T2 :
Transformer T3 :
Line B-C :
,
Line C-D :
,
Line C-F :
,
Neglecting the phase shifts of Y/ connected transformers and assuming that the system is unloaded, we
shall find the fault current for a 1LG fault at bus-1 (point C of Fig. 7.17).
From Figs. 7.18 and 7.19, we can obtain the positive and negative sequence Thevenin impedance at
point C as (verify)
X1 = X2 = j 0.2723 per unit
Similarly from Fig. 7.20, the Thevenin equivalent of the zero sequence impedance is
X0 = j 0.4369 per unit
Therefore from (8.7) we get
per unit
Then the fault current is Ifa = 3 Ifa0 = 3.0565 per unit.
Double- Line -to Ground Fault

The faulted segment for a 2LG fault is shown in Fig. 8.7 where it is assumed that the fault has occurred at
node k of the network. In this the phases b and c got shorted through the impedance Zf to the ground.
Since the system is unloaded before the occurrence of the fault we have the same condition as (8.8) for
(8.17)
the phase-a current. Therefore
Fig. 8.7 Representation of 2LG fault.
Also voltages of phases b and c are given by

(8.18)
(8.19)
Therefore
We thus get the following two equations from (8.19)
(8.20)
(8.21)
Substituting (8.18) and (8.20) in (8.21) and rearranging we get
(8.22)
Also since I fa = 0 we have
(8.23)
(8.24)
The Thevenin equivalent circuit for 2LG fault is shown in Fig. 8.8. From this figure we get
The zero and negative sequence currents can be obtained using the current divider principle as
(8.25)
(8.26)
Fig. 8.8 Thevenin equivalent of a 2LG fault.
Example 8.3
Let us consider the same generator as given in Examples 8.1 and 8.2. Let us assume that the generator
is operating without any load when a bolted 2LG fault occurs in phases b and c. The equivalent circuit for
this fault is shown in Fig. 8.9. From this figure we can write
Fig. 8.9 Equivalent circuit of the generator in Fig. 8.4 for a 2LG fault in phases b and c.
Combining the above three equations we can write the following vector-matrix form
Solving the above equation we get
Hence
We can also obtain the above values using (8.24)-(8.26). Note from Example 8.1 that
Then
Now the sequence components of the voltages are
Also note from Fig. 8.9 that
and Vb = Vc = 0. Therefore
which are the same as obtained before.
Line-to-Line Fault
The faulted segment for an L-L fault is shown in Fig. 8.5 where it is assumed that the fault has occurred at
node k of the network. In this the phases b and c got shorted through the impedance Zf . Since the system
is unloaded before the occurrence of the fault we have
(8.8)
Fig. 8.5 Representation of L-L fault.
Also since phases b and c are shorted we have

(8.9)
(8.10)
Therefore from (8.8) and (8.9) we have
We can then summarize from (8.10)
(8.11)
Therefore no zero sequence current is injected into the network at bus k and hence the zero sequence
remains a dead network for an L-L fault. The positive and negative sequence currents are negative of
each other.
Now from Fig. 8.5 we get the following expression for the voltage at the faulted point
(8.12)
(8.13)
Again
Moreover since I fa0 = I fb0 = 0 and I fa1 = - I fb2 , we can write

(8.14)
Therefore combining (8.12) - (8.14) we get
(8.15)
Equations (8.12) and (8.15) indicate that the positive and negative sequence networks are in parallel. The
sequence network is then as shown in Fig. 8.6. From this network we get
(8.16)
Fig. 8.6 Thevenin equivalent of an LL fault.
Example 8.2
Let us consider the same generator as given in Example 8.1. Assume that the generator is unloaded
when a bolted ( Zf = 0) short circuit occurs between phases b and c. Then we get from (8.9) I fb = - I fc .
Also since the generator is unloaded, we have I fa = 0. Therefore from (7.34) we get
Also since V bn = V cn , we can combine the above two equations to get
Then
We can also obtain the above equation from (8.16) as
Also since the neutral current I n is zero, we can write V a = 1.0 and
Hence the sequence components of the line voltages are
Also note that
which are the same as obtained before.
Single-Line-to-Ground Fault
Let a 1LG fault has occurred at node k of a network. The faulted segment is then as shown in Fig. 8.2
where it is assumed that phase-a has touched the ground through an impedance Zf . Since the system is
unloaded before the occurrence of the fault we have
(8.1)
Fig. 8.2 Representation of 1LG fault.
Also the phase-a voltage at the fault point is given by
(8.2)
(8.3)
From (8.1) we can write
Solving (8.3) we get
(8.4)
This implies that the three sequence currents are in series for the 1LG fault. Let us denote the zero,
positive and negative sequence Thevenin impedance at the faulted point
as Z kk0 , Z kk1 and Z kk2respectively. Also since the Thevenin voltage at the faulted phase is Vf we get three
(8.5)
sequence circuits that are similar to the ones shown in Fig. 7.7. We can then write
Then from (8.4) and (8.5) we can write
(8.6)
Again since
We get from (8.6)
(8.7)
The Thevenin equivalent of the sequence network is shown in Fig. 8.3.
Fig. 8.3 Thevenin equivalent of a 1LG fault.
Example 8.1
A three-phase Y-connected synchronous generator is running unloaded with rated voltage when a 1LG
fault occurs at its terminals. The generator is rated 20 kV, 220 MVA, with subsynchronous reactance of
0.2 per unit. Assume that the subtransient mutual reactance between the windings is 0.025 per unit. The
neutral of the generator is grounded through a 0.05 per unit reactance. The equivalent circuit of the
generator is shown in Fig. 8.4. We have to find out the negative and zero sequence reactances.
Fig. 8.4 Unloaded generator of Example 8.1.

Since the generator is unloaded the internal emfs are
Since no current flows in phases b and c, once the fault occurs, we have from Fig. 8.4
Then we also have
From Fig. 8.4 and (7.34) we get
Therefore
From (7.38) we can write Z1 = j ( Ls + Ms ) = j 0.225. Then from Fig. 7.7 we have
Also note from (8.4) that
Therefore from Fig. 7.7 we get

Comparing the above two values with (7.37) and (7.39) we find that Z 0 indeed is equal to j ( Ls - 2 Ms )
and Z2 is equal to j ( Ls + Ms ). Note that we can also calculate the fault current from (8.7) as
Introduction
The sequence circuits and the sequence networks developed in the previous chapter will now be used
for finding out fault current during unsymmetrical faults.
Three Types of Faults
Calculation of fault currents
Let us make the following assumptions:
The power system is balanced before the fault occurs such that of the three sequence networks
only the positive sequence network is active. Also as the fault occurs, the sequence networks are
connected only through the fault location.
The fault current is negligible such that the pre-fault positive sequence voltages are same at all
nodes and at the fault location.
All the network resistances and line charging capacitances are negligible.
All loads are passive except the rotating loads which are represented by synchronous machines.
Based on the assumptions stated above, the faulted network will be as shown in Fig. 8.1 where the
voltage at the faulted point will be denoted by Vf and current in the three faulted phases
are Ifa , I fb and I fc .
We shall now discuss how the three sequence networks are connected when the three types of faults
discussed above occur.
Fig. 8.1 Representation of a faulted segment.
Calculation of the cables capacitances & inductance values.
Capacitance of Cables, Charging Current, and Charging Reactive Power.
The reactances of the insulated cables.

.
.
.
.
Three branches in an electrical network can be connected in

numbers of forms but most common among them is either star or
delta form. In delta connection, three branches are so connected,
that they form a closed loop. As these three branches are connected
nose to tail, they form a triangular closed loop, this configuration is
referred as delta connection. On the other hand, when either
terminal of three branches is connected to a common point to form
a Y like pattern is known as star connection. But these star and
delta connections can be transformed from one form to another. For
simplifying complex network, delta to star or star to delta
transformation is often required.
Delta - Star Transformation

The replacement of delta or mesh by equivalent star connection is
known as delta - star transformation. The two connections are
equivalent or identical to each other if the impedance is measured
between any pair of lines. That means, the value of impedance will
be the same if it is measured between any pair of lines irrespective
of whether the delta is connected between the lines or its equivalent
star is connected between that lines.
Consi
der a delta system that's three corner points are A, B and C as
shown in the figure. Electrical resistance of the branch between
points A and B, B and C and C and A are R1, R2and R3 respectively.
The resistance between the points A and B will be,
Now, one star system is connected

to these points A, B, and C as shown in the figure. Three arms R A,
RB and RC of the star system are connected with A, B and C
respectively. Now if we measure the resistance value between
points A and B, we will get, Since the two systems
are identical, resistance measured between terminals A and B in
both systems must be equal.
Similarly, resistance between points B and C being equal in the two
systems, And resistance between

points C and A being equal in the two systems,
Adding equations (I), (II) and
(III) we get, Subtracting

equations (I), (II) and (III) from equation (IV) we get,
The relation of delta - star

transformation can be expressed as follows. The equivalent star
resistance connected to a given terminal, is equal to the product of
the two delta resistances connected to the same terminal divided by
the sum of the delta connected resistances. If the delta connected
system has same resistance R at its three sides then equivalent star
resistance r will be,
Star - Delta Transformation

For star - delta transformation we just multiply equations (v),
(VI) and (VI), (VII) and (VII), (V) that is by doing (v) (VI) + (VI)
(VII) + (VII) (V) we get,
Now dividing
equation (VIII) by equations (V), (VI) and equations (VII)
separately we get, .
Concept of Subtransient, Transient & Steady State.

The concept of Subtransient, Transient and Steady State arises in case of fault in an Alternator.
Let us assume a sudden short circuit in three phase of alternator. The fault current will flow in all
the three phases of alternator and its waveform will be as shown in figure below.
.
When the alternator is short-circuited, the currents in all the three-phases rise rapidly to a high
value of about 10 to 18 times of full load current, during the first quarter cycle. The flux crossing
the air gap is large during a first couple of cycles. The reactance during these first two or three
cycle is least and the short circuit current is high. This reactance is called subtransient
reactance and is denoted by X. The first few cycles come under subtransient state.
After a first few cycles, the decrement in the r.m.s. value of short circuit current is less rapid than
the decrements during the first few cycles. This state is called the Transient State and the
reactance in this state is called transient reactance X. The circuit breaker contacts separate in
the transient state.
Finally the transient dies out and the current reaches a steady sinusoidal state called the Steady
State. The reactance in this state is called steady state reactance Xd. Since the short circuit
current of the alternator lags behind the voltage by 90 degree, the reactance involved are direct
axis reactance.
As clear from the figure above, the d.c. components in the three phases are different; hence the
waveforms of the three phases are not identical. If voltage of phase, say, Y, is maximum at the
instant of short circuit, the DC component of short circuit current is zero. Hence the waveform is
symmetrical as shown in figure below.
.
The currents and reactance are given by the following expressions,.
Where
I = Steady state current, r.m.s. value
I = Transient current, r.m.s. value
I = Sub-transient current, r.m.s. value
Ea = Induced e.m.f. per phase
Xd = Direct axis synchronous reactance

Xd = Direct axis transient reactance
Xd = Direct axis sub-transient reactance
As the short circuit occurs, the short-circuit current attains high value. The circuit breakercontact
starts separating after the operation of the protective relay. The contacts of thecircuit
breaker separate during transient state. The r.m.s. value of the current at the instant of the
contact separation is called the breaking current of the circuit-breaker and is expressed in kA.
If a circuit-breaker closes on existing fault, the current would increase to a high value during the
first, half cycle. The highest peak value of the current is reached during the peak of the first
current loop. This peak value is called making current of the circuit breaker and is expressed in
kA. This is the reason making current of Circuit Breaker is higher than the Breaking Current.
Now we will go into the discussion back while taking an example of Electrical circuit.
Consider the circuit given below.
If the battery is ON at t=0 and kept ON.
Inductor has no energy stored initially. So it has no voltage across it.
Inductor voltage = 0
Rate of change of current = 0
Initially current in inductor = 0
Energy stored in inductor = 0
As we know that Inductor does not allow sudden change in currents. So just after the
moment when switch is ON, the current in inductor is zero. That means at t=0+ inductor
acts as open circuit. But as the time passes inductor allows current. This happens until
coil voltage drop is equal to applied voltage.
But after some time, i.e. when coil voltage drop is equal to applied voltage, then current
flowing through the circuit is constant as inductor voltage is zero which means rate of
change of current is zero. This state is called Steady State.
So if we solve the differential equation of the circuit, were actually finding the response
as a function of time, which includes both transient and steady state response.
Basic Principle of Relay Operation.

Relay is a switch which senses fault in a system and once fault is sensed by the Relay, it issues
trip command to the Circuit Breaker, CB to isolate the faulty section of the network from the
healthy section.
The Relay detects the abnormal condition by continuously monitoring electrical quantities which
are different for healthy and faulty condition. The electrical quantities which may change during
fault condition are voltage, current, frequency and phase angle. If one or more of the above
electrical quantities change, that signals the presence, type and location of the fault to the
Relay. After detecting the fault condition, Relay pick-up, its contact will change from NO to NC or
vice versa. So we can wire up a particular kind of Relay contact to Breaker tripping circuit. So
whenever, the Relay picks up, the tripping of Breaker will take place.
You may like to Read, Why CT Secondary Shall Never be Kept Open?
A simplified Relay circuit is shown in figure below. Figure below shows one of the three phase
system for simplicity.
As shown in the figure above, Current Transformer CT secondary winding is directly connected
to the Relay coil. Under normal condition, the current through the Relay coil is not sufficient
enough to pull the plunger and close the circuit of Breaker Tripping Coil. Notice here that
Breaker Tripping coil is solely responsible for the tripping of Circuit Breaker. If trip coil of breaker
fails, then tripping of Breaker will not take place. This is the reason, two trip coils are normally
provided in Circuit Breaker to get reliable operation of Breaker. Not only two Trip Coils are
provided in CB rather a Trip Coil monitoring Relay is also used. If case of fault i.e. if it happens
to be any open circuit in Trip Coil, then the Trip Coil Supervision Relay will be flagged to attract
the attention of the operator.
In case of fault, the current through the CT secondary will go up which will cause increased
current through the Relay coil. If it happens that the current through the Relay coil exceeds the
setting value or pick-up value then the coil will get produce sufficient magnetic pull to the
plunger and thus plunger will complete the CB trip circuit. As soon as the CB trip circuit is
complete, current will start flowing in the Trip Coil which in turn will pull a lever to trip the Circuit
Breaker CB.
In the above figure, it is shown that Relay coil is directly pulling the plunger to complete the
Breaker Trip Coil circuit but in actual practice, Relay coil when picked up will change its contact
status. Let us say Relay Normally Open (NO) contact is wired to the Breaker Trip Coil Circuit.
Therefore when the Relay coil is in de-energized state, the circuit of Trip Coil of CB is not
complete and hence no tripping of the CB. During fault condition as the current through the
Relay coil exceeds the pick-up value, the Relay coil will get actuated which in turn will force its
contact to change over i.e. NO contact will change to Normally Close (NC) thereby closing the
Trip Coil circuit of the Breaker.
Since Trip Coil circuit of Breaker is complete, current will flow through the Trip Coil causing CB
to trip.
Introduction and Architecture of Numerical Relay.

Most of us are aware of Electromagnetic Relays and Static Relays but most us may not be well
acquainted with Numerical Relay. If I define a Numerical Relay, honestly speaking it will seem to
be quite tough but in reality they are very user friendly and easy to implement different types of
protection scheme. However I am going to define Numerical Relays.
Numerical Relay is a device in which measured electrical quantities are

sequentially sampled and then converted into numerical data which are
mathematically or logically processed to take decision for issuing trip command.
Numerical Relay is basically Digital Relay for which manufacturers have developed
specified hardware which can be used in conjunction with suitable Software o meet
different protection needs.
A Digital Relay comprises both Hardware and Software. The Hardware part is briefly
described below.
CPU: CPU stand for Central Processing Unit which is responsible for the processing of
protection algorithms and digital filtering.
Memory:Memory is of two types. One is RAM (Random Access Memory) and ROM
(Read Only Memory). RAM serves for the purpose of retaining the input data to the
Relay and processing the data during the compilation of algorithm.
ROM is used to store Software needed for the working of Relay. ROM is also needed
for storing Event and Disturbance data. Event and Disturbance Recording is a must
feature for a digital relay because these data are used for troubleshooting any event. A
typical Numerical Relay can store as much as 520 Events and 50 Disturbances. The
most attractive feature of such relay is that it works on FIFO (First In, First Out).
Suppose if it happens to be the number of disturbances exceeds 50 then the Relay will
delete the last Disturbance and will register new disturbance.
Input Module: The analog single from the Power System is stepped down using
Current Transformer and Potential Transformer and then fed to the Numerical Relay
using low pass filter. Low pass filter is incorporated in the input module to eliminate any
noise single induced in the line due to corona or induction effect of nearby high voltage
line. The output from the Filter is then fed to Sample and Hold (S/H)circuit.
A Sample and Hold (S/H) circuit is used to keep the rapidly changing instantaneous
value constant during the period of conversion for processing.
In addition to the analog input, Numerical Relay is designed to accept digital input too.
Separate terminals are provided for the analog and digital inputs.
Multiplexer and Analog to Digital Converter:
The CPU accepts the input in digital form but the input from Current Transformer CT
and Potential Transformer PT are analog in nature. Therefore and A/D converter is used
to convert the analog signal to digital signal. In case more than one analog quantity is to
be converted into digital form, Multiplexer is used for selecting any analog input at a
time to convert into digital form.
Output Module:
Output module provided in Numerical Relay is digital contacts which are actuated when
a trip decision is taken by the CPU. These output digital contacts are a pulse which is
generated as a response signal. The timing of pulse can be changed by the user.
Digital Input / Communication Module: Numerical Relay is provided with serial and
parallel ports for the interconnection with control and communication system of the
substation. Digital output contacts of Numerical Relay is used for wiring with the
Auxiliary Relays to extend tripping command to the Circuit Breaker.
Software: Numerical Relay is equipped with software to communicate with external
device to program to Relay or one can program by navigating through the Relay Menu.
Hardware for Metering: In principle, the hardware setup discussed above can be used
for both measurement and protection function. However, considering the order of
difference between current magnitudes in case of fault and load, there can be loss of
accuracy during metering applications. Consider a hypothetical case where in maximum
load current is 100 A and maximum fault current is 20 times this load current i.e. 2000 A.
Let a 12 bit unipolar A/D converter be used for sampling current signal. This implies that
resolution of A/D converter is 2000/(2 12-1)=0.488 A. This resolution may be inadequate
for metering purposes.
One solution is to increase resolution i.e. the number of bits in A/D converter. For
example, one may use 16 bit A/D converter in place of 12 bit A/D converter.
However, increasing the number of bits of A/D converter also affects the selection of
processor. A good design guideline is to choose a processor with double the number of
bits of A/D converter. This ensures that truncation and numerical precision problems
associated with finite precision arithmetic do not cause significant loss of accuracy. For
example, with 16 bit A/D converter, 32 bit processor is the natural choice. Alternatively, a
variable gain amplifier can be used along with the A/D converter. At low currents, high
gain setting is used and at high currents low gain setting is preferred. However, during
the change from one setting to another, loss of information can take place. Therefore, a
simple solution would be to keep metering and protection functionality separate.
In the next post we will be discussing about some interesting features of Numerical
Relay. So be there and follow ELECTRICAL CONCEPTS.
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Why CT Secondary Shall Never be Kept Open?.

The most important precaution which shall be taken care while working with a CT is that
its secondary should never be kept open. In this post we will discuss this aspect of CT.
As we know that Current Transformers (CTs) are always used with secondary winding
connected with Ammeter, Relays or Wattmeter Coils. A precaution which shall always be
taken is that Never open the secondary winding circuit of a Current Transformer
while its Primary Winding is energized.
If the secondary winding circuit of a CT is kept open then it will lead to severe
consequence to the personnel opening the CT secondary and to the CT itself. The
question arises why?
To understand this, first we should know the basic difference between a Power
Transformer and a CT. The basic difference between a Power Transformer and a CT is
that, in Power Transformer the primary current is the reflection of the secondary current
by N1I1 = N2I2while in CT the primary current is dependent on the load current or line
current as Ct is connected in series with the line. So primary current of CT (assuming
constant line current) is constant irrespective of whether the secondary of CT is
connected with burden or not.
During normal operation of CT, the primary and secondary winding produces mmf which
by lenzes law opposes each other. As the secondary mmf is slightly less than the
primary mmf, the net mmf is small. This net mmf is the working / magnetizing mmf of the
core of CT.
Now, in case secondary winding is kept open then secondary current will be zero while
the primary current of CT will remain same. Therefore the opposing mmf of secondary
will no longer exist. Hence the net mmf is due to primary current only i.e. N1I1 which is
very large. This large mmf will produce large flux in the core and will saturate the core.
Again, due to large flux in the core the flux linkage of secondary winding will be large
which in turn will produce a large voltage across the secondary terminals of the CT. This
large voltage across the secondary terminals will be very dangerous and will lead to the
insulation failure and there is a good chance that the person who is opening the CT
secondary while primary is energized will die due to shock.
Also, because of excessive core flux, the hysteresis and eddy current loss will be very high and
the CT will get overheated. As CT is oil filled, because of overheating, the oil of CT will get boil
and start to vaporize. Because of vaporization of CT oil, the CT housing will get pressurized and
blast. This blasting will lead to fire and smoke. Again, it is not the end here but due to smoke,
the nearby lines will trip due to earth fault which may trip the Power Generating Station.
Difference between Isolators and Sectionalizers in Power System.

An isolator is a switch used in power lines, to completely open (physically) a specific
section of line, when maintenance or modification work is to be done. The isolator can
be operated manually, or in some cases, opened by energizing a motor. With a three-
phase system, the isolator opens all three lines. A picture of Isolator is shown below to
visualize.
A sectionalizer is an automatic switch, installed downstream of a recloser. The recloser
is a feature provided in a circuit breaker, which opens when a short circuit occurs on the
line such as a falling tree branch. Ordinarily, such short circuits clear themselves, for
example by the branch falling to the ground. Thus the recloser opens the circuit when
the fault occurs, and after a short interval, re-closes itself and restores power to the
system. A picture of sectionalizer is shown below to visualize.
However, not all short-circuit faults clear themselves. For example, a fallen branch may
lie across the lines and not fall to the ground. A sectionalizer counts the successive
openings and closings of the recloser, and after a pre-set number, it opens. Thus it
isolates a particular section of line where a continuing fault exists, leaving most of the
larger area protected by the recloser still with power.
So both of these are devices that isolate a portion of a power distribution system. But
the first is a safety device, to protect people working on the lines. The second is an
automatic device, to cut off power to a section where a continuing fault has occurred.
Circuit Breaker and Arc Phenomenon.

What is Circuit Breaker?
Circuit Breaker is switch capable of making or breaking the circuit under no-load as well as on-
load condition. It can make or break circuit either manually or by remote control. A Circuit
Breaker in conjunction with Relay can break the circuit under fault condition.
You may also like to read, Basic Principle of Relay Operation
Operating Principle of Circuit Breaker:
A Circuit Breaker CB consists of two contacts which are called electrodes, one of which remain
fixed, called fixed contact and another moving contact. Under normal operating condition, this
contact will remain closed to supply power but as soon as fault is sensed by the Relay, trip coil
of Circuit Breaker energizes and the moving contact of CB is pulled apart by some mechanism
to open the CB.
When contacts of CB are separated under fault condition, an arc is stuck between the fixed and
moving contacts. The current is thus able to continue till the arc persists. The production of arc
not only delays the current interruption but it also produces huge amount of heat which if
exceeds a limit may damage the system or CB itself. Therefore, the design of CB is done in
such a way to minimize the arcing period so that
1) Heat produced during arcing may not exceeds the dangerous value.
2) To have fast fault clearing.

It is worth here to mention that a typical Breaker opening and closing time remain around 30-35
ms and 60-70 ms respectively. Notice that CB opening time is less than the closing time to
ensure fast fault clearing.
Arcing Phenomenon in Circuit Breaker:
When a short circuit occurs, heavy current flows through the contacts of circuit breaker before
they are opened by the protective system. At the instant when the contacts begin to open after
getting trip command from the Relay, the contact area decreases rapidly and large fault current
causes increased current density and hence rise in temperature. The heat produced in the
medium in between the contacts is sufficient enough to ionize the medium. This ionized medium
acts as a conductor and arc is stuck in between the contacts of the circuit breaker. It shall be
noted here that the potential difference between the fixed and moving contacts is quite small
and just enough to maintain the arc. This arc provides a low resistance path to the current and
thus due to arcing the current in the circuit remain uninterrupted as long as arcing persists.
During the arcing period the current flowing through the contacts of circuit breaker deepens
upon the arc resistance. The greater the arc resistance the smaller will be the current flowing
through the contacts of CB. The arcing resistance depends upon the following factors:
Degree of Ionization:
The more the ionization of medium between the contacts, the less will be the arcing resistance.
Length of Arc:
The arc resistance increases as the length of arc increases i.e. as the separation between the
contacts of Breaker increases the arcing resistance also increases.
Cross Section of the Arc:
The arcing resistance increases with decrease in the cross sectional area of the arc.
Principle of Arc Extinction:
As we discussed earlier in this post, ionization of medium in between the contacts and potential
difference across the contacts are responsible for the production and maintenance of arc. Thus
for arc extinction, we can increase the separation between the contacts to such an extent that
potential difference across the contacts is not sufficient enough to maintain the arc. But this
philosophy is impractical as in EHV (Like 220 kV, 400 kV, 765 kV etc.) system; the separation
between the contacts to extinguish the arc will be many meters which is not practically
achievable.
Another way for extinction of arc is to demonize the medium in between the contacts. If the arc
path is demonized the arc extinction will definitely be facilitated. This may be achieved by
cooling the arc or by quickly removing the ionized particles from the space in between the
contacts. This principle of arc extinction is used in all modern Circuit Breakers.
SF6 Circuit Breaker Construction, Working Principle and Types.

