An Investigation into the Circuit

Design and Functionality of Analog

Modular Synthesizers

By Jamie Dowen 12031089

BSc (Hons) Music Technology

A project submitted in partial fulfilment

of the award of the degree of BSc (Hons)
from Staffordshire University

Supervised by Dave Hickman

April 2017

School of Computing and Digital

Technologies
Abstract
The objective of this dissertation is to analyse how sound synthesis works at a
component level, more specifically subtractive synthesis, and how this can be
used to develop a modular analogue synthesizer. For this project, an analogue
modular synthesizer was built to understand the circuit design and overall
functionality, along with it working as a platform to conduct testing upon.
Experimentation in various circuit designs were undertaken, which involved
different waveform generation methods in a VCO (Voltage Controlled Oscillator),
signal filtering techniques in a VCF (Voltage Controlled Filter) and signal
amplification in a VCA (Voltage Controlled Amplifier). Testing and
experimentation was also undertaken on how well the modules perform.

By testing the synthesizer modules in both a real-world and virtual environment,

the results could be compared with one another. The results found that
synthesizers in the simulated environment worked best due to the circuits being
in a constant ideal situation, where-as the physical modules featured concepts of
subtractive synthesis, but were not always perfect in terms of functionality.

To accompany the constructed modular synth, a composition was created on a

Doepfer A-100 modular synthesizer to demonstrate an understanding of signal
flow and sound design within a modular system.

10,290 Words

2
Contents
Abstract................................................................................................................. 2
List of Acronyms.................................................................................................... 5
Introduction........................................................................................................... 6
1.Research............................................................................................................. 7
1.1 Subtractive Synthesis................................................................................... 7
1.2 Functionality of Analogue Synthesizers........................................................9
1.2.1 Control Voltage - CV.............................................................................10
1.2.2 Voltage Controlled Oscillators VCO....................................................10
1.2.3 Voltage Controlled Filters VCF............................................................12
1.2.4 Voltage Controlled Amplifiers VCA.....................................................14
1.3 Modular Synthesizers.................................................................................16
1.3.1 Overview.............................................................................................. 16
1.3.2 Form Factors of Modular Synthesizers..................................................16
1.3.3 Modular Synthesizer Patching & Composition......................................16
2. Research Analysis............................................................................................ 18
2.1 Main Findings.............................................................................................. 18
3. Experimental Methods..................................................................................... 19
3.1 Multisim...................................................................................................... 19
3.2 Circuit Breadboarding and National Instruments myDAQ...........................19
4. Testing and Experimentation...........................................................................20
4.1 Multisim Circuit Design............................................................................... 20
4.1.1 VCO Experimentation and Testing........................................................20
4.1.2 VCF Experimentation and Testing.........................................................22
4.1.3 VCA Experimentation and Testing........................................................24
4.2 Physical Build and myDAQ Testing..............................................................25
5. Results............................................................................................................. 26
5.1 VCO Findings.............................................................................................. 26
5.2 VCF Findings............................................................................................... 27
5.3 VCA Findings............................................................................................... 28
5.4 Audio Demos.............................................................................................. 28
6. Modular Synthesizer Composition....................................................................29
7. Conclusion....................................................................................................... 30
8. Evaluation........................................................................................................ 31
9. List of Figures and Equations...........................................................................33
10. Bibliography................................................................................................... 35
11. Appendices.................................................................................................... 39

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 11.1 Portfolio Link.......................................................................................... 39
11.2 Original Project Proposal October 2016...............................................39
11.3 Ethics Form October 2016...................................................................43
11.4 Envelope Generators - EG.........................................................................47
11.5 Audio Mixers............................................................................................. 48
11.6 Keyboard Control, Gates and Triggers......................................................49
11.7 Testing and Experimentation Synthesizer Connection Diagrams...........51
11.8 VCO Results.............................................................................................. 52
11.9 VCF Results............................................................................................... 53
11.10 VCA Results............................................................................................ 55
11.11 Modular Synthesizer Composition Patching............................................56

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List of Acronyms
AC Alternating Current
ADSR - Attack, sustain, delay and release parameters
CV Control voltage
DC Direct current
EG Envelope generator
IC Integrated circuit
Op-amp Operational amplifier
RC Resistor-capacitor
RMS Root-means-squared
THD Total harmonic distortion
VCA Voltage-controlled amplifier
VCC Collector supply voltage
VCF Voltage-controlled-filter
VCO Voltage-controlled oscillator
VDD Voltage drain supply
VSS Voltage source supply

5
Introduction
Modern synthesizers have their roots dating back to the late 19 th century, with
the invention of the Telharmonium from Thaddeus Cahill. The Telharmonium, also
known as the Dynamophone; worked by generating a sound as an electrical
signal through using various sized tone wheels rotating against an electro-
magnetic coil. The more teeth on a coil, the higher the resulting frequency, which
allowed for a frequency range of 40-4000Hz. The keys on this instrument were
also velocity-sensitive and featured polyphony. (Apple, 2009)
During the winter months of 1947, a ground-breaking discovery was made in the
field of electronics, which was the invention of the transistor at Bell Laboratories
by William Shockley and his colleagues John Bardeen and Walter Brattain.
Transistors allow for the controlling of current or voltage between two terminals,
dependent on the amount of current or voltage that is being applied to the third
terminal. The transistor proved incredibly important to the continued
development of the synthesizer and electronics, as it meant more complex
circuitry could be implemented in a much smaller form factor. (Nobel Prize, 2002)
Since the late 1960s, synthesizers have had a prominent and ever-growing role
in the creation of music. From synth pioneer Robert Bob Moog and his ground-
breaking modular systems, continuing onto the ARP Instruments ARP 2600,
Sequential Circuits Prophet-5 and the Roland Jupiter-8, all the way to modern
software wavetable synthesizers like Xfer Records Serum and Native
Instruments Massive, synthesizers have continued to push the boundaries of
music as a whole.
With this investigation, the aims are to understand, design and build the basic
components of an analogue subtractive modular synthesizer, which include a
voltage controlled oscillator (VCO), a voltage controlled filter (VCF) and a voltage
controlled amplifier (VCA). To begin an investigation in this area, research must
first be undertaken in the field of electronics, building upon knowledge of the
fundamental theories and more intermediate areas such as op-amps, oscillators,
and filtering. Investigations will need to be made into the area of subtractive
synthesis, focusing on the theory of how subtractive synthesis works and how
this can be put into practice using electronic components.
As the units of a modular synthesizer are usually completely independent of one
another, the user needs to manually patch together these units to create a
sound. To cater for this, the units will need to be designed and built with the
focus of control voltage (CV) outputs and inputs in mind, which will allow the user
to connect units together.
Once the modular synthesizer has been built, testing and calibration should be
undertaken to see how well it performs. This testing can include CLIO testing,
which allows for audio signals and electronic signals to be analysed and
measured. (Audiomatica Srl, 2016)
Further research into other areas of modular synthesis should be considered too,
focusing on modules like an audio mixer, which would allow multiple signals to
be mixed together before being routed into a VCA unit. Envelope generator (EG)
units should also be considered, as this can help with the second aim of this
project, which is to compose a piece of music using a constructed synthesizer.
For this to go ahead, an understanding of modular compositional techniques will
need to be in place. The Doepfer A-100 modular system within the university will

6
be used to experiment on and practice with modular signal flow to complete this
objective. (Doepfer, n.d.)

1.Research
1.1 Subtractive Synthesis
In terms of sound synthesis, there are a variety of ways to develop and
manipulate sound signals, with the most notable and widespread form being
subtractive synthesis. Subtractive synthesis refers to the subtraction or filtering
of frequencies from a waveform to achieve a desired sound.
Subtractive synthesis consists of a source and a modifier. The source, which is
usually a VCO, provides a sound signal that can either be a shaped waveform, or
a completely randomized signal, such as white noise. The most common
waveforms in sound synthesis are sine, square, triangle and sawtooth shapes.
These shapes are the ones which are easy to describe mathematically and also
to produce electronically. (Russ, 2013, p.107)
These basic waveforms are harmonically rich, apart from a sine wave, which
contains just the pure fundamental frequency. As subtractive synthesis works by
removing harmonics from a source signal to create a new sound, sine waves are
generally unsuitable as a source signal. They sometimes appear as a signal in a
LFO module however, which can be used to modulate a signal. Sine waves are
named after the sine mathematical function that outputs a smooth and repetitive
oscillation. (Nave, 2017)

Figure 1 - A sine wave signal and its spectrum, containing only the fundamental frequency. (Russ,
2013, p.109)

A square wave signal alternates between a fixed high and low amplitude
dependent on the frequency, resulting in a square shape when displayed on an
oscilloscope. Square wave signals only contain odd harmonics of the
fundamental frequency. For example, if the fundamental tone of the square wave
was 60Hz, the first harmonic of the square wave would be 180Hz. The amplitude
of the harmonic is equivalent to the inverse of its harmonic number. (Sievers,
n.d.)

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 Figure 2 - A square wave signal and its harmonics, with the spectrum showing their relative
values. (Russ, 2013, p.110)

Triangle waves possess two ramping waves, one which ramps upward to a fixed
high amplitude, and one that ramps down to a fixed low amplitude. In a similar
fashion to square wave signals, triangle waves only contain odd harmonics of the
fundamental, with the harmonic amplitude being equal to the inverse square of
its harmonic number. (Sievers, n.d.)

Figure 3 - A triangle wave signal and its harmonics, with the spectrum showing their relative
values. (Russ, 2013, p.110)

Sawtooth waves are the most harmonically rich out of the basic waveform
shapes, which contain both odd and even harmonics. Sawtooth signals consist of
a gradual upwards ramp that drops to the lowest amplitude once the ramp has
reached its highest amplitude. The harmonic amplitude in a sawtooth wave is
equal to the inverse of its harmonic number, like that of square wave signals.
(Sievers, n.d.)

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Figure 4 - A sawtooth signal and its spectrum, note that it features both odd and even harmonics
(Russ, 2013, p.111)

The modifier in subtractive synthesis is usually either a filter or an amplifier.

When a filter modifies the source signal, it removes harmonics from it depending
on the filter type. For example, a low-pass filter would attenuate the higher
frequencies of the signal, while a high pass filter would attenuate the lower
frequencies. The signal is attenuated depending on the cut-off frequency of the
filter, which can be adjusted on a physical or software synthesizer.
Amplifier modification is more complex in terms of its workings, but is used to
change the volume or envelope of the signal. Envelope generator units are used
to do this by producing a varying control voltage that can change over time to
manipulate the signal. It should be noted that envelope generators can also be
used on filters along with amplifiers to further modify the sound. (Russ, 2013,
p.113)

1.2 Functionality of Analogue Synthesizers

The term analogue can be defined as a mechanism in which data is represented
by continuously variable physical quantities (Wilson, 2014, p.2)
Analogue synthesizers work through several physical electronic components
such as resistors, transistors, capacitors, diodes, and a wide range of integrated
circuits. Analogue electronic signals are continuously variable compared to
digital signals, which only work in two values, either 1 or 0. Because of the
physical nature of electronics, they are susceptible to noise, precision
inaccuracies and thermal drift which can affect the quality and the tuning of the
sound being output. These factors give analogue synthesizers their unique and
timeless sound, which is why many people still prefer the physical versions of
vintage synthesizers compared to their modern software emulations.
Analogue synthesizers are made up of modules that each perform a specific
function. These modules can either be hardwired together to function as a single
unit, or function separately as a modular synthesizer. Modular synthesizers need
to be wired together manually to produce an output, but are incredibly flexible in
terms of sound design.

