OVERVIEW: Parts of Speech (Word Classes) Phrases Clauses

Parts of Speech (Word Classes)

open classes vocabulary words closed classes function/grammatical words
common nouns vs. proper nouns (names) personal pronouns pers pron
demonstrative pronouns dem pron
uncountable (mass) vs. countable nouns reflexive pronouns reflex pron
emphatic pronouns emph pron
nouns abstract vs. concrete nouns pronouns reciprocal pronouns recip pron
(n) (pron) possessive pronouns poss pron
collective/group nouns indefinite pronouns indef pron
relative pronouns rel pron
pair nouns interrogative pronouns interrog pron
articles det, art
full/ordinary/lexical verbs demonstrative determiners dem det
verbs auxiliary verbs (closed class: primary verbs [can determiners possessive determiners poss det
(v) be both full and auxiliary verbs] and modal (det) quantifiers/indefinite det q det/indef det
auxiliary verbs) interrogative determiners interrog det
relative determiners rel det
adjectives attributive position prepositions single-word
(adj) predicative position (prep) multi-word two-, three-word
(postpositive position) prep + n + prep
adverbs of degree, time, place, manner conjunctions coordinators coord conj
(adv) (conj) subordinators subord conj

Other word classes:

adverbial particles (adv part)
interjections (interj)
numerals (num): cardinal (card num) and ordinal (ord num) numerals
single-word classes: existential there, negator not, infinitive marker to

Syntactic functions of parts of speech

words can function as words can function as
nouns head of NP, articles central determiner within NP
modifier within NP (premodifier)
full / lexical / main verb within VP demonstrative central determiner within NP
ordinary verbs determiners
modal auxiliary auxiliary within VP possessive central determiner within NP
verbs determiners
primary verbs main verb within VP, noun in the central determiner within NP
auxiliary within VP possessive form
head of AdjP,
adjectives modifier within NP (premodifier, quantifiers predeterminer within NP,
rarely postmodifier) postdeterminer within NP
(head of NP)
head of AdvP,
modifier within AdjP, predeterminer within NP,
adverbs modifier within AdvP, numerals postdeterminer within NP,
modifier within PP (extended), (head of NP)
postmodifier within NP,
(premodifier within NP very rare)
main verb within VP,
gerunds head of NP, prepositions head of PP (introduce PP)
modifier within NP
participles main verb within VP, coordinating link words, phrases or clauses
modifier within NP conjunctions
pronouns head of NP subordinating introduce subordinated clauses
conjunctions

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Wh-words: introduce clauses, but do not form an independent word class; they are members of already mentioned word classes
(determiners, pronouns, adverbs); they begin with wh-, with the single exception of how
interrogative wh-words (introduce an interrogative clause) relativizers (introduce a relative clause)
interrogative pronouns: who, whom, what, which relative pronouns: who, whom, which, that (stand for a noun phrase)
interrogative determiners: what, which, whose relative determiners: which, whose (occur before a noun)
interrogative adverbs: when, where, how, why relative adverbs: where, when, why (refer to places, times or reasons)

Phrases
Structure of the noun phrase (NP):
determiners modifiers head postmodifiers
pre-det central post-det adjective noun head noun postmodifiers
det slot 1 slot 2
adjectives phrases: postpositive Adj P,
q (+ of) art, ordinal Adj P (adv+adj) noun Adv P, NP, PP
multipliers dem, numerals, cardinal
like poss, semi-det numerals, -ing participles nouns pronoun finite clauses: relative, nominal-that
double, n in a like same, q -ed participles gerunds (adjective) (appositive) clauses
twice poss other, (adverbs), (numeral) non-finite clauses: to-inf, -ing and -ed
form next (sentence) postmodifying clauses
Syntactic functions of the noun phrase:
subject, direct object, indirect object, prepositional object, subject complement, object complement, adverbial complement, adjunct,
prepositional complement, postmodifier within NP

Structure of the verb phrase:

auxiliaries main verb other
auxiliary verbs full/ordinary/lexical verb; negator not, infinitive marker to,
primary verb preposition/adverbial particle
Syntactic function of the verb phrase: verb (carries the clause)