In Sulpher Hexafluoride or SF6 Circuit Breaker, sulpher hexafluoride (SF6) gas is used as an
insulating and arc quenching medium. SF6 gas has many superior properties which makes it
perfect for arc quenching.Sulpher Hexafluoride or SF6 Circuit Breaker is most popular and
widely used breaker. This type of breaker is mostly used for EHV systems like 220 kV, 400 kV
and 765 kV. It is suggested to read Why SF6 gas used in HV/EHV Circuit Breakers.
Construction of SF6 Circuit Breaker
Like other circuit breaker viz. Vacuum Circuit Breaker, Air Blast Circuit Breaker etc.,
SF6Circuit Breaker has fixed contact as well as moving contact. Theses fixed and
moving contacts are known as MAIN CONTACT. There exists one another contact
which is known as ARCING CONTACT. Arcing Contact is part of fixed contact.
Basically, Arcing contacts are only designed to withstand arcing. It is not designed for
carrying load current. In spite, main contacts are designed to carry load current and not
the arcing.
Therefore, it can be said that, while closing of SF 6 circuit breaker, first Arcing Contact will
close. Thereafter arcing contact will close. Similarly while opening, first main contact will
open and then arcing contact will open. Notice here that, during opening operation of
SF6Circuit Breaker, the order of opening main and arcing contact is revered as that in
closing operation. This is because, while opening if the main contact opens first, there
will not be any arcing as the current is getting path through the arcing contact. But if the
arcing contact open first then during opening of main contact there will be arcing and as
discussed main contacts are not meant to withstand arcing.
Apart from Fixed contact and moving contacts, SF 6 Circuit Breaker has following main
components:
Interrupter
Insulating Nozzle
SF6 Gas Chamber
An interrupt is a chamber which encloses the breaker contacts, insulating nozzle,

SF6 gas chamber. Interrupter is made of porcelain. Figure below shows the basic parts
of SF6 circuit breaker.
Figure-1
Carefully observe the figure and notice the different parts, though some parts like
SF6 gas chamber, nozzle, valve etc are not shown in the above figure but they will be
shown while discussing the working principle. So, please be patient till then and read
further.
Working principle of SF6 Circuit Breaker
The contacts of SF6 Circuit Breaker are surrounded in an environment of SF 6 gas at

some pressure. Actually, the dielectric strength of SF 6 gas is directly proportional to its
pressure. In 220 kV, 400 kV and 765 kV applications, the gas pressure is maintained at
6.5 bar. Lets consider breaker opening operation for better understanding of operating
mechanism. First have a look at the contacts when the breaker is in fully close position
as shown in Figure-1.
Now we will open the breaker and will observe its mechanism step by step.
Step-1: Main Contact Open
As discussed earlier in the post, main contact will open first. This is shown in the figure
above. Observe in figure that, though main contacts are open, arcing contacts are still
close. As main contacts open, the piston in the cylinder moves causes the SF 6 gas to
compress due to reduction of volume Vp.
Step-2: Arcing Contacts Open

As soon as arcing contacts separates from contact 1, an arc is strikes. Due to this
arcing, heat is produced. This heat of arc further increases the pressure of SF 6 in the
chamber Vt. Mind that, the pressure of arc extinguisher i.e. SF 6 is increased by the heat
of arc. This is the reason; such breaker is called self compensating type. Here self
compensating means that, the capacity of breaker to interrupt the fault is proportional to
fault current.
Step-3: Arcing Contact separates from Nozzle
When arcing contact separates from the insulating Nozzle, the pressurized SF 6 gas in
volume Vt is released in the arc. This causes the arc to extinguish at the moment the
current passes though the natural zero. Thus, the pressurized SF6 gas extinguishes the
arc and hence circuit is interrupted.
In case of small current like in unloaded transformer or reactor, the thermal energy of
arc is not enough to pressurize the SF 6 gas. In such case the pressure developed in the
SF6 gas chamber Vp in Step-1 is extinguishes the arc.
Types of SF6 Circuit Breaker
As discussed, in 220 kV, 400 kV and 765 kV applications, the SF6 gas pressure is
maintained at 6.5 bar. You will be amazed that, even though voltage level is increasing,
same pressure of SF6 i.e. 6.5 bar is used for 220, 400 and 765 kV applications. Actually
as we go up at higher voltage level, the number of contacts increases in SF6 circuit
Breaker. Based on this philosophy, SF6 circuit breaker can be classified into following
types:
Single Breaker Circuit Breaker

Double Break Circuit Breaker
Multi Break Circuit Breaker
Single Break SF6 Circuit Breaker
In Single Break Circuit Breaker, only one moving and fixed contacts are present. This
means that, there will only be one interrupter unit in such breaker. Single break SF6
circuit breaker is used for 220 kV applications.
Double Break SF6 Circuit Breaker
In such type of breaker, there are two set of moving and fixed contacts connected in
series. Therefore, to enclose two set of contacts, there must be two interrupt unit in
series. This type of breaker is used in 400 kV applications. In double break circuit
breaker, grading capacitorsare used to equalize the voltage distribution across each
contact. Thus for 400 kV application, the voltage across each contact will be 200 kV.
Therefore it is logical to use SF6 gas at a pressure same as used in 200 kV application.
Ha ha..got it?
Multi Break SF6 Circuit Breaker
In multi break circuit break, more than two set of fixed and moving contacts are used.
Such type of breaker is used in 765 kV applications.
Vacuum Circuit Breaker- Construction and Working.
Vacuum Circuit Breaker
Vacuum Circuit Breaker (VCB) is one where vacuum of the order of 10 -6 to 10-10 torr is
used as an arc quenching medium. 1 torr is equivalent to a pressure represented by a
barometric head of 1 mm mercury. Vacuum Circuit Breaker is used for low and medium
voltage applications.
Construction of Vacuum Circuit Breaker
Vacuum Circuit Breaker consists of Enclosure, Contacts, Vapor Condensing Shield,

Metallic Bellows and Seal.
Enclosure. The enclosure is made of impermeable insulating material like glass. The
enclosure must not be porous and should retain high vacuum of the order of 10-7 torr.
Contacts. There are two types of contacts, moving and fixed. The moving contact is
connected with large stem connected to operating mechanism of breaker. Contacts of
Vacuum Circuit Breaker have generally disc shaped faces. The disc is provided with
symmetrical grooves in such a way that the segments of the two contacts are not in the
same line. The magnetic field set-up by the components of currents with such geometry
causes the plasma of the arc to move rapidly over the contacts instead of remaining
stable at one point. The concentration of the arc is thus prevented and the arc remains
in diffused state. The sintered material used for contact tip are generally copper-
chromium or copper bismuth alloy.
Vapor Condensing Shield. These metallic shields are supported on insulating housing
such that they cover the contact region. The metal vapor released from the contact
surface during arcing is condensed on these shields and is prevented from condensing
on the insulting enclosure.
Metallic Bellows. One end of the bellows is welded to the enclosure. The other end is
welded to the moving contact. The bellows permit the sealed construction of the
interrupter and yet permit movement of the contact. Stainless steel bellows are
generally used in vacuum interrupters. Carefully observe every component of Vacuum
Circuit Breaker as shown in figure below.
Arc Extinction in Vacuum Circuit Breaker (VCB)
The arc interruption process in Vacuum Circuit Breaker interrupter is quite different from
that in other types of circuit breakers. The vacuum as such is a dielectric medium and
arc cannot persist in ideal vacuum. However, the separation of current carrying contacts
causes the vapor to be released from the contacts. Thus, as the contacts separate, the
contact space is filled with vapor of positive ions liberated from the contact material.
The vapor density depends on the current in the arc. During the decreasing mode of the
current wave the rate of release of the vapor reduces and after the current zero, the
medium regains the dielectric strength provided vapor density around contacts has
substantially reduced.
While interrupting a current of the order of a few hundred amperes by separating flat
contacts under high vacuum, the arc generally has several parallel paths. Thus the total
current is divided in several parallel arcs. The parallel arcs repel each other so that the
arc tends to spread over the contact surface. Such an arc is called diffused arc. The
diffused arc can get interrupted easily.
At higher values of currents of the order of a few thousand amperes, the arc gets
concentrated on a small region and becomes self-sustained arc. The concentrated arc
around a small area causes rapid vaporization of the contact surface.
The transition from diffused arc to the concentrated arc depends upon the material and
shape of contact, the magnitude of current and the condition of electrodes. The
interruption of arc is possible when the vapor density varies in phase with the current
and the arc remains in the diffused state. The arc does not strike again if the metal
vapor is quickly removed from the contact zone.
Thus the arc extinction process in vacuum circuit breaker is related to a great extent to
the material and shape of the contacts and the technique adopted in condensing the
metal vapor. The contact geometry is so designed that the root of the arc keeps on
moving so that the temperature at one point on the contact does not reach a very high
value.
The rapid building up of dielectric strength after final arc extinction is a unique
advantage of vacuum circuit breaker. They are ideally suitable for capacitor switching as
they can give restrike free performance.
Degree of Vacuum in VCB Interrupters
The breakdown voltage of contact gap varies with the absolute pressure in the vacuum
circuit breaker interrupter unit. As the absolute pressure is reduced from 10 -1 Torr to 10-
3
Torr, the dielectric strength (kV/mm) increases but above 10 -4 Torr, the breakdown
strength and pressure characteristic becomes almost flat as shown in figure below.
The dielectric strength in this region is above 12 kV /mm. In vacuum interrupters

vacuum level of the order of 10 -6 to 10-10 Torr is used. This is called high vacuum range.
During the passage of time and after arc interruptions, the vacuum level goes on
reducing. However it remains in the range of 10 5 Torr and 10-8 Torr. Vacuum in the
range of 10-3 is sufficient for interruption.
Gas Insulated Switchgear or GIS.

Gas Insulated Switchgear (GIS) is a compact metal encapsulated switchgear consisting of high
voltage components such as circuit breakers, disconnectors, Current Transformer, Earth Switch,
Bus bar etc. which can be safely operated in confined spaces. GIS is used where space is
limited, for example, extensions, in city buildings, on roofs, on offshore platforms etc.
In Gas Insulated Switchgear SF 6 gas is used as an insulating medium and as an arc
quenching medium in Circuit Breaker. But there are some GIS where Clean Air is used
an insulating medium and Vacuum as an interrupting medium. For example, in Siemens
8VN1GIS (up to 145 kV), vacuum is used as an interrupting medium while clean air is
used as insulating medium.
Due to advancement of technology, today Gas Insulated Switchgear or GIS are

available for voltage ranging from 12 kV to 1200 kV. GIS is basically modular switchgear
as shown in figure below.
Siemens press picture
The various modules are factory assembled and are filled with SF 6 gas. Thereafter, they
are taken to site for final assembly. Such sub-stations are compact and can be installed
conveniently on any floor of a multi-storied building or in an underground sub-station.
As the units are factory assembled, the installation time is substantially reduced. Such
installations are preferred in cosmopolitan cities, industrial townships, hydro-stations
where land is very costly and higher cost of SF 6 insulated switchgear is justified by
saving due to reduction in floor-area requirement.
SF6 insulated switchgear or GIS is also preferred in heavily polluted areas where dust
chemical fumes and salt layers can cause frequent flashovers in conventional outdoor
substations.
Types of Gas Insulated Switchgear
Based on the constructional feature, GIS can be classified into following types:
Isolated Phase GIS
Basically in such kind of GIS, the modules are assembled phase wise i.e. Breaker, CT,
Isolators of individual phases are assembled separately. Modules for each phase of a
bay are separate. That is why such GIS are called Isolated Phase GIS. It is quite
obvious that the space requirement for Isolated Phase GIS is more.
Integrated Three Phase GIS
As the name suggests, all three phases equipment like Breaker, CT, Isolators etc. are
kept in a single module filled with gas. The space requirement for such GIS is 1/3 rd of
space requirement in Isolated Phase GIS.
Hybrid GIS
Hybrid GIS is an optimal combination of Isolated Phase and Integrated Three Phase
GIS.
Highly Integrated Switchgear (HIS)
In HIS type of Gas Insulated Switchgear, total substation equipments are encapsulated
together in single enclosure. With the HIS, the circuit breakers, disconnectors, earthing
switches and instrument transformers are accommodated in compressed gas tight
enclosures, which make the switchgear extremely compact. HIS, the gas insulated
switchgear can be used for indoor and outdoor purpose as HIS requires less than half
the space of a comparable air insulated switchgear. Figure below shows the HIS.
Siemens press picture
Notice that, the GIS in above figure is used for outdoor purpose but the same could be
used for indoor purpose. I used this picture to just show you that GIS does not mean
that every equipment is kept in a room filled with SF 6 gas rather GIS mean equipment
kept in a module filled with SF6 gas.
Advantages of SF6 Gas Insulated Switchgear

The space occupied by Gas Insulated Switchgear installation is only about 10% of that
of conventional outdoor sub-station. Thus the high cost of GIS is partly compensated by
saving in cost of space.
Protection from pollution. The moisture, pollution, dust etc., have little influence on
Gas Insulated Switchgear. However, to facilitate installation and maintenance, such
substations are generally housed inside a small building. The construction of the building
need not be very strong like convention power houses.
Reduced Switching overvoltages. The overvoltages while closing and opening line,
cables, motors, capacitors etc. are low.
Reduced Installation Time. The principle of modular construction reduces the
installation time to a few weeks. Conventional sub-stations require a few months for
installation.
The gas pressure (4 kg/cm2) is relatively low and does not pose serious leakage
problems.
Increased Safety. As the enclosures are at earth potential, there is no possibility of
accidental contact by service personnel to live parts.
Disadvantage of SF6 Gas Insulated Switchgear
High cost compared to conventional outdoor sub-station.
Excessive damage in case of internal fault. Long outage periods as repair of damaged
part at site may be difficult.
Requirement of cleanliness are very stringent. Dust or moisture can cause internal
flashovers.
Procurement of gas and supply of gas to site is problematic. Adequate stock of gas must
be maintained.
Directional Earth Fault Protection.

Generally earth faults are Single Line to Ground (SLG) and Line-Line to Ground (LLG) faults.
Earth faults are characterized by the presence of Zero Sequence Curren I 0. Since, except for
unbalance, normal system operation is not having Zero Sequence Current I 0, much more
sensitive pick-up is possible for earth fault by using zero sequence current component I 0 = (Ia +
Ib + Ic) / 3 and declaring a fault if I0 exceeds a threshold.
We know that I0 = (Ia + Ib + Ic) / 3
However, in a system with multiple sources or parallel paths, we require earth fault relays to be
directional as discussed in earlier post How to Incorporate Directional Featurein a Relay.
As we discussed in earlier post How to Incorporate Directional Feature in a Relay, that for
making a Relay directional we need Reference Phasor. The reference phasor is called
asPolarizing Quantity. For ground fault relaying both Voltage and Current Polarization can be
used.
We will consider each Voltage and Current Polarization separately for Earth Fault Protection.
Voltage Polarization:
Let the system be initially unloaded and a ground fault occur on phase A.
Therefore Ib = Ic = 0 and Ia = 3I0.
For Single Line to Ground fault there is a drop in voltage of phase A while phase B and C
voltages remain unchanged. Phasor diagram for Voltage and current for SLG fault can be drawn
as below.
Voltage and Current Phasor under Single Line to Ground Fault:
In the phasor diagram only 3I0 is shown as Ib = Ic =0 and Ia = 3I0 for Single Line to Ground fault.
Now we will find the Zero Sequence Voltage under the fault.
As V0 = (Vag+Vbg+Vcg)/3, phasor sum of Va,Vb and Vc is to be taken.

3V0 = Vag+Vbg+Vcg, phasor sum
From phasor diagram it is clear that Zero Sequence Voltage 3V 0 is in phase opposition with Vag
(Phase Voltage of A). Therefore it is appropriate to take -3V0 as a reference phasor.
In normal power system V0is not present but available only during the fault. Let the maximum
torque be drawn at 60 degrees lag with respect to -3V0 phasor as shown in figure below.
As we know that Zero Torque Line is perpendicular to the Maximum Torque Line, therefore we
draw Zero Torque Line as shown in figure above.
It is then clear that zero Torque Line which separates the plane into Operate and Do Not
Operate zone leads -3V0by 30 degrees. Thus, for fault in the correct region, 3I 0 lags -3V0 hence
falls in operate region. If fault is behind the relay, 3I 0 will lead -3V0 by about 45 to 60 degrees
and hence will lie in do not operate region. Hence, earth fault directional unit will not pick-up.
Current Polarization:
For providing direction feature in earth fault relay we can also use current as refrenec phasor
which is called current polarization. It is an alternative for voltage polarization. It does not
require an additional Potential Transformer (PT).
For balanced system,
Ia+Ib+Ic = 0, phasor sum is taken here.
Therefore, I0 = (Ia+Ib+Ic)/3 = 0 which means absence of Zero Sequence Current in balanced

system.
During ground fault say at phase A, 3I 0 flows from ground to neutral of a Wye connection of
Transformer. If we assume for simplicity that Ib = Ic = 0, then 3I 0 and Ia are in phase. This
indicates that directional unit for ground relay should pick-up as Ia is in phase with 3I 0. Thus we
place maximum torque line at zero degrees with respect to I0 phasor. The correspondingOperate
and Do Not Operate zones are marked in figure below.
If fault is behind the relay, then the Ia will fall in Do Not Operate region and hence relay will not
pickup as Zero sequence Current through the neutral of Wye connection and Relay will be in
phase opposition.
Sensitive Earth Fault Protection.

Sensitive Earth fault Protection scheme is used for the detection of earth fault. Protection
against phase to ground faults can be a difficult problem since ground fault currents vary within
a large range, becoming almost negligible in some situations. The ground fault current
magnitude depends on the power system grounding which can vary from solidly grounded to
ungrounded neutral. The sensitive earth fault protection is usually used in alternators and
transformers with high resistance grounding. High resistance grounding restricts the earth fault
current to a very less value and permits the operation of equipment.
Also Read,
Concept of Neutral Grounding
As we know that, the earth fault current magnitude is given by,
IF = 3VLN/ (Z0 + Z1 + Z2 + 3ZE)
Where Z0 = Zero sequence impedance
Z1 = Positive sequence impedance
Z2 = Negative sequence impedance
ZE = Impedance of earth fault
ZE represents the impedance of the ground return circuit including the fault arc, the grounding
circuit, and the intentional neutral impedance, if present. If we consider a solidly grounded
system, then ZE = 0 and if Z0 = Z1= Z2 then earth fault current will be given as shown below.
IF = VLN/ Z1
The Sensitive Earth Fault protection scheme works by measuring the residual current across
the three phases in a system. Measurement of three phase residual current is done either by
using Core Balance Current Transformer (CBCT) or three CTs connected in parallel. In the
ideal condition, the residual current will be zero as all the currents flow through the three
phases. Here Residual current means current flowing through neutral or zero sequence current.
As we know that
IN = 3I0= IR + IY +IB
But during normal operation,
IR + IY+IB = 0 therefore, no residual current will flow.
The most important part in SEF or Sensitive Earth Fault Protection is to make proper setting of
the Relay. The protection setting should take into consideration that the three CTs do not have
identical characteristics and will perform differently for heavy phase-to-phase faults or for initial
asymmetrical motor starting currents. This can produce false residual currents. The setting
should also be above the line maximum unbalance current.
The above conditions must be satisfied to avoid nuisance tripping. In addition, the ground fault
protection must be sensitive to minimum ground fault current at the end of the line. Sensitive
earth Fault protection scheme is very sensitive to detection of earth fault in the sense that its
setting can be as low as 0.2%.
Concept of Neutral Grounding.

The concept of system grounding is extremely important, as it affects the susceptibility
of the system to voltage transients, determines the types of loads the system can
accommodate, and helps to determine the system protection requirements.
The system grounding arrangement is determined by the grounding of the power

source. For commercial and industrial systems, the types of power sources generally
fall into four broad categories:
Utility Service The system grounding is usually determined by the secondary winding
configuration of the upstream utility substation transformer.
Generator The system grounding is determined by the stator winding configuration.
Transformer The system grounding on the system fed by the transformer is

determined by the transformer secondary winding configuration.
Neutral grounding is generally of three types:
Solid Grounding
Resistance Grounding
Reactance Grounding
Each of the grounding method serves a specific purpose and based on the suitability of
our need, we use any one of the grounding method.
Solidly Grounded Systems:
The solidly grounded system is the most common system arrangement, and one of the
most used. The most commonly used configuration is the solidly grounded star,
because it support single-phase phase to neutral loads. In this type of grounding
method, the star point is directly connected to the ground.
The figure below, shows the relationship between the phase and line voltage for Solidly
Grounded System.
It can be seen from the above figure that the system voltage with respect to ground is
fixed by the phase-to-neutral winding voltage. It means that the line-to-ground insulation
level of equipment need only be as large as the phase-to-neutral voltage, which is
57.7% (100/1.732 = 57.7 %) of the phase-to-phase voltage. It also means that the
system is less susceptible to phase-to-ground voltage transients. This is very
important benefit of Solidly Ground System.
A common characteristic of solidly-grounded system is that a short circuit to ground will

cause a large amount of short circuit current to flow. This condition is known as a
ground fault. As can be seen from figure below the voltage on the faulted phase is
depressed, and large current flows in the faulted phase since the phase and fault
impedance are small.
The voltage and current on the other two phases are not affected. Thus a solidly
grounded system supports a large ground fault current. Statistically, 90-95% of all
system short-circuits are ground faults.
The occurrence of a ground fault on a solidly grounded system necessitates the

removal of the fault as quickly as possible. This is the major disadvantage of the
solidly-grounded system as compared to other types of system grounding.
A solidly-grounded system is very effective at reducing the possibility of line-to-ground

voltage transients. However, to do this the system must be effectively grounded. One
measure of the effectiveness of the system grounding is the ratio of the available
ground-fault current to the available three-phase fault current. For effectively grounded
systems this ratio is usually at least 60%.
To summarize,
The solidly grounded system is the most popular, is required where single-phase phase-
to-neutral loads must be supplied, and has the most stable phase-to-ground voltage
characteristics. However, the large ground fault current is a disadvantage and can be
hindrance to system reliability.
Resistance Grounded Systems:

In Resistance Grounding method, the neutral point is connected to the ground by using
a Resistor. The resistor is sized to allow 1-10 A to flow continuously if a ground fault
occurs.
The resistor is sized to be less than or equal to the magnitude of the system charging
capacitance to ground. If the resistor is thus sized, the high-resistance grounded system
is usually not susceptible to the large transient overvoltages that an ungrounded system
can experience.
If no ground fault current is present, the phasor diagram for the system is the same as
for a solidly grounded system. However, if a ground fault occurs on one phase the
system response is as shown in figure below. As can be seen from figure below, the
ground fault current is limited by the grounding resistor.
If the approximation is made that Z A (impedance of winding) and Z F (Fault impedance)
are very small compared to the ground resistor resistance value R, then the ground fault
current is approximately equal to the phase-to-neutral voltage of the faulted phase
divided by R. The faulted phase voltage to ground in that case would be zero and
the unfaulted phase voltages to ground would be 173% of their values without a
ground fault present.
The ground fault current is not large enough to force its removal by taking the system
off-line. Therefore, the high resistance grounded system has the same operational
advantage in this respect as the ungrounded system.
Reactance Grounding:
A Reactance Grounded system is one in which the neutral point is grounded through an
impedance which is highly inductive. Reactance Grounding lies between the effective
grounding and Resonant Grounding (will be discussed in next post). Reactance is
provided to keep the fault current within safe limit. This method of grounding is used
where the charging current is high like in capacitor bank, line reactors used for voltage
control of transmission line etc.
Restricted Earth Fault Protection of Transformer.

Restricted Earth Fault (REF) protection is basically a Differential Protection. The only difference
in between the Differential Protection and REF Protection is that, latter protection is more
sensitive as compared to the former protection scheme. In earlier posts we have already
discussed Differential Protection of Transformer and various characteristics of Differential
Protection. In this post we will focus on Restricted earth Fault protection.
Also Read,
Transformer Differential Protection
Percentage Differential Protection Slope in Differential Protection

Harmonic Restraining in Differential Protection
For the sake of understanding REF Protection, we take a Transformer of configuration DYn i.e.
HV side of Transformer is Delta connected while the LV side is Start connected and neutral is
grounded solidly.
As shown in figure above, there are a total of four Current Transformers (CTs), three CTs
connected in each phase i.e. R, Y and B and one CT connected in neutral. The secondary of
these four CTs are connected in parallel. The parallel connected CT secondary are then
connected to REF Relay Coil. Basically REF protection Relay element is an over current
element.
Under balanced condition i.e. under normal operation the sum of currents through the
secondary of CTs will be zero and current in neutral CT will also be zero. But as soon as a fault
takes place in the secondary winding of Transformer, the current in R, Y and B phase will no
longer be balanced. Also under earth fault a current will flow through the neutral CT. Because of
this unbalance, the summation of current will not be zero but it will have some finite value and
hence the relay will pick up. It shall be noted that for a fault outside the Transformer i.e. for
through fault Restricted Earth Fault Protection will not operate as in this case of through fault,
the vector sum of currents in CT secondary will be zero. This is the reason; such kind of
protection scheme is for restricted zone and hence called Restricted Earth Fault Protection.
Now, it is normal to ask that Differential Protection is also a zone protection and it shall
operate for any internal fault in Transformer, then why do we need extra Restricted Earth
Fault Protection?
This is really a very smart question. See, what happens is, the setting of differential protection is
normally kept at 20%. So, differential relay shall pick if the differential current exceeds 0.2 A.
Now let us consider a case where earth fault occurs just near the neutral point as shown in
figure below.
Since the location of fault is very near to the neutral point, the voltage driving the fault current
will be very less and hence the reflection of such a low current in primary side of transformer will
also will be low. Thus in such case, Transformer differential protection may not operate as its
setting is quite high at 20%. Therefore for protection of Transformer from such a fault we need
more sensitive protection scheme which is implemented by using Restricted Earth Fault
Protection. The sensitivity of REF protection is superior as compared to Differential Protection.
Normally the setting of REF protection is kept as low as 5%. Basically the sensitivity of REF
protection increases as we are using CT in neutral of transformer and whenever an earth fault
take place it is damn sure that current will complete its path through the neutral and hence
increasing the sensitivity of REF protection.
Difference between Earthing, Grounding and Neutral.

Earthing means connecting the dead part, it means the part which does not carries current
under normal condition to the earth. For example electrical equipments frames, enclosures,
supports etc.
While Grounding means connecting the live part (it means the part which carries
current under normal condition) to the earth. For example neutral of power transformer.
The purpose of Earthing is to minimize risk of receiving an electric shock if touching

metal parts when a fault is present.
While the purpose of Grounding is the protections of power system equipment and to
provide an effective return path from the machine to the power source. For example
grounding of neutral point of a star connected transformer.
Ground is a source for unwanted currents and also as a return path for main current
some times. While Earthing is done not for return path but only for protection of delicate
equipment.
Harmonic Restraining in Differential Protection.