9
The main modules of a synthesizer include the VCO, a VCF and a VCA. An EG can
be connected the VCF and the VCA to shape the sound, but is not always
necessary depending on the usage. Keyboard control can also be added to the
signal flow to gate the VCA output and provide velocity, along with altering the
signal frequency of the VCO.

1.2.1 Control Voltage - CV

Control voltage is easily one of the most important aspects of analogue
synthesizers, in which parameters of synthesizer modules can be changed by
altering the voltage input. As synthesizer modules produce an audio output as a
voltage, these output voltages can be used to modify or modulate the
parameters of another unit. (Wilson, 2014, p.38)
CV can be sourced from a whole range of modules including LFOs, EGs,
keyboards and even VCOs themselves. Each of these modules can output a CV
that will modulate its destination in varying ways, such as giving a vibrato effect
to a sound by connecting an LFO to a VCO module.
The VCA is the most basic example of a CV destination, in which a voltage is fed
into the VCA, usually from an EG to control the gain, which can modulate the
amplitude of the audio signal to create an envelope dependent on the CV.
(Russ, 2013, p.104)

1.2.2 Voltage Controlled Oscillators VCO

The VCO is usually the starting point of any synthesizer. It is the source of
waveforms within the synthesizer before they are modulated along the signal
path. They provide the initial frequency of the waveform which can be altered in
both coarse and fine measurements, by providing a control voltage. Coarse
controls the frequency in larger increments such as semitones, while fine
controls the frequency in smaller amounts known as cents.
A common standard amongst VCOs is the one volt per octave standard. This
standard was developed by Robert Moog during the 1960s and was
subsequently implemented into his Moog modular systems. The 1v/octave
system is an exponential system in which the frequency doubles with every
increment of 1 volt. For example, if 1 volt is a given control voltage which
outputs a frequency of 50Hz, 2 volts would then give 100Hz, 3 volts would give
200Hz and so on. A linear voltage on the other hand, which does not have
1v/octave functionality, would instead increase proportionally, with 1 volt being
50Hz, 2 volts being 100Hz, 3 volts being 150Hz and so on. To work correctly,
1v/octave systems need to be calibrated and tuned during the circuit design
process. (Wilson, 2014, p.38)
In terms of waveform generation at a component level, there are many ways this
can be achieved, such as with timer chips or operational amplifiers for example.
A 555 timer IC in astable mode is a basic way of producing a square wave
output. To generate the square wave, the 555 timer IC outputs (pin 3) HIGH upon
receiving a trigger input (into pin 2) and will continue to stay HIGH until the
threshold input is driven (into pin 6). At this point, the output signal is then
turned LOW and the discharge output (pin 7) is enabled. The trigger input will be
1
enabled again once the input level reaches below 3 VCC, disabling the

10
discharge pin, with the threshold being activated again at an input level higher
2
than 3 VCC, where the cycle begins again. (Horowitz & Hill, 2015, p.428)

Astable 555 timer circuits can also be adapted to produce other signals, such as
a sine wave or a triangle wave for example, which can be done by using
inductors and timing capacitors on the timer output.

Figure 5 - 555 Timer in astable configuration to produce a square wave output

(Electronics-Tutorials, n.d.)

Operational amplifiers, or op-amps for short, can also be used to generate

waveform outputs in a VCO. To produce a triangle wave signal, an op-amp can be
used as an integrator. An integrator circuit is something that calculates the
integral of the input and produces an output voltage at a rate which is
proportional to the input voltage but in an opposing direction. Op-amps work by
trying to keep its negative input equal to the positive input. In the case of an
integrator circuit, the positive terminal would be referenced to ground, requiring
the op-amp to drain a current value that is proportional to the input voltage,
V
equal to R1 (R1 being resistor 1). The drained current from the op-amp is

taken through a capacitor, the voltage of which is proportional to the integral

value of current that is being passed through it. The resulting output wave is a
varying upwards and downwards ramp, representing a triangle wave, with the
only restriction being that Vout is always less than the value of Vin. (Horowitz &
Hill, 2015, p.230)

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Figure 6 - A basic operational amplifier integrator circuit (Horowitz &

Hill, 2015, p.230)
Op-amps can also work in a Schmitt trigger/comparator circuit to produce a
square wave output. Schmitt triggers circuits compare two voltages or currents

Figure 7 - A basic Schmitt trigger configuration (Horowitz &

Hill, 2015, p.237)
and outputs a signal indicating which is larger. This can be used in conjunction
with the triangle integrator circuit described previously when using a dual op-
amp chip. The second half of the op-amp would take the triangle wave as an
negative input and a VDD input into the positive terminal of the op-amp to provide
a reference voltage. With this combination, if the triangle wave was LOW, the
output of the square wave would be HIGH, and vice-versa. (Falstad, 2016)

In terms of VCO module inputs and outputs there are many variations. The A-
110-1 VCO module by Doepfer for example, features two CV inputs, two pulse
width cv inputs and a sync input, along with individual outputs for sawtooth,
sine, square and triangle waveforms, which can all be used simultaneously. The
A-110 unit features control knobs to manipulate the waveform outputs, such as
octave range parameters and a tune knob, which is manipulated by the CV1
input in conjunction with the CV2 input and CV2 amount knob. (Doepfer, n.d.)

1.2.3 Voltage Controlled Filters VCF

A VCF module is the most common sound-shaping device in subtractive
synthesis. A filter works by removing or subtracting frequencies depending on
the filter response type.

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Low pass filters work by attenuating the higher frequencies of a signal, while
high-pass filters work by attenuating the lower frequencies of a signal. Both high
and low-pass filters feature cut-off and resonance controls. The cut-off frequency
is the point at which 3dB of attenuation occurs, also known as the half-power
point as it is the point at which half the power of the audio signal has been lost.
In a low-pass filter, the audio signal is attenuated below the cut-off point, while in
a high-pass filter, the audio signal is attenuated above the cut-off point. (Russ,
2013, p.114)
A cut-off frequency can also be defined by the component values of a circuit. To
change the cut-off frequency, either component values can be changed or a
potentiometer can be added to the circuit. A potentiometer functions as a
variable resistor, which provides a resistance up to the level the potentiometer is
rated for and in-turn gives the filter a form of voltage control with the CV voltage
being dependent on the current value of the potentiometer.
Filter resonance is the frequency at which the signal resonates or is
accentuated. Resonance is created in a filter by feeding back the output signal
into the filter again, which results in a boost around the cut-off point of the
signal. A larger signal will be fed back into the filter as the resonance control

increases.
Figure 8 - Left - A low pass filter with no resonance added. Right - A low pass filter
with resonance at the cut-off point. (Sievers, n.d.)
Single pole low and high-pass filters can be created with just a resistor and a
capacitor (RC). As a capacitor works as a reactive component, it can offer a
variable resistance to a signal depending on the frequency. Capacitors offer high
resistance against a low frequency signal, while offering very little resistance to a
high frequency signal. Due to the nature of electronics, the high frequencies of a
signal would travel through the capacitor to ground, attenuating them from the
original signal, as this is the path that offers the least resistance, while the low
frequencies would only pass through the resistor and carry on through the circuit,
as this is the path of the least resistance for the low frequencies. An example of a
low pass RC circuit is shown below.

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Figure 9 - Simple RC low-pass filter configuration (Doepfer,

n.d.)
A high-pass RC circuit however works inversely to a low-pass. The resistor and
capacitors are swapped within the circuit to enable high frequency signals to
pass through, causing the low frequencies to be attenuated.

Figure 10 - Simple RC high-pass filter configuration

(Doepfer, n.d.)
To calculate the cut-off frequency ( f c of these low-pass RC circuits, the
following formula can be applied:
1
f c=
2 RC

Equation 1 - Cut-off frequency equation for a low-pass filter (Electronics Tutorials, n.d.)

For example, if the RC circuit had a resistor with the value of 47,000 ohms and a
capacitor with a value of 1nF (nanofarad, which is one billionth or (10 -9) of one
farad), these can be applied to the formula above:

1
=3386 Hz
2 ( 3.142 ) ( 47000 ) (0.000000001)

The resulting cut-off frequency is 3386Hz. In a low-pass filter circuit with these
component values, all the frequencies above 3386Hz would be attenuated.
Other filters such as a band-pass or notch filter are also useful ways of modifying
a signal. Band-pass filters only allow a set range of frequencies through it,
attenuating any signals that are not in this range. The range of frequencies
allowed through is known as the bandwidth or pass-band of the filter. A band
pass filter is effectively a low-pass and high-pass filter combined. Notch filters
work as an opposite to band-pass filters, as they attenuate a narrow range of
frequencies while letting frequencies outside of the range through. Notch filters
can be useful for removing a group of problematic frequencies within a signal.
Basic VCF units typically only work as a single filter type, while more advanced
and high-end multimode filter units have the option to switch between filter
types, reducing the need for multiple modules and effectively saving space.
Multimode filters however, are much more complex in terms of circuit design
compared to a basic low-pass or high pass module.

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Standard controls of a VCF module include a cut-off frequency control and
resonance control. CV can be routed into a VCF module, which can modulate an
array of parameters, including the frequency envelope, Q width, cut-off
frequency and resonance for example. Higher end modules can also include a
dB/octave roll-off parameter for the cut-off slope, which can vary from a gradual
6dB/octave to 24/dB on some units, such as the Serge VCFS (Random*Source,
2016)

1.2.4 Voltage Controlled Amplifiers VCA

A VCA is usually the last module in the signal flow of an analogue synthesizer.
The VCA module works to amplify or increase the gain of an input signal with a
value designated by the control voltage. In terms of circuit design, VCAs need to
be designed and built with the concept of clean amplification in mind, which
means to amplify the input signal without adding imperfections to the output
signal. An ideal case VCA would take the original signal input and output the
exact same signal, except with a higher amplitude, resulting in a louder and
more audible sound with no imperfections.
However, as this is the ideal case of a VCA, it is not always possible. When
amplifying a signal, it is important not to introduce distortion and/or noise.
Amplifier distortion can occur when DC bias or signal offset is too high or too low.
It is important that the Q-point or the DC voltage operating point is set correctly
to accommodate the full cycle of the signal, otherwise clipping and distortion can
occur, which applies to all modules being built.
Distortion is a factor that can occur during the signal amplification stage, which
must be considered during circuit design. The measure of total harmonic
distortion (THD), is a useful way of testing how much distortion is present within
a signal. THD is measured by dividing the total sum of the RMS voltage of all the
harmonic frequencies by the RMS voltage of the fundamental frequency. A THD
level up to 1% of the measured signal is generally not noticeable.
Signal amplification can be achieved through basic op-amp gain circuits. In an
inverting amplifier configuration, the amplified signal will be inverted by the op
amp. The negative input of the op-amp is connected to its output to produce
feedback in a closed loop system, while the positive input is connected to
ground. As an op-amp will try to keep its inputs at the same level, it will adjust its
output voltage accordingly to cater for the feedback voltage being taken into the

Figure 11 - An inverting
amplifier op-amp configuration.
(Horowitz & Hill, 2015, pg. 225)
negative input.
The resulting signal gain can be calculated using the following formula:

15
 V out R2
Gain= =
V R1

Equation 2 Gain formula (Coates, 2017)

R2 refers to the resistor in the feedback loop between the negative input and the
output of the op-amp, while R1 refers to the input resistor before the negative
input terminal. The negative symbol in the equation is needed due to the op-
amps inverted configuration. For example, if Rf is valued at 10k and Rin valued
at 100k, the resulting gain would be -10. To convert the gain value into a dB
level, the following formula can be applied:

V out
Voltage ( dB )=20 log ( )
V

Equation 3 dB gain formula (Coates, 2017)

V out
Using the gain value of -10 in place of V , it gives a result of 20dB.