Structure of the adjective phrase:

modifier head word adjectival complementation
adverb of degree adjective PP, clause
Syntactic functions of the adjective phrase:
premodifier within NP, postmodifier within NP, subject complement, object complement

Structure of the adverb phrase:

modifier head word complement
adverb of degree adverb PP, clause
Syntactic functions of the adverb phrase:
adjunct, adverbial complement, postmodifier within NP

Structure of the prepositional phrase:

modifier head word prepositional complement
adverb of degree (extended PP) preposition NP, clause
Syntactic functions of the prepositional phrase:
adjunct, adverbial complement, postmodifier within NP, adjectival complementation, complement within Adv P

Clauses
verb classes (valency of the verb) clause patterns (7) other
linking (copular) verbs SVCs; SVCa
intransitive verbs SV
transitive verbs:
monotransitive verbs SVOd (monotransitive prepositional verbs SVOp)
ditransitive verbs SVOiOd (SVOdOp / SVOdOi) (ditransitive prepositional verbs SVOdOp)
complex-transitive verbs SVOdCo; SVOdCa

Patterns with Sp (variations on the above 7 basic patterns):

Semantically empty subject it: SVCsSp, SVOdCoSp, SVOiOdSp, SVOdSp
Existential there existential sentences: SVSp(A)

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 Sentence elements
sentence realized by typical semantic role
element (other roles)
S noun phrase, clause agent (external causer, instrument, affected, recipient,
experiencer, positioner, locative, temporal, eventive, prop it)
V verb phrase
Od noun phrase, clause affected (locative, resultant/effected, cognate, eventive,
dummy it)
Oi noun phrase, (clause) recipient (affected)
Cs noun phrase, adjective phrase, clause attribute: identification or characterization (of the S)
Co noun phrase, adjective phrase, clause attribute: identification or characterization (of the Od)
Ca adverb phrase, prepositional phrase, clause, noun adverbial of place or time (subject-related),
phrase adverbial of place (position or direction) or metaphorical
extensions of place (object-related)
A adverb phrase, prepositional phrase, clause, noun adverbials of time, place, condition, concession, contrast,
phrase exception, reason, purpose, result, manner

Two relationships between Od and Co: the same as between S and Cs and when the Co is a NF Cl, the Od is the S of the Co

Nominal elements: S, Sp, Od, Oi, Op, Cs, Co

Adverbial elements: A, Ca

Syntactic functions of clauses:

Within other clauses (complex sentences): A, S, Od, Oi, Op, Cs, Co, Ca
Within other phrases: prepositional complement, postmodifier within NP, adjectival complementation,
complement within AdvP

Multi-word verbs:
phrasal verbs can be intransitive (SV) or transitive (SVOd), a few can be copular (SVCs, SVCa)
prepositional verbs always take on a prepositional object (Op); can be monotransitive (SVOp) or
ditransitive (SVOdOp)
clause structure can be viewed as SVOp (preposition part of the verb phrase) or SVA
(preposition forms a PP with the NP)
phrasal-prepositional verbs similar to prepositional verbs prepositional complement functions as Op
(verb + adverbial particle + preposition) can be monotransitive (SVOp), a few can be ditransitive (SVOdOp)

Telling the difference between (and determining the pertaining clause structure):
phrasal verbs (preposition/particle is part of the VP),
prepositional verbs (preposition can be viewed as part of the VP),
and free combinations (preposition is not part of the VP)
intransitive phrasal verbs phrasal verbs idiomatic meaning, single VP SV
vs.
intransitive free combinations of verb + AdvP free combinations non-idiomatic meaning, VP + AdvP SVA
transitive phrasal verbs phrasal verbs allow particle movement, can come after the object
vs.
prepositional verbs prepositional verbs do not allow particle movement, always before the object
transitive prepositional verb + NP (Op) prepositional verb question formed with what and who SVOp
vs.
free combination of verb + PP free combination question formed with where and when SVA

Compiled by Marko Majerovi

Department of English
Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences
University of Zagreb