In this post we will discuss about the feature of Harmonic Restraining feature of Differential
Protection. First we should know why Harmonic Restraining is needed?
Suppose we are going to energize the Transformer, obviously the Transformer will have an
Inrush current which is around 6 times of full load current. Refer Transformer Inrush Current
for detail on Transformer Inrush Current. Figure given below shows waveform of Inrush Current
of Transformer.
Therefore, the Differential protection will operate. Thus we wont ever be able to energize the
Transformer or we need to bypass the Transformer Differential Protection when we are going to
energize. Is it a good practice to Bypass Transformer Protection? You will say NO.So what we
need to do for preventing the Differential Protection operation due to Inrush Current?
This requirement calls for Harmonic Restraining in Differential Protection of Transformer.
The inrush current of a Transformer, if analyzed, is rich in 2 nd harmonic component. So we can
use this fact to prevent the operation of Differential Protection. Therefore a 2 nd harmonic
Restraining is provided in Transformer Differential Protection. Normally the setting of
2ndHarmonic Restraining is kept at 20% which means that if the 2 nd harmonic component in the
differential current of Relay is more than 20% of differential current Idthen Differential Protection
Relay will not operate as it will think that it is because of Transformer Inrush Current but if the
2nd harmonic component in the differential current of Relay is less than 20% of differential
current Id then Differential Protection Relay will operate.
Similarly, during overfluxing of a Transformer the Transformer current is rich in 5 th harmonic

current. But it may happen so that Transformer is overfluxed for some short time period say
around 2 sec. So for this short period of overfluxing should not cause the operation of
Differential Protection. Note that during overluxing, the differential current Id will increase which
will operate the Differential protection Relay.
Therefore to prevent the operation of Differential protection Relay due to overfluxing,

5thharmonic Restraining is provided in such a manner that if the 5th harmonic component in the
differential current of Relay is more than 25% (say) of differential current I d then Differential
Protection Relay will not operate but if 5th harmonic component in the differential current of
Relay is less than 25% of differential current Id then Differential Protection Relay will operate.
Percentage Differential Protection Slope in Differential Protection.

As discussed in the post Transformer Differential Protection, differential protection is supposed
to operate for the internal faults or for the zone of protection it is intended for. Differential
protection is not supposed to operate for a through fault. Through fault means a fault outside the
zone of protection. Thus as discussed in earlier post, for a through fault the differential current
through the overcurrent element of the Differential Protection Relay is zero while there is some
definite value of Differential Current for internal faults. But actually there are many limitations
due to which a differential current flows the Differential Relay in normal operation also.
A practical transformers and CTs pose some challenge to Differential Protection. They are as
follows:
The primary of transformer will carry no load current even when the secondary is open
circuited. This will lead to differential current on which the protection scheme should not
operate.
It is not possible to exactly match the CT ratio as per equation. This would also lead to
differential currents under healthy conditions.
If the transformer is used with an off nominal tap, then differential currents will arise as
the CT ratio calculated for a particular Tap (Nominal Tap) will be different for different Tap,
even under healthy conditions.
Thus we see that because of the above reasons a differential current will flow through the
Differential Protection Relay. So Differential Protection will operate which is not expected to
operate for the above said reasons. So
what to do to prevent tripping because
of the differential current caused by the above mentioned reasons?
To prevent the Differential Protection scheme from picking up under such conditions,
aPercentage Differential Protectionscheme is used. It improves security at the cost of
sensitivity.
In Percentage Differential Protection, we provide a slope feature to the Differential Protection

Relay. In modern Numerical Differential protection Relay two slopes are provided. A typical
Slope characteristic is shown in figure below.
Notice an offset of to account for the no load current of Transformer. If we dont provide this
offset then the Differential protection will operate during no load of Transformer and will trip the
Transformer Primary side Breaker which is not desired.
The current on the X-axis is the average current of primary and secondary winding referred to
primary. It indicates the restraining current called the Biasing Current, I bwhile the corresponding
difference on Y-axis represents the differential current. The Differential Protection Relay will
pick up if magnitude of differential current is more than a fixed percentage of the
restraining current.
Let for differential Protection to operate, Id should be greater than the x% of Ib. Therefore,
Id/Ib> 0.0x
But Id/Ib = Slope of the curve
Thus Differential Protection will operate if the Slope is greater than some fixed value which is
set in the Differential Protection Relay. Carefully observe the operating zone in the Slope
characteristic of Differential Protection Relay. Consider the figure below.
Suppose, the current in the secondary of CT is 1A at normal operating condition. Therefore the
Biasing Current Ib = (1+1)/2 = 1A
While the Differential Current Id = (1-1) = 0A
Thus as discussed above, the restraining current is more than the differential current,
Differential Protection Relay will not operate.
Now assume a through fault, so the primary side CT current will be 2 A (say) and secondary
side CT gets saturated so current in secondary side CT = 0 A.
Thus, Differential current Id = (2-0) = 2A
and Biasing Current Ib = 2/2 = 1A
Thus we see that Differential protection will operate but it is not expected to operate as the fault
is through fault. Thus to prevent tripping on through fault we provide a slope so that Differential
current increases as the Biasing current increases and Differential protection will operate if the
slope exceeds a particular value (which can be set in the Relay).
Calculation of Stabilizing Resistor in High Impedance Differential Protection.

Before going into the calculation part of Stabilizing Resistor, I will first explain the purpose of
Stabilizing Resistor in High Impedance Differential Protection.
Stabilizing Resistor in High Impedance Differential Protection is used to prevent the

operation of Relay in case of through fault. Through fault is a fault outside the zone of
protection. Lets us assume that High Impedance Differential protection is used to
protect a Bus bar as shown in figure.
It shall be noted here that, in High Impedance Differential Protection, all the CTs are
connected in parallel and then the four wires i.e. R, Y, B and N are connected with the
Relay as shown in figure above. If there is any fault in the bus, the according to
Kirchhoffs current law, the summation of current will not be zero and a net current will
flow through the Relay coil to operate it. In normal condition, the summation of current
will be zero and hence no current will flow through the Relay coil and hence the Relay
will be stable. Mathematically under normal condition,
I1+ I2 + I3 = 0
As Relay sees only summation of current hence we normally employ an overcurrent

element in High Impedance Differential Protection. This is the main difference between
a high impedance and low impedance differential protection.
Let us consider a through fault i.e. fault outside the zone of protection. To be more
specific, let a fault take place after the CT of any feeder. If all the CTs maintain the
same nominal ratio for all external faults the assumed scheme is perfectly valid since no
current can flow in the relay coil.
However, when the instantaneous overcurrent relay is set low enough to give useful
sensitivity to internal faults the Relay may in practice operate falsely on external faults
due to a reduction of the nominal ratio of the fault CT resulting from fault CT core
saturation. This reduction of the fault CT nominal ratio results in a false differential
relay current that may operate the instantaneous overcurrent relay. The wort condition
will be when a CT gets completely saturated. Thus we need to make Relay insensitive
for through fault. To do this we use Stabilizing Resistor.
How Stabilizing Resistor makes Relay Insensitive to through Fault?

Well, the main cause for the flow of current through the Relay coil in High Impedance
Differential Protection is the Voltage across the terminals of CT. We consider the worst
case here when a CT gets completely saturated for through fault. When a CT gets
completely saturated, it will no longer will be a source of current rather it will behave
purely as a Resistor having a value equal to the CT secondary winding. Thus the fault
current will not go toward the relay rather it will go circulate through the saturated CT
secondary only as current always chooses a path having least resistance. Let the fault
current be IF and the resistance of CT secondary be R CT. Therefore the voltage
developed across the saturated CT will be,
Vs = IFRCTwhen looping of CT secondaries are done at CT Junction Box only.
Or,
Vs = IF(RCT+ 2RL) when looping of CT is done at Panel or near Relay end.
Here looping of CT secondaries means parallel connection of CT secondaries. It may

happen so that we are doing the paralleling at the CT Junction Box (JB) or at Panel
(Relay end). If paralleling is done at Relay end then lead resistance of saturated CT up
to panel shall be considered for the calculation of driving voltage across the common
point of CTs but if paralleling is done at CT JB only then lead resistance of saturated CT
from CT core to CT JB shall only be considered which is very less and can be ignored.
Now, let us assume that the setting of High Impedance Differential Relay for internal
fault be Is. So to make Relay insensitive for through fault, the voltage developed shall
not drive a current Is through the Relay, hence we put a Stabilizing Resistor R stbin series
with the Relay Coil and the value of Stabilizing Resistor R stbis given as
Rstb= Vs / Is
So, Rstb = IFRCT / Is when paralleling is done at CT JB
Or
Rstb= Vs = IF(RCT + 2RL) / Iswhen looping of CT is done at Panel or near Relay end.
Thus during through fault, for the worst condition of CT saturation, the current through
the Relay coil will not be enough to cross setting value of Is and thus will not operate.
Rated Normal, Short Circuit Making & Breaking, Short Time Current Rating &
Operating Duty Cycle of Circuit Breaker.

Rated Normal Current:
The rated normal current of a circuit-breaker is the r.m.s. value of the current which the circuit
breaker can carry continuously and with temperature rise of the various parts within specified
limits.
The design of contacts and other current carrying parts in the interrupter of the circuit breaker
are generally based on the limits of temperature rise. For a given cross section of the conductor
and a certain value of current, the temperature rise depends upon the conductivity of the
material. Hence, high conductivity material is preferred for current carrying parts. The cross-
section of the conductors should be increased for materials with lower conductivity.
The use of magnetic materials in close circuits should be avoided to prevent heating due to
hysteresis loss and eddy currents. The rated current of a circuit-breaker is verified by
conducting temperature-rise tests.
Rated Short Circuit Breaking Current:
The rated short-circuit-breaking-current of a circuit-breaker is the highest value of short circuit

current which a circuit-breaker is capable of breaking under specified conditions of transient
recovery voltage and power frequency voltage. It is expressed in kA r.m.s. at contact separation.
Rated Short Circuit Making Current:
It may so happen that circuit-breaker may close on an existing fault. In such cases the current
increase to the maximum value at the peak of first current loop. The circuit breaker should be
able to close without hesitation as contacts touch. The circuit breaker should be able to
withstand the high mechanical forces during such a closure. These capabilities are proved by
carrying out making current test. The rated short-circuit making current of a circuit-breaker is the
peak value of first current loop of short-circuit current (I pk) which the circuit-breaker is capable of
making at its rated voltage.
Rated making current = 1.8 x 2 x Rated short circuit breaking

= 2.5 x Rated short circuit breaking current.
In the above equation, the factor 2 converts the r.m.s. value to peak value. Factor 1.8 takes
into account the doubling effect of short-circuit-current with considerations to slight drop in
current during the first quarter cycle.
You may like to read, Why Making Current of Circuit Breaker is more than Breaking Current?
Rated Short Time Current:
The short time current of a circuit-breaker is the r.m.s. value of current that the circuit breaker
can carry in a fully closed position during a specified time under prescribed conditions of use
and behavior. It is normally expressed in terms of kA for a period of one second. Adjacent poles
experience mechanical force during the test.
The rated duration of short circuit is generally 1 second and the circuit breaker should be able to
carry short-circuit current equal to its rated breaking-current for one second. During the short-
time current test, the contacts should not get damaged or welded.
The current carrying parts and insulation should not get deteriorated. Generally, the cross-
section of conductors based on normal current rating requirements is quite adequate for
carrying the rated short-circuit current for the duration of 1 second.
Operating Duty Cycle:
The operating sequence denotes the sequence of opening and closing operations which the
circuit-breaker can perform under specified conditions. The operating mechanism experiences
severe mechanical stresses during the auto reclosure duty. As per IEC, the circuit-breaker
should be able to perform the operating sequence as per one of the following two alternatives:
(i) O-t-CO-T-CO
where, O=opening operation
C=closing opeartion
CO=closing followed by opening
t=3 mintes for circuit-breaker not to be used for rapid auto reclosure
t=0.3 second for circuti-breaker to be used for rapid auto reclosure.
T=3 minutes.
(ii) CO-t-CO
where t-15 second for circuit-breaker not to be used for rapid auto reclosure.
You may like to read, AutoreclosingPhilosophy in Distance Protection.

Why Transformer Open Circuit Test Conducted on LV side and Short Circuit on
HV Side?.
As we know that Transformer Open Circuit Test is conducted on LV side and that Short Circuit
Test on HV side. To understand the reason behind this, we will consider a Single Phase
Transformer of rating 3300 / 220 Volt, 33 kVA.
Thus the voltage at the LV side of this Transformer is 220 Volt. Therefore, for Open Circuit
Test on LV side the range of Voltmeter will be 220 V.
Now, Full Load Current = (331000) / 220 = 150 A
So, excitation current = 4% of Full Load Current
= 0.06150 = 6 A
Here note that Excitation Current is taken as 4% of the Full Load Current as the range of
excitation current is 2-6%.
Also, the range of Wattmeter will be 220 V and 6A.
We see that the rating of instruments required for the testing are standard and easily available.
Furthermore, using standard instruments, more accurate results can be obtained.
If the Open Circuit Test is conducted on HV side then a source of 3300 Volt may not be readily
available. At the same time the instrument ranges required will be 3300 V, 0.4 A [4%
of(331000) / 3300 = 4% of 10 = 0.4 A] and 3300 V & 0.4A which are not within the range of
ordinary instruments and hence result obtained may not be accurate. Also, it is not safe to work
on HV side from safety point of view.
Now, coming to Short CircuitTest. For a Short Circuit Test conducted on HV side the range of
voltmeter required will be,
Range of Voltmeter = 5% of Rated Voltage
= 0.053300
= 165 V
Note that voltage required to circulate rated current is around 2-12% of the rated voltage, that is
why we have considered 5% for selection of range of voltmeter.
Range of Ammeter = Rated Current
= 331000 / 3300
= 10 A
Range of Wattmeter = 165 V , 10A
Thus we observe that the range of instruments required to perform the test fall within the range
of standard instruments which are easily available and accurate.
At the same time, if we conduct the Short Circuit Test on LV side the
Range of Voltmeter = 5% of Rated Voltage

= 0.05220
= 11 V
Range of Ammeter = Rated Current
= 331000 / 220
= 150 A
Range of Wattmeter = 11 V , 150A
Instruments of such range and Auto Transformer capable of handling 150 A may not be readily
available and at the same time result may not be much accurate.
It is for these reasons, Open Circuit Test is conducted on LV side and Short Circuit Test on HV
side.
Short Circuit Test of Transformer.

Open Circuit Test and Short Circuit Test are two important tests which are carried out on a
Transformer to determine its equivalent circuit parameters, Voltage Regulation and Efficiency.
Short Circuit Test
Short Circuit Test of Transformer is performed on HV side and the supply voltage is so adjusted
that rated current flows through the shorted secondary. As rated current is flowing through the
shorted secondary that means that rated current will also flow in the primary because of
Transformer action.
The supply voltage required for the flow of rated current in the shorted secondary is around 2-
12% of rated voltage. Thus the supply voltage i.e. primary voltage is very less which in turn
means that core losses during short circuit test will be negligible (as core loss is directly
proportional to the square of primary voltage.).
Thus short circuit test gives us information of Ohmic loss of Transformer and the power
measured by the Wattmeter is Ohmic loss. An equivalent circuit of the Short Circuit Test referred
to secondary side is shown in figure below. Mind that shunt branch in the equivalent circuit is not
shown as the core loss taking place during Short Circuit Test is negligible.
Let us assume that,
Vsc, Iscand Psc be the Voltage, Current and Power measured by the Voltmeter, Ammeter and
Wattmeter respectively.
Therefore from the equivalent circuit diagram,
Equivalent leakage impedance referred to HV side,
ZeH = (R1+R2) + j(X1+X2)
= Vsc / Isc
But Equivalent Resistance referred to HV side,
ReH = R1+R2
= Psc / Isc2
Hence Equivalent Leakage Reactance referred to HV side,
XeH = (X1+X2)
But in case leakage impedance parameters for both primary and secondary side is required
then usually, R1 = R2 = ReH / 2 and X1 = X2 = XeH / 2 referred to same side is taken.
Related Posts:
1. Why Transformer Open Circuit Test Conducted on LV side and Short Circuit on HV
Side?
2. Open Circuit Test of Transformer
3. Transformer Load Test or Back to Back Test or Sumpners Test
4. Rated Normal, Short Circuit Making & Breaking, Short Time Current Rating &
Operating Duty Cycle of Circuit Breaker.
Open Circuit Test of Transformer.

Open Circuit Test and Short Circuit Tests are two important tests which are carried out on a
Transformer to determine its equivalent circuit parameters, Voltage Regulation and Efficiency.
Though theses parameters can also be found using the physical dimension of Core and
Winding detail but using Open Circuit and Short Circuit Tests are quite easy and simple.
The circuit diagram for Open Circuit Test is shown below. As clear from the figure below,
Voltmeter, Ammeter and Wattmeter are connected in LV side of the Transformer and HV
side is left open. Rated LV voltage is applied to the LV side of the Transformer and the
reading of Voltmeter, Ammeter & Wattmeter is noted for further analysis.
As the Transformer Secondary i.e. HV side is kept open therefore Transformer will only
take excitation current to set up magnetic flux in the core. Therefore Ammeter A will read
Excitation Current Ie which is around 2-6% of the full load current. As Ie is very less
therefore, Primary leakage impedance drop is negligible and we can say that applied
voltage V1 to LV side is equal to the voltage induced in the Primary winding i.e. E1.
Therefore, the equivalent circuit when referred to Primary side reduces to as shown in
figure below.
In input power as metered by Wattmeter consists of two components, one is Core Loss
and another Ohmic Loss. The exciting current being 2 to 6% of the full load current, the
ohmic loss in the primary (Ie2r1) varies from 0.04 to 0.36% of full load Primary ohmic loss.
In view of this, the ohmic loss in Primary is negligible when compared to the normal
core loss which is being directly proportional to square of applied Voltage. Therefore
wattmeter reading can directly be taken as the core loss in the Transformer. Thus we
see that Open Circuit Test gives us Core Loss of Transformer. The phasor diagram for
Open Circuit Test of Transformer is shown below.
Let,
V1 = Applied Rated Voltage on Primary
Ie = Excitation Current
Pc = Core Loss
The Core Loss, Pc= V1IeCos
So, no load power factor Cos = Pc / (V1Ie)
Also from phasor diagram,
Ic = IeCos
Im =IeSin
But Pc = V1Ic
So, Ic = Pc/ V1
Therefore,
Core Loss Resistance Rc= V1 / Ic
= V1/ IeCos
= V12/ V1IeCos
= V 12/ Pc
Now,
Magnetizing Reactance Xm = V1 / Im
= V1 / IeSin
Here Rc and Xmare values referred to LV side. Sometimes a voltmeter is placed in the
open HV side of the Transformer to measure the Secondary voltage to get turn ratio.
Thus, Open Circuit Test gives us the following information:
Transformer Core Loss at rated voltage and frequency.

Transformer Shunt Branch Parameters like Rc and Xm.
Turn Ratio of the Transformer.
Transformer Load Test or Back to Back Test or Sumpners Test.
Transformer Load Test is basically carried out for determining the maximum temperature rise of
the Transformer. However is not viable to conduct this test by connecting the secondary of the
Transformer to rated load. In case of small Transformer, rated load can be connected to the
secondary of Transformer but for large Transformer, rated load capable of consuming rated
power is not easily available and also this will lead to wastage of energy. Therefore the best and
smart way to load a Transformer is to conduct Back to Back Test or Sumpners Test. It shall be
noted here that, Back to Back Test or Sumpners test can also be conducted for calculating the
efficiency of a Transformer but it is better to calculate the efficiency of Transformer using Open
Circuit Test and Short Circuit Test of Transformer as this will give more accurate result. In this
post we will focus on Back to Back Test or Sumpners Test of single phase Transformer.
The Back to back Test on single phase transformer requires two identical Transformers. In this
Test, the primaries of two Transformers are connected in parallel and are energized at rated
voltage and frequency as shown in figure below.
With Secondary open, the wattmeter W1 records the total core loss occurring in both the
Transformers. Now, secondary of both the Transformers are connected in series with their
polarity in phase opposition so that the voltage across the terminals ab is zero as indicated by
the voltmeter V2. Here it shall be noted that, the basis for selection of range of voltmeter V2 shall
be the double of rated secondary voltage of the Transformers. In case, the reading of voltmeter
V2 is not zero, this means that the series connection of secondary of Transformer are not in
phase opposition and therefore we need to change the connection by just connecting the
terminals ad together and check that voltage across bc is zero as indicated by voltmeter V2.
Now, if we short the secondary of Transformers, no current will flow as Vab = 0 and therefore
the reading of wattmeter W1 will not change. Now we will inject voltage in the secondary circuit
by means of voltage regulator, fed from the source connected to the primary or from a separate
source. The injected voltage is regulated till rated current flow in the secondary circuit.
By Transformer Action, rated current now will start flowing in primary circuit too. Note here that,
the full load or rated current in primary completes its path as shown by the dotted line in figure
above. As this full load current in the primary is not flowing through the current coil of the
wattmeter, therefore the reading of wattmeter W1will remain unaltered.
The reading of voltmeter V2will now show the voltage drop due to leakage impedance of both
the Transformers. As full load current is flowing in the secondary circuit, the wattmeter W 2 will
read the total full load ohmic loss of Transformers.
Let us suppose that,
Pc = Core Loss in individual Transformer

Poh = Ohmic Loss in individual Transformer
then,
Reading of wattmeter W1=2Pc

Reading of wattmeter W2= 2Poh
Therefore, from the above two reading efficiency of each Transformer can be determined.
From the above discussion, it is quite clear that, even though Transformer is not connected to
any load in Sumpners Test, rated current is flowing in the primary as well as in the secondary of
Transformers and hence full load ohmic and core loss is taking place. If temperature rise of the
two Transformers is to be measured, then two Transformers are kept under rated loss condition
for several hours till maximum stable temperature is reached.
Types of Relay Output Contact.

We know that Relay is a switch which senses fault in a system and once fault is sensed
by the Relay, it issues trip command to the Circuit Breaker to isolate the faulty section of
the network from the healthy section.
The Relay detects the abnormal condition by continuously monitoring electrical

quantities which are different for healthy and faulty condition. The electrical quantities
which may change during fault condition are voltage, current, frequency and phase
angle. If one or more of the above electrical quantities change, that signals the
presence, type and location of the fault to the Relay. After detecting the fault condition,
Relay pick-up, its contact will change from NO to NC or vice versa. So we can wire up a
particular kind of Relay contact to Breaker tripping circuit. So whenever, the Relay picks
up, the tripping of Breaker will take place.
Relay coil when picked up will change its contact status. Let us say Relay Normally
Open (NO) contact is wired to the Breaker Trip Coil Circuit. Therefore when the Relay
coil is in de-energized state, the circuit of Trip Coil of CB is not complete and hence no
tripping of the CB. During fault condition as the current through the Relay coil exceeds
the pick-up value, the Relay coil will get actuated which in turn will force its contact to
change over i.e. NO contact will change to Normally Close (NC) thereby closing the Trip
Coil circuit of the Breaker.
Relays may be fitted with a variety of contact systems for providing electrical outputs for
tripping and remote indication purposes. The most common types of relay Output
contacts are as follows:
a) Self-reset Type. The contacts remain in the operated condition only while the
controlling quantity is applied, returning to their original condition when it is removed
b) Hand or Electrical Reset. These contacts remain in the operated condition after the
controlling quantity is removed. They can be reset either by hand or by an auxiliary
electromagnetic element.
The majority of protection relay elements have self-reset contact systems, which, if so
desired, can be modified to provide hand reset output contacts by the use of auxiliary
elements. Hand or electrically reset relays are used when it is necessary to maintain a
signal or lockout condition. Contacts are generally shown on engineering diagrams in
the position corresponding to the un-operated or de-energized condition, regardless of
the continuous service condition of the equipment. For example, an under-voltage relay,
which is continually energized in normal circumstances, would still be shown in the de-
energized condition.
A make contact is one that closes when the relay picks up, whereas a break contact is
one that is closed when the relay is de-energized and opens when the relay picks up.
Examples of these conventions and variations are shown in figure below.
How does Trip Circuit Supervision Work?.

Trip Circuit Supervision Circuit senses any fault either in the trip coil of breaker or trip circuit. On
sensing a fault, Trip Circuit Supervision Relay changes its contact status to window
annunciation on the panel. Here fault in the circuit means any break or open circuit. In this post
we will be discussing the working principle of trip circuit supervision.
Basically, a breaker is equipped with two trip coils. Both the trip coil energizes if relay
issues a tripping command. On energization of trip coil, breaker mechanism opens the
circuit breaker. Therefore, it is very important to monitor the trip coil healthiness
otherwise during the requirement the breaker may not open to clear the fault.
Figure below, shows the simplified diagram of trip circuit supervision.
Trip Circuit Supervision Relay is provided to monitor the healthiness of trip coil. As there
are two trip coils therefore, there will be two Trip Circuit Supervision Relays and hence
two different circuits. This Relay has three coils namely RLA, RLB and main coil (TCS)
of the Relay as shown in the figure above. Now, breaker may either be open or close,
therefore we need to monitor the healthiness in both the state of the breaker. Thus, trip
circuit supervision is divided as pre-close and post close supervision.
As shown in the figure, contacts A and B are breaker auxiliary contacts. Mind that
theses contacts are connected to the breaker mechanism and therefore their status
depends on the breaker position. If the breaker is open, contact A will be OPEN and
contact B will be CLOSE. Similarly if breaker is close, contact B will be OPEN and
contact A will be CLOSE. Now we will consider pre-close and post close supervision
separately.
Pre-close Trip Circuit Supervision:
Pre-close means that breaker is open. Thus the status of contact A will be OPEN and
that of B will be CLOSE. If you observe the circuit carefully, you will notice that, in this
case current will be flowing through both the coils RLA and RLB. As coils RLA and RLB
are energized, their contact will be close.
Now carefully observe the circuit of TCS Relay. Since RLA and RLB are close, DC
supply will be extended and hence TCS relay will be energized. Therefore, its output
contact 1-2 will be open and hence no window will appear. This means that trip circuit is
healthy. Assume there is any open circuit, in such case as no current could flow through
the coils RLA and RLB, hence relay TCS will not be energized. Because of this
its output contact 1-2 will be close for window annunciation . This means to the operator
that either DC supply has failed or there is some problem in the trip circuit.
Post Close Trip Circuit Supervision:
Post close means that breaker is close. Thus the status of contact A will be CLOSE and
that of B will be OPEN. If you observe the circuit carefully, you will notice that, in this
case current will be flowing through both the coils RLA.
Now carefully observe the circuit of TCS Relay. Since output contact of RLA is close,
DC supply will be extended to TCS relay and hence TCS relay will be energized.
Therefore, itsoutput contact 1-2 will be open and hence no window will appear. This
means that trip circuit is healthy. Assume there is any open circuit, in such case as no
current could flow through the coils RLA, hence relay TCS will not be energized.
Because of this its output contact 1-2 will be close to annunciate window. This means to
the operator that either DC supply has failed or there is some problem in the trip circuit.
It shall be noticed that, as the resistance of relay coil is very less therefore a
high resistanceshall be connected in series so that less current flows through the circuit
to operate the trip coil of the breaker. It shall also be noticed that, in case of protection
trip, separately positive DC voltage is extended to the trip coil of circuit breaker so that
full current flows through the trip coil to operate the breaker as clear from the figure.
Basic Criteria for Selection of 33 kV/ 11 kV Or 66kV/11kV Substation.