Voltage control can be added to an amplification circuit using JFET transistors.

This can be achieved by applying a voltage to the gate of the JFET, with the drain
of the JFET wired to a junction before the input resistor and the JFET source
connected to ground. By adding a potentiometer between the voltage source and
the JFET gate, it allows for variable control of the voltage being added to the
circuit. (AmplifierCircuit, 2011)

1.3 Modular Synthesizers

1.3.1 Overview
As briefly stated in 1.2 Functionality of Analogue Synthesizers, modular
synthesizers are not hard-wired together as a single unit, and must be
programmed by wiring together individual modules to produce a sound. Due to
the nature of modular synthesizers, they are much more complex than a single
unit synthesizer and they require basic knowledge and understanding of
synthesizer signal-flow to produce a sound.
While being a complex instrument however, the range of unique sounds that can
be created through the connection of a multitude of modules is effectively
limitless - allowing a musician to be the absolute architect of their perfect
machine. (Warwick, 2016)

1.3.2 Form Factors of Modular Synthesizers

As the market for modular synthesizers has been growing in recent years, there
has been an increasing number of modular synthesizer manufacturers that have
appeared. Alongside commercial development of modular synthesizers and

16
modules however, there has also been an increasing trend in the DIY synth area,
where many people design and build their own synthesizers and modules.
While there are several form factors that vary depending on the manufacturer,
there are two main form factors in the modular synthesizer industry, which are
the Moog Unit (MU) and the EuroRack. MU modules are larger than the EuroRack
module format with a height of 8.75 inches (or 5U, with 1U being equal to 1.75
inches) and multiples of 2.125 inches wide. MU modules feature 1/4-inch patch
connectors and run off a power rail of +15/-15 volts. (Arrick, n.d.)
EuroRack modules on the other hand are much more compact however at the
height of 128.5mm, which is roughly equal to around 3U, while having a
minimum width of just 10mm. The EuroRack format features 3.5mm patch
connectors and runs off +12/-12 volt power rails. Due to the compact nature of
these modules, EuroRack modules and Doepfer modules, which also adheres to
the EuroRack form factor, are incredibly cheap compared to the Moog
counterpart. Many people favour the smaller form factor due to the price,
availability, and expandability. (Arrick, n.d.)

1.3.3 Modular Synthesizer Patching & Composition

Possibly the simplest subtractive synthesis modular patch consists of just a VCO,
VCF and VCA. An example of this can be seen in Figure 14, in which a sawtooth
signal is taken from the VCO into a low-pass VCF unit, where the cut-off
frequency and resonance controls can be adjusted. This can then be amplified
via the VCA unit. Because there is no amplitude envelope however, the resulting
audio signal will just be constant. (Doepfer, n.d.)
To create an amplitude envelope, an EG unit can be added to the signal flow. The
EG unit provides the ADSR information for the envelope, but requires a gate
input for the unit to function. The gate can be provided by a keyboard controller
unit, which requires a MIDI-CV unit to convert the digital MIDI data into an
analogue CV. This can be seen in Figure 15, where the CV signals are coloured
green and the audio signals are coloured red. The gate input opens the envelope
upon a key-press and outputs a CV to the VCA, which will create an amplitude
envelope dependent on the EG parameters. CV1 from the MIDI-CV unit is also
taken to the CV1 input of the VCO, which will allow for pitch control of the unit
that corresponds to the note value of the keyboard controller. (Doepfer, n.d.)
Modular synthesizer composition styles are mostly down to personal preference
and creative workflow. For example, some users may find it easier to compose
and structure a track entirely in a DAW at first, then route MIDI into a modular
synthesizer to create a desired sound. Others however, compose entirely on
physical instruments and record into a DAW. The latter however, may be
perceived as more of a live performance or improvisational piece, which can
sometimes be quite abstract in nature. (Bruno, n.d.)

17

Figure 13 A modularFigure
patch with
12 MIDI-CV
A basic modular
integration,
patch
allowing
with a asaw-tooth
keyboard controller to open an
amplitudesignal
envelope
beingand
filtered
control
andthe
amplified
pitch of (Doepfer,
the VCO (Doepfer,
n.d.) n.d.)
2. Research Analysis
2.1 Main Findings
With the research undertaken for this project, it helped to solidify an
understanding of the concept of subtractive synthesis, focusing on four common
waveforms found in synthesizers. These signals can be modified and
manipulated by subtracting frequencies from the original source signal through
the means of filters which can alter the timbre of the sound.
Thorough research was completed into analogue synthesizers, focusing on the
main elements of an analogue synthesizer which are the VCO, VCF and VCF.
Basic circuit analysis was undertaken for each of these units to make sure an
understanding was cemented before the experimentation stage. This research
found that VCOs can generate waveforms in a number of ways, such as through
timer ICs like the 555 timer, or through operation-amplifiers configured in
different ways, such as a Schmitt-trigger configuration to generate a square
waveform, or an integrator configuration to generate a triangle waveform.

18
Investigation into VCFs found out the basic workings of the module at a
component level, providing a foundation on which to develop new circuits with at
the foundation stage. Continued research found that basic passive RC filters can
cause signal drop over multiple stages, leading to research into preventing this.
Active filters using op-amps were found as a suitable way to combat this and
could also work as a much more functional filter compared to a basic RC circuit.
Research undertaken into VCA modules focused on how signals can be amplified,
with a focus on feedback loops in op-amp circuits to achieve this. With
amplification however, comes some considerations, such as distortion for
example, in which too much amplification to a signal can cause the signal peaks
to start clipping. The amount of distortion in a signal can also be calculated using
THD testing.
Research into other modules such as the EG for example, found that envelope
signals can be generated by this module and can be routed into a VCF or a VCA
to shape the sound instead of just having a constant tone being produced by the
synthesizer. Keyboard controller units can control these envelopes by providing a
gate or trigger signal to the EG, allowing the envelope to open.

3. Experimental Methods
3.1 Multisim
National Instruments Multisim is an industry level electrical design and
simulation software program that allows for quick and easy circuit prototyping in
a virtual environment. Multisim also allows for a range of a range of virtual
testing and measurements to be undertaken, such as THD analysis and an
oscilloscope tool for example, both of which will be used in the creation of the
modular units. (Audiomatica Srl, 2016)
For the construction of the synthesizer modules, circuits will be designed and
simulated within the Multisim environment to ensure that they work in ideal
circumstances. Testing will also take place within Multisim, focusing on signal
analysis and quality within the VCO, frequency response of the VCF and
amplification quality of the VCA.
Frequency output of the VCO module will be analysed and configured to work
across a range of four or five octaves if possible. Offset of the VCO waveform

19
outputs will also be important as this can cause distortion in amplification if set
incorrectly. VCO waveform outputs will be measured through an oscilloscope to
ensure biasing and offset is correct, along with analysing the waveform outputs
to ensure they are being output correctly.
For the frequency response of the VCF module, a bode plotter tool will be used.
The results of this will show the frequency response of the VCF across 20Hz to
20kHz, including the dB/octave roll-off of the cut-off frequency. Functionality of
the VCF itself will be tested by routing a waveform from a function generator
through the unit and viewing the results on an oscilloscope.
With the VCA module, the THD or total harmonic distortion of the unit will be
calculated. This is an important factor to calculate, as it will show a percentage
of how much distortion and noise is present with the combined circuit
components. Testing of the gain stage will be done by sending a waveform from
a function generator through the VCA and measuring the output with a signal
analyser after the gain stage to see the results.

3.2 Circuit Breadboarding and National Instruments myDAQ

While in the initial proposal stage of the project, CLIO (Audiomatica Srl, 2016)
was intended to be used as an audio electronics testing device. Near the
experimentation stage however, this plan was dropped and was replaced with
using a National Instruments myDAQ device, which proved more useful to the
project. The myDAQ device features analogue to digital I/O with a software suite
of circuit testing applications, allowing for digital software metering of physical
analogue circuits. (National Instruments, n.d.)
Once the modules have been finalized and tested within the Multisim
environment, they will be breadboarded to ensure they function in the real world,
and later built and soldered on stripboards. After this, they will then be tested
with the myDAQ device and software. This will involve similar testing methods to
that of the ones undertaken in Multisim, but the modules will be physical and not
in a simulated ideal environment. The myDAQ device will also function as a +15/-
15 volt power supply for the modules.

20
4. Testing and Experimentation
4.1 Multisim Circuit Design
4.1.1 VCO Experimentation and Testing
For the VCO module, the goal was to design a circuit with two outputs, a triangle
wave and square wave. This would be done through a dual op-amp circuit that
consisted of an integrator circuit to produce a triangle wave, which would then
be fed into a Schmitt trigger circuit to then produce a square wave output. The
VCO is based on a circuit design from the book The Art of Electronics (Figure
14).

Figure 14 A precision voltage-controlled oscillator with square and triangle outputs.

(Horowitz & Hill, 2015, p.267)

The VCO module for the project however will differ slightly, as the final VCO is
based on a TL072CP dual op-amp IC and work on +15/-15 volts, which will be
provided by the myDAQ device. The LT1027D IC shown in figure 12 is a precision
voltage IC and was removed from the current design of the VCO module as it
considered to be redundant workings of the altered unit.

Figure 15 One of the first iterations of the VCO module, which uses an
OP275 dual op-amp.
21
One of the first iterations of the VCO, such as the circuit shown in Figure 15,
worked using OP275 op-amps. The OP275 was originally going to be the main op-
amp for the module due to its low noise characteristics and suitability in audio
electronics, but was replaced with the TL072CP in the later stages of
development due to the lower price and availability of the IC. This iteration of the
VCO laid the foundations for the final design, with the coarse frequency voltage
control in the R11 potentiometer.
The circuitry around U2A works as an integrator circuit, which will generate the
triangle waveform. The control voltage level being passed from R11 is then fed
into a voltage divider (R5/R9) before U2A, setting the non-inverting input of the
op-amp to half the control voltage, while the inverting input of the op-amp will
try to keep its input voltage at the same level of the non-inverting input. This
requires a 100k (R8) resistor on the inverting to achieve this.
Upon the activation of the Q1 NPN transistor, current from R8 will be routed
through it. R6 is half the resistance of R8, but will possesses the same voltage
drop as R8, requiring current to be fed through from C1, which takes the output
of U2A to charge and then release current flow into this system. When Q1 is
switched back off, the current will then go the opposite way through C1 and back
into the output of U2A. When Q1 is active, the voltage output of U2A rises,
whereas when Q1 is switched off, the voltage output of U2A then drops. This
results in a triangle waveform ramping up and down steadily. The resistors
R1/R3/R4 work to offset the output waveforms and set a threshold level for the
transistor to turn on and off. (Falstad, 2016)
U2B works in a Schmitt trigger configuration, which works as a comparator. It
takes a reference voltage and the triangle input waveform, comparing the two.
When the input of U2A is above the threshold set by R1/R3/R4, U2B output will
be low. However, when the input voltage is lower than the threshold, the output
of U2B will be high, resulting in a square wave output.
The final version of the VCO (Figure 16) built upon this initial design, but mainly
focused on the fine-tuning of component values and placement to ensure it
performed correctly and efficiently.

