a.

provided roles freed from the constraints of the

dense intellectual environments of Paris or German
universities and was capable of some notable
innovations
2. wealthiest country in Europe so gentry and middle class
had the means to devote themselves to intellectual
pursuits
ii. Scotland
1. universities retained an importance in church and
government akin to Germany
a. Provided the systematic university basis lacking in
British intellectual life
b. Takeoff period of social sciences = 1700s
i. Enlightenment
ii. secular tolerance
iii. Enlightenment intellectual
1. all-purpose thinker
2. intellectual role led simultaneously in all direction
iv. Two ideas produced
1. Thinkers tried to provide general explanations of the
social world
a. able to detach themselves from expounding some
existing ideology and attempt to lay down general
principles that explained social life
b. marked beginning of social science
c. due to influence of natural sciences = Isaac
Newton
2. Social thinkers had some new and striking matter to
ponder
a. Newly discovered tribal and non-Western societies
of the Americas, Africa and Orient
b. State of Nature against which to theorize about
how their own societies might have been
constructed
c. Notion of evolutionary sequence of stages was built
up by Turgot, Condorcet, Saint-Simon >>
culminating in the explicit sociology of Auguste
Comte
v. Not an age of empirical research
1. speculative philosophy and literary flair characterized
most of what was written
II. Economics: The First Social Science
a. First area in which factual info was systematically accumulated
i. came in conjunction with the expanded administrative
bureaucracies of the 1700s
ii. France 1760s
1. Francois Quesnay
 a. formulated an economic philosophy called the
physiological doctrine
i. advocacy of commercial farming as source of
wealth
b. Adam Smith (1776)
i. Published The Wealth of Nations
A. single most popular book of social
science ever published
ii. systematized information and economic
ideas that were already available
iii. gave economics an intellectual identity as a
professional discipline
iv. role-hybrid (situation often favorable to
intellectual creativity)
III. The Rise of Public Schools and the University Revolution
a. Prussia
i. free and compulsory elementary schools were established
1. to inculcate obedience to the state
2. staffed by low-ranking clerics from bureaucracy of the
state church
a. eventually by univ graduates waiting a post in the
Church or at the universities
b. Germany
i. Gymnasium
c. Philosophy as a knowledge superior to all = Queen of the Sciences
i. Philosophical faculty was raised to a graduate faculty, accepted
instead of theology degree for teaching posts in the public
schools
d. German universities soon took over world leadership in virtually all
branches of science and scholarship
i. opportunity to assert the independent importance of its own
activities, no intrinsic limit to what knowledge teachers should
have
e. Specialized teacher-training function gave the arts faculty a legit claim
to be a separate and equal division of organization
i. free to develop their own subjects and given the opportunity to
raise own prestige
1. development of philosophical and humanistic subjects and
mathematics
f. America
i. Johns Hopkins University (1876) imitation of German graduate
school
g. University as an organizational form had great advantages over the
more informal communities of intellectuals
i. university scholars eventually outdistanced most of their
nonacademic counterparts and the advanced segments of
intellectual life ended up almost exclusively in the universities
ii. Intellectual community became split internally
1. independent, nonuniversity intellectuals: became hostile
to new professorial l form of knowledge
a. first sign of estrangement was between scientific
and literary intellectuals