Basically 33 kV / 11 kV is used for distribution of power at the substation and 66 kV / 11
kV is also used for the distribution. But whether to use 66/11 kV or 33/11 kV depends on
many factors. Following are some of the factors which are taken care for the selection of
voltage of substation.
a) The substation rating is defined as per the power handling capacity, location and
purpose of substation.
b) Thumb rule for the economical voltage rating has been categorized for different power
range to be received as below:
Load up to 150 MVA voltage rating of 132 kV.
Load up to 80 MVA voltage rating of 66 kV.
Load up to 5 MVA Voltage rating of 33 kV.
Thus, when a substation is of rating 66/11 kV, means substation has been designed to
receive 80 MVA on 66 kV and it will distribute the received power on 11 kV.
Again, substation of rating 33/11kV means, the substation has been designed to receive
5 MVA of power at 33 kV and it will distribute the same on 11 kV.
Advantages & disadvantages of Harmonics in Power System.

Harmonic voltages and currents in a Power System are a result of non-linear electric
loads.
In a normal AC Power System, the current varies sinusoidally at a specific frequency,
usually 50 or 60 Hertz. When a linear electrical load is connected to the system, it draws
a sinusoidal current at the same frequency as the voltage, though usually not in phase
with the voltage.
Current harmonics are caused by non-linear loads. When a non-linear load, such as a
rectifier / inverter, is connected to the system, it draws a current that is not necessarily
sinusoidal. The current waveform can become quite complex, depending on the type of
load and its interaction with other components of the system. Regardless of how
complex the current waveform becomes, as described through Fourier Series analysis,
it is possible to decompose it into a series of simple sinusoids, which start at the power
system fundamental frequency and occur at integer multiples of the fundamental
frequency.
Further examples of non-linear loads include common office equipment such as

computers and printers, Fluorescent lighting, battery chargers, electronic ballasts,
variable frequency drives, and switching mode power supplies.
Total Harmonic Distortion or THD is a common measurement of the level of harmonic

distortion present in power systems. THD is defined as the ratio of total harmonics to
the value at fundamental frequency.
where Vn is the RMS voltage of nth harmonic and n = 1 is the fundamental frequency.
Effects of Harmonics:
One of the major effects of power system harmonics is to increase the current in the
system. This is particularly the case for the third harmonic, which causes a sharp
increase in the zero sequence current, and therefore increases the current in the neutral
conductor.
Electric motors experience losses due to hysteresis and losses due to eddy currents set
up in the iron core of the motor. These are proportional to the frequency of the current.
Since the harmonics are at higher frequencies, they produce higher core losses in a
motor than the power frequency would. This results in increased heating of the motor
core, which (if excessive) can shorten the life of the motor.
The 5th harmonic causes a Counter Electromotive Force in large motors which acts in
the opposite direction of rotation. The Counter Electromotive Force is not large enough
to counteract the rotation; however it does play a small role in the resulting rotating
speed of the motor.
How Harmonics Eliminated from Alternator Generated Voltage?.

In this post we will discuss about how to eliminate or suppress the harmonics from the
emf waveform of an Alternator. In an Alternator, the primary source of harmonics in the
emf waveform is due to non sinusoidal field waveform. If the field waveform would have
been sinusoidal then there have been no harmonics in generated emf of an Alternator.
Therefore, first attempt is made to make the field waveform sinusoidal as far as possible
and them means of reducing or suppressing the harmonics is adopted. Field waveform
of an Alternator can be made sinusoidal by the following methods:
Small air gap at the pole centre and large air gap at the pole end in an Salient
Pole Synchronous machine tens to make the field flux sinusoidal.
Skew pole faces if possible.
In Turbo-Alternator or cylindrical pole synchronous machine, the air gap is
uniform and hence field winding is distributed in slots in such a manner to make the
field waveform sinusoidal. Figure below shows the Rotor of an Alternator.
Having adopted all the above mentioned methods, the filed waveform along the air gap
periphery is still not purely sinusoidal but it is flat topped. As a result, harmonic emf is
always generated in the Alternator. These harmonics can however be eliminated /
suppressed by the following methods:
The distribution of armature winding along the air gap periphery tends to make
the generated emf waveform sinusoidal.
With chorded coil, harmonics can be eliminated. If the be the chording angle for
fundamental flux wave, then for nth space harmonics the chording angle becomes n
electrical. Therefore, pitch factor for nth harmonics,
Kp= Cos(n/2)
If we want to eliminate 5th harmonics then, = 36 as
Kp = Cos(180/2)
=0
Therefore, generated emf E = KpKdfNph
Where Kp = Pitch factor
Kd = Winding Distribution Factor
f =Frequency
Nph = Number of turns per phase
=Flux
A chording angle of 30 is most useful in an Alternator as it gives the following pitch

factors,
0.966 for fundamental, 0.707 for 3 rd harmonic, 0.259 for 5th and 7th harmonics and 0.7.7
for 9th harmonics.
Mind that triplen harmonics is eliminated from the generated line emf by Star
connection, though 5thand 7th harmonics of reduced magnitude are present in the
line emf.
By Skewing the Armature Slot tooth / slot harmonics are eliminated.

Thus, using the above mentioned ways, harmonics in the generated emf of a synchronous generator
is reduced.
Why Output Voltage of Alternator cant have Even Harmonics?.

Output voltage of a Synchronous Generator cannot contain even harmonics. For
understanding the reason, carefully observe the figure below.
As shown in the figure, one full pitched coil a and a are placed. The fundamental
component of field flux wave induce maximum emf in coil sides a and a as these are
cutting the maximum filed flux m1. If the rms value of emf in each coil be E1 then the
resultant emf of fundamental frequency across the coil ends A and B = 2E 1.
Now, the second harmonics component of field flux wave also induces emf in coil sides
a and a. The induced emf because of second harmonics in coil sides a and a are
maximum as because these are cutting the maximum field flux m2. But here it shall be
noted that in both the coil sides the emf induced will oppose each other as both coil
sides are cutting maximum positive filed flux wave of second harmonic component.
Therefore the net / resultant emf because of second harmonic component across the
coil sides A and B = 0
This shows that second / even though even / second harmonic is present in the field flux
wave, second harmonic cannot be there in the output voltage of an Alternator.
It shall however be noted that field flux waveform of an Alternator is symmetrical and
hence it do not have any even harmonics and hence there will not be any even
harmonics in the generated voltage of an Alternator.
Suppression of Harmonics in Transformer.

In this post we will focus on various methods adopted to suppress harmonics in a
Transformer. Harmonics in a Transformer can be suppressed by flowing methods:
Lower Flux Density:
Harmonics in Transformer can be suppressed by having lower flux density in core but it
has one disadvantage that, this method of reducing flux density in core will lead to
higher cross sectional area of the core and more number of turn for maintain voltage
ratio.
Because V = 1.414fN
So if B is reduced then for having a constant value of V, we need to increase cross

sectional area A to maintain flux (as = BA) and number of turns N. Thus this
method of reducing harmonics is uneconomical and is not used.
Type of Connection:
Triplen harmonics are those which are having frequency multiple of 3. Triplen harmonic
current and voltage in the line are suppressed by using Star or Delta connection of the
winding in the Transformer.
Primary or Secondary Winding in Delta:
As we know that harmonic voltages have more nuisance effect than harmonic current.
Thus every effort is made to suppress the third harmonic voltages in the Transformer.
When any of the Primary or Secondary Winding is connected in Delta, triplen harmonic
voltages are suppressed considerably. In view of this, one of the Transformers winding
either Primary or Secondary must be connected in Delta to suppress triplen harmonics.
Use of Tertiary Winding:

As seen in previous paragraph, we need to connect either Primary or Secondary must
be connected in Delta to suppress triplen harmonics but in case it is not possible to
connect either of the Primary or Secondary in Delta then three phase Transformer must
be designed to have an extra i.e. tertiary winding connected in Delta. This closed Delta
formed by the tertiary winding provides a path for the third harmonic currents and
therefore the EMF and flux becomes approximately sinusoidal in nature.
It shall be noted that tertiary winding has no any effect on the fundamental frequency
component voltages because the phasor sum of three EMFs mutually displaced by an
angle of 120 is zero in the closed Delta connected tertiary winding.
Star Delta Earthing Transformer:
The third harmonic voltages in the two winding Star-Star Transformer can also be
suppressed by using Star-Delta Earthing Transformer as shown in figure below.
The closed Delta provides a path for the third harmonic currents and hence the EMF
and flux remains sinusoidal.
For Star-Star Transformer, the third harmonic voltages can also be suppressed by using
4 wire supply or earthing Transformer Neutral point if Alternator / Generator neutral is
grounded. The neutral wire in this case provide a path for the flow of third harmonic
current and hence the flux & EMF remain sinusoidal.
Transformer Overflux Protection.
Transformer Overflux Protection is provided to protect the Transformer core from overfluxing. A
Transformer is designed to operate at a particular flux level. In case the flux in the core of
Transformer exceeds a certain level, the core loss increases which may lead to overheating of
components which in turn may result into internal fault. Therefore, overflux protection is provided.
A transformer is designed to operate at or below a maximum magnetic flux density in the transformer
core. Above this design limit the eddy currents in the core and nearby conductive components cause
overheating which within a very short time may cause severe damage. The magnetic flux in the core
is proportional to the voltage applied to the winding divided by the impedance of the winding. The
flux in the core increases with either increasing voltage or decreasing frequency. During start-up or
shutdown of generator-connected transformers, or following a load rejection, the transformer may
experience an excessive ratio of Volts to Hertz (V/f), that is, become overexcited. When a
transformer core is overexcited, the core is operating in a non-linear magnetic region, and creates
harmonic components in the exciting current. A significant amount of current at the 5th
harmonic is characteristic of overexcitation.
Assuming Number of turns constant, Flux is directly proportional to V/f. Here V is supply voltage and
f is frequency of supply.
In case of any Transformer, signal for supply voltage V is taken from PT. Let us assume that
Transformer Primary is connected with 220 kV. Thus normal voltage of primary of Transformer will be
220 kV at a frequency of 50 Hz. Also assume that the PT ratio is 220 kV/110 V.
Therefore,
V/f ratio = 110/50 = 2.2
Thus at a V/f ratio of 2.2 the Transformer will operate satisfactorily. So the question arises which V/f
ratio may cause the overfluxing. For answering this we need to have a look at the Hysteresis curve
of the core material and from the curve we can judge at which flux level Transformer can be subject
for a particular time safely.
Normally the setting of overfluxing is kept 110% of nominal value or 1.1 pu. This means at a flux
level of 1.12.2 = 2.42 the Transformer will operate safely but above 2.42 the Transformer core will
be subjected to overflux.
Does this mean that at a V/f ratio of 2.5 Transformer shall be tripped instantaneously? No it
doesnt mean so. Because Transformer core may tolerate such an overflux for some short time
duration and hence instantaneous tripping is not required. Therefore, wise decision is to give
anINVERSEcharacteristics to the tripping which mean more the ratio of V/f less will be time of
tripping.
Now we consider two cases:
Case1: Transformer Primary voltage rises to 247 kV while frequency is 50.1 Hz
As primary of Transformer rises to 247 kV at a frequency f = 50.1 Hz
The PT secondary Voltage = 247110/220 = 123.5 V
Hence, V / f = 123.5/50.1 = 2.465
Thus the Relay will pick-up and as the characteristics is inverse, the relay will trip after some time
because we have kept the setting 2.42. If the Primary Voltage is maintaining at 247 kV , then we can
do nothing and the Relay will definitely trip.
Case2: Transformer is provide with Tap Changer
Suppose the Transformer is provided with Tap Changer. As the Transformer is provided with Tap
Changer in the primary side, we can increase the Tap position from the nominal value which will
result in increase in the value of N1 (Primary number of turns) and hence,
But this is not going to help us as we have taken the voltage signal from the PT which is connected
to the Primary side i.e. and primary side voltage is maintained at 247 kV, hence V/f will be same.
Thus we observe that, even though we have Tap Changer, in the present scenario we can do
nothing to prevent tripping of Transformer on overfluxing though the Transformer is not actually in
overflux condition (as we have increased the number of turns in the primary side.)
Therefore, to take advantage of Tap Changer, we can make a provision of taking voltage signal from
the secondary side PT of Transformer Relay. In such case, if the primary turn of Transformer is
increased then its reflection on secondary side PT will be observed proportionally and tripping on
Overflux protection can be prevented.
In case of no load operation of Transformer, we can give voltage signal to the Relay from the
Primary side PT.
In this way the purpose will be served without compromising the overflux protection. Thus we see,
how important is tap changer in preventing tripping of Transformer from Overfluxing.
Concept of Tap-Changers in Transformer.

The modern loads are designed to operate at satisfactorily at one voltage level. It is
therefore of great importance to keep the consumers terminal voltage within a
prescribed limits. The Transformers output voltage and hence the terminal voltage of the
consumer can be controlled by using tap either on primary or secondary side of
Transformer.
As we know that
V1 / V2= N1 / N2
Where V1 = Primary Voltage

V2 = Secondary Voltage
N1 = Primary Number of Turns
N2 = Secondary Number of Turns
Thus V2 = V1(N2 / N1)
Thus,
If we increase the Primary Number of Turns N , output voltage of Transformer

1
V decreases.
2
If we decrease the Primary Number of Turns N , output voltage of Transformer

1
V increases.
2
If we increase the Secondary Number of Turns N , output voltage of Transformer

2
V increases.
2
If we decrease the Secondary Number of Turns N , output voltage of Transformer

2
V decreases.
2
Now, whether will we change Primary Number of Turns N 1 or Secondary Number of

Turns N2depends whether we have provided Tap on Primary side or Secondary side.
The choice of providing tap on Primary side or Secondary side is based on maintaining
voltage per turn constant as far as possible. The flux in the core of Transformer
depends on voltage applied in the primary,
V1 = 1.414fN1
So, = V1 / 1.414 fN1
Thus the flux in the core shall be maintained constant. If the Primary voltage per turn i.e.
Flux decrease, which means poor utilization of core while in case the Primary voltage
per turn increases that means overflux which may cause heating and saturation of the
core.
Let us take an example of Generating Transformer. As the primary of the Generating

Transformer is connected with the Generator output terminals therefore variation in the
Primary voltage will be very less. Therefore, the flux in the core of Transformer will be
constant and hence the wise decision will be to put the Taps on the secondary side.
Other factors which shall also be taken care while deciding upon the side Taps should
be provided are:
Transformer Taps are provided on HV side as in this case Tag changing Gera will
handle low current and chance of sparking will be less.
If we see the construction of Transformer, we will observe that LV winding are
placed just after the core to limit the insulation requirement to be provided and HV
winding are placed on the LV winding. Thus it is quite difficult to provide the Taps on
the LV winding of the Transformer.
Now after deciding the side where Tap is to be provided in Transformer, next question
is that whether Tap shall be provided in the center of the winding or at the end of
the winding?
A general sense says that Tap shall be provided in the middle of the winding because in
this case the forces on the winding will be less.
Since the current flowing in the Primary and Secondary coils are in opposite direction,
these currents interact with the leakage flux in between the two windings and produce a
radial force repelling each other as shown in the figure below.
Now, suppose the winding is tapped at one end. When some of the winding is cut out by
tap changer, axial force in addition to radial force is also developed as shown in figure
below.
Under short circuit condition, the axial force tending to compress the winding against the
core is very large which may damage the winding insulation. In order to eliminate this,
physical position of the Tapped winding should be in the middle of the Transformer
winding so that no axial force arises after some of the turns are cut out.
.
Advantage & Disadvantage of Auto Transformer over Two Winding Transformer.

The weight of conductor for any winding depends upon two parameters:
Current carried by the winding

Number of turns required in the winding.
Thus we can say that weight of conductor in a winding is directly proportional to its
Ampere Turns i.e. MMF.
Now, we will focus our attention on the weight of conductor required for Auto
Transformer and a Two Winding Transformer.
As discussed in earlier post Basic principle of Auto Transformer, the current carried by
winding AC i.e. IAC= I1 and that of winding BC i.e. IBC = (I2-I1). Also the number of turns for
winding AC is (N1-N2) and that for winding BC is N2.
Therefore,
The weight of conductor required for Auto Transformer, W CAT
Ampere turns of winding AC + Ampere turns of winding BC
(N1-N2)xI1+ N2x(I2-I1)
N1I1+N2I2-2N2I1
But N2 / N1= I1 / I2
So, N2I2= N1I1
Therefore,
The weight of conductor required for Auto Transformer, W CAT
N1I1+N2I2-2N2I1
2N1I1 2N2I1
2(N1 N2)xI1 .(1)
If we want to compare the weight of conductor required for Auto Transformer and Two
Winding Transformer, then both the Transformers must have same voltage ratio (V 2 /
V1), current ratio (I2 / I1), input VA i.e. V1I1and output VA i.e. V2I2.
Assuming all the above parameters to be same for Two Winding and Auto Transformer,
Weight of conductor in Two Winding Transformer WCTWT,
Ampere Turns of Primary + Ampere Turns of Secondary

N1I1+ N2I2
But N1I1= N2I2
So,
Weight of conductor in Two Winding Transformer WCTWT,
2N1I1 .(2)
Therefore from equation (1) and (2),
WCAT / WCTWT= [2(N2 N1)xI1] / 2N1I1
= 1 N2/N1
= (1 k)
As for step down Auto Transformer k<1, hence the weight of conductor required for Auto
Transformer is less than that required for Two Winding Transformer.
Saving in Conductor = 1 WCAT/ WCTWT
= 1 (1 k)
=k
Hence there is net saving of conductor in case of Auto Transformer. Let us assume that
k =0.1, thus the saving in conductor for Auto Transformer will be only 10% but if k = 0.9
then saving in conductor will be 90% which is quite lucrative. Thus we can conclude that
Auto Transformer is more economical when the voltage ratio k is more near to unity.
Another important aspect is core. As the conductor required for Auto Transformer is less
than that required for Two Winding Transformer that means for Auto Transformer lower
window dimension will be required. Thus by using Auto Transformer, there is net saving
in Core material as well as conductor material, the saving will be more and more as we
tend toward voltage ratio unity.
Owing to reduction in conductor and core material, the Ohmic loss in conductor and
core loss is reduced considerably. Therefore an Auto Transformer has higher efficiency
than Two Winding Transformer of same output.
Reduction in conductor material means lower value of winding resistance. Since a part
of winding is common to both the Primary and Secondary circuit in Auto Transformer,
leakage reactance will be less. Because of lower value of leakage reactance, a superior
voltage regulation is achieved with Auto Transformer.
Disadvantage of Auto Transformer:

As seen earlier in this post that saving of conductor in Auto Transformer is k so
saving in conductor decreases as the value of voltage ratio k decreases.
Another biggest disadvantage of Auto Transformer is direct electrical connection
between the Primary and Secondary circuit. If Primary is supplied with high voltage
then any open circuit in common winding will lead to dangerously high voltage on LV
side which may damage load as well as this dangerously high voltage will be very
harmful of working personnel. Thus special protection must be provided to prevent
such an occurrence.
Auto-Transformer Starting of an Induction Motor.

It can easily be seen from the slip torque characteristics of an induction motor that,
there is some finite torque when the slip s=1 i.e. speed is zero. This simply means that
Induction Motor is a self-starting motor and begins to rotate on its own when connected
to a 3 phase supply.
At the instant of starting, a three phase Induction Motor behaves like a Transformer with
its secondary winding shorted. Therefore, Induction Motor during starting takes a high
current from the supply mains. To limit this high starting current of Induction Motor,
different starting methods are used. In this post we will have a look at the Auto-
Transformer Starting Method of Induction Motor.
The main philosophy of starting any Induction Motor is to start it at a reduced

voltage and as soon as the motor reaches its rated speed, full supply voltage is
applied to the terminals of Induction Motor. A schematic diagram for Auto-
Transformer Starting of an Induction Motor is given below.
It shall be observed that, using Auto-Transformer we are only applying a reduced
voltage xV1 to the Stator terminal of Induction Motor. Here x is less than 1. As soon as
the Induction Motor reaches its rated speed, full supply voltage is applied to the
terminals of stator.
Therefore, per phase starting current of Motor = xV 1/Zsc = xIsc
Here Isc is the current through the stator during direct switching of motor.
Thus we observe that starting current of Motor has reduced and is x times that of
current during DOL (Direct Online) starting.
Again,
Input VA of Auto-Transformer = Output VA of the Auto-Transformer
Ist.V1= xV1(xIsc)
Therefore,
Per phase starting current from the Supply Mains Ist = x2Isc
Thus per phase starting current from Supply Mains has now became x 2 times that of
DOL current. Mind that it has reduced as x is less than 1 so x 2 will be much less than 1.
Thus the main advantage of using Auto-Transformer is that it reduces the starting
current from the Supply Mains by x2 times.
Note that starting current is the motor winding is x times while the starting current from
the supply mains has became x2 time of DOL starting current.
Now we will have a look at Torque of Induction Motor.
As the torque of an Induction Motor is directly proportional of square of applied voltage

at the stator terminals, therefore
Starting Torque with Auto-Transformer Test = K(xV 1)2 where K is constant of

proportionality.
Starting Torque with DOL Test = KV12 where K is constant of proportionality.
Therefore,
Test with Auto-Transformer/ Test with DOL = x2
Thus starting torque with Auto Transformer is less than the starting torque with DOL
starting by a factor of x2.
Why Star Delta Starter Preferred in Induction Motor?.

The main purpose of any starter is to reduce the requirement of high starting current.
Normally the starting current of an induction motor is 6 to 7 times of the full load current.
If one has an induction motor with a DOL starter, drawing a high current from the line,
which is higher than the current for which this line is designed. This will cause a drop in
the line voltage, all along the line, both for the consumers between the substation and
this consumer, and those, who are in the line after this consumer. This is the reason for
which a starter is to be used.
In a squirrel cage induction motor, the starter is used only to decrease the input voltage
to the motor so as to decrease the starting current.
It is T.P.D.T switch used to first start the motor with the winding connected in star and
then switch for delta connection in running position. TPDT stands for Triple Pole,
Double Throw.
Why Star Delta Starter Preferred in Induction Motor?

If the winding of Induction Motor is connected in star, the voltage per phase supplied to
each winding is reduced by 0.577.In general the voltage per phase in delta connection
is Vs, the phase current in each stator winding is (Vs/Zs), where Zs represents the
impedance per phase of the motor at standstill or start.
The line current or the input current to the motor is I st (starting current) = (1.732*Vs)/Zs
which is the current when it has to be started by DOL starter.
Now, if the stator winding is connected as star, the phase or line current drawn from
supply at start (standstill) = (Vs/Zs)/(1.732)
which is 0.333= (0.577*0.577) of the starting current, if DOL starter is used.
The voltage per phase in each stator winding is now Vs/1.732. So the starting current is
reduced by 33.3%. Because of the reduction in starting current, starting torque reduces.
Therefore we can conclude that by using Star Delta starter, the starting current is
reduced to approximately two-thirds. Since starting current is reduced, the voltage drops
during the starting of motor in systems are reduced.
Why Induction Motor Star Point not Grounded in Industries?.

In any electrical system, we do the neutral grounding at the power source e.g. the star-
points of generators or transformers. By keeping the grounded neutrals at the power
source, earth fault current will have a return path from the point of short-circuit at
downstream to the source. In this way the direction of earth fault current flow can be
easily identified and the earth fault protection relays in the distribution system can easily
be coordinated.
As clear from the figure, there will not be any earth fault current in the case where there
is no neutral grounding of the source because of absence of return path. But as we can
see, if the source is having neutral grounding then earth fault current will have a return
path and earth fault current will flow from the point of fault to the source.
After reading the above paragraph, I am sure that a question will strike your
smart brain, why do we do neutral grounding as there wont be any earth fault
current in absence of neutral grounding?
Yes, it is correct that there will not be any earth fault current in absence of neutral
grounding but neutral grounding has many advantages, they are as follows:
Voltage of the phases is limited to phase to Ground Voltage
The high voltage due to arching ground or transient line to ground fault are
eliminated.
Sensitive protective Relays for earth fault protection can be used.
Over voltage due to lightening are discharged to ground otherwise there would
have been a positive reflection at the isolated neutral of the system.
Hope your doubt is clear now. This is the reason Neutral grounding is done in a system.
Now coming to grounding of Star Point of Induction Motor,
Grounding a motor star point will create an earth path for earth fault current to flow
through that motors star point. If there are 10 motors in a process plant and their star
points are all grounded then obviously there are 10 additional paths for earth fault
currents to flow through.
If all the motors star points are grounded in this way the earth fault current detections
by the protection relays will be complicated and it is most likely that Relay will trip at the
incorrect locations because earth fault currents are flowing in many directions toward
multiple grounded neutral points.
Therefore the electrical consumers i.e. the load, including the capacitor banks, even if
they are star connected are not to be grounded.
Motor is a balanced 3-phase load. However when the system supply voltage is
unbalanced caused by unbalanced loads somewhere else or due to network conductors
problem, the motor operating under unbalance voltage will result in unbalance current in
the 3 windings. The same is true for the generator windings under that condition. The
design engineer may then decide that individual machines should be fixed with negative
phase sequence current protection.
Even if there is a neutral voltage shift in the induction motor, we should not ground the
motors neutral point. If we ground the induction Motor, it may create nuisance trip on
earth fault protection relays.
Why LT Motors are Delta connected but HT Motors are Star?.

In industries Low Tension i.e. low voltage Motors like Motors supplied by three phase
415 V are normally have Stator connected in Delta while High Tension i.e. Motors
supplied by high voltage like 6.6 kV have Stator connected in Star configuration. The
reason behind this is technical while making the Motor economical.
Following are the main reasons due to which high voltage Motors stator are connected
in Star:
As the Stator winding of Motor is to be connected with high voltage, it is better to

configure the Stator in STAR as in this configuration, the phase current remains the
same as the line current but the phase voltage reduces by to Vph = Vline/1.732 which
means that insulation requirement from phase winding will be less.
The second most important reason is that, starting current for Motors is 6 to 7
times of full load current. So start-up power will be large if HT motors are delta
connected. It may cause instability i.e. voltage dip in case of small Power System. In
STAR connected HT Motors starting current will be less compared to delta connected
motor as voltage is V and current is line current. So starting power and starting
ph
torque are reduced.

As current is less in STAR configuration, copper (Cu) required for winding will be
less.
Following are the main reasons due to which low voltage Motors stator are connected in
Delta:
In Delta connection, the insulation requirement will not be problem as voltage

level is less in LT Motors.
Starting current will not be problem as starting power in all will be less. So no
problem of voltage dips.
Starting torque should be large, as motors are of small capacity and hence Stator
should be connected in Delta to have more current and hence more starting torque.
Difference between an Induction Motor and a Synchronous Motor.