22 Figure 16 - Final version of the VCO, featuring an addition of a fine frequency control
potentiometer.
The final version of the VCO featured a fine frequency control alongside the
coarse frequency control. This helps to control the frequency output in smaller
increments unlike the coarse control. The fine frequency control works by
sourcing a control voltage from the +15 volt VDD rail, which is then taken
through a 1M resistor (R17) for a large current drop, and then fed into a 100k
potentiometer. Another current drop is provided after the potentiometer in R16
before it enters the integrator circuit, again to help with the fine frequency
control. R15 and R10 are connected to ground, whose values were chosen
through trial and error, and work to set the frequency range of the VCO. Resistor
values were changed in R2, R3 and R8 to help with the signal offset of the
triangle wave by centralizing the wave as much as possible. R13 was added
alongside R1 to create a voltage divider to help with this purpose.
During the development of the VCO, signals were sent through a virtual
oscilloscope and measured to ensure they were functioning correctly. Results of
the VCO output can be seen in section 5.1 VCO Findings, which involves the
frequency range and signal quality of the VCO within Multisim.

4.1.2 VCF Experimentation and Testing

The VCF experimentation focused on creating a circuit that would work as a
voltage-controlled low pass filter. Active filters were considered for the
development of the VCF, as passive RC circuits can lose signal amplitude over
the course of multiple stages. As active filters use powered op-amps, they can
work to control the unwanted signal loss as it is passed through the filter by
amplifying the signal. The VCF module is based on an existing design shown in

Figure 17 - Active low pass filter circuit consisting of a bridged-T / non-inverting

amplifier configuration (GuitarHQ, 2003)
Figure 20.
Figure 20 works as an active bridged-T low-pass filter, with the ability to control
the resonance and cut-off frequency. This circuit was adapted into the final
design of the VCF shown in Figure 21.
Starting with the input of the circuit, R9 is a 100k potentiometer that controls
the input signal into the filter. As the op-amp is in an inverting configuration, the
positive input of the op-amp is connected to ground while the filtering occurs in
circuitry connected between the negative input and output of the op-amp. The

23
voltage control comes from a +15V source and is divided by R4 and R5 before
being taken into R3, a 100k potentiometer, which works as the cut-off frequency
control for the circuit.
Capacitors C1 and C2 both function to filter the high frequencies from the signal.
The diode marked D1 effectively works as a voltage controlled resistor, which. As
the cut-off CV from R3 is increased, the increased current flow into the diode
effectively causes its impedance to decrease, raising the cut-off frequency of the
filter, while lowering the CV increases the impedance of the diode and lowers the
cut-off frequency.
The T circuit in R10, R11 and C4 work to stabilize the filter, providing a better
cut-off and resonance response. R7, a 50k potentiometer, functions as a
resonance control for the filter, which works by connecting the output of the op-
amp to pin 1 and 2 of the potentiometer, creating a feedback loop and ultimately
boosting the signal around the frequency cut-off point.

Figure 18 - Final design of the VCF featuring cut-off and resonance controls.
To test the VCF, a function generator will be placed at the input of the filter, with
an oscilloscope placed at the output. The signal will be measured with various
cut-off and resonance settings to see how the filter shapes the signal, and to see
if any imperfections arise. A bode plotter will also be used, which tests the
frequency response of the filter. From the results of the bode plotter, the
dB/octave roll-off of the cut-off will be able to be determined.

24
4.1.3 VCA Experimentation and Testing
The VCA experimentation focused on building a simple amplifier circuit that
would increase the amplitude of a signal as the voltage is increased. The final
VCA circuit is initially based on the circuit shown in Figure 22. The amplifier works
in an inverting configuration, with the signal entering at V in and running across R3
and R2. Voltage controlled gain is applied using a transistor, which enters the
transistor gate at Vgain.

Figure 19 - A voltage controlled amplifier circuit

(Jemenake, 2013)

Figure 20 The final design of the voltage controlled amplifier module.

The final circuit design, shown in Figure 23, allows the initial input signal level to
be set with R7. For the voltage control of the circuit, a source of +15V is taken
into a voltage divider before entering the 100k potentiometer at R1, which allows

25
for variable gain control. While Q1 is labelled as a 2N5484 transistor, a 2N5457
was used in the physical build. The 2N5484 transistor was used in Multisim as
the software does not contain the 2N5457 component in its library, but works as
an equivalent. Q1 works as a voltage variable resistor and providing a linear gain
response within the circuit. The values of R2 and R4 were set by trial and error to
control the gain levels of the amplifier effectively.
Testing for the VCA involves viewing an amplified signal in an oscilloscope to see
if any clipping occurs, along with testing the amplification range of the signal.
THD can also be tested in Multisim, but the factors depend on the initial
amplitude of the signal, along with the input level into the circuit.

4.2 Physical Build and myDAQ Testing

Upon completion of the modules, they were breadboarded to ensure their
functionality and subsequently built and soldered to stripboard. The physical
myDAQ testing will feature the same tests as the ones being undertaken within
Multisim so that the results can be compared to see whether the units function
the same in the real world as they do in an ideal simulation.
The final modules can be seen in Figures 24, 25 and 26 in 11.7 Testing and
Experimentation Synthesizer Connection Diagrams , which describe the wiring
configuration and settings for each module.

26
5. Results
5.1 VCO Findings
The figures for this section can be found in 11.8 VCO Results.
From testing the VCO module within Multisim, it produced several results. By
placing an oscilloscope on the waveform outputs of the VCO and testing them
with fine and coarse controls at zero, the lowest frequency produced was at 62Hz
(Figure 27), which is just over the frequency of the note B1 at 61.7Hz. When the
coarse frequency control is dialled all the way up, the waveform outputs are
around 2.17kHz, which is just shy of C#7.
To test the fine frequency control range of the VCO, both the coarse and fine
controls were set to 50% to produce a starting frequency of around 990Hz. By
turning the fine frequency control down all the way, the waveform output was
reduced to 978Hz, while raising the fine control took the frequency to 1,002kHz,
providing a +/-12Hz fine frequency response. With both the coarse and fine
frequency controls at 100%, the highest frequency output achievable is 2.19kHz.
Overall, the simulated VCO module has a linear frequency response of over five
octaves.
One issue however is the pulse width of the output signals. When the VCO unit
outputs waveforms at low frequencies, the discharging stage from the integrator
circuit happens quicker than the initial charging stage, leading to a slightly
asymmetric triangle wave output. Because the comparator circuit takes the
triangle wave as an input to function, the square wave output suffers from the
same issue. As the low threshold of the triangle is reached quicker than the
higher, the output of the square wave will be low for a shorter amount of time
than it is high. However, when the frequency output is turned up, the described
pulse width issue becomes less of a problem.
A second issue within the VCO is the amplitude of the waveforms. While this
issue is not major, it will require different amplification settings for each
waveform. The square wave for example may need to be trimmed upon entering
the VCF, while the triangle wave will need to be amplified quite a bit in the VCA
stage.
The same tests were carried out on the VCO module within myDAQ once it had
been physically constructed. The initial base frequency output test with the
coarse and fine controls both at zero provided a frequency output just under
70Hz, which is just shy of C#2 at 69.30Hz. With both controls up full, the
maximum output of the VCO was 1.56kHz. This is 600Hz lower than the
frequency range of the VCO design within Multisim, which could be attributed to
resistor tolerance, as resistors with a tolerance of +/-5% were used. The fine
frequency response however, remained the same at +/-12Hz.

27
In terms of signal shape, both waveforms shown in Figures 28 and 29, are output
accurately from the module with no defects. The pulse width issue is not as
prominent on the oscilloscope as in the Multisim testing either. However, the
amplitude issue of the square wave being larger in amplitude when compared to
the triangle wave is still present. This should be considered when amplifying the
signals in the VCA to avoid clipping after the VCF.

5.2 VCF Findings

The figures for this section can be found in 11.9 VCF Results
The VCF testing focused on using a bode plotter to see frequency response of the
filter, along with viewing the filtered signals on an oscilloscope to see how they
are shaped. With the frequency cut-off control at 100% and the resonance
control at 0%, the filter is inactive and the signal received from the function
generator passes all the way through. However, when the cut-off frequency is
dialled back, the signal shape will begin to change in shape and tone.
Figure 30 shows the filter output with a triangle wave with a frequency of 200Hz
and 3Vp amplitude being used as the input, at a frequency cut-off of 50%. This
triangle wave has its sharp peaks rounded off, with the negative peak of the
waveform rounded off more than the positive.
With the resonance control of the filter dialled up to 70% and the filter cut-off
kept at 50%, the upwards ramp of the triangle wave becomes a lot steeper, with
the downwards ramp becoming a more gradual curve, as shown in Figure 31.
This test was completed again with the same parameters, but instead using a
square wave signal as the input signal for the VCF. Figure 32 shows the square
wave input with the cut-off frequency at 50%. The high output of the square
wave ramps up sharply, while the low output drops sharply to a point and then
gradually ramps down.
Figure 33 shows the square wave with resonance control added. The effects of
the resonance are much more prominent in the square wave signal compared to
the triangle wave, with much of the original signal shape being lost.
A bode plotter was then used to test the frequency response of the VCF within
Multisim. Figure 34 shows the VCF frequency response with the cut-off frequency
control at 100%. The signal begins to attenuate around 5kHz, with the cut-off
point being 6.8kHz, which is where the signal is attenuated by -3dB. There is a
slight resonance however around the cut-off point, even with no resonance
added to the filter.
Figure 35 shows the VCF frequency response with the cut-off frequency control at
0%. The resulting cut-off is at a frequency of around 365Hz. The resonant peak
that was shown in Figure 34 is a lot less prominent, along with the filter roll-off
being more gradual.

28
Figure 36 shows the VCF frequency response again with the cut-off at 100%, but
with the resonance control set at 100% also. The highest resonant peak is around
450Hz with a gain of 15dB, which is quite high and can cause clipping if passed
through a VCA with high gain. The resonance control also lowers the cut-off
frequency of the filter to 700Hz, which is not in accordance with standard VCF
functionality.
Figure 37 shows the frequency response with a cut-off control at 0% and a
resonance control at 100%, giving the lowest resonant peak of the circuit at
110Hz, while the cut-off frequency is lowered to around 170Hz.
Once the physical VCF module was finished, a bode plotter was used again to
see the frequency response of the module. Starting with both the resonance and
cut-off controls at 0%, Figure 38 shows the cut-off frequency at around 80Hz.
There is a noticeable signal boost of around 4dB for the unfiltered frequencies
however, meaning amplification was taking place within the VCF.
Figure 39 shows the frequency response with the cut-off control dialled to its
maximum, which gives a cut-off frequency of around 2.5kHz, which is lower than
the cut-off value found in the test with the simulated circuit. The frequency
response from 20Hz up until the cut-off point is not stable either, in comparison
to the simulated test.
With the resonance control dialled up to its maximum with the cut-off control at
its lowest, it provides a slight resonant peak as shown in Figure 40, with the cut-
off frequency changing to around 120Hz. Again, this does not follow with the
results that Multisim testing provided.
By dialling both the resonance and cut-off controls to their maximum, a wide
resonant peak is created from around 400Hz to just over 1kHz, shown in Figure
41.
Overall, the physical build of the filter works and reacts quite differently to the
circuit in an ideal simulation. Varying unwanted amplification occurs in the circuit
depending on the values of the resonance and cut-off frequency controls. While
not perfect however, the basic concepts of filtering are present, as shown in the
bode plots.

5.3 VCA Findings

The figures for this section can be found in 11.10 VCA Results.
Multisim VCA testing focused on clean amplification and how well the VCA unit
performed at this. A triangle wave of 200Hz at 1Vp amplitude is used as the
input, with the input level dialled at around 65%. By testing the circuit with and
without the voltage controlled gain input, a comparison can be made between
the two. As the signal passes through the VCA, no amplification is applied,
keeping the signal at 1V amplitude. Figure 42 shows the signal with the voltage
controlled gain potentiometer dialled all the way up, which triples the input to
create an output of 3V. Using the gain formula, it can be determined that the
amplifier can provide an amplitude increase of around 9.5dB.
The physical VCA was tested using a triangle wave input with the same method,
resulting in an output of 4.47V from a 1V input signal. Using the dB voltage
formula, it can be calculated that the VCA module can produce an amplitude

29
increase of 13dB. This does however cause distortion, unlike the VCA simulated
in Multisim. It should also be noted that the physical build of the VCA also used a
2N5457 transistor in place of the 2N5484 transistor in the Multisim circuit.
Using the dynamic signal analyser within the myDAQ testing suite, THD of the
circuit can be measured. Keeping the input level at full using a 1V triangle input,
with the gain amplifier dialled down, the resulting THD is around 19%, as shown
in Figure 43.

5.4 Audio Demos

Audio demonstrations of the synthesizer can be found on the portfolio in 11.1
Portfolio Link. During an attempt of trying to mix signals however, errors
occurred. As the VCO draws too much power when trying to use two waveform
outputs at once, the ability to mix signals is not available. However, from the
audio files it can be deemed that the synthesizer can still function and work
correctly, even if only one waveform output is available at a time.

6. Modular Synthesizer Composition

Due to time constraints, the initial second aim of the project was changed
slightly. The original goal was to compose a piece of music using the constructed
modular synthesizer, but due to the constructed modules not being ready in
time, the Doepfer A-100 modular system would be used instead. The final track
was based upon a personal existing composition, with the bassline in the track
being replaced with a patch created on the A-100. The finished piece is based on
80s synth based horror soundtracks, inspired by composer John Carpenter. The
piece features a repetitive bassline throughout, with the use of software
synthesizers to create pads and lead voices, along with using vintage drum
samples.
The track was initially composed within FL Studio 12, with the MIDI of the
bassline being exported and taken into Pro Tools. Using a MIDI output via USB
from an iMac, the bassline was taken into a MIDI-CV converter on the rack. As
modular synthesizers work on CV, a MIDI-CV converter was needed, which
converts pitch, velocity, and key-press data into CVs.
To create the desired sound for the bassline, a few modules were required.
Starting with the VCO unit shown in Figure 44, two outputs were used, which
were a square wave and a saw-tooth. These were chosen due to both their tonal
quality when used together, along with their harmonically rich waveform content.
In order control the pitch/note value of the synthesizer, it required a CV input
from the MIDI-CV converter, which would be connected to CV1 of the VCO, which
allows for 1V/octave control. The tune knob can then be adjusted to fine-tune
the frequency output of the VCO. Other modulation that occurs on the VCO
module is from two LFO units, shown in Figure 47, with one LFO providing a sine
wave CV for the CV2 input of the VCO to add subtle vibrato to the bass, while the

30
second LFO provides a sawtooth wave to modulate the pulse width input of the
VCO.
The VCO waveforms are then taken into a mixer module, so that the signals can
be levelled and mixed accordingly. The mixed waveform signal is them taken out
of the mixer unit and routed into a low pass filter module, as shown in Figure 46.
The output of the filter module is then connected to the VCA, shown in Figure 48,
and then routed back into Pro Tools to record the signal.
On the VCF and VCA, EG modules were used to enable ADSR envelope shaping.
With the VCA module, the envelope is routed into the CV2 input with its control
level turned all the way up. The ADSR settings for the amplitude envelope
include a fast attack, a moderate decay level, no sustain and a long release time,
as shown in Figure 45. The filter envelope is fairly similar, except with a shorter
decay and release time, along with a small amount of sustain level. The gate CV
comes from the MIDI-CV unit, which provides the gate signal from the MIDI data.
The result is a plucked bass sound, which was recorded into Pro Tools multiple
times, with a varying filter cut-off control throughout the piece. These recorded
tracks were then taken back into FL Studio 12 and mixed with the rest of the
track. To make the bassline more prominent, multiple takes were layered, along
with using a chorus effect and small amounts of reverb to achieve a desired
sound.
This track can be found on the portfolio in 11.1 Portfolio Link.

7. Conclusion
To conclude, the project was a successful investigation into both modular
synthesizer functionality and circuit design of modular synthesizers. Almost all
the original aims and objectives were fulfilled. A thorough understanding of
subtractive synthesis was established at the start of the project, including theory
on basic waveform shapes and their harmonic content.
Heavy research into the fundamentals of electronics theory was completed,
which was required to understand the circuit design of modular synthesizer
circuitry, along with building the modular synthesizer and testing it. A research
focus into operational-amplifiers was completed which greatly benefit the circuit
design process, as the final modules all worked using a TL072CP op-amp.
Research and experimentation into synthesizer modules was undertaken, with
research focusing on how each module works on both a component level and
user level. The Doepfer A-100 modular system was used to experiment with
signal flow to see how a range of sounds can be created, along with it also being
used to feature in a composition for the project.
Multiple circuits and iterations of each module were designed and built, using
referenced circuit diagrams as a foundation to expand upon. The final modules

31
consisted of a VCO unit with a square wave and triangle wave output, a VCF with
controls for resonance and cut-off, and a VCA with gain control. The VCA is also
attached with a 3.5mm cable to allow connectivity with an audio interface.
A range of testing was undertaken on the completed synthesizer, including
testing the frequency range of the VCO, finding the frequency response of the
VCF unit using a bode plotter, and testing how much amplification the VCA can
provide.
While one of the original aims was to compose a track using the constructed
modular synthesizer, time constraints and circuit design issues resulted in this
aim being refocused slightly due to time constraints, causing the Doepfer A-100
to be used to compose with instead. The resulting change allowed for more
experimentation and practice using modular synthesizers. The final composition
features a bass-line that was composed on the A-100 modular system.

8. Evaluation
The project was felt to be a success upon looking back at the original aims and
objectives. Starting with the modular synthesizer, the completed modules
fulfilled the original vision for the project. A VCO, VCF and VCA unit were
designed, tested, and built for the project.
While the VCO is fairly basic in terms of functionality, it works as intended with
only one flaw, which is the inability to use both outputs simultaneously. When
compared to a standardized module like the Doepfer A-110 VCO for example, it
allows for four waveform outputs simultaneously. Allowing the VCO to output
multiple waveforms is something that should be considered if further
development took place. Initial signal output amplitude from the VCO should all
be standardized too, as it would help with mixing multiple signals, along reducing
complications when amplifying the signal. This was a noticeable defect in the
constructed VCO unit, and more consideration should be taken when creating a
VCO with multiple outputs.
Another development to the VCO would be the introduction of a 1V/octave
standard. While the current VCO unit allows for a linear frequency response to

32
produce a frequency range of around four-five octaves, an exponential 1V/octave
system could theoretically span 20Hz-20kHz. This system would also allow for
integration with a 1V/octave keyboard controller too, which would provide
another form of interfacing for the modular synthesizer.
The constructed VCF module works as a low-pass filter, with controls for the
frequency cut-off and the filter resonance. While the basic concept of voltage
controlled filtering is visible within the circuitry of the constructed VCF, it does
not perform the task consistently. Raising the cut-off and resonance levels too
much can cause oscillation within the VCF, which should be addressed in future
developments. The VCF frequency response is not stable as shown in the bode
plot results. More work and experimentation would need to take place to create a
smoother frequency response, which will ultimately increase the quality of the
VCF.
The VCA module constructed for the project achieves its basic purpose, which is
to amplify the signal. There is however, a lot more that could be done to improve
the VCA module. Upon testing for THD within the VCA, it was found that the
signal content distorts quite heavily. As discovered in the research, the goal of a
VCA is to amplify a signal cleanly, adding as little imperfections to the signal as
possible. Regarding extra functionality, control voltage inputs could be added to
the circuit if an EG was present, allowing for amplitude envelopes to be routed
into the module instead of outputting a constant waveform.
If more time was available for the project, development into an EG module would
have been considered. Though the creation of an EG was considered during the
proposal stage of the project, it was later decided against due to time
constraints, as it felt unfeasible to design and construct this alongside three
other modules.
Modulation using control voltages was researched and experimented with during
the composition, but there are currently no modulation sources or inputs
available on any of the modules. To expand upon the functionality of a modular
synthesizer and allow for the creation of more sounds, CV inputs should be
added to each modular.
The composition produced with the Doepfer A-100 shows an understanding of
the concepts of modular synthesizer signal flow using a range modules. While
one of the original aims was to create a composition using the constructed
modular synthesizer, time constraints ran amok during the project, resulting in
this aim changing focus slightly. However, while the composition stage
effectively demonstrates usage and signal flow of a modular synthesizer, it was
felt that more instrumentation could be achieved with the A-100 system if more
time was available, rather than just the creation of a bassline for the final track.
If more time could be spent on the project, a larger focus into creating a
composition with the constructed synthesizer would be made. To widen the range
of composition possibilities, an EG module and keyboard controller functionality
would be added to the project, providing an easier way of interfacing with the
synthesizer.
Overall, while there is much that could still be done in terms of circuit design
quality and module functionality, a huge learning process was undertaken for the
project. With very little knowledge into the field of electronics and synthesizer

33
circuit design before starting this project, much has been learnt and discovered
since, resulting in the ability to understand, design and build a range of
electronic circuitry.

34
9. List of Figures and Equatio
Figure 1 - A sine wave signal and it's spectrum, containing only the fundamental
frequency. (Russ, 2013, p.109)..............................................................................7
Figure 2 - A square wave signal and it's harmonics, with the spectrum showing
their relative values. (Russ, 2013, p.110)..............................................................8
Figure 3 - A triangle wave signal and its harmonics, with the spectrum showing
their relative values. (Russ, 2013, p.110)..............................................................8
Figure 4 - A sawtooth signal and it's spectrum, note that it features both odd and
even harmonics (Russ, 2013, p.111).....................................................................9
Figure 5 - 555 Timer in astable configuration to produce a square wave output
(Electronics-Tutorials, n.d.)...................................................................................11
Figure 6 - A basic operational amplifier integrator circuit (Horowitz & Hill, 2015,
p.230).................................................................................................................. 11
Figure 7 - A basic Schmitt trigger configuration (Horowitz & Hill, 2015, p.237)...12
Figure 8 - Left - A low pass filter with no resonance added. Right - A low pass
filter with resonance at the cut-off point.............................................................13
Figure 9 - Simple RC low-pass filter configuration (Doepfer, n.d.)........................13
Figure 10 - Simple RC high-pass filter configuration (Doepfer, n.d.)....................13
Figure 11 - An inverting amplifier op-amp configuration......................................15
Figure 12 - A basic modular patch with a saw-tooth signal being filtered and
amplified....16
Figure 13 - A modular patch with MIDI-CV integration, allowing a keyboard
controller to open an amplitude envelope and control the pitch of the
VCO..16
Figure 14 - A precision voltage-controlled oscillator with square and triangle
outputs. (Horowitz & Hill, 2015, p.267)

..19
Figure 15 - One of the first iterations of the VCO module, which uses an OP275
dual op-amp..19
Figure 16 - Final version of the VCO, featuring an addition of a fine frequency
control potentiometer.