The basic difference is that an induction motor is an asynchronous machine whereas
the other one, as the name suggests is a synchronous machine.
Following are some important differences between a Induction Motor and a
Synchronous Motor:
Synchronous motors operate at synchronous speed (RPM=120f/p) while

induction motors operate at less than synchronous speed (RPM=120f/p slip). Slip is
nearly zero at zero load torque and increases as load torque increases.
Synchronous motors require a DC power source for the rotor excitation.
Synchronous motors require slip rings and brushes to supply rotor excitation.
Induction motors dont require slip rings, but some induction motors have them for
soft starting or speed control.
Synchronous motors require rotor windings while induction motors are most often
constructed with conduction bars in the rotor that are shorted together at the ends to
form a squirrel cage.
Synchronous motors require DC excitation to be supplied to the rotor windings;

induction motors dont.
Synchronous motors require a starting mechanism in addition to the mode of
operation that is in effect once they reach synchronous speed. Three phase induction
motors can start by simply applying power, but single phase motors require an
additional starting circuit.
The power factor of a synchronous motor can be adjusted to be lagging, unity or
leading while induction motors must always operate with a lagging power factor.
Synchronous motors are generally more efficient that induction motors.
Synchronous motors can be constructed with permanent magnets in the rotor
eliminating the slip rings, rotor windings, DC excitation system and power factor
adjustability.
Synchronous motors are usually built only is sizes larger than about 1000 Hp
(750 kW) because of their cost and complexity. However, permanent magnet
synchronous motors and electronically controlled permanent synchronous motors
called brushless DC motors are available in smaller sizes.
Difference between Squirrel Cage and Slip Ring Induction Motor.

Please have a look at the below figures of Squirrel Cage Induction and Wound Rotor /
Slip Ring Induction Motor.
Squirrel Cage Induction Motor:
Slip Ring / Wound Rotor Induction Motor:

Sr.
Slip Ring / Wound Rotor
No Squirrel Cage Induction Motor
Induction Motor
.
1) 1. In Squirrel cage induction motors In slip ring induction motors the
the rotor is simplest and most rotor is wound type. In the motor
rugged in construction. the slip rings, brushes are provided.
Compared to squirrel cage rotor the
rotor construction is not simple.
2) Cylindrical laminated core rotor with Cylindrical laminated core rotor is
heavy bars or copper or Aluminum wound like winding on the stator.
or alloys are used for conductors.
3) Rotor conductors or rotor bars are At starting the 3 phase windings are
short circuited with end rings. connected to a star connected
rheostat and during running
condition, the windings are short
circuited at the slip rings.
4) Rotor bars are permanently short It is possible to insert additional
circuited and hence it is not possible resistance in the rotor circuit.
to connect external resistance in the Therefore it is possible to increase
circuit in series with the rotor the torque; the additional series
conductors. resistance is used for starting
purposes.
5) Cheaper cost. Cost is slightly higher.
6) No moving contacts in the rotor. Carbon brushes, slip rings etc are
provided in the rotor circuit.
7) Higher efficiency. Comparatively less efficiency.
8) Low starting torque. It has 1.5 time High starting torque. It can be
full load torque. obtained by adding external
resistance in the rotor circuit.
9) Speed control by rotor resistance is Speed control by rotor resistance is
not possible. possible.
10) Starting current is 5 to 7 times the Less starting current compared to
full load current. squirrel cage Induction Motor.
.
Difference between Synchronous Motors with Damper Winding and Induction
Motor.
A Squirrel Cage Induction Motor (SCIM) only has a cage rotor winding, whereas a
synchronous machine has both a cage (damper) and a wound DC field winding as
shown in figure below.
Synchronous Motor with Damper Winding:
Squirrel Cage Induction Motor:

In both cases, and when using only the cage winding, both motors will run close to
synchronous speed just like a normal SCIM. However, when the synchronous motor
field winding is supplied with DC, it will lock into synchronism and its cage or damper
winding will carry zero current as the relative speed between the damper winding and
rotating flux is zero. Under load disturbances the damper winding will have current
induced in it, develop additional torque, and thus help to damp out transient
disturbances.
In smaller synchronous motors the damper winding is used to start the motor just like a
normal SCIM and when close to synchronous speed the DC field is applied and the
rotor locks into and runs at synchronous speed.
Capacitor Split Phase Motors or Starting of Single Phase Induction Motor by
Capacitor.
We have already discussed about staring methods of Single Phase Induction Motor. If you miss
that please read here,
1) Revolving Field Theory of Single Phase Induction Motors
2) Starting Methods of Single Phase Induction Motors
The schematic diagram of Capacitor Split Phase Motor is shown in figure below.
Like in resistor split phase motor, there are two windings, Main and Auxiliary winding but the
basic difference between the two method is that in Capacitor Split Phase Motors a capacitor of
suitable value is connected in series with the auxiliary winding. Capacitor is connected in series
with the auxiliary winding to obtain the desired time phase displacement between the auxiliary
winding current Ia and main winding current Im. A centrifugal Switch is also provided the cut out
auxiliary winding when the speed of Single Phase Induction Motor reaches 70 to 80% of
synchronous speed.
You may like to read,
Purpose of Centrifugal Switch in Induction Motor
As can be seen from the phasor diagram of Capacitor Split Phase Motor, there is an angle of
between the auxiliary winding current Ia and main winding current Im.
Mind that the angle between the auxiliary winding current Ia and main winding current Im is 180
if there is main winding alone and because of this Single Phase Induction Motor cannot start by
itself.
Also, the torque produced in any machine is directly proportional to IaImSin, therefore in this
method of starting, there will be a net starting torque and the motor will start. The value of
Capacitor used shall be selected based on the load starting torque requirement. If the starting
torque requirement of load is more, then angle shall be made more by selecting higher value
of Capacitor. A maximum starting torque can be obtained by this method of starting if angle =
90. But to have = 90, the size and cost of Capacitor will increase. Therefore a compromise is
made in between the load starting torque requirement and size & cost of Capacitor.
It shall be noted that, auxiliary winding and Capacitor are in circuit for a short time only, and
therefore these can be designed for a minimum cost. The torque speed curve for Capacitor
Split Phase Motor is depicted in figure below.
It is clear from the figure that starting torque in this method is high. Capacitor Split Phase Motors
have a typical power rating of 100 to 800 Watts. The value of starting Capacitor varies from 20
to 30 microF for 100 Watt Motors and 60 to 100 microF for 750 watt Motors. AC electrolytic
capacitors are mostly used in this method of starting but Motors shall not be frequently started
else electrolytic capacitors may get overheated and damage.
Why 3-Phase Induction Motors are Self-Starting but 3-Phase Synchronous Motors
Not?.
Let us consider a 3-phase induction motor first and see how it rotates. A 3- phase
supply given to the armature of Induction Motor produces a rotating magnetic field. This
rotating magnetic field rotates at synchronous speed Ns = (120xf)/P
This rotating magnetic field links to the rotor coils and induces voltage which in turn
produces current in the rotor. The current carrying rotor being placed in a magnetic field
experiences a torque and hence begins to rotate in the direction of rotating magnetic
field.
Thus we see that Induction Motor is self-starting. It does not require nay external mean
to rotate.
Now we consider a 3-phase synchronous motor. A 3-phase supply is given to the
armature of Synchronous Motor, produces a rotating magnetic field. However, in this
case, the rotor has its own field produced by a DC current flowing through the
rotor winding. This rotor field tends to align itself along with the rotating magnetic field
produced by the stator i.e. armature winding. North pole of rotor tries to lock with the
South pole of stator and South pole of Rotor tries to align along the North of Stator.
So what happens exactly?
The North Pole of rotor tries to chase the South Pole of stator. But the stator magnetic
field is rapidly rotating at synchronous speed, and before the North Pole of rotor could
lock with South Pole of stator, the stator field has shifted position so that its North
(stator) comes in the vicinity of North Pole of rotor and they repel as shown in figure
below.
Because the rotor has certain inertia and the speed of the rotating magnetic field is too
fast for it to catch up, it ends up vibrating. So Synchronous Motor fails to start.
So what do you do for starting a Synchronous Motor?
We can give a reduced frequency supply to the stator, this will reduce the speed
of rotation of the stator magnetic field and the rotor will easily catch up, once the rotor
catches up we may increase the frequency.
We can manually rotate the rotor till it catches speed near to synchronous speed
and eventually locks the rotor field with the stator field.
We can use Amortsieur Windings. The concept is to start the motor as an
induction motor. Initially no DC field excitation is given and the motor operates as an
induction motor. Once it attains some speed near to synchronous speed, DC
excitation is given and the rotor field aligns itself with the stator field, and rotor attains
synchronous speed.
Methods of Starting Single Phase Induction Motors.

As discussed in earlier post Revolving Field Theory of Single Phase Induction Motors, a single
phase induction motor with main stator winding alone has no inherent starting torque as the
main stator winding and only produces stationary pulsating air gap flux wave. For the
development of starting torque, rotating field at the starting must be produced. There are various
methods of starting single phase induction motor, can be classified as below,
1) Split phase starting
2) Shaded pole starting
3) Repulsion motor starting
4) Reluctance starting
Generally a single phase induction motor is known by the method employed for its starting.
Basically the selection of a particular type and choice of starting single phase induction motor
method depends upon the following factors:
1) Torque speed characteristics of load from starting to normal operating speed
2) The duty cycle
3) The starting and running line current limitation as imposed by the supply authorities
In this post we will only discuss the Split Phase Starting method.
Single Phase Induction Motor employing split phase starting method is known as Split Phase
Motor. All the split phase motors have two winding, main winding and auxiliary winding. Both
theses windings are connected in parallel but their magnetic axis are displaced by an angle 90.
Split phase starting method is further categorized into following:
1) Resistor split phase motors
2) Capacitor split phase motors
3) Capacitor start and run motors
Resistor split phase motors. A schematic diagram of the two stator winding in quadrature is
shown if figure below. Subscript m and a stands for main and auxiliary winding of stator. CS
is Centrifugal Switch.
You may like to read, Purpose of Centrifugal Switch in Induction Motor.
As we know that, if the two winding currents are shifted in time phase, a rotating filed is created
which is necessary for the production of starting torque. In order to achieve this main winding M
is designed to have low resistance but higher reactance whereas the auxiliary winding is
designed to have higher resistance (thin wire) but lower reactance. The use of thin wire for
auxiliary winding is acceptable as auxiliary winding only remain in circuit during starting but the
use of thick wire for main winding is necessary as main winding has to remain in circuit
permanently. As the reactance is directly proportional to the square of number of turns, auxiliary
winding has less number of turns as compared with main winding.
In addition to the above mentioned points, leakage reactance of main winding is increases by
placing it at the bottom of slot whereas auxiliary winding is placed at the top of slot to have low
leakage reactance.
As seen in above discussion, main winding has more reactive impedance as compared to the
auxiliary winding, therefore main winding current Im lags behind the auxiliary winding current Ia
as shown in the phasor diagram below.
Thus from the phasor we see that the angle between the two field produced by main and
auxiliary winding is . As we know that torque produced is directly proportional to torque angle
which is here, therefore a n net starting torque will be developed. The auxiliary winding is
disconnected automatically by means of Centrifugal Switch CS at about 70-80% of synchronous
speed. If the Centrifugal Switch fails to operate, auxiliary winding will remain in the circuit and
noisy performance of single phase induction motor will result. Since auxiliary winding is short
time rated, it must get overheated and consequently burn out.
Typical application of Resistor split phase induction motor is for fans, blowers,
centrifugal pumps and refrigerator.
Concept of Series and Shunt Faults.

Electrical Faults can be classified into two categories:.
Shunt Faults and
2) Series Faults
Shunt faults include power conductor or conductors to ground or short circuit between the
conductors.
Series type of fault is basically unbalance in system. Suppose we have used Fuse / Breaker to
protect the circuit. If one or two phases open while the third phase remain in circuit, such kind of
fault is called Series Fault. Notice that Series Fault may also occur in case of one or two Broken
Conductor. Here broken conductor is like breaking of jumper on the tower of transmission line
which is not touching the grounded tower body.
Shunt faults are characterized by increase in current and decrease in voltage and frequency
whereas Series faults are characterized by increase in voltage and frequency and decrease in
current in the faulted phase.
Shunt faults are classified as:
1) Line-to-Ground Fault
2) Line-to-Line Fault
3) Double Line-to-Ground Fault
4) Three phase fault
Of the above faults, first three faults are unsymmetrical fault as the symmetry is disturbed in one
/ two of the phases. The method of Symmetrical Components shall be applied for the analysis of
such unbalance and fault.
Three phase fault is balanced fault which can also be analyzed using concept of symmetrical
components.
Series faults are classified as:
1) One Open Conductor
2) Two Open Conductors
These faults also disturb the symmetry and therefore these faults are unbalanced faults and
hence shall be analyzed using concept of symmetrical components.
Neutral Voltage during Fault:
The potential of neutral when it is grounded through some impedance or is isolated will not be at
ground potential under unbalance condition as in unsymmetrical fault rather it will have some
finite value with respect to ground.
The potential of neutral is given as Vn = -InZn where Zn is neutral grounding impedance and In
is neutral current. Notice the negative sign before the expression of neutral voltage Vn, it
indicates the flow of current from ground to the neutral point and therefore the potential of
neutral point will be less than the ground potential.
For a three phase system we know that,
Ia + Ib+ Ic = 3Ia0
You may also like to read Calculation of Symmetrical Components
Therefore,
Vn = -3Ia0Zn
Notice that only zero sequence current flows through the neutral and therefore voltage drop
across neutral will be only due to zero sequence currents.
HRC Fuse Construction, Working and Characteristics.

HRC stands for High Rupturing Capacity. HRC Fuse has high rupturing capacity.
Because of its high current rupturing capacity, a special method for extinguishing arc is
required in the design of HRC Fuse.
Construction of HRC Fuse:
HRC Fuse consists of heat resisting ceramic body having metal end caps on which
silver current carrying element is welded in a special manner as shown in figure below.
As clear from the figure above, the fuse element have a portion of Tin Alloy, known as a
Eutectic Material. This alloy is used to give the fuse specific operating characteristics.
Also, constrictions in the fuse element are provided which play a very vital role in the
operation of Fuse. The space between the body surrounding the Fuse element is filled
filling powder such as with Silica Send, Chalk, plaster of peris etc.
Working Principle of HRC Fuse:
Under normal operating conditions the current flowing through the Fuse element does
not provide enough energy to melt the element. The heat produced is absorbed by the
surrounding filling powder. If a large current flows the energy produced melts and
vaporizes the fuse element before the fault current reaches the peak. The chemical
reaction between the fuse element vapour and filling powder results into high resistance
material which helps in extinguishing the arc.
Now, will HRC Fuse blow off in case of overload condition?
Under overload condition the fuse element will not blow off but if the condition exists for
prolonged period, the Eutectic Material will melt and break the fuse element. This is the
purpose of providing Eutectic Material in the HRC Fuse.
Will Eutectic Material blow off during short circuit condition?
Under high current short circuit conditions the smaller area constricted parts of the fuse
element will melt rapidly and vaporize and will break before the Eutectic Material. That
is why constrictions are provided in the HRC Fuse element.
Characteristics of HRC Fuse:
A Fuse operates when its element melts due to heat produced by I 2RF, where RFis Fuse
resistance. This heat produced increases if the current flowing through the Fuse
element increases. Therefore, we can conclude that a Fuse element will melt faster for
large fault current while it will take some time for lower value of fault current. This time-
current relationship of Fuse is known as Characteristics of Fuse and is very useful for
proper selection of Fuse for a particular circuit and for coordination purpose. A typical
Fuse characteristic is shown in figure below.
How to Interpret the Fuse Characteristics?
In the above figure, curve for three Fuses of rating 60 A, 100 A and 200 A are give. We
select Fuse of rating 60 A for the sake of understanding. See, if the current flowing
through the Fuse element is around 350 A then the Fuse element will melt in .02 sec i.e.
20 ms while if the current is around 225 A then it will take 50 ms to melt. Thus we see
that the Fuse characteristic is Inverse Time. Higher the current, lower will be the time to
melt.
Electrical Fuse Types and Related Terminologies.

Fuse:
A fuse is the small piece of wire connected between the two terminals of insulated
mounted base. Fuse is always connected in the series of the circuit of low voltage
equipment. It is the simplest and cheapest form of protection from overload and short
circuit. The Fuse is expected to carry the normal current without heating and during
overload / short circuit; Fuse gets overheated up to its melting point rapidly and thus
breaking the circuit.
The materials used for the Fuse are Tin, Lead, Silver, Zinc, Copper etc. For small value
of current an alloy of Lead and Tin, in the ration of 37 & 63% are used. But for current
more than 15A, this alloy is not used as the diameter of the wire will be large and after
fusing the metal release will be excessive.
Important Terminologies Related to Fuse:
Minimum Fusing Current:
It is the value of current flowing through the Fuse wire at which the Fuse wire will melt.
Fuse Rating:
Fuse rating is given in Ampere. It is basically that value of current at which the Fuse is
expected to operate safely without melting. This value of current will definitely will be
less than the Minimum Fusing Current.
Fusing Factor:
Fusing Factor is defined as the ratio of minimum fusing current to the fuse rating.
Fusing Factor = Minimum Fusing Current / Fuse Rating
The value of Fusing Factor is always greater than 1.
Prospective Current:
Prospective Current of Fuse is the value of current which will flow through it just before
the melting of the fuse wire under Short Circuit condition.
Melting Time / Pre-arcing Time:
This is the time taken by a fuse wire to be broken by melting. It is counted from the
instant; the over current starts to flow through fuse, to the instant when fuse wire is just
broken by melting.
Arcing Time:
After breaking of fuse wire there will be an arcing between both melted tips of the wire
which will be extinguished at the current zero. The time from the instant of arc initiated
to the instant of arc being extinguished is known as Arcing Time of fuse.
Total Operating Time:
Total Operating Time of Fuse is the sum of Pre-arcing and arcing time.
Types of Fuses:
There are basically two types of Fuses:
AC Fuse
DC Fuse
This classification of Fuse arises because of arcing. In DC it is quite time taking to
extinguish the arc. Therefore DC Fuses are made with longer wire so as to avoid arc.
Hence DC Fuses are bigger in size. But in AC fuse as the current reduces to zero in
every haft cycle (10 ms assuming 50 Hz frequency), arc is extinguished.
Other Types of Fuses:
Cartridge Type Fuses:
Cartridge fuses are used to protect electrical appliances such as motors air-conditions,
refrigerator, pumps etc, where high voltage rating and currents required. They are
available up to 600 A and 600 V AC and widely used in industries, commercial as well
as home distribution panels.
Blade Type Fuses:
This type of fuses, also called as spade or plug-in fuses comes in plastic body and two
metal caps to fit in the socket. They are used in automobiles for wiring and short circuit
protection.
Other Types of Fuses are SMD Fuses, Axial Fuses, Thermal Fuses, HRC (High
Rupturing Capacity) fuse and High Voltage fuses.
What is Endurance Test of Circuit Breaker?.

Endurance Test of Circuit Breaker is conducted to check the healthiness of its mechanical parts
i.e. operating mechanism. In this test, Circuit Breaker is operated several times and checked for
any damage of its mechanical parts / contacts. The breaker should be in a position to open and
close satisfactorily. This test is also called Mechanical Test. In mechanical tests, the circuit
breaker is opened and closed several times (1000). Some operations (about 50) are conducted
by energizing the relays, remaining are by closing the trip circuit by other means. Mechanical
tests on high voltage AC circuit breakers are conducted without current and voltage in the main
circuit. Out of the 1000 operations, about 100 operations are made by connecting the main
circuit (contacts) in series with trip circuit. No adjustment or replacement of parts is permitted
during the mechanical tests. However, lubrication is permitted as per manufacturers
instructions.
After the Endurance Test, the contacts, linkages and all the other parts should be in
good condition and should not show any permanent deformation or distortion. The
dimensions should be within original limits. During repeated operations of the circuit-
breaker, the weaker parts in the assembly may fail. The circuit-breaker is then
considered to have failed in the mechanical test. The tests are then to be repeated after
improvement in the design and manufacture. Successful performance in Mechanical
Endurance Test proves the adequacy of design and also good quality of materials and
manufacture.
Though 1000 close-open cycles are specified in the standards, the manufacturer may
conduct 10,000 or more operations to ascertain the reliability and for getting design
data.
What is the Need of Synchronizing two Different Power Sources?.

For understanding the need of Synchronization of two Power Sources, first we shall
consider the meaning of Synchronization. Suppose we have a trolley that can only
drawn by either pushing or pulling it ,two workers are there to drive it if one of them is
pushing in one direction but the other one is in another direction. What will happen?
They cant move it with different speed or different direction. Similar is going to happen
with power source.
Synchronization of two Power Sources means both the sources have the same
Phase Sequence
Voltage Magnitude
Frequency
Phase Angle
There is a setting provided in the Synchronization Check Relay (25 SYN). There are two
terms which are frequently used in Synchronization, Running Line and Incoming Line.
The bus which is already charged and to which we are connecting a source is called
Running Line as shown in figure below.
In above figure if we close the CB-1 then we are synchronizing S1 to the Bus, therefore
S1 is Incoming Line and Bus is Running Line.
Now, what will happen if we connect two sources in out of Synch.?
When power sources are not synchronized, there are instances where there is a voltage
difference at the same very node where the three sources are connected.
Suppose Source S1 = 415V, 50 Hz, phase angle = 0
Source S2 = 415 V, 50 Hz, phase angle = -120
Thus, we are going to connect the R phase of Source S1 to Y phase of Source S2.
Therefore from phase angle 0 to 90 degree, source S2 is stronger in magnitude and
hence current will flow from source S2 to S12 but after 90 to 135 degree, source S1 is
stronger in magnitude of voltage and hence current will flow from S1 to S2. In this
manner a continuous circulation current will flow from one source to another whose
magnitude depends on the system impedance.
This circulating current if high enough will burn the equipment connected. Therefore it is
must that we should Synchronize the two sources.
Working Principle of Petersen Coil.

To better understand the working principle and need of Petersen Coil, let us have a look at
the arcing ground phenomenon. We know that arcing ground phenomenon is observed in
ungrounded 3 phase system. During arcing ground the voltage of healthy phase rises from
phase voltage to line voltage i.e. it becomes 3Vph. Also, arcing in such phenomena is due to
heavy capacitive charging current which is 3IC where IC = Vph / XC. Thus if there were any way to
reduce this charging current then arcing ground phenomena could have been eliminated. Isnt
it?.
Well, you will say that we can connect a resistor in ground of system to minimize
the capacitive charging current. Then why do we connect inductor in ground?
Why Inductor is used to eliminate Arcing Ground?
To answer this question, let us consider a single line to ground fault and its phasor
diagram for an ungrounded system as shown below.
From the phasor diagram it is can be easily observed that, the voltage of neutral point
shifts from ground potential to phase voltage V ph but in opposite direction. This is the
reason the direction of VC is reverse in figure above and shown by V C. The fault current
IC (IC = IA+IB) is perpendicular to the V C. Thus if we want to eliminate the fault current then
we must connect an element which will take current in a direction opposite to I C.
Carefully observe that IC is leading VC by 90.
Now as we are connecting an element in between the neutral point N and ground,
therefore the voltage drop across that element will be V C. Thus that element must take
current equal to IC and shall lag from VC by 90. As inductor takes lagging current,
therefore an inductor is connected in between neutral and ground to eliminate arcing
ground.
What is Petersen Coil?
Petersen Coil is nothing but an inductor used to connect ground of three phase system
to the earth. In other words, the neutral of three phase system is grounded through
Peterson Coil. Basically, such grounding is adopted to minimize the capacitive charging
current during fault in the lines. This also eliminates the arcing ground. The inductor
connected in figure above is Petersen Coil. This type of grounding is also known as
Resonant Grounding.
How does Petersen Coil Work?
As discussed earlier in this post, Petersen Coil must take current equal to the fault
current ICso that it neutralizes the fault current. This is the reason, it is also known as
fault neutralizer.
Let us consider the figure shown above.
The current through the Petersen Coil IL = Vph / L
But the fault current IC = 3Vph / XC (how? Please read Arcing Ground)
Therefore to neutralize the fault current,
IL = IC
Hence,
Vph / L = 3Vph / XC
1/L = 3C
L = 1/32C
Thus to neutralize the capacitive charging current, the value of inductance of Petersen
coil shall be 1/32C.
Advantages of Resonant Grounding

The use of Petersen coil reduces the line interruption due to transient line to ground
fault. This is otherwise not possible with other kind of grounding.
The tendency of developing three phase fault from single phase fault is reduces with the
use of resonant grounding.
Working Principle of Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker ELCB and Residual Current
Device RCD.
An Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker (ELCB) is a safety device used to directly detect the leakage
current to the Earth from an installation and cut the power supply. Basically ELCB is used where
the earth impedance is high. Because of high earth impedance, the voltage difference between
the Metallic part of the Installation and Earth will be quite high and dangerous from human
safety point of view.
It may strike in your smart mind that What is the difference between Earth Fault current and
Earth Leakage Current? This is very important to know as we are going to discuss about
safety device used to sense earth leakage current.
Well, according to IEC 60947-2, Earth fault current is the current flowing to earth due to
insulation fault and Earth leakage current is the current flowing from the live parts of the
installation to earth in the absence of an insulation fault.
In case of degradation of electrical insulation, the live conductor may get in touch with the
metallic part of the equipment and because of high earth impedance; the potential difference
between the body of equipment to the Earth will be high enough to result in shock to the working
personnel. Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker (ELCB) detects the leakage current to the earth and
trips the associated breaker to isolate the supply.
There are two types of Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker (ELCB). One is Voltage Earth Leakage
Circuit Breaker, also called Voltage ELCB and another is Current Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker,
also known as Current ELCB.
Working Principle of Voltage ELCB:
Voltage ELCB is a voltage operated device. It has a coil and if the voltage across the coil
exceeds a predetermined value such as 50 V, the current through the coil will be sufficient
enough to trip the circuit.
Voltage ELCB is connected in between the metallic part of equipment and the Earth. If we take
an example of insulation failure, then the voltage across the coil of Voltage ELCB will drive
enough current to cut the power supply till the manually reset.
Working Principle of Current ELCB:
The working of Current ELCB is quite interesting but easy. Current operated ELCB is also
known as Residual Current Device, RCD. A Residual Current Device (RCD) has a toroidal iron
core over which phase and neutral windings are wound. A search coil is also wound on the
same iron core which in turn is connected to the trip coil. Figure below shows the constructional
detail of RCD or Current ELCB.
Under normal operating condition, the current through the phase winding and neutral winding
are same but both the windings are wound in such a manner to oppose the mmfs of each other,
therefore net mmf in the toroidal iron core will be zero. Let us consider a condition where earth
leakage current exists in the load side. In this case the current through the phase and neutral
will no longer be equal rather phase current will be more than the neutral current. Thus mmf
produced by phase winding will be more than the mmf produced by neutral winding because of
which a net mmf will exist in the toroidal iron core.
Net mmf in Core = mmf by phase winding mmf by neutral winding
This net mmf in the core will link with the Search Coil and as the mmf is changing in nature
(current is AC), an emf will be induced across the terminals of the Search Coil. This emf will in
turn drive a current through the Trip Coil which will pull (because of current flow through the Trip
Coil, it will behave as an electromagnet and hence will pull the lever to open contact) the supply
contacts to isolate the power supply. Notice that Current ELCB works on Residual Current that
is the reason it is also called Residual Current Device.
A RCD / Current ELCB is also provided with test button to check the healthiness of the safety
device. If you carefully observe the figure, you will notice that, when we press the Test Button,
Load and phase winding are bypassed due to which only mmf because of neutral winding will
exist in the core (as there is no opposing mmf as was the case with both the windings in
service) which will cause RCD to trip to isolate the supply.
Working Principle of Residual Voltage Transformer.