..20
Figure 17 - Active low pass filter circuit consisting of a bridged-T / non-inverting
amplifier
configuration
..21
Figure 18 - Final design of the VCF featuring cut-off and resonance
controls..22
Figure 19 - A voltage controlled amplifier
circuit..23
Figure 20 - The final design of the voltage controlled amplifier
module..23
Figure 21 - A 3-channel audio mixer based on the LM3900 operational amplifier.
(Electroschematics, 2009)

.48
Figure 22 - Example of a gated output, voltage stays high from key press until all
keys are released. (Wilson, 2014, pg.40)

35

49
Figure 23 - Example of a trigger output, signal goes high on key press but is not
held unlike a gate output. (Wilson, 2014, pg.40)
.5
0
Figure 24 - VCO controls and
wiring..51
Figure 25 - VCF controls and
wiring
51
Figure 26 - VCA controls and
wiring..51
Figure 27 - Multisim oscilloscope showing both VCO waveforms at 62Hz on a
5ms/Div timescale.52
Figure 28 - myDAQ oscilloscope showing the triangle output of the physical
module at its lowest
frequency
.52
Figure 29 - myDAQ oscilloscope showing the square output of the physical
module at its lowest
frequency
.52
Figure 30 - VCF with a triangle wave input and a cut-off control of
50%............................................53
Figure 31 - VCF with a triangle wave input with cut-off control at 50% and
resonance control at
75%.........................................................................................................................
.............................53
Figure 32 - VCF with a square wave input with cut-off control at
50%...............................................53
Figure 33 - VCF with a square wave input with cut-off control at 50% and
resonance control at
75%.........................................................................................................................
............................53
Figure 34 - Bode plot of the VCF with cut-off at
6.8kHz.53
Figure 35 - Bode plot of the VCF with cut-off at around
365Hz53
Figure 36 - Bode plot of the VCF with cut-off at around 700Hz and a resonant
peak of 15dB at
450Hz
.54
Figure 37 - Bode plot of the VCF with the cut-off at around 110Hz and a resonant
peak of 15dB at
175Hz
.54
Figure 38 - Bode plot of the physical VCF with the cut-off at its
minimum..54
Figure 39 - Bode plof of the physical VCF with the cut-off at its
maximum.54
Figure 40 - Bode plot of the physical VCF with the cut-off at its minimum and
resonance turned up

36
full..
..54
Figure 41 - Bode plot of the physical VCF with the cut-off at its maximum and
resonance turned up
full
54
Figure 42 - VCA amplifying a 1V signal to 3V, highlighted
yellow55
Figure 43 - Dynamic signal analyzer showing a THD of
19%..............................................................55
Figure 44 - Doepfer
VCO
..56
Figure 45 - Doepfer ADSR envelope
generator...56
Figure 46 - Doepfer exponential signal
mixer..56
Figure 47 - Doepfer
LFO's
56
Figure 48 - Doepfer
VCA's
..57

Y
Equation 1 - Cut-off frequency equation for a low-pass filter (Electronics Tutorials,
n.d.)..................................................................................................................... 14
Equation 2 Gain formula (Coates, 2017)...........................................................15
Equation 3 dB gain formula (Coates, 2017)......................................................15

37
10. Bibliography
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2016].

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tools. [Accessed: 7 October 2016].

Bruno, C. (n.d.). An Artists Approach to the Modular Synthesizer in Experimental

Electronic Music Composition and Performance by Chelsea Bruno. [Online]. CEC |
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https://www.discogs.com/artist/32433-John-Carpenter. [Accessed: 4 April 2017].

Coates, E. (2017). Amplifier Gain and Decibels. [Online]. 2017. Learnabout-

electronics.org. Available from: http://www.learnabout-
electronics.org/Amplifiers/amplifiers13.php. [Accessed: 13 February 2017].

38
DIYstompboxes (2010). Help me understand Bridged-T RC Filters. [Online]. 2010.
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15 March 2017].

Doepfer (n.d.). A-100 do it yourself page. [Online]. Doepfer.de. Available from:

http://www.doepfer.de/DIY/a100_diy.htm. [Accessed: 4 January 2017].

Doepfer (n.d.). A-100 Patch Examples. [Online]. Doepfer.de. Available from:

http://www.doepfer.de/a100_man/a100_patch.htm. [Accessed: 8 February 2017].

Doepfer (n.d.). A-110. [Online]. Doepfer.de. Available from:

http://www.doepfer.de/a110.htm. [Accessed: 3 January 2017].

Doepfer (n.d.). Doepfer A-100 Planner. [Online]. Doepfer.de. Available from:

http://www.doepfer.de/A100_planner/index.html. [Accessed: 13 March 2017].

Doepfer (2003). SYSTEM A -100 owner's manual doepfer Musikelektronik Gmbh.

[Online]. Doepfer. Available from:
http://www.doepfer.de/a100_man/A100_intro_e.pdf. [Accessed: 7 October 2016].

Electro-music (2001). Electro-music.com: View forum - DIY hardware and

software. [Online]. 2001. Available from: http://electro-music.com/forum/forum-
112.html. [Accessed: 9 February 2017].

Electronics Tutorials (n.d.). Low Pass Filter - Passive RC Filter Tutorial. [Online].
Basic Electronics Tutorials. Available from: http://www.electronics-
tutorials.ws/filter/filter_2.html. [Accessed: 12 March 2017].

Electronics-Tutorials (n.d.). 555 Oscillator Tutorial - The Astable Multivibrator.

[Online]. Basic Electronics Tutorials. Available from: http://www.electronics-
tutorials.ws/waveforms/555_oscillator.html. [Accessed: 2 November 2016].

Electronics-Tutorials (n.d.). 555 Oscillator Tutorial - The Astable Multivibrator.

[Online]. Basic Electronics Tutorials. Available from: http://www.electronics-
tutorials.ws/waveforms/555_oscillator.html. [Accessed: 9 January 2017].

Electronics-Tutorials (n.d.). Inverting Operational Amplifier - The Inverting Op-

amp. [Online]. Basic Electronics Tutorials. Available from: http://www.electronics-
tutorials.ws/opamp/opamp_2.html. [Accessed: 18 November 2016].

Electronics-Tutorials (n.d.). Waveform Generators to Produce Timing Signals.

[Online]. Basic Electronics Tutorials. Available from: http://www.electronics-
tutorials.ws/waveforms/generators.html. [Accessed: 10 January 2017].

Electroschematics (2009). 3 Channel Audio Mixer Circuit. [Online]. 2009.

Electroschematics.com. Available from: http://www.electroschematics.com/544/3-
channel-audio-mixer/. [Accessed: 8 November 2016].

Fairchild (2009). 2N5484/5485/5486 Datasheet. 1st Ed. [Online]. Fairchild

Semiconductor. Available from:
https://www.fairchildsemi.com/datasheets/2N/2N5484.pdf. [Accessed: 12
February 2017].

39
Falstad (n.d.). Falstad Circuit Examples. [Online]. Available from:
http://www.falstad.com/circuit/e-index.html. [Accessed: 9 February 2017].

Falstad (2016). Integrator (inverting). [Online]. 2016. Falstad.com. Available from:

http://www.falstad.com/circuit/e-amp-integ.html. [Accessed: 11 January 2017].

Falstad (2016). Schmitt Trigger. [Online]. 2016. Falstad.com. Available from:

http://www.falstad.com/circuit/e-amp-schmitt.html. [Accessed: 11 January 2017].

Falstad (2016). Voltage-Controlled Oscillator. [Online]. 2016. Falstad.com.

Available from: http://www.falstad.com/circuit/e-vco.html. [Accessed: 3 January
2016].

FluxWithIt (2014). An intro to Eurorack modular synthesizers - FluxWithIt.com.

[Online]. 2014. FluxWithIt.com. Available from: http://fluxwithit.com/intro-to-
eurorack-modular/. [Accessed: 24 November 2016].

Fosco, J. (n.d.). Op-Amps An Introduction For Synth Design | Build A Synth.

[Online]. Buildasynth.josephfosco.com. Available from:
http://buildasynth.josephfosco.com/op-amps-an-introduction-for-synth-design/.
[Accessed: 21 October 2016].

GuitarHQ (2003). Circuit Snippets. [Online]. 2003. Jiggawoo.eclipse.co.uk.

Available from:
http://www.jiggawoo.eclipse.co.uk/guitarhq/Circuitsnippets/snippets.html.
[Accessed: 4 March 2017].

HackMeOpen (2011). DIY Voltage-Controlled Amplifier. [Online]. 2011. HackMe.

Available from: http://hackmeopen.com/2011/04/voltage-controlled-amplifier/.
[Accessed: 10 February 2017].

Horowitz, P. & Hill, W. (2015). The art of electronics. 3rd Ed. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.

Image-Line (2017). FL Studio 12. [Online]. 2017. Image-line.com. Available from:

https://www.image-line.com/flstudio/. [Accessed: 8 April 2017].

Instruments, N. (2012). NI Multisim: Powerful circuit design and teaching

software - national instruments. [Online]. 2012. Available from:
http://www.ni.com/multisim/. [Accessed: 7 October 2016].

Jemenake (2013). How can I make a simple voltage-controlled attenuator?.

[Online]. 2013. Electronics.stackexchange.com. Available from:
https://electronics.stackexchange.com/questions/84372/how-can-i-make-a-
simple-voltage-controlled-attenuator. [Accessed: 13 March 2017].

Lanterman, A. (2010). ECE4893A: Electronics for Music Synthesis (Spring 2010).

[Online]. 2010. Lanterman.ece.gatech.edu. Available from:
http://lanterman.ece.gatech.edu/ems10/. [Accessed: 26 September 2016].

Mims, F. (2000). Getting started in electronics. 3rd Ed. United States: Published
for Forest M. Mims III by Master Publishing.

40
Muff Wiggler (n.d.). MUFF WIGGLER: Index. [Online]. Available from:
https://www.muffwiggler.com/forum/index.php. [Accessed: 8 February 2017].

National Instruments (n.d.). myDAQ - University Kit - National Instruments.

[Online]. Ni.com. Available from: http://www.ni.com/en-
gb/support/model.mydaq---university-kit.html. [Accessed: 28 February 2017].

Nave, R. (2017). HyperPhysics. [Online]. 2017. Hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu.

Available from: http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/hframe.html.
[Accessed: 19 October 2016].

Nobel Prize (2002). The Transistor - History. [Online]. 2002. Nobelprize.org.

Available from:
https://www.nobelprize.org/educational/physics/transistor/history/. [Accessed: 24
November 2016].