A Residual Voltage Transformer is used to measure the residual voltage of three phase system
during single phase fault. During normal operating condition, the summation of three phase
voltage is zero but in case of single phase fault, the scenario changes and there exists a
residual voltage.
Let us first discuss residual voltage in case of single line to ground fault. Let us consider
a solidly grounded system as shown in figure below.
Let us assume that a ground fault takes place in A phase (In many industries and
numerical relays, normally the phases are said as A, B and C instead of R, Y and B,
though they represent the same thing i.e. A phase means R phase, B means Y phase
and C means B phase). Ea, Eb and Ec are the Generator terminal voltage per phase.
Bold letters here represent vector form.
Because of ground fault in A phase, the voltage at the point of fault will become zero but
the voltage of other two healthy phases will remain normal as the neutral is solidly
grounded therefore the neutral potential will be maintained to earth potential.
Va = 0
Vb = V -120
Vc = V 120
Here V is per phase voltage under normal condition.
Thus the residual voltage of system = Va+Vb+Vc
= 0 + V -120 + V 120
= V -60
Thus we observe that, there exists a residual voltage in case of single line to ground
fault. This residual voltage is measured by Residual Voltage Transformer.
The primary of Residual Voltage Transformer is connected to three phase system and
its secondary is connected in Broken Delta as shown in figure below.
The output of the secondary windings connected in broken delta is zero when balanced
sinusoidal voltages are applied (as Va+Vb +Vc = 0), but under conditions of unbalance
a residual voltage equal to three times the zero sequence voltage (V 0) of the system will
be developed.
To measure this component i.e. 3V0, it is necessary for a zero sequence flux to be set up
in the Residual Voltage Transformer (RVT), and for this to be possible there must be a
return path for the resultant summated flux. Therefore, RVT core must have one or
more unwound limbs linking the yokes in addition to the limbs carrying phase windings.
Usually the core is made symmetrically, with five limbs, the two outermost ones being
unwound. This two outermost unwound limbs provide return path for zero sequence
flux.
In case where three single phase transformer units are used to measure residual
voltage, no extra limbs are requires as each single phase transformer has a core with
closed magnetic path.
It is very important to earth the primary winding neutral of Residual Voltage Transformer
to provide return path for zero sequence current else zero sequence current cannot flow
and hence the flux will contain 3rd harmonic component that is reflected in primary and
secondary voltages of Residual Voltage Transformer. This voltage appearing at the
secondary terminals of RVT is not the residual voltage of the system in any way.
Core Balance Current Transformer.

Core Balance Current Transformer or CBCT is a ring type current transformer through center of
which a three core cable or three single core cables of three phase system passes. This type of
current transformer is normally used for earth fault protection for low and medium voltage
system. A typical Core balance Current Transformer is shown in figure below.
Secondary of CBCT is connected to Earth Fault Relay. During normal operating
condition as the vector sum of three phase current i.e. (a + b + c =0) is zero therefore
no residual current in the primary will be present. Here residual current means zero
sequence current. Therefore there will not be any flux developed in the CBCT core and
hence no current in the secondary circuit of CBCT.
Working Principle of CBCT:
Let a, b and c be the three line currents and a, b and c be corresponding

components of magnetic flux in the core. Assuming that the CT is operating in the linear
region (Read B-H Curve to get idea of linearity), magnetic flux because of individual
phase current will be directly proportional to the phase current and hence we can write
as below,
a = kIa
b = kIb
c = kIc
where k is constant of proportionality. Mind here that same constant of proportionality is

used as all the three phase current are producing magnetic flux in the same core i.e.
magnetic material.
Thus the resultant magnetic flux in the CBCT core,
r = k(a + b + c) ..(1)
But we know from theory of symmetrical components,
a + b + c = 30 = n
Where, Io is zero sequence current and In is neutral current. Hence we can write as
r = kn (2)
Now let us consider two cases:
Case1: During normal condition
a + b + c = 0
Hence from equation (1),
Net resultant flux in the CBCT Core, r = 0 which means no secondary current and
therefore the Earth Fault Relay wont operate.
Case2: During earth fault, three phase current passing through the center of Core
Balance Current Transformer will not be balanced rather a zero sequence current will
flow. For example for single line ground fault,
If = 3Ia0 = In
Thus from equation (2),
Net magnetic flux in the CBCT core, r will have some finite value which in turn will
induce current in the secondary circuit due to which earth fault relay will operate.
Because of this reason, a Core Balance Current Transformer or CBCT is also called
Zero Sequence Current Transformer.
Advantage of Core Balance Current Transformer:
The advantage of using CBCT for earth fault protectionis that only one CT core is used
instead of three core as in conventional system where the secondary winding of three
cores are connected residually. Thus the magnetizing current required for the production
of a particular secondary current is reduced by one third which is a great advantage as
the sensitivity of protection is increased.
Also, the number of secondary turn does not need to be related to the cable rated
current because no secondary current flows under normal operating condition as the
currents are balanced. This allows the number of secondary turns to be chosen to
optimize the effective primary pick-up current.
Core Balance Current Transformer is normally mounted over a cable at a point close to
the cable gland of the Switchgear. In case cables are already laid in a Switchgear,
physically split core, which is also known as Slip-over type CT, are used.
Knee Point Voltage of Current Transformer.
According to IEC, Knee Point Voltage of a Current Transformer is defined as the voltage
at which 10 % increase in voltage of CT secondary results in 50 % increase in secondary
current.
If you carefully read the definition, you will notice that it is something related to saturation of
Current Transformer. Never mind, I will explain what exactly Knee Point Voltage mean and what
is its significance.
We know that CT core is made of CRGO (Cold Rolled Grain Oriented Silicon Steel). When the
primary of CT is energized a working mmf is produced in the core. To produce a working mmf,
excitation current Ie is taken. This mmf produces a flux inside the core of CT which links with the
secondary winding and as per the Faradays Law of Electromagnetic Induction, an emf is
generated across the terminals of CT secondary by Transformer action. The emf induced in the
CT secondary terminal is given as
E = 4.44fN
Where f is frequency of supply, N is number of secondary turns and is flux in the core of CT.
But is directly proportional to mmf and mmf in turn is directly proportional to current. Thus if
we increase the current, flux generated in the core will increase till the core saturates. Thus
there must be a point where from the flux do not increase in the same proportion as the
increase in current. This point is called Knee Point. After discussing this much, we can at least
say that Knee Point is something related with Saturation of CT core. If there is something called
saturation, then we must draw saturation curve of the CT core to have more insight.
You may like to read

Why CT Secondary Shall Never be Kept Open?
Difference between Current Transformer & Potential Transformer
For drawing CT saturation curve, we apply voltage in the CT secondary (keeping

primary open) in step of 10% of rated voltage till 120% and read the secondary current
using Clamp Meter. All the readings are noted in table and a curve is drawn between
applied voltage V and excitation current Ie. The curve drawn will look like as shown in
figure below.
Carefully observe the saturation curve shown above. It is quite clear that beyond point K, we
need to increase current to a larger extent to have some increase in voltage. This because the
curve beyond point K becomes non-linear. The voltage at point K i.e. Vk is called Knee Point
Voltage. This is the reason, in definition it is said that Knee Point Voltage of a Current
Transformer is defined as the voltage at which 10 % increase in voltage of CT secondary
results in 50 % increase in secondary current. This means that an increase in 50% current
will lead to just an increase in 10% voltage. Therefore slope at Knee Point Voltage will be,
Slope = Increase in Voltage / Increase in current
= 0.1/0.5
= 0.2
Knee Point Voltage of Current Transformer is of importance in Protection Class CT i.e. where
CT is used for protection purpose. Protection Class CT is normally specified as PS (Protection
Special). PS is defined by knee point voltage of current transformer Vk and excitation current Ie
at Vk/2. The Burden of CT when used for protection purpose is quite high when compared with
Metering Class CT, which means that voltage drop across theburden will be high. But voltage
drop across the burden is equal to the voltage across the CT secondary and if the voltage
across the CT secondary is high then it may drive the CT to saturate in normal condition.
Therefore Knee Point voltage of Protection Class CT must be more than the voltage drop
across the burden to maintain CT core in its linear zone.
Why Harmonic Current in Transformer Excitation Current?.

Harmonics in the excitation current of Transformer is due to Hysteresis. As we know the
relationship between Magnetic Flux Density, B and Magnetic Field Intensity, H is not
linear as shown in figure below.
Also,
B = Flux () / Area (A),
and H = NI
where N = Number of turns and I = Magnetizing Current
Therefore, there exist hysteresis relationship between Flux and Magnetizing Current.
The Transformer is preferably operated in saturation region which in turn means that for
considerable increment in current causes a slight increase in flux, which gives flux wave
sinusoidal shape, while magnetizing current is peaky. This explains why it is rich in 3rd
harmonic component even though the supply is sinusoidal.
If we observe the waveform of excitation current of Transformer, we see that the wave
form of current is symmetrical which means absence of even harmonics. Remember
that waveform will not be symmetrical if there is any even harmonic component.
The peaks of the magnetizing current and flux will occur simultaneously, while their
zeros will not, due to hysteresis.
Thus I hope it is clear that how harmonic component comes in the excitation current of
Transformer.
Sympathetic Inrush Current in Transformer.

I would suggest to read Transformer Inrush Current before reading this article for better
understanding of Sympathetic Inrush Current. Any event on the power system that causes a
significant increase in the magnetizing voltage of the transformer core results in magnetizing
inrush current flowing into the transformer. The three most common events are as follows:
Energization of the Transformer. This is the typical event where magnetizing inrush
currents are a concern. The excitation voltage on one winding is increased from 0 to full voltage.
The transformer core typically saturates, with the amount of saturation determined by
transformer design, system impedance, the remnant flux in the core, and the point on the
voltage wave when the transformer is energized. The current needed to supply this flux may be
as much as 40 times the full load rating of the transformer, with typical value for power
transformers for 2 to 6 times the full load rating. Figure below shows the waveform during
energization of a transformer.
Magnetizing Inrush Current during Fault Clearing. An external fault may significantly reduce
the system voltage, and therefore reduce the excitation voltage of the transformer. When this
fault is cleared, the excitation voltage returns to the normal system voltage level. The return of
voltage may force a dc offset on the flux linkages, resulting in magnetizing inrush current. This
magnetizing inrush current will be less than that of energization, as there is no remnant flux in
the core. The current measured by the differential relay will be fairly linear due to the presence
of load current, and may result in low levels of second harmonic current.
Sympathetic inrush current. Energizing a transformer on the power system can cause
sympathetic inrush currents to flow in an already energized parallel transformer. Energizing the
second transformer causes a voltage drop across the resistance of the source line feeding the
transformers. This voltage drop may cause a saturation of the already energized transformer in
the negative direction. This saturation causes magnetizing inrush current to supply the flux. The
magnitude of the magnetizing inrush current is generally not as severe as the other cases.
While charging a Transformer in Power System, harmonic restraining of other connected

Transformers must be taken care as it may otherwise lead to the tripping of other connected
Transformers.
Transformer Inrush Current.

In this post we will discuss the Magnetizing Inrush Current in a Power Transformer. Magnetizing
Inrush urrent in Transformers results from any abrupt changes of the magnetizing voltage. This
current in transformer may be caused by energizing an unloaded transformer, occurrence of
an external fault, voltage recovery after clearing an external fault and out-of phase
synchronizing of connected Generator.Because the amplitude of inrush current can be as
high as a short circuit current, a detailed analysis of the magnetizing inrush current under
various conditions is necessary for the making required setting of protective system for the
Transformers.
First question which will come up in your smart mind, why a Power Transformer takes Inrush
Current when energized in unloaded condition?
When a power transformer is energized while keeping its secondary circuit open, it acts as an
inductance. In normal condition of a Power Transformer, the flux produced in the core is in
quadrature with applied voltage i.e. Flux lags behind the applied voltage by 90 as shown in the
figure below.
This means, Flux wave will reach its maximum value after 1/4 cycle or /2 angle reaching
maximum value of voltage wave. Hence as per the waves shown in the figure, at the instant
when, the voltage is zero; the corresponding steady state value of flux should be negative
maximum. But practically it is not possible to have flux at the instant of switching on the supply
of Transformer. This is because, there will be no flux linked to the core prior to switching on the
supply. The steady state value of flux will only reach after some finite time which in turn depends
upon how fast the circuit can take energy. So the flux in the core also will start from its zero
value at the time of switching on the transformer.
As we know that,
e = d/dt where is the Flux in the core
Therefore assuming e = ESinwt,
Now suppose, Transformer is switched on when Voltage is zero. Therefore Flux will also start
from zero. Therefore, total Flux at the end of first half cycle of voltage wave will be,
Where m = Maximum flux in the core in steady state or normal operating condition.
Therefore, the flux in the core of Transformer will be double the maximum value of flux in steady
state condition. This phenomenon is also shown in figure below.
It is clear from the above graph that maximum flux in the core of Transformer will be 2 mwhen
the applied voltage is at its zero.
Now what will happen because of this higher value of flux in the core of Transformer?
Transformer core is saturated just above the maximum steady state value of flux m. But when
we switch on power supply to the Transformers primary, the maximum value of flux will jump to
double of its steady state maximum value m. As, after steady state maximum value of flux m,
the Transformer core becomes saturated, the current required to produced rest (2m-m = m)
of flux will be very high. So transformer primary will draw a very high current from the source
which is called Magnetizing Inrush Current in Transformer or Inrush Current in Transformer.
The nature of Transformer Inrush Current is shown in figure below.
It should be noted that waveform of Transformer Inrush Current is asymmetric which

means in Transformer Inrush current mainly 2nd harmonic component will be present. It
shall also be noted from the waveform that as time passes the Magnetizing Inrush
Current of Transformer decays and becomes zero. Normally it takes few millisecond for
Magnetizing Inrush Current to decay to zero.
The Magnetizing Inrush Current of Transformer may be up to 10 times higher than normal rated
current of Transformer. Even though the magnitude of Magnetizing Inrush Currentis so high but
it generally does not create any permanent fault in Transformer as it exists for few
miliseconds. But still Magnetizing Inrush Current in Power Transformer is a problem,
because during the time of Magnetizing Inrush Current the protection scheme of
Transformer may operate and hence may trip the Primary side Circuit Breaker of
Transformer which is not expected.
How do we prevent Tripping of Transformer due to Magnetizing Inrush

Current?
In Transformer Differential Protection an intestinal time delay of 20 milisecond is provided to

prevent tripping of Transformer due to high Magnetizing Inrush Current. In modern Numerical
Relay, 2nd Harmonics blocking feature is provided which blocks the 2 ndHarmonics when it is
more than set value, thereby dont issue trip command to Transformer Primary side Breaker due
to Magnetizing Inrush Current.
Normally the setting of 2nd Harmonics blocking is set to 20% which means if
2ndHarmonic component is more than 20% of fundamental frequency value of current then Relay
will understand that it is because of Magnetizing Inrush Current and hence wont issue trip
command but if it is less than 20% fundamental frequency value of current then Relay will treat
it due to fault and will issue trip command to the primary side Circuit Breaker.
Is there no way to minimize Magnetizing Inrush Current of

Transformer?
Point on Wave Switch is used to minimize the Magnetizing Inrush Current of Transformer. If
you want to know more about Point on Wave Switch, please write in comment box. I will post
on Point on Wave Switch.
BDV Test in Transformer.

BDV test means Breakdown Voltage Test. It is done for checking the dielectric strength
of the oil of the Transformer. Dielectric strength means the maximum capacity to
withstand voltage of insulating oil. This test shows the dielectric strength of Transformer
oil.
In transformer oil has mainly two purposes, first for insulation, second as cooling of
Transformer core and other winding. So while designing Transformer oil use in
transformer depends on voltage rating. So testing of oil is done according to voltage
rating. For the purpose of BDV test, oil sample from Transformer is taken in a Sample
Bottle. While taking sample of oil from transformer, Sample bottle should be flushed well
by Transformer oil and oil in Sample bottle should be vented properly so that
atmospheric moisture could not ingress in the sample oil. A typical way of taking oil
sample in Sample Bottle is shown in figure below.
Breakdown Voltage is measured by observing at what voltage, sparking straits between

two electrodes emerged in the oil, separated by specific gap. Low value of BDV
indicates presence of moisture content and conducting substances in the oil. For
measuring BDV of transformer oil, portable BDV measuring kit is generally available at
site. In this kit, oil is kept in a pot in which one pair of electrodes are fixed with a gap of
2.5 mm (in some kit it 4 mm) between them.
Now slowly rising voltage is applied between the electrodes. Rate of rise of voltage is
generally controlled at 2 KV/s and observe the voltage at which sparking starts between
the electrodes. That means at which voltage dielectric strength of transformer oil
between the electrodes has been broken down. A typical value of BDV Test result for
220 / 6.6 kV Transformer oil is 65 kV and moisture content should be less than 10 ppm.
SFRA Test of Transformer.

SFRA stands for Sweep Frequency Response Analysis.
This test is very reliable for condition monitoring of physical condition of

transformer winding.
Why to conduct SFRA test?
The winding of Transformer may be subjected to mechanical stresses during

transportation, heavy short circuit faults, transient switching impulses & lightening
impulses etc. These mechanical stresses may cause displacement of
transformer winding from their position and may also cause deformation of these winding.
SFRA Test can efficiently detect:

Displacement of Transformer core
Deformation & displacement of winding
Faulty core grounds
Collapse of partial winding
Broken or loosen clamp connections
Short circuited turns
Open winding conditions.
Principle of SFRA Test:
As each of the electrical equipment is combination of R, L & C. In Transformer each

winding turn is separated from other by paper insulation which acts as dielectric and
windings themselves have inductance and resistance, a transformer can be considered
as a complicated distributed network of resistance, inductance, and capacitance or in
other words a Transformer is a complicated RLC circuit as shown in figure below.
Because of this each winding of a transformer exhibits a particular frequency response.
In Sweep Frequency Response Analysis a sinusoidal voltage V i is applied to one end of
a winding and output voltage V o is measured at the other end of the winding while
keeping the other windings open.
As the winding is itself a distributed RLC circuit it will behave like RLC filter and gives
different output voltages at different frequencies. That means if we go on increasing the
frequency of the input signal without changing its voltage level we will get different
output voltages at different frequencies depending upon the RLC nature of the winding.
If we plot these output voltages against the corresponding frequencies we will get a
particular pattern for a particular winding as shown in figure below.
But after transportation, heavy short circuit faults, transient switching impulses and
lightening impulses etc, if we do same Sweep Frequency Response Analysis test and
superimpose the present signature with the earlier pattern and observe some deviation
between the two graphs / signature. Thus we can conclude that there is mechanical
displacement / deformation in the Winding / Core.
Thus using SFRA test, we can say whether Transformer windings / core is OK or not.
This method is simple yet reliable.
Buchholz Relay- Transformer Protection.

Buchholz relay is a gas actuated protection relay which is generally used in large oil
immersed transformers of rating more than 500 kVA. It is used for the protection of a
Transformer from the faults occurring inside the transformer. A typical Buchhloz Relay is
shown below.
The gas actuated protective relay is designed to detect faults as well as to minimize the
propagation of any damage, which might occur within oil-filled Transformers. The
Buchholz relay is therefore particularly effective in case of:
Short-circuited core laminations

Broken-down of core bolt insulation
Overheating of some part of the windings
Bad contacts
Short circuits between phases, turns
Earth faults-puncture of bushing insulators inside tank
Buchholz relay `can prevent the development of conditions leading to a fault in the
transformer, such as the falling of the oil level due to leaks, or the penetration of air as a
result of defects in the oil circulating system.
The adoption of other forms of protection does not therefore exclude the use of the gas-
actuated Buchholz relay, as this device is the only means of detecting incipient
faults, which if unnoticed, can cause heavy failures.
Buchholz Relay is installed in between the Main Tank of Transformer and the
Conservator as shown if figure below.
Construction of Buchholz Relay:

Buchholz relay consists of an oil filled chamber. There are two hinged floats, one at the
top and other at the bottom in the chamber. Each float is connected by a mercury
switch. The mercury switch on the upper float is connected to an alarm circuit and
that on the lower float is connected to an external circuit to cause breaker trip. A
simplified construction diagram of Buchholz relay is shown in figure below.
Working Principle of Buchholz Relay:
The operation of the Buchholz relay is based upon the fact that every kind of fault in an
oil-filled transformer causes a decomposition of the insulating oil due to overheating in
the fault zone or to the action of an intense electric field, and a generation of bubble of
gas. These reach the relay which is normally filled with oil, through the pipe connecting
the transformer to the conservator where the Buchholz relay is mounted.
Whenever a minor fault occurs inside the transformer, heat is produced by the fault
currents. The produced heat causes decomposition of transformer oil and gas bubbles
are produced. These gas bubbles flow in upward direction and get collected in the
Buchholz relay. The collected gas displaces the oil in Buchholz relay and the
displacement is equivalent to the volume of gas collected. The displacement of oil
causes the upper float to close the upper mercury switch which is connected to an
alarm circuit. Hence, when minor fault occurs, the connected alarm gets activated. The
collected amount of gas indicates the severity of the fault occurred. During minor faults
the production of gas is not enough to move the lower float. Hence, during minor faults,
the lower float is unaffected.
During major faults, like phase to earth short circuit, the heat generated is high and a
large amount of gas is produced. This large amount of gas will similarly flow upwards,
but its motion is high enough to tilt the lower float in the Buccholz relay. In this case, the
lower float will cause the lower mercury switch which will trip the transformer from the
supply i.e. transformer is isolated from the supply.
Class-A, Class-B and Class-C Tripping Classification of Generator.
Generator, Generator Transformer and Unit Transformer protections have been classified into
Class-A, Class-B and Class-C. Class-A tripping is further classified into Class-A1 and Class-
A2. Class-A, Class-B and Class-C Tripping Classification of Generator is based on the need of
isolation of Generator on the basis of type of fault. In this post we will discuss each type of
tripping classes and their significance.
Basis of Tripping Classification: The tipping classification of Generator is based on

the need of isolation of Generator on the basis of type of fault. For example, there are
some faults like Generator Differential Protection which calls for immediate tripping of
Generator Breaker without delay whereas there are some fault like Loss of Excitation,
Rotor Earth Fault etc. which do not call for immediate tripping of Generator.
Class-A1 Trip: The protections for the faults in the Generator which need immediate
isolation are grouped under this Class-A1. There are a list of faults which are kept
under this class. They are as follows:
a) Generator Differential Protection
b) 100% Stator Earth Fault Protection
c) Generator Over Voltage Protection
d) Dead Machine Protection
e) 95% Stator Earth Fault Protection
f) Starting Over Current Protection
In case of actuation of Class-A1 protection, Generator Circuit Breaker and Filed Circuit
Breaker are opened along with turbine tripping.
Class-A2 Trip: The protections for the faults in Generator Transformer (GT), Isolated
Phase Bus Duct (IPBD), and Unit Transformer (UT) which need immediate isolation are
grouped under this Class-A2. Normally following protections are kept under Class-A2:
a) Over fluxing Protection of Generator
b) Back up Impedance Protection of Generator
c) Differential Protection of GT
d) Buchcholz Relay of GT
e) PRD of GT
f) Trip from OTI & WTI of GT
g) Fire protection of GT
h) Differential Protection of UT
i) Buchcholz Relay & PRD of Main Tank of UT
j) Trip from OTI & WTI of UT
k) Fire protection of UT
These protection when operated initiate tripping of Generator Circuit Breaker, Field
Circuit Breaker, Generator Transformer Circuit Breakers & Unit Transformer LV Circuit
Breakers and turbine.
Class-B Trip: The protections for the faults in the Generator which do not need
immediate isolation are grouped under this Class-B. The turbine is tripped first and
Generator is allowed to run utilizing trapped steam in turbine. Let us suppose that there
is some fault in the process side i.e. in steam cycle, under that condition also turbine will
be tripped first while Generator will continue to run utilizing trapped steam till reverse
power relay operates. Generator Circuit Breaker is tripped on initiation of reverse power.
Normally, Loss of Excitation and Rotor Earth Fault of Generator are kept under this
class. These protection when operated initiate tripping of Generator Circuit Breaker,
Field Circuit Breaker and turbine.
Class-C Trip: The protections for the faults / abnormal condition in the Grid which call
for disconnection of the Generator from the Grid are grouped under this Class-C. In this
case, Generator is isolated from the Grid by opening the suitable breaker i.e. Generator
Transformer HV side Breaker. Mind that in this case only Generator is isolated from the
Grid. Thus Generator continues to feed Station loads (also known as house load). Such
scheme where generator is operated on house load at reduced power is known as
Generator Islanding. Normally following protections of Generator are kept under this
class:
a) Unbalance or Negative Sequence Protection
b) Back up Impedance Protection
c) Under Frequency
d) Over Frequency
e) Pole Slipping Protection.
Difference between Power Transformer and Distribution Transformer.