ON Semiconductor (2010). 2N5457 Datasheet. 1st Ed. [Online]. ON

Semiconductor. Available from: https://www.onsemi.com/pub/Collateral/2N5457-
D.PDF. [Accessed: 12 February 2017].

Platt, C. (2015). Make - electronics: Learning through discovery. United States:

Maker Media.

Random*Source (2016). Serge Variable Slope FIlter (VCFS). 27th Ed. [Online].
Random*Source. Available from:
http://randomsource.net/docs/RandomSource_Serge_VCFS_Euro.pdf. [Accessed:
19 April 2017].

Russ, M. (2013). Sound synthesis and sampling. 1st Ed. New York, N.Y.: Focal
Press.

Sievers, B. (n.d.). Synthesis Basics. [Online]. Beausievers.com. Available from:

http://beausievers.com/synth/synthbasics/. [Accessed: 18 October 2016].

Texas Instruments (2015). TL07xx Low-Noise JFET-Input Operational Amplifiers

Datasheet. 1st Ed. [Online]. Texas Instruments. Available from:
http://www.ti.com/lit/ds/symlink/tl074a.pdf. [Accessed: 10 January 2017].

Warwick, O. (2016). A Guide To: Modular Synthesis. [Online]. 2016. XLR8R.

Available from: https://www.xlr8r.com/features/2016/04/a-guide-to-modular-
synthesis/. [Accessed: 10 April 2017].

Williams, D. (2017). Understanding, Calculating, and Measuring Total Harmonic

Distortion (THD). [Online]. 2017. Allaboutcircuits.com. Available from:
https://www.allaboutcircuits.com/technical-articles/the-importance-of-total-
harmonic-distortion/. [Accessed: 18 March 2017].

Wilson, R. (2014). Make: Analog synthesizers. 1st Ed. Sebastopol, Calif.: Maker
Media.

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2015. Available from: http://www.musicfromouterspace.com/. [Accessed: 6
October 2016].

41
11. Appendices
11.1 Portfolio Link
The portfolio to accompany this project which hosts the sound demos using the
constructed modular synthesizer, and the track composed on the Doepfer A-100
modular synthesizer can be found at:
www.jamiedowen.co.uk

11.2 Original Project Proposal October 2016

Introduction
As a Music Technology student and overall tech enthusiast, I have always had a
strong interest for electronics, especially relating to audio and synthesis. From
the late 60s onwards, synthesizers have had a large role in music production.
With synth pioneer Robert Moog and his modular systems, continuing onto the
Prophet-5, the ARP 2600 and the Jupiter-8, all the way to modern software
wavetable synthesizers like Serum and Massive, synthesizers have continued to
push the boundaries of music as a whole.

The physical concept of manipulating and converting electrical energy, into an

audible sound that humans can hear and feel has consistently fascinated me.
With my growing passion for electronics and audio technology, I wish to evoke
my curiosity and further my knowledge in this field.

To do this, I plan to build an analog modular synthesizer. This will consist of the
development of four fundamental modules that make up a synthesizer, which are
the voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO), a voltage-controlled filter (VCF), an
envelope generator with attack, decay, sustain and release parameters (ADSR),
an audio mixer and a voltage-controlled amplifier. With modular synthesis, each
module is usually completely independent, meaning the user needs to manually
patch together each module to achieve a sound. To cater for this, modules will
have control voltage (CV) inputs and outputs where necessary, and will be
connected together via 3.5mm mono cables.

Aims
1. Design and build the components of an analogue modular synthesizer.

2. Compose a piece of music which features the constructed analogue

synthesizer.

Aim 1 Objectives

42
 1. To research and solidify and understanding in how sound synthesis works,
including various methods of production, whether it be through
subtractive, additive, frequency-modulation (FM) or wavetable.
2. Continued research into the field of electronics, which includes building
upon knowledge of the fundamental theories and how they can be applied
practically, along with looking into more intermediate and advanced areas,
such as timers and oscillators, operational amplifiers, power conversion
and data handling via mediums such as MIDI and possibly USB.
3. Solidify an understanding of how each core module of a synthesizer works
at a component level.
4. Experiment, prototype and build individual modules of the synthesizer,
possibly experimenting with adding additional features to modules, such
as pulse width modulation (PWM) to the VCO module for example.
5. Test and calibrate constructed units to ensure they function and work
correctly using a variety of methods, including CLIO electrical testing.
6. House the constructed modules in a suitable carrier, such as a modular
standard Moog Unit (MU) rack.

Aim 2 Objectives
1. Ensure a working modular synthesizer is present to begin composing
music with.
2. Research and learn compositional techniques for producing music with
modular hardware, along with finding reference tracks to help with the
composition process.
3. Compose and mix a piece of music which involves the modular
synthesizer.

Project Details
To accomplish the project, a number of resources will be required, which include
but are not limited to the following:

Software:

Multisim Electrical circuit design, prototyping and simulation tool. (Instruments,

2012)
Pro Tools 12 Digital Audio Workstation to record & compose music. (Avid, 2016)
Audiomatica CLIO Electrical and acoustical measurement tool. (Audiomatica Srl,
2016)

Hardware:

Soldering station
Audiomatica CLIO audio interface
Electronic components Including but not limited to the following resistors,
capacitors, diodes, LEDs, integrated circuit chips (ICs, various functions
operational amplifiers, oscillators, timers etc.), veroboard
Oscilloscope View and measure electronic signals, which can be extremely
beneficial in the calibration and tuning of synthesizers. (Wilson, 2013)
Bench power supply
Digital multimeter

43
Function generator

As with any large undertaking, the project will not be without issues. Since the
project will involve a large number of components on various circuits, it will be
important to regularly test circuits as they are built them to reduce the amount
of problems later down the line. Electricity as a whole can be a challenging and
harmful energy to deal with, which means it is vital that correct safety
procedures are adhered to so that physical injury and damage to equipment can
be avoided.

The main problem that is faced and the question that will constantly be asked for
the entire duration of the project will it work?

The project will be a large-scale venture into the world of DIY audio electronics
and while the reward will be very high upon completion, there will be many a
situation in which circuits/units will not work. In the case that units are unable to
work and time becomes a factor, the focus will need to be changed and an
analysis will be undertaken to understand why they dont work, along with
building pre-designed circuits and comparing the self-designed modules against
them. By doing this, the proposed goal of the project will still be reached, which
is to investigate the circuit design of modular synthesizers and how they work.

Literature
A combination of sources will be used for the research stage of the project, but a
large part of information will come from the website Music From Outer Space
(Wilson, 2015), along with the books The Art of Electronics (Horowitz & Hill,
2015) and Make: Analog Synthesizers (Wilson, 2013).

The resources Music From Outer Space and Make: Analog Synthesizers were
both authored by the late Ray Wilson, and they will be highly dependable sources
of information due to Wilsons experience in synthesizer building for over 40
years. With countless amounts of synthesizer schematics and circuit testing
information, these sources will be a huge benefit to the project.

The Art of Electronics provides a highly in-depth source of information into

electronics as a whole, with information stemming from the basic fundamentals,
all the way into advanced areas such as embedded electronics and the digital
domain. This book has already provided a firm understanding of the
fundamentals of electronics and will continue to be a vital source of information
throughout the undertaking of the project.

44
Bibliography
AUDIOMATICA SRL (2016) CLIO 11 FW [online] Available from:
http://www.audiomatica.com/wp/?page_id=1441. [Accessed: 5 October 2016].

AVID (2016) ProTools [online] Available from: http://www.avid.com/pro-tools.

[Accessed: 7 October 2016].

DOEPFER (2003) SYSTEM A -100 owners manual doepfer Musikelektronik Gmbh

[online] . Doepfer. Available from:
http://www.doepfer.de/a100_man/A100_intro_e.pdf. [Accessed: 7 October 2016].

HOROWITZ, P. & HILL, W. (2015) The art of electronics. 3rd Ed. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.

INSTRUMENTS, N. (2012) NI Multisim: Powerful circuit design and teaching

software - national instruments [online] Available from:
http://www.ni.com/multisim/. [Accessed: 7 October 2016].

MIMS, F. M. (2000) Getting started in electronics. 3rd Ed. United States: Published
for Forest M. Mims III by Master Publishing.

PLATT, C. (2015) Make - electronics: Learning through discovery. United States:

Maker Media.

WILSON, R. (2013) Make: Analog synthesizers. First Ed. Sudbury, MA, United
States: OREILLY & ASSOC.

WILSON, R. (2015) Music from outer space your Synth-DIY headquarters [online]
Available from: http://www.musicfromouterspace.com/. [Accessed: 6 October
2016].

45
11.3 Ethics Form October 2016
RESEARCH ETHICS
Proportionate Review Form

The Proportionate Review process may be used where the proposed research
raises only minimal ethical risk. This research must: focus on minimally sensitive
topics; entail minimal intrusion or disruption to others; and involve participants
who would not be considered vulnerable in the context of the research.

PART A: TO BE COMPLETED BY RESEARCHER

Name of Researcher: Jamie Dowen

Student/Course Details (If Applicable)

Student ID Number: 12031089

Name of Supervisor(s)/Module Tutor: Dave Hickman

PhD/MPhil project:
Taught Postgraduate
Award BSc Music Technology
Project/Assignment:
Title:

Undergraduate Final Year Project

Project/Assignment: Module
Title:

Project Title: An Investigation into the Circuit Design and Functionality of

Analog Modular Synthesizers

Project Outline: I will be undertaking research into analog modular synthesizers,

investigating how a modular synthesizer unit works at a
component level. I will also be building my own modular
synthesizer from my own circuit designs, and then later
composing a piece of music with the completed unit.

Give a brief I plan to analyse whether there is a difference in sound quality

description of between analog synthesizers and software modular
participants and synthesizers. I will achieve this by inviting participants
procedure (methods, (students with an interest in music) to listen to both analog and
tests etc.) digital (unlabelled however) sound samples, then taking
anonymous results on which sample the participant believes is
which (analog or digital).

46
Expected Start Date: 19th September Expected End 28th April 2017
2016 Date:

Relevant professional body ethical guidelines should be consulted when

completing this form.
Please seek guidance from the Chair of your Faculty Research Ethics Committee
if you are uncertain about any ethical issues arising from this application.
There is an obligation on the researcher and supervisor (where applicable) to
bring to the attention of the Faculty Ethics Committee any issues with ethical
implications not identified by this form.
Researcher Declaration
I consider that this project has no significant ethical implications requiring full
ethical review by the Faculty Research Ethics Committee.

I confirm that:

1. The research will NOT involve members of vulnerable groups.

Vulnerable groups include but are not limited to: children and young
people (under 18 years of age), those with a learning disability or
cognitive impairment, patients, people in custody, people engaged in
illegal activities (e.g. drug taking), or individuals in a dependent or
unequal relationship.

2. The research will NOT involve sensitive topics.

Sensitive topics include, but are not limited to: participants sexual
behaviour, their illegal or political behaviour, their experience of violence,
their abuse or exploitation, their mental health, their gender or ethnic
status. The research must not involve groups where permission of a
gatekeeper is normally required for initial access to members, for
example, ethnic or cultural groups, native peoples or indigenous
communities.

3. The research will NOT deliberately mislead participants in any way.

4. The research will NOT involve access to records of personal or confidential

information, including genetic or other biological information, concerning
identifiable individuals.