The main and basic difference between a Power transformer and a Distribution
Transformer is that Power transformers are used in transmission network of higher
voltages for step-up and step down application like 400 kV, 200 kV, 110 kV, 66 kV, 33kV
and are generally rated above 200 MVA.
Distribution transformers are used for lower voltage distribution networks as a mean for
end user connectivity. 11 kV, 6.6 kV, 3.3 kV, 440 V, 230 V and are generally rated less
than 200 MVA.
On the basis of Transformer Size / Insulation Level,
Power transformer is used for the transmission purpose at heavy load, high voltage
greater than 33 KV and 100% efficiency. It also having a big in size as compare to
distribution transformer, it used in generating station and Transmission substation at
high insulation level.
The distribution transformer is used for the distribution of electrical energy at low voltage
as less than 33 kV in industrial purpose and 440 220 V in domestic purpose. It work at
low efficiency at 50-70%, small size, easy in installation, having low magnetic losses & it
is not always fully loaded.
On the basis of Iron Losses and Copper Losses,
Power Transformers are used in Transmission network so they do not directly connect
to the consumers, so load fluctuations are very less. These are loaded fully during 24
hours a day, so copper losses and Iron losses takes place throughout day.
The average loads are nearer to full loaded or full load and these are designed in such
a way that maximum efficiency occur at full load condition.
Distribution Transformers are used in Distribution Network so directly connected to the

consumer so load fluctuations are very high. Distribution Transformers are not loaded
fully at all time so iron losses takes place 24 hr a day and copper losses takes place
based on load cycle. The specific weight i.e. (iron weight)/(cu weight) is more. Average
loads are about only 75% of full load and these are designed in such a way that
maximum efficiency occurs at 75% of full load.
As these are time dependent therefore All Day Efficiency is defined in order to
calculate the efficiency.
Power Transformers are used for transmission as a step up devices so that the I2rloss
can be minimized for a given power flow. These transformers are designed to utilize the
core to maximum and will operate very much near to the knee point of B-H curve. This
brings down the mass of the core enormously.
Naturally these transformers have the matched iron losses and copper losses at peak
load i.e. the maximum efficiency point where both the losses match.
Distribution transformers obviously cannot be designed like this. Hence the All-Day-
Efficiency comes into picture while designing it. It depends on the typical load cycle for
which it has to supply. Definitely Core design will be done to take care of peak load and
as well as all-day-efficiency. It is a bargain between these two points.
Power transformer generally operated at full load. Hence, it is designed such that
copper losses are minimal. However, a distribution transformer is always online and
operated at loads less than full load for most of time. Hence, it is designed such that
core losses are minimal.
In Power Transformer the flux density is higher than the distribution transformer.
On the basis of Maximum Efficiency,
The main difference between Power and Distribution Transformer is that Distribution
Transformer is designed for maximum efficiency at 60% to 70% load as normally
doesnt operate at full load all the time. Its load depends on distribution demand.
Whereas power transformer is designed for maximum efficiency at 100% load as it
always runs at 100% load being near to generating station.
Distribution Transformer is used at the distribution level where voltages tend to be lower
.The secondary voltage is almost always the voltage delivered to the end consumer.
Because of voltage drop limitations, it is usually not possible to deliver that secondary
voltage over great distances.
As a result, most distribution systems tend to involve many clusters of loads fed from
distribution transformers, and this in turn means that the thermal rating of distribution
transformers doesnt have to be very high to support the loads that they have to serve.
All Day Efficiency = (Output in KWhr) / (Input in KWhr) in 24 hrs which is always less
than power efficiency.
Dry Type Transformers versus Oil Filled Transformers.

Before going to the mark difference between Dry Type Transformer and Oil Filled
Transformer, it is worth to have some discussion on Dry Type Transformer.
Dry Type Transformer:
Dry Type Transformers find use in locations where the use oil Filled Transformers
increases the fire hazard such as shopping malls, Hospitals, residential complexes etc.
In dry type transformers air is used as the cooling medium instead of oil.
The insulation used in dry type transformers are designed to withstand higher
temperatures. Dry type transformers are more expensive than conventional
transformers. Vacuum Pressure Impregnation, Epoxy Resin cast are some of the
methods of Insulation adopted in Dry Type Transformer construction.
Comparison between Dry Type and Oil Filled Transformer:
Dry Type Transformers use air as the cooling medium. Oil Type Transformers are
considered a potential fire and safety hazard for indoor application.
Dry Type Transformers can be located closer to the load unlike Oil Transformers
which require special location and civil construction for safety reasons. Locating the
Transformers near the loads may lead to savings in cable costs and reduced
electrical losses.
Oil Type transformers may require periodic sampling of the oil and more
exhaustive maintenance procedures.
Though Dry Type Transformers are advantageous, they are limited by size and
voltage rating. Higher MVA ratings and voltage ratings may require the use of oil
Transformers.
For outdoor applications, Oil Filled Transformers are cheaper than dry types.
Losses in Electrical Machine Core Loss and Eddy Current Loss.

There are two types of Losses in an Electrical Machine. They are
Core Loss or Iron Loss
Ohmic Loss or Copper Loss
In this post we will discuss about Core Loss. Core Loss is again classified into two
types:
Hysteresis Loss
Eddy Current Loss
First we will have a look at how the core of a Transformer looks like. But the Core Loss
take place in any electrical machine which face changing magnetic flux.
Hysteresis Loss:
This loss is due to magnetic properties of iron part or core.
When the magnetic field strength or the current is increased the flux increase, after a
point when we further increase current the flux gets saturated. When we reduce the
current from saturation to zero side the flux density starts to decrease. But when the
current value reaches zero the flux density should also be zero but it is not zero. For
zero current there is still some flux present in the material, this is known as Residual
Magnetic Flux or Remnant Magnetic Flux. Hence the amount of power is never
recovered back. The power which gets trapped in the core of the material is lost in the
form of heat.
Now we will consider the mathematical part of Hysteresis Loss. The Hysteris Loss in
core is given as
Ph= KhfBmx
Where Kh = Constant which depends on the volume and quality of core material.
Bm = Maximum flux density in the core
f = Frequency of Supply
x = Steinmetzs constant whose value varies from 1.5 to 2.5.
Thus we see that Core Loss depend on Voltage as well as Frequency of Supply.
Eddy Current Loss:
Eddy Current Loss takes place when a coil is wrapped around a core and alternating ac
supply is applied to it. As the supply to the coil is alternating, the flux produced in the
coil is also alternating.
By faradays law of electromagnetic induction, the change in flux through the core
causes emf induction inside the core. Due to induction of emf eddy current starts to flow
in the core. Due to this eddy current there will be an associated Ohmic loss which is
called Eddy Current Loss.
Eddy current losses can be reduced by lamination in the core. Thin sheet steels must be
used which are insulated from each other. Due to insulated sheets the amount of
current which flows get reduced and hence the eddy current losses also reduces.
Now we will take a look at the mathematical part of Eddy Current Loss. Eddy Current
Loss is given as
Pe= Kef2Bm2
Where Ke = constant whose value depends on the volume and resistivity of the core
material.
Bm = Maximum flux density in the core
f = Frequency of Supply
It shall be noted that, from the equation of Eddy Current Loss it seems that Eddy
Current Loss depends on the frequency of supply but it is not so rather it only depends
on the Supply Voltage. How?
As Pe = Kef2Bm2
But we know that

So,
Bm2f2= KE2 where K is constant
Thus Eddy Current Loss Pe = KV2
Therefore, Eddy Current Loss only depends on the applied Voltage.
Over Current Relay and Its Characteristics.

Protection schemes can be divided into two major groupings:
a) Unit schemes
b) Non-unit schemes
a) Unit Scheme: Unit type schemes protect a specific area of the system i.e. a
transformer, transmission line, generator or bus bar. The unit protection schemes are
based on Kirchhoffs Current Law the sum of the currents entering an area of the
system must be zero. Any deviation from this must indicate an abnormal current path. In
these schemes, the effects of any disturbance or operating condition outside the area of
interest are totally ignored and the protection must be designed to be stable above the
maximum possible fault current that could flow through the protected area.
b) Non-unit scheme: The non-unit schemes, while also intended to protect specific
areas, have no fixed boundaries. As well as protecting their own designated areas, the
protective zones can overlap into other areas. While this can be very beneficial for
backup purposes, there can be a tendency for too great an area to be isolated if a fault
is detected by different non unit schemes.
The most simple of these schemes measures current and incorporates an inverse time
characteristic into the protection operation to allow protection nearer to the fault to
operate first.
The non unit type protection system includes following schemes:
Time graded over-current protection
Current graded over-current protection
Distance or Impedance Protection
Over Current Protection: It finds its application from the fact that in the event
of fault the current will increase to a value several times greater than maximum load
current. A relay that operates or picks up when its current exceeds a predetermined
value (setting value) is called Over-current Relay. Over-current protection protects
electrical power systems against excessive currents which are caused by short
circuits, ground faults, etc. Over-current relays can be used to protect practically any
power system elements, i.e. transmission lines, transformers, generators, or motors. For
feeder protection, there would be more than one over-current relay to protect different
sections of the feeder. These over-current relays need to coordinate with each other
such that the relay nearest fault operates first.
Use time, current and a combination of both time and current are three ways to
discriminate adjacent over-current relays. Over-current Relay gives protection against:
Phase faults
Earth faults
Winding faults
Short-circuit currents are generally several times (5 to 20) full load current. Hence fast
fault clearance is always desirable on short circuits.
Primary requirement of Over-current protection is that the protection should not operate
for starting currents, permissible over-current, and current surges. To achieve this, the
time delay is provided.
Over-current Relay Ratings:
In order for an over-current protective device to operate properly, over-current protective
device ratings must be properly selected. These ratings include voltage, ampere and
interrupting rating.
Current limiting can be considered as another over-current protective device rating,
although not all over-current protective devices are required to have this characteristic
Voltage Rating: The voltage rating of the over-current protective device must be at least
equal to or greater than the circuit voltage. The over-current protective device rating can
be higher than the system voltage but never lower.
Ampere Rating: The ampere rating of a over-current protecting device normally should
not exceed the current carrying capacity of the conductors As a general rule, the
ampere rating of a over-current protecting device is selected at 125% of the continuous
load current.
Depending on the time of operation of relays, they are categorized as follows:
a) Instantaneous Over-current Relay
b) Inverse time over current Relay
c) Inverse definite minimum time (IDMT) over-current Relay
d) Very Inverse Relay
e) Extremely Inverse Relay
a) Instantaneous Over-current Relay:
Instantaneous Over-current Relay is one in which no intentional time delay is provided
for the operation. The time of operation of such Relay is approximately 100 ms.
Instantaneous Over-current relay is employed where the impedance between the
source and the Relay is small as compared with the impedance of the section to be
provided.
Following are the important features of an Instantaneous Over-current Relay:

1) Operates in a definite time when current exceeds its Pick-up value.
2) Its operation criterion is only current magnitude.
3) Operating time is constant.
4) There is no intentional time delay.
5) Coordination of definite-current relays is based on the fact that the fault current varies
with the position of the fault because of the difference in the impedance between the
fault and the source
6) The relay located furthest from the source operate for a low current value
7) The operating currents are progressively increased for the other relays when moving
towards the source.
b) Inverse time over current Relay:
Inverse time over-current Relay is one in which the time of actuation of Relay decreases
as the fault current increases. The more the fault current the lesser will be the time of
operation of the Relay. Normally it has more inverse characteristic near the pick-up
value which in turn means that if fault current is equal to pick-up value then the relay will
take infinite time to operate.
c) Inverse definite minimum time (IDMT) over-current Relay:

Inverse definite minimum time (IDMT) over-current Relay is one in which the operating
time is approximately inversely proportional to the fault current near pick-up value and
then becomes constant above the pick-up value of the relay.
From the picture, it is clear that there is some definite time after which the Relay will
operate. It is also clear that the time of operation at Pick-up value is nearly very high
and as the fault current increases the time of operation decreases maintaining some
definite time.
d) Very Inverse Relay:
Very Inverse Relay is one in which the range of operation is inverse with respect to fault
current over a wide range. This happens so as the CT saturation occurs at a later stage
but as soon as CT saturation occur there will not be any flux change and hence the
current output of CT will become zero and hence the time of operation will nearly
become constant.
e) Extremely Inverse Relay:
Extremely Inverse Relay is one in which CT saturation occur still at a later stage as
compared with Very Inverse Relay and hence the characteristic remain inverse up to a
larger range of fault current. The equation describing the Extremely Inverse Relay is I2t
= K where I is operating current and t is time of operation of the Relay.
IEC (International Electrotechnical Commission) Standard Curve for Inverse Relays:

As per IEC, the time of operation of any Inverse relay can be calculated from the
formula given below.
Here,
K = Time of actuation
, = Constant which depends on the type of Relay
I = Fault Current
I0 = Pick-up current
Value of and for different types of Relay:
Sr. No. Type of Relay
Inverse time over current Relay
1) 0.02 0.14
/ IDMT
2) Very Inverse Relay 1.00 13.5
3) Extremely Inverse Relay 2.00 80.00
Example: Suppose the pick-up current for an IDMT relay is set at 0.8 A and the fault
current is 80 A then the time of actuation can be calculated as
K = 0.14/[ (80/0.8)0.02 1].
Unit and Non-Unit Protection Scheme.

Protection schemes can be divided into two major groupings:
a) Unit schemes
b) Non-unit schemes
a) Unit Protection Scheme: Unit type schemes protect a specific area of the system i.e. a
transformer, transmission line, generator or bus bar. The unit protection schemes are based on
Kirchhoffs Current Law the sum of the currents entering an area of the system must be zero.
Any deviation from this must indicate an abnormal current path. In these schemes, the effects of
any disturbance or operating condition outside the area of interest are totally ignored and the
protection must be designed to be stable above the maximum possible fault current that could
flow through the protected area.
In other words, it is possible to design protection systems that respond only to fault conditions
occurring within a clearly defined zone. This type of protection system is known as unit
protection. Certain types of unit protection are known by specific names, e.g.Restricted Earth
Fault and Differential Protection. Unit protection can be applied throughout a power system and,
since it does not involve time grading, is relatively fast in operation. The speed of response is
substantially independent of fault severity.
Unit protection usually involves comparison of quantities at the boundaries of the protected zone
as defined by the locations of the current transformers. This comparison may be achieved by
direct hard-wired connections or may be achieved via a communications link. However certain
protection systems derive their restricted property from the configuration of the power system
and may be classed as unit protection, e.g. Earth Fault Protection applied to the high voltage
delta winding of a power transformer. Whichever method is used, it must be kept in mind that
selectivity is not merely a matter of relay design. It also depends on the correct coordination
of current transformers and relays with a suitable choice of relaysettings, taking into account the
possible range of such variables as fault currents, maximum load current, system impedances
and other related factors, where appropriate.
b) Non-unit Protection Scheme: The non-unit schemes, while also intended to protect specific
areas, have no fixed boundaries. As well as protecting their own designated areas,
the protective zones can overlap into other areas. While this can be very beneficial for backup
purposes, there can be a tendency for too great an area to be isolated if a fault is detected by
different non unit schemes.
The most simple of these schemes measures current and incorporates an inverse time
characteristic into the protection operation to allow protection nearer to the fault to operate first.
The non unit type protection system includes following schemes:
a) Time graded over-current protection
b) Current graded over-current protection
c) Distance or Impedance Protection.
Programmable Scheme Logic (PSL) in Numerical Relays.

Programmable Scheme Logic or PSL is a kind of feature provided in Numerical Relays to
implement the protection scheme of a particular type. This feature of Numerical Relays makes it
easier to implement many protection schemes in a single Numerical Relay for example, in
Distance Relay we can configure Distance protection, over voltage protection, Over Current
Protection, Earth Fault Protection etc.
Now we will study about Programmable Scheme Logic, PSL. PSL is a logical block which is
made from different but suitable DDB. Here DDB stand for Digital Data Bus. There are many
DDBs offered in a Numerical Relay. Each DDB perform a unique function. Thus it is very
important to have the knowledge of function of DDBs to implement a particular logic. Hope you
got some idea of DDB but dont worry I will go in detail with example to make it crystal clear.
Lets us begin with an example. Let us assume that we have an Alstom Relay P442 and we want
to implement a protection feature called Local Breaker Back-up (LBB) Protection in the Relay.
So we need to finalize our logic for the operation of LBB. The generalized logic for LBB
protection is
Lock-out Relay Operated AND Current still existing
Under the above logic the LBB Relay shall initiate its timer and shall give the tripping command
to isolate the fault after a fixed time delay say 200 ms. Assuming the above logic for LBB, we
will design a logic using Programmable Scheme Logic, PSL in the Numerical Relay. But before
designing the PSL, we need to give the input to the Relay, in our case there are two inputs, one
will be the contact of Lock-out Relay and another Current Transformer (CT) input. So our first
step will be to assign the inputs to the Relay and label a name to each input. In the second step,
we need to configure the output of Relay and label a name to the Relay Output contact. Let,
Lock-out Relay contact Input is labeled as INPUT1. Mind that only digital inputs can be labeled.
So we can not assign a name to CT input.
Likewise let the Relay output contact to trip Breakers to isolate fault be RL1.
Thus as per our logic when INPUT1 is high and over current still exists then RL1 shall get high
after 200 ms to isolate the fault.
Carefully observe the figure above. We have used digital inputs and Over-current DDB I>1
(1stStage Over-Current) in an AND gate to start the timer and if the input status do not change
for 200 ms then RL1 will change its status from low to high but in the time window of 200 ms, if
the input status changes then the timer will reset and RL1 will remain low.
Therefore, making a Programmable Scheme Logic, PSL in a Numerical Relay is just a logic
building while having knowledge of function of each DDB to be used. This is just a brief of PSL
to have some idea of PSL used in Numerical Relay. Hope you enjoyed this post.
Pick-up Current, Plug Setting Multiplier (PSM) and Time Setting Multiplier (TSM).
Plug Setting Multiplier (PSM) and Time Setting Multiplier (TSM) are used only for
Electromechanical Relays. These terms or parameters are not so used in Numerical Relays but
they are conceptually used and incorporated in Numerical Relays too but the way of their
implementation is quite different than that of Electromechanical Relays. In this post we will focus
on the concept and implementation of Plug Setting Multiplier and Time Setting Multiplier for
Electromechanical Relays.
As we know that an Electromechanical Relay has a coil which when energized, operates the
Relay to have contact changeover. But there shall be some minimum current which when flows
through the Relay coil, produces enough magnetic force to pull the lever to make contact
change over. Isnt it? Yes, if you ever get a chance to see electromechanical relay, you will
observe that there is a flapper kind of thing which is attached with the lever. The lever in turn is
attached with contacts. Thus when a specified current flows through the relay coil, then only it
will produce enough magnetic pull to attract the flapper and lever to operate the Relay. A simple
picture of relay demonstrating its construction and operation is shown in figure below.
This minimum current in the Relay coil at which Relay starts to operate is called Pick-up
Current. If the current through the Relay coil is less than the pick-up value then Relay wont
operate. On contrary, if the current through the Relay coil is more than the Pick-up current,
Relay will operate. In industries, we normally perform Relay Pick-up and Drop-off Test to check
the healthiness of relays.
Hope your concept of Pick-up current of Relay is clear now. Now we will move on to Current
Setting of electromechanical relays.
Current Setting of Electromechanical Relays: Current Setting of relay is nothing but adjusting
its pick-up value. Suppose we are using a CT of ratio 1000/1 A and the pick-up current needs to
be set at 1.2 A. Then we will simply put the plug provided on relay coil to 120% or 1.2. Thus we
can say that
Pick-up current = Plug Position x Rated CT Secondary Current.
The plug or tapping is provided on the Relay Coil so that changing the position of Plug changes
the number of turns of the relay coil as shown in figure below.
As shown in figure above, the plug is kept at 5. This means that pick-up current of relay will be 5
times of rated CT Secondary current. Likewise, if we put the plug at 8.75 then pick-up current of
relay will be 8.75 times of the rated CT Secondary current.
Plug Setting Multiplier (PSM):
Plug Setting Multiplier (PSM) is defined as the ratio of fault current to the pick-up current of the
relay. Thus,
Plug Setting Multiplier (PSM) = Fault Current / Pick-up Current
= Fault Current / (Plug Position x Rated CT Secondary Current)
Suppose we are using CT of 100/5 A, a fault current of, say 250 A is flowing through the network
protected by the relay. Assume that Current Setting or the position of plug is at 5 then
Plug Setting Multiplier (PSM) = 250 / (55) =10
It shall be noted here that we shall not bother about PSM for instantaneous relay rather we shall
consider PSM for relays having characteristics of Inverse Time, Very Inverse Time etc.
For Detail on Relay Characteristics read Over Current Relay and Its Characteristics
Time Setting Multiplier (TSM): Again it is worthwhile to mention that we shall not bother about
TSM for instantaneous relay rather we shall consider TSM for relays having characteristics
of Inverse Time, Very InverseTime etc.
A Relay is generally provided with control to adjust the time of operation of the Relay. This
adjustment is known as Time Setting Multiplier or TSM. Normally a Time Setting Dial is provided
which is calibrated from 0 to 1 s in step of 0.05 s. For practical exposure, let us consider a relay
as shown in figure below. Please Zoom the image to clearly view every part of the Relay for
better understanding.
As can be seen from the figure, there is a Time Setting Dial which is rotated to set the time of
operation of the relay. Lets say we want to set the time on Time Setting Dial to 0.5 s, then we
need to rotate the dial till 0.5 s on the dial matches with the fixed mark provided. So our TSM is
0.5 here in the case.
How to find the time of operation of Relay?
Well, assume that plug is set at 5 and TSM at 0.5 s. For finding the actual time of operation of
relay we need to refer the Graph between the Operating Time and PSM which is generally
provided on the Relay cover itself but in our figure it is not given. So we consider a graph
between Operating Time and PSM as shown below.
For our case, PSM = 10 (Please see the calculation and case considered above in our
discussion of PSM) and TSM = 0.5 s.
From the Graph, the time of operation of Relay for PSM = 10 is 3 s.
Therefore,
Actual Time of Operation of Relay = 3s x TSM
= 3 x0.5 s =1.5 s
Thus we can say that actual time of operation of Relay is equal to the time obtained from the
PSM & Operating Time Graph multiplied by TSM.
Why Zone-1 Setting 80% and Zone-2 150% in Distance Protection?.

As discussed in my earlier post on Distance Protection Philosophy, Zone-1 setting is kept at
80% of the total impedance of the Protected Line. So question will come in your smart brain that
why 80% even though Zone-1 is meant for primary protection?
Zone-1 is meant for protection of the primary line. Typically, it is set to cover 80% of the line
length. Zone-1 provides fastest protection because there is no intentional time delay associated
with it. Operating time of Zone-1 can be of the order of 1 cycle.
Zone 1 does not cover the entire length of the primary line because it is difficult to distinguish
between faults which are close to bus B like fault at F1, F2, F3 and F4. In other words, if a fault
is close to bus, one cannot ascertain if it is on the primary line, bus or on back up line. This is
because of the following reasons:
CTs and PTs have limited accuracy. During fault, a CT may partially or complete
saturate. The resulting errors in measurement of impedance seen by relay, makes it difficult
to determine fault location at the boundary of lines very accurately.
There are infeed and outfeed effects associated with working of distance relays.
A distance relay scheme uses only local voltage and current measurements for a bus
and transmission line. Hence, it cannot model infeed or outfeed properly. Because of infeed
and outfeed effect the, the Relay may sense fault in 100% length of line even though the
location of fault is actually not in 100% of line. Therefore a margin of 20% is given for the
accuracy of measurement and infeed / outfeed effect.
Next, Question which will definitely strike you that why do we keep the setting of Zone-2
150%? Why not more than 150%?
Zone-2 setting in Distance Relay is kept at 150 % to avoid Overlap Problem. See the picture
below.
As clear from the picture above, if the reach of Zone-2 of a relay R1 is extended too much, then
it can overlap with the Zone-2 of the relay R3. Under such a situation, there exists following
conflict. If the fault is on line BC (and in Z2 of R3), relay R3 should get the first opportunity to
clear the fault. Unfortunately, now both R1 and R3 compete to clear the fault. This means that
Z2 of the relay R1 has to be further slowed down. As Zone-2 protection already have a time
delay, due to overlapping we need to further introduce some time delay which will degrade the
performance of Relay for Zone-2.
Hence, a conscious effort is made to avoid overlaps of Z2 of relay R1 and R3. Setting Zone-2 of
R1 to maximum of 150% of primary line impedance or primary line impedance plus 50% of
smallest line impedance usually works out good compromise without getting into Z2 overlap
problem.
Zones of Protection and Dead or Blind Zone in Power System.

Zoning in Power system Protection is an important philosophy and must be done carefully so
that no part of the system remains unprotected in any condition. To limit the extent of the power
system that is disconnected when a fault occurs, protection is arranged in zones. The principle
is shown in figure below.
Ideally, the zones of protection should overlap, so that no part of the power system is left
unprotected. This is shown in figure below. As can be seen from the figure below, each Breaker
is included in two different zones of protection to increase the reliability of protection scheme.
For practical physical and economic reasons, this ideal zoning in protection is not always
possible to achieve because accommodation for current transformers being in some cases
available only on one side of the circuit breakers, as shown in figure below.
This leaves a section between the Current Transformers and Circuit Breaker CB-A that is not
completely protected against faults. As shown in figure above, a fault at F would cause the
busbar protection to operate and open the circuit breaker but the fault may continue to be fed
through the feeder. The feeder protection, if of the unit type, would not operate, since the fault is
outside its zone. This problem is dealt with by intertripping or some form of zone extension, to
ensure that the remote end of the feeder is tripped also.
The section of Power System which is not covered under any zone of protection is called Dead
Zone or Blind Zone and special kind of protection shall be provided to take care of fault in Dead
Zone. Normally overcurrent element is used for the protection of Dead Zone with some suitable
logic interlock. The logic interlock depends on the configuration of power system and the
condition in which Dead Zone is created. Let us take an example to have more insight. Carefully
observe the figure below.
Transformer is fed by the Bus when the Breaker CB-A is close. Now suppose we want to take
Transformer under maintenance, so for isolating the Transformer we will open CB-A and DS.
After opening DS, it may be required to close the CB-A to feed some other connected feeder. As
the Breaker is closed, a portion up to DS is charged. Now suppose a fault take place in between
DS and CT-3. Assuming that CT-1, CT-2 and CT-3 are meant for protection of Zone in between
the CTs using Differential protection, so a fault outside this zone will not be protected and hence
zone in between CT-3 and DS is unprotected and called Dead Zone.
Read:
Difference between Isolator and Breaker.
Over Current Relay and Its Characteristics
What will be the logic for implementing protection of this Dead Zone?
One may say, if the DS is open and CT-3 senses an overcurrent then Relay shall issue a
tripping command to CB-A. That is all, Dead Zone is no more Dead rather it is protected. Notice
that in this case Dead Zone or Blind Zone is created in a particular condition where the DS is
open and CB-A is close.
Open Circuit and Short Circuit Characteristics of Synchronous Machine.