5. The research will NOT induce psychological stress, anxiety or humiliation,

cause more than minimal pain, or involve intrusive interventions.
This includes, but is not limited to: the administration of drugs or other
substances, vigorous physical exercise, or techniques such as
hypnotherapy which may cause participants to reveal information which
could cause concern, in the course of their everyday life.

47
6. The research WILL be conducted with participants full and
informed consent at the time the study is carried out:

The main procedure will be explained to participants in

advance, so that they are informed about what to expect. N/A
Participants will be told their involvement in the research is
voluntary.
Written consent will be obtained from participants. (This is not
required for self-completion questionnaires as submission of
the completed questionnaire implies consent to participate).
Participants will be informed about how they may withdraw
from the research at any time and for any reason.
For questionnaires and interviews: Participants will be given
the option of omitting questions they do not want to answer.
Participants will be told that their data will be treated with full
confidentiality and that, if published, every effort will be made
to ensure it will not be identifiable as theirs.
Participants will be given the opportunity to be debriefed i.e.
to find out more about the study and its results.

If you are unable to confirm any of the above statements, please complete a Full
Ethical Review Form. If the research will include participants that are
patients, please complete the Independent Peer Review process.

Supporting Documentation
All key documents e.g. consent form, information sheet,
questionnaire/interview schedule are appended to this application.

Signature of
Jamie Dowen Date: 10.10.2016
Researcher:

NB: If the research departs from the protocol which provides the basis for this
proportionate review, then further review will be required and the applicant and
supervisor(s) should consider whether or not the proportionate review remains
appropriate. If it is no longer appropriate a full ethical review form MUST be
submitted for consideration by the Faculty Research Ethics Committee.

48
Next Step:
STUDENTS: Please submit this form (and supporting documentation) for consideration by
your Supervisor/ Module Tutor.
STAFF: Please forward this form to the Chair of Faculty Research Ethics Committee who
will arrange for it to be considered by an independent member of the Faculty Research
Ethics Committee.

PART B: TO BE COMPLETED BY SUPERVISOR/MODULE TUTOR (If

Applicable)

I consider that this project has no significant ethical implications requiring

full ethical review by the Faculty Research Ethics Committee.

I have checked and approved the key documents required for this proposal
(e.g. consent form, information sheet, questionnaire, interview schedule).

Signature of
Date:
Supervisor:

Next Step: Please forward this form to the Chair of Faculty Research Ethics Committee
who will arrange for it to be considered by an independent member of the Faculty
Research Ethics Committee, having no direct connection with the researcher or his/her
programme of study.

PART C: TO BE COMPLETED BY FACULTY RESEARCH ETHICS COMMITTEE

MEMBER

This research proposal has been considered using agreed University

Procedures and is now approved.

Or

This research proposal has not been approved due to the reasons given
below.

49
 Name of
Reviewer:
Date:
Signature:

11.4 Envelope Generators - EG

An EG is a useful module to shape a signal to give it an envelope. When a
synthesizer is configured in a VCO>VCF>VCA format, the waveform generated
by the VCO is constant and can only be muted by manually adjusting the gain
control on the VCA module. With an EG however, an amplitude envelope can be
created, which can give parameters known as attack, decay, sustain and release
(ADSR). These parameters can be individually adjusted and then sent out as a
single control voltage from the EG, which can either be input into a VCF module
to modulate the filter envelope, or into a VCA module to modulate the amplitude
envelope of the signal.
The attack parameter of an EG is the time in which it takes the envelope to rise
from its initial level to the peak level. After the attack has been completed, the
envelope then goes into the decay stage. Decay is the time it takes the signal to
fall from the peak level to either the sustain level or the release stage (only if in
attack, decay, release mode). The sustain level is the value at which the
envelope is sustained for a period. When a keyboard controller is inserted into
the signal flow, the controller provides gate functionality for the EG to hold the
sustain level for however long a key is pressed. The release value is the final
parameter of the EG, which denotes how long it takes the envelope to decrease
from the sustain value to its initial starting level. However, when used with a
keyboard controller via the gate input of an EG, the decay and sustain stages
may be skipped. For example, if a key is pressed to begin the attack stage and
released before the attack reaches its peak, the envelope will then skip the
decay and sustain stages and then begin the release stage. Similarly, if a key is
pressed and held to the decay stage and released during this stage, the sustain
will be skipped again and the release stage will begin. (Russ, 2013, p.120-129)
ADSR envelope properties can be related to sound in the real-world, such as a
hammer hitting a metal chisel for example. The amplitude would feature a very
quick attack to reach peak level, along with a short decay and sustain value with
a moderate release value as the metal rings out.

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11.5 Audio Mixers
An audio mixer module is an incredibly simple but very useful module within a
modular system. Audio mixers are used for mixing individual signals together
and combining them into a single output. These modules feature several signal
inputs, usually four, each with a potentiometer to control the input signal. These
signals are then mixed together and routed out into a single signal, again
adjustable by a potentiometer. Audio mixers can work as a linear module or an
exponential module. Linear audio mixers are useful for mixing multiple CVs into
a single CV, whereas exponential mixers are more viable for audio signal mixing.

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Circuitry for an audio mixer is quite intuitive, and in the case of a 3-channel
mixer, they can be built with a quad channel op-amp such as a LM3900 for

example.
Figure 21 - A 3-channel audio mixer based on the LM3900 operational amplifier.
(Electroschematics, 2009)

Figure 21 works by combining the three input signals, each through an inverting
amplifier configuration (A1,A2,A3). The gain input of the signals can be adjusted
via potentiometers P1, P2 and P3, and can be further adjusted through trim
potentiometers attached to the circuit board. Trim potentiometers are used to
calibrate the input signals so that all three inputs match each other and scale
correctly.
Once each input signal for each channel has been amplified accordingly, they
travel through resistors R3,R7 and R11 and into the fourth op-amp, A4, which is
configured as a summing amplifier. The output of the mixed signals can be
controlled via the potentiometer P7. While this circuit features switches
(S1,S2,S3) to enable each channel, they are an optional addition to an audio
mixer and can be removed from the design if needed. (Electroschematics, 2009)

11.6 Keyboard Control, Gates and Triggers

With a modular synthesizer, a keyboard controller is effectively another module.
Keyboard voltage controllers provide 3 outputs, which are CV, gate, and trigger.
The CV output is usually calibrated to the 1V/octave standard which allows for
easy interfacing with VCO units to control pitch. Many keyboard controller units
also feature modulation and pitch control wheels. Modulation wheels can be
wired to a module to control the parameters its destination depending on the
wheel value. Pitch wheels will modulate the CV output of the keyboard controller,
usually by 2 semitones.

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To use MIDI controller keyboards however, the signal needs to go through a
digital to analogue conversion process to become a control voltage, as MIDI data
is digital. Units like the Doepfer Dark Link or the Kenton USB Solo fulfil this
purpose, which take a MIDI or USB MIDI value, and converting it into a gate and
multiple CV outputs such as 1v/octave, pitch bend and even velocity, which can
modulate the gain of the VCA in response to the velocity level from the keyboard
controller.
Gates and triggers are windows in which a voltage steps from zero to a positive
value, usually around 5 volts. While gates and triggers are similar in function,
they work slightly differently. When connected to a keyboard controller for
example, a held keypress would keep the gate open for however long the key is
being pressed for. A trigger however, would only send out a short pulse of the
positive voltage upon the key being pressed and then fall back to zero, no matter
how long the key is being held for.
Gates and triggers are mainly used as a control for EGs to open the envelope.
When a gate control is used on an amplitude envelope, the sustain value would
be held for however long the user holds the keyboard note for. When used with a
trigger however, the EG usually only works with attack and sustain values,
meaning that once the attack phase peak is reached, it would go straight into the
release phase and skip the decay and sustain stages. (Wilson, 2014)
Retrigger inputs can also be used with gates. A retrigger can be controlled via
the output of an LFO for example. With a retrigger, if the gate is open, the
envelope will be retriggered from its current level every time it receives a signal
pulse from the LFO, such as a square wave for example.

Figure 22 - Example of a gated output, voltage stays high from key press until all keys are
released. (Wilson, 2014, pg.40)

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 Figure 23 - Example of a trigger output, signal goes high on key press but is not held unlike a
gate output. (Wilson, 2014, pg.40)

11.7 Testing and Experimentation Synthesizer Connection

Diagrams

Figure 24 VCO controls and wiring Figure 25 - VCF controls and wiring

54

Figure 26 - VCA controls and wiring

55
 11.8 VCO Results
Figure 27 - Multisim oscilloscope showing both VCO
waveforms at 62Hz on a 5ms/Div timescale.
Figure 28 myDAQ oscilloscope showing the
triangle output of the physical module at its
lowest frequency, with the vertical axis
representing amplitude at 2V/Div, and the
horizontal axis representing measurement
timebase at 5ms/Div
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Figure 29 myDAQ oscilloscope showing
the square output of the physical module at
its lowest frequency, with the vertical axis
representing amplitude at 5V/Div, and the
horizontal axis representing measurement
timebase at 5ms/Div
 11.9 VCF Results

Figure 30 VCF with a triangle wave input and a cut- Figure 31 VCF with a triangle wave input with cut-
off control of 50%, with the horizontal axis scaled to a off control at 50% and resonance control at 75%, with
2ms/Div timebase and the vertical axis scaled to the horizontal axis scaled to a 2ms/Div timebase and
5V/Div amplitude. the vertical axis scaled to 5V/Div amplitude.

Figure 32 VCF with a square wave input with cut-off Figure 33 VCF with a square wave input with cut-off
control at 50%, with the horizontal axis scaled to a control at 50% and the resonance control at 75%, with
2ms/Div timebase and the vertical axis scaled to 5V/Div the horizontal axis scaled to a 2ms/Div timebase and the
amplitude. vertical axis scaled to 5V/Div amplitude.

Figure 34 Bode plot of the VCF with cut-off at 6.8kHz.

The horizontal axis represents frequency from 20Hz- Figure 35 Bode plot of the VCF with cut-off at around
20kHz, while the vertical axis represents amplitude from 365Hz. The horizontal axis represents frequency from 20Hz-
-10dB to 20dB 1kHz, while the vertical axis represents amplitude from -10dB
to 20dB

57
Figure 36 Bode plot of the VCF with cut-off at around
700Hz and a resonant peak of 15dB at 450Hz. The
horizontal axis represents frequency from 20Hz-1kHz,
while the vertical axis represents amplitude from -10dB
to 20dB
Figure 38 - Bode plot of the physical VCF with the cut-
off at its minimum
Figure 40 Bode plot of the physical VCF with cut-off at its
minimum and resonance turned up full.
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Figure 37 Bode plot of the VCF with cut-off at around
110Hz and a resonant peak of 15dB at 175Hz. The
horizontal axis represents frequency from 20Hz-1kHz,
while the vertical axis represents amplitude from -10dB to
20dB
Figure 12 Bode plot of the physical VCF with the cut-off
at its maximum
Figure 41 Bode plot of the physical VCF with cut-off at its
maximum and resonance turned up full.
11.10 VCA Results

Figure 42 - VCA amplifying a 1V signal to 3V, highlighted yellow.

Figure 43 Dynamic signal analyser showing a THD

of 19% .

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 11.11 Modular Synthesizer Composition Patching.

Figure44
Figure 48Doepfer
DoepferVCO
VCAs Figure 45 Doepfer ADSR envelope generators

Figure 46 Doepfer exponential signal mixer Figure 47 Doepfer LFOs

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61