Open Circuit Test and Short Circuit Test are performed on a Synchronous Machine to find out
the parameters of Synchronous Machine and hence to have an idea of their performance.
Open Circuit Test of Synchronous Machine is also called No Load, Saturation or Magnetizing
Characteristics for the reason which will be clear after going through the post.
For getting the Open Circuit Characteristics of Synchronous Machine, the alternator is first
driven at its rated speed and the open terminal voltage i.e. voltage across the armature terminal
is noted by varying the field current. Thus Open Circuit Characteristic or OCC is basically the
plot between the armature terminal voltage E f versus field current If while keeping the speed of
rotor at rated value. It shall be noted that for OCC, the final value of E fshall be 125% of the rated
voltage.
Figure below shows the connection diagram for performing the Open Circuit Test of Alternator.
As clear from the figure above, an Ammeter is connected in series with the field circuit to
measure the field current and a Voltmeter is connected across the armature terminals to note
down the voltage generated. Figure (b) shows the plot between If and Ef. It can be seen from the
graph that the relationship between the field current I fand no load generated voltage Ef is linear
up to certain value of field current but as the the field current increases the relationship no
longer remains linear. The linear part of the relationship is because, at small value of filed
current the whole mmf is required by the air gap to create magnetic flux but as the value of mmf
exceeds some certain value, the iron parts get saturated and hence the relationship between
the flux (No load generated emf is proportional to flux) and field current no longer remain linear.
Next assume that if there were no saturation (assuming no iron part is present rather only air
gap is present), the relationship between the field current and no load voltage would have been
a straight line and that is why the straight line ob in the figure is called Air Gap Line.
Thus we observe that because of saturation in iron parts of machine, the no load generated
voltage Efdoes not increase in the same proportion as the increase in field current.
Short Circuit Test of Synchronous Machine:
For performing Short Circuit Test on an Alternator, the machine is driven at rated synchronous
speed and the armature terminals are short circuited through an Ammeter as shown in figure
below.
Now the field current If is gradually increased from zero until the armature short circuit current
reaches its maximum safe value i.e. 125 to 150% of its rated current value. Readings of field
current If and short circuit current are noted and plotted.
If you see the above plot of Short Circuit Test, you notice that the short circuit characteristics of
a synchronous machine is a straight line.
Why Short Circuit Characteristics of Synchronous Machine is Straight Line?
For short circuit test, as the armature terminals are shorted, therefore terminal voltage V t = 0.
Therefore the air gap emf Er shall only be enough to provide the leakage impedance drop in the
armature i.e.
Er = Ia(Ra + jXal) where Xal = Armature Leakage Reactance
As we know that, for a Synchronous machine the value of Xal is of the order of 0.1 to 0.2 per
unit and Ra (Armature Resistance) is negligible thus we can write as
Xal = 0.15 (Taking average value of 0.1 and 0.2)
Ra = 0
then Er = Ia (Ra +jXal) = 0.15Ia
Taking rated current of armature, Ia = 1 pu
Therefore, Er = 0.15 pu
You must read Per Unit System in Electrical Engineering
Thus we observe that during short circuit test, the air gap generated emf Er is only 0.15
pu which mean that air gap flux must also be 0.15 pu. As the resultant air gap flux is
only 0.15 of its rated value under normal voltage condition, such a low value of air gap
flux does not saturate the iron parts of synchronous machine and hence the short circuit
characteristics is a straight line. It shall also be noted here that, in case of short circuit
test the armature mmf is almost entirely demagnetizing in nature which results in very
low value of air gap flux.
Transformer Testings.
For the purpose of quality assurance and ensuring that the finished transformer
conforms to customer requirements and is ready for service a barrage of tests are
performed on the transformer. These can be broadly classified into the following 3
types:
1) Routine Tests:
These are standard tests performed necessarily on all transformers. They are further
divided into two subcategories:
Dielectric Tests (for insulation testing)
a) Separate Source Power Frequency Test on HV and LV

b) Induced over voltage test
c) Insulation Resistance of HV and LV winding
d) Dielectric value of oil
Parametric Tests (for winding, loss and efficiency testing)
a) Winding Resistance
b) No load loss and No load Current
c) Load Loss and Impedance
d) Turns ratio on all taps and all phases
2) Type Test:
This test is done on one unit of a particular design. It verifies the response of the design
to the expected boundary conditions of the design. Hence it is not necessary to perform
it on all units manufactured. Generally the testing and certification for the validation of a
design to the conformity of these tests is considered for a period of five years. There are
two tests that come under this paradigm:
a) Temperature Rise Test

b) Impulse Test
3) Special Tests:
These are performed at the request of the customer by third party testing organizations.
These give an idea about the design integrity, manufacturing quality, resistance to fault
currents, operation quality etc. These are the following:
a) Short-Circuit Test
b) Unbalanced Current Test
c) Magnetic Balance Test
d) Measurement of Zero Sequence Impedance
e) Measurement of noise level
As seen from the above list there are a total of 15 tests to be performed on a
transformer.These tests are to be performed in the same sequence as it has been
written above.
The routine tests need to be performed on all transformers that are manufactured,
whereas type and special tests have to be performed under the conditions that have
been mentioned.
It is necessary to perform the above tests in the same order because; each test can
cause slight changes in the mechanical and electrical characteristics of the transformer.
For example it can cause some of the insulated material to come under excessive levels
of dielectric stress which may not be a regular occurrence under normal working
conditions. They can cause modifications to the geometry of the core coil assembly
thereby affecting the building factor. Also, if the tests are performed in a haphazard
fashion without taking into account the parametric variations induced due to the
previous tests, then probably the test results are not indicating the correct or operational
values.
It is recommended to perform tests on Transformer as per the relevant BIS and IEEE
standards.
Transformer Winding Temperature Indicator.

The winding is the component with the highest temperature within the transformer and it is the
component which is subjected to the fastest temperature increases as the load increases.
Therefore for the control of the temperature parameter within the transformer, the temperature
of the winding, as well as top oil, is measured. The temperature of winding of Transformer is
measured using Winding Temperature Indicator (WTI) and the temperature of Transformer Oil is
measured using Oil Temperature Indicator.
The purpose of WTI is to indicate the winding temperature of HV and LV winding of the
Transformer and operates the alarm, trip and cooler control contacts (For detail on Cooler Unit
visit Transformer Cooling Classes).
As can be seen from the above figure, Black needle shows the current winding temperature
while the Red needle shows the highest winding temperature reached for a particular day. This
Red needle needs to be reset manually.
Also, for setting winding temperature for Alarm and Trip, two knobs are provided. The Green
knob shows the setting of winding temperature for Alarm and Red knob shows the Trip
temperature setting as shown in figure.
Construction Detail of Winding Temperature Indicator, WTI:

Winding temperature indicator consists of a sensor bulb placed in an oil filled pocket in the
transformer tank cover. The bulb is connected to the Instrument housing by means of two
flexible capillary tubes. One capillary is connected to the measuring bellow of the instrument
and the other to a compensating bellow.
Working Principle Winding Temperature Indicator:
An indirect system is used to measure winding temperature, since it is dangerous to place a

sensor close to the winding due to the high voltage. The indirect measurement is done by
means of a Thermal Image.
The measuring system is filled with a liquid which changes its volume with rising of temperature.
Inside the instrument is fitted a heating resistance which is fed by a current proportionate to the
current flowing through the transformer winding. To do this we connect the terminal of the
heating resistance with the Bushing Current Transformer so that reflection of change in load is
reflected in the Winding Temperature Indicator, WTI.
The Winding Temperature Indicator, WTI is provided with a maximum temperature indicator. The
heating resistance is fed by a current transformer associated to the loaded winding of the
transformer. The increase in the temperature of the resistance is proportionate to that of the
winding. The sensor bulb of the instrument is located in the hottest oil of the transformer,
therefore, the winding temperature indicates a temperature of hottest oil plus the winding
temperature rise above hot oil Level the hotspot temperature.
Winding Temperature of Transformer may rise due to increased loading of Transformer or due to
some internal fault. Normally the Winding Temperature Indicator, WTI gives alarm at 85 C and
Trip signal at 95 C in India.
What is SOTF Protection?.

SOTF Protection stands for Switch On to Fault. This protection is provided for high speed
clearance of detected fault immediately after Manual Closure of Circuit Breaker. Let us suppose
that a fault is existing and we gave a closing command to Breaker, then in that case SOTF
protection will immediately trip the Breaker.
SOTF Protection is helpful in the sense that while taking maintenance on a Line, it may happen
so that Earth Switch of a particular Circuit Breaker is close. In that case if we give closing
command to the Circuit Breaker, it will immediately trip on SOTF Protection. But it is normal to
strike in your smart brain that how can we close a Breaker when a fault is already existing?
Thing is that you can close the Breaker by bypassing all the required logics, so in that case
SOTF protection will come into picture. Suppose while maintenance Earthing Rod was used for
discharging a particular section but after competition of maintenance the Earth Rod is still
connected to that section. In such case there is nothing or no logic to prevent closing of Breaker
and as soon as one closes the Circuit Breaker, it will trip on SOTF protection.
SOTF Protection gets enabled whenever all the three poles of a Circuit Breaker is open for
more than a settable time say 110s (This time can be changed and configured as per the
design.)
SOTF protection is enabled in two cases. They are mentioned below.
Case1: If no Closing command to the Breaker is Present.
When all the three poles of Circuit Breaker is open for more than a particular time say 110 s, as
soon as we give a closing command to the Circuit Breaker, the SOTF protection is enabled for
500 ms and then gets reset.
Case2: When an external closing command is present.
Here external closing means closing the Circuit Breaker either manually or remotely. The SOTF
protection logic is activated immediately. As soon as all the poles are closed SOTF protection is
enable for 500 ms and then is reset.
During this SOTF time frame of 500 ms, individual distance protection can be enabled or
disabled. When a particular distance zone say Zone-2 is enabled, Zone-2 will actuate
immediately without waiting for Zone-2 time delay if there exists any fault in this zone.
How SOTF Relay Senses a Fault?
Basically there are two elements in relay providing SOTF feature. They are Voltage Level
Detector and Current Level Detector. The purpose of Voltage Level Detector is to ensure Dead
Pole situation and Current Level Detector ensures that a fault occurred i.e. Current Level
Detector is used for detection of fault. Therefore SOTF Relay element must have two settings,
one for Voltage Level Detector and another for Current Level Detector. Typical setting for both
the elements are as follows:
Vph < 75% VN
Iph > 5% IN
Here VNand IN are Nominal Voltage and Nominal Current respectively. Thus if the phase voltages
are normal and if phase current increases from the setting then SOFT protection will sense it a
fault and will issue three phase trip command provided all other conditions as mentioned in
case1 and case2 for SOTF are met.
Distance Protection Philosophy.

Distance protection is a non-unit system of protection offering considerable economic and
technical advantages. Unlike phase and neutral over current protection, the key advantage of
distance protection is that its fault coverage of the protected circuit is independent of source
impedance variations. Let us take an example of this to understand how distance protection is
independent of source impedance. Consider the figure below.
In the figure above, R1 is an over current relay which is used for the protection of Transmission
Line. If there is a fault at F1,
Equivalent source impedance Zs = 1010/20 = 5
Impedance up to the point of Fault = 5+4 = 9
Fault current IF1= 220103/1.732*9 = 220103/15.588 = 14113.5 A
Therefore the setting of over current Relay should be more than 14113.5 A.
Now consider the case,
Here fault is not on the Transmission Line but it is assumed to be inside Switchyard and only
one source is feeding the power to the network. Proceeding in the similar manner,
Fault Current IF2= 220103/1.732*10 = 12702A
Therefore for the protection of Transmission Line, the setting of Relay shall be kept less than
12702 A. But for earlier case we saw that setting of Relay R1 shall be more than 14113.5 A thus
overall the setting shall be > 14113.5 but <12702 A which is impractical. Therefore over
current Relay is not suitable here and it depends on the source impedance.
Distance protection is therefore used for the protection of Transmission Line. It is simple to
apply and fast in isolating the faulty section from the healthy network. Distance Protection
provides primary as well as back-up protection to the protected line. I will show this back-up
protection function latter in this post.
PRINCIPLES OF DISTANCE RELAYS:
Since the impedance of a transmission line is proportional to its length, for distance
measurement it is justified to use a relay capable of measuring the impedance of a line up to a
predetermined point. This predetermined point is called Reach of the Relay.
Such a relay is described as a distance relay and is designed to operate only for faults occurring
between the relay location and the selected reach point, thus giving discrimination for faults that
may occur in different line sections. The basic principle of distance protection involves the
division of the voltage at the relaying point by the measured current. The apparent impedance
so calculated is compared with the reach point impedance which is settable in the Relay. If the
measured impedance is less than the reach point impedance, it is assumed that a fault exists on
the line between the relay and the reach point and issues trip command to the concerned
Breaker Trip Coil either through Master Trip Relay or directly (in case of single pole tripping of
breaker, assuming single pole Auto Reclosure is allowed).
If measured value of impedance V/I is less than setting z then Relay assumes a fault as clear
from the above diagram.
ZONE CONCEPT IN DISTANCE PROTECTION:

Consider the figure below and carefully observe.
Here there are three sub-stations namely A, B and C. For sub-station A, the distance protection
is divided into three zones Z1a, Z2a and Z3a which are called Zone-1, Zone-2 and Zone-3
protection. Similarly for sub-station D the three zones will be Z1d, Z2d and Z3d.
Zone-1 is normally set to 80% of total length of Line (here line length is AB between two
consecutive substation). Zone-2 is set to 150 % of total line length and Zone-3 set at 120% of
(100% line length + 100% of Longest Line from Remote substation i.e. B). It should be noted
that all Zones are setting is done in terms of impedance.
Assume the distance between A and B = 200 KM
Total Impedance of Line AB = 61 Ohm
Current Transformer ratio = 1000/1A
Potential Transformer ratio = 400 kV / 110 V
So for Zone-1 Impedance setting = 80 % of Total Line Impedance = 80% of 61

= 0.861 = 48.8 Ohm ????? (Will it be????)
It wont be..because you need to consider CT & PT ratio for calculating the impedance
as the Relay is sensing current and voltage through CT and PT only.
PT/CT Ratio = 1000/(400103/110) = 1000110/400,000 = 0.28
So the required setting for Zone-1 = 48.80.28 = 13.66 ohm. Which means if the distance
Relay senses Impedance less than 13.66 Ohm then it will pick-up for Zone-1.
In the same manner, Setting for Zone-2 = (150% of 61) CT/PT ratio
= 1.5610.28 = 25.62 ohm
Which means if the distance Relay senses Impedance less than 25.62 Ohm then it will
pick-up for Zone-2.
Setting for Zone-3 = 120% of (Impedance of Line AB+ Impedance of Longest Line from
substation B)
Assume the Longest Line from substation B is having an impedance of 61 Ohm.
Therefore Setting for Zone-3 = (120% of (61+61)) CT/PT ratio
= 1.21220.28 = 41 Ohm
Which means if the distance Relay senses Impedance less than 41 Ohm then it will pick-
up for Zone-3.
So we now know how to calculate the setting for different Zones of Distance Protection.
Now suppose our substation is A and we are providing distance protection so Relay is located at
A. For fault in Zone-1, obviously we need to isolate the fault without any time delay. Now say our
breaker at A opened but as we are connected to the substation B so their breaker at B shall also
trip so as to isolate the fault completely otherwise fault will be feed from substation B side even
though our breaker at A opened. Thus if fault in Zone-1 occurs then Distance Relay shall trip
Breaker at A and send a signal to Remote Substation B by receiving which Remote substation B
shall trip their breaker at B. This signal is called Carrier Signal which is sent through Power
Line Carrier Communication (PLCC) Line. This is the purpose of PLCC. I will post
on PLCC latter so be there.
Thus for Zone-1, time delay = 0. Got it? (If no then write in comment box I will be happy to clear
your doubt)
Next, suppose there is a fault in Zone-2 then our breaker at A shall not trip rather Remote
Substation breaker at C shall trip (If fault is in section CD in figure above) as it will be in their
Zone-1. So we need to introduce some time delay in our Distance Relay to operate for Zone-2
fault. This time delay is usually kept around 350 ms. If within 350 ms Remote substation breaker
at B trips then our Breaker at A wont trip but if suppose because of any Reason Remote
Substation breaker at C fail to trip then our breaker at A will definitely trip.
See how Zone-2 is working as Back-up protection for line CD. Got it friend?
Now if there is a fault in the remaining 20% of line which is protected by Zone-1 at our
substation A then it will be sensed by our Relay at A in Zone-2 but for Remote substation B it will
be Zone-1 so their breaker at B will instantaneously trip but our breaker at A also need to trip
otherwise our substation will continue to feed the fault by receiving carrier signal.
Now coming to Zone-3, if there is a fault in Zone-3 then our breaker at A is not supposed to trip
rather Remote substation breaker at C &D is supposed to trip. Therefore we introduce some
time delay for the operation of Zone-3 which is typically of the order of 1s. If because of any
reason breaker at C & D fail to trip within 1s then our Distance relay will operate to open our
Breaker at A.
There is one more Zone in modern Distance Relay which is called Reverse Zone or Zone-4. As
the name Reverse Zone implies it is back-up protection of the Substation where Distance Relay
is installed, in our case to the substation A. The setting for zone is normally 10% of the
impedance of protected line.
Distance Relay Zone Characteristics on R-X Plane:
The reach point of a relay is the point along the line impedance locus that is intersected by the
boundary characteristic of the relay.
Philosophy of Primary and Back-up Protection.

The protection provided by the protective relaying equipment can be categorized into two types
as:
a) Primary protection
b) Back-up protection
The primary protection is the first line of defense and is responsible to protect all the power
system elements from all the types of faults. The backup protection comes into play only when
the primary protection fails.
In the event of failure or non-availability of the Primary Protection some other means of ensuring
that the fault is isolated must be provided. These secondary systems are referred to as Back-up
Protection. Back-up protection may be considered as either being local or remote. Local back-
up protection is achieved by protection which detects an un-cleared primary system fault at its
own location and which then trips its own circuit breakers, e.g. Time Graded Overcurrent
Relays.
What is Time Grading?

Protection systems in successive zones are arranged to operate in times that are graded through
the sequence of equipment so that upon the occurrence of a fault, although a number of
protection equipment respond, only those relevant to the faulty zone complete the tripping function.
The others make incomplete operations and then reset. The speed of response will often depend
on the severity of the fault, and will generally be slower than for a unit system.
As shown in figure above, if a fault occurs then Relay C is supposed to trip instantaneously, but in
case of failure of operation of Relay C to isolate the fault, Relay B shall issue trip command after a
time delay of 350 ms. In the worst case when both theRelays B & C fails, Relay A shall operate
after 1 sec. This is Time Grading where a time is provided for main Relay to operate.
Remote back-up protection is provided by protection that detects an un-cleared primary system
fault at a remote location and then issues a local trip command, e.g. the second or third zones
of a distance relay. In both cases the main and back-up protection systems detect a fault
simultaneously, operation of the back-up protection being delayed to ensure that the primary
protection clears the fault if possible. Normally being unit protection, operation of the primary
protection will be fast and will result in the minimum amount of the power system being
disconnected. Operation of the back-up protection will be, of necessity, slower and will result in
a greater proportion of the primary system being lost.
The extent and type of back-up protection applied will be related to the failure risks and relative
economic importance of the system. For distribution systems where fault clearance times are
not critical, time delayed remote back-up protection may be adequate. For EHV systems, where
system stability is at risk unless a fault is cleared quickly, multiple primary protection systems,
operating in parallel and possibly of different types (e.g. distance andunit protection), will be
used to ensure fast and reliable tripping. Back-up overcurrent protection may then optionally be
applied to ensure that two separate protection systems are available during maintenance of one
of the primary protection systems. Back-up protection systems should, ideally, be completely
separate from the primary systems. For example a circuit protected by a current differential
relay may also have time graded overcurrent and earth fault relays added to provide circuit
breaker tripping in the event of failure of the main primary unit protection. To maintain complete
separation and thus integrity, current transformers, voltage transformers, relays, circuit breaker
trip coils and d.c. supplies would be duplicated. This ideal is rarely attained in practice. The
following compromises are typical:
a) Separate current transformers(cores and secondary windings only) are provided. This
involves little extra cost or accommodation compared with the use of common current
transformers that would have to be larger because of the combined burden. This practice is
becoming less common when digital or numerical relays are used, because of the extremely low
input burden of these relay types.
b) Voltage transformers are not duplicated because of cost and space considerations. Each
protection relay supply is separately protected (fuse or MCB) and continuously supervised to
ensure security of the VT output. An alarm is given on failure of the supply and, where
appropriate, prevents an unwanted operation of the protection.
c) Trip supplies to the two protections should be separately protected (fuse or MCB). Duplication
of tripping batteries and of circuit breaker tripping coils may be provided. Trip circuits should be
continuously supervised.
d) It is desirable that the main and back-up protections (or duplicate main protections) should
operate on different principles, so that unusual events that may cause failure of the one will be
less likely to affect the other.
Numerical relaysmay incorporate suitable back-up protection functions (e.g. a distance relay
may also incorporate time-delayed overcurrent protection elements as well). A reduction in the
hardware required to provide back-up protection is obtained, but at the risk that a common relay
element failure (e.g. the power supply) will result in simultaneous loss of both main and back-up
protection.
Autoreclosing Philosophy in Distance Protection.

Autoreclosing is a feature which is provided in the Line Circuit Breaker so that Single Pole of a
Breaker may trip and close when command is given to do so.
Based on the time duration of fault existing in the Power System, faults can be classified into three
categories as
Transient Fault
Semi-Transient Fault
Permanent Fault.
Transient fault exists only for very short duration and these can the removed faster if the line is
disconnected from the system momentarily so that arc extinguishes. After the arc is deionized, line
can be reclosed to resume the service. Thus, in this way the interruption in the Power Supply is
reduced and loss of revenue is also saved.
It has been found that 80% of the fault in Power System are Transient in nature, 12% are Semi-
transient and remaining 8% are only permanenet fault. Semi-transient fault are those fault which
take some finite time to clear by itself. For example, suppose a bord spanning the two lines sit then it
will cause a fault which will clear by itself after the burning of cause of fault,after some time say 1sec.
Thus we will expect, Autorecloser to take place for 1 sec i.e. Breaker shall close after a time delay of
1 sec.Here note that the time after which fault clears by itself is called DEAD TIME. Therefore,
in our example DEAD TIME = 1 sec.
But for Permanent Fault, Autorecloser will not help as the cause of fault continuously exists so if we
incorporate the Autorecloser the Breaker will again trip after the Autorecloser. So how many
attempts will the Realy take to Autoreclose and after how much time it will take another
consecutive attempt to Autoreclose?
Here we come to another concept, called RECLAIM TIME. RECLAIM TIME is the time after which
Relay will take another consecutive attempt to Autoreclose. This RECLAIM TIME is typically set at
25 sec. The number of attempt for Autorecloser is set in the Relay which is 4 for MiCOM P444
Distance Protection Relay. This means that Relay will take four Autorecloser shots and at the end of
fourth shot, if still fault is existing, the Line will be taken out. In figure below, a Numerical Relay is
shown.
Thus we see that for permanent fault Autorecloser wont help as we need to attend the fault and
rectify it.
Autorecloser can be Single pole or Three pole. Here Pole means Breaker of any of the three phase
i.e. either R, Y or B phase. Single Pole Autorecloser take place during Line to ground fault. It shall be
noted that Autorecloser facility is provided only in Line Breaker and that to by Distance Protection
Relay.
Single Autorecloser take place in the following conditions:
Zone-1 protection operated AND Carrier Channels are healthy AND Three Pole Tripping has
not taken place.
OR
Zone-2 protection operated with Carrier Signal Received.
This seems surprising that only a single pole of Breaker trips during Zone-1 fault. But its true. The
phase, say B phase, in which Line to ground fault has taken place will only trip and reclose after the
DEAD TIME. If within the RECLAIM TIME, another fault take place then Three Phase trip will occur.
During the DEAD TIME period, power is fed to the system via the two healthy phases.
In case of Three Pole Autorecloser, all the three phases are opened independently irrespective of
type of fault be it Single L-G or L-L or L-L-L fault and reclosed after the DEAD TIME. During the
DEAD TIME period, no power can be transmitted and therefore system is liable to operate unstably.

Cable Calculations Worked Examples

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Cable Calculations Worked Examples

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Worked example of cable calculation

(see Fig. G65)

Calculation using software Ecodial

General network characteristics Number of poles and 4P4d

Earthing system TN-S Tripping unit Micrologic 2.3

Neutral distributed No Overload trip Ir (A) 510

Voltage (V) 400 Short-delay trip Im / Isd (A) 5100

Frequency (Hz) 50 Cable C3

Upstream fault level (MVA) 500 Length 20

Resistance of MV network (m) 0.0351 Maximum load current (A) 509

Reactance of MV network (m) 0.351 Type of insulation PVC

Transformer T1 Ambient temperature (C) 30

Rating (kVA) 630 Conductor material Copper

Short-circuit impedance voltage 4 Single-core or multi-core Single

Transformer resistance RT (m) 3.472 Installation method F

Transformer reactance XT (m) 10.64 Phase conductor selected csa 2 x 95

3-phase short-circuit current 21.54 Neutral conductor selected 2 x 95

Cable C1 PE conductor selected csa 1 x 95

Length (m) 5 Cable voltage drop U (%) 0.53

Type of insulation PVC 3-phase short-circuit current 19.1

Ambient temperature (C) 30 1-phase-to-earth fault current 11.5

Conductor material Copper Switchboard B6

Single-core or multi-core cable Single Reference Linergy 800

Installation method F Rated current (A) 750

Number of layers 1 Circuit-breaker Q7

Phase conductor selected csa 2 x 240 Load current (A) 255

Neutral conductor selected csa 2 x 240 Type Compact

PE conductor selected csa 1 x 120 Reference NSX400F

Voltage drop U (%) 0.122 Rated current (A) 400

3-phase short-circuit current 21.5 Number of poles and 3P3d

Courant de dfaut phase-terre Id 15.9 Tripping unit Micrologic 2.3

Circuit-breaker Q1 Overload trip Ir (A) 258

Load current (A) 860 Short-delay trip Im / Isd (A) 2576

Type Compact Cable C7

Reference NS1000N Length 5

Rated current (A) 1000 Maximum load current (A) 255

Number of poles and protected 4P4d Type of insulation PVC

Tripping unit Micrologic 5.0 Ambient temperature (C) 30

Overload trip Ir (A) 900 Conductor material Copper

Short-delay trip Im / Isd (A) 9000 Single-core or multi-core Single

Tripping time tm (ms) 50 Installation method F

Switchboard B2 Phase conductor selected csa 1 x 95

Reference Linergy 1250 Neutral conductor selected -

Rated current (A) 1050 PE conductor selected csa 1 x 50

Circuit breaker Q3 Cable voltage drop U (%) 0.14

Load current (A) 509 Total voltage drop U (%) 0.79

Type Compact 3-phase short-circuit current 18.0

Reference NSX630F 1-phase-to-earth fault current 10.0

Rated current (A) 630

performed according to Cenelec TR50480

(cable resistance: 23.7 m.mm2/m)

(cable reactance: 0.08 m/m)

(cable resistance: 23.7 m.mm2/m)

(cable reactance: 0.08 m/m)

(cable resistance: 23.7 m.mm2/m)

(cable reactance: 0.08 m/m)

Calculation of short-circuit currents for the selection of circuit-breakers Q1, Q3, Q7

(see Fig. G67)

Circuit components R (m) X (m) Z (m) Ikmax (kA)

Transformer 630kVA, 4% (see Fig. G35) 2.9 10.8

Cable C1 0.23 0.4

Sub-total 3.16 11.55 11.97 20.2

Cable C3 2.37 1.6