CERAMICS MATERIALS

Lecture 05

Dielectric and Magnetic

Properties of Ceramics

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 Outline
3

Introduction
Linear dielectric
Polarization mechanism
Dielectric loss
Dielectric breakdown
Piezo- and Ferroelectric ceramics
Magnetic and the basic concept
Magnetic ceramics and their applications
4

Dielectric Ceramics
 Introduction
5

Atomic or molecular dipoles

A dielectric material is one that is
electrically insulating (nonmetallic) and
exhibits or may be made to exhibit an
electric dipole structure; that is, there is a
separation of positive and negative
electrically charged entities on a molecular
or atomic level.
 An electric dipole exists whenever there is some
6

separation of positive and negative portions of an atom

or molecule.
The bonding results from the coulombic attraction between
the positive end of one dipole and the negative region of
an adjacent one.
Dipole interactions occur between induced dipoles,
between induced dipoles and polar molecules (which have
permanent dipoles), and between polar molecules.
 In contrast to electrical conductivity, which involves long-
7
range motion of charge carriers, the dielectric response
results from the short-range motion of these carriers under
the influence of an externally applied electric field.
The applications of an electric field to any solid will result
in a separation of its positive and negative charges, a
phenomenon called polarization, i.e. finite displacement of
bound charges of a dielectric in response to an applied
electric field, and the orientation of their molecular
dipoles.
 Linear dielectric
8

The dielectric properties can vary widely between solids

and are a function of temperature, frequency of applied
field, humidity, crystal structure, and other external forces.
The response of dielectric can be linear or non-linear, and
thus dielectric material properties can be divided into
those linear and non-linear.
 Capacitance
9

When a voltage is applied across a capacitor, one

plate becomes positively charged, the other
negatively charged, with the corresponding electric
field directed from the positive to the negative.
The capacitance C is related to the quantity of
charge stored on either plate Q by: Q = CV, where V
is the voltage applied across the capacitor with the
units of coulombs per volt, or farads (F).
10

0 = 0
V

l =
Vacuum
 For a parallel-plate capacitor with a vacuum in the
region between the plates, the capacitance is:
11

0
vac =

where A represents the area of the plates and l is the
distance between them.
The parameter 0, called the vacuum permittivity, is a
universal constant having the value of 8.85 x 10-12
F/m.
12
Ifa dielectric material is inserted into the region
within the plates, then

=

where is the permittivity of this dielectric medium,
which will be greater in magnitude than 0 .
13
The relative permittivity r , often called the dielectric
constant, is equal to the ratio

=
0
which is greater than unity and represents the
increase in charge storing capacity by insertion of the
dielectric medium between the plates.
14
Thedielectric constant is one material property that is
of prime consideration for capacitor design.

0
= = r Cvac

 Polarization
15

The surface charge in vacuum, vac is

0
vac = = = 0
vac

where E is the applied electric field.

 One also can find that
16

0
= = vac + pol
die

where pol is the excess charge per unit surface area

present on the dielectric surface, and numerically
equal to and has the same dimension as the
polarization, P of the dielectric.
 Dielectric displacement
17

Dielectricdisplacement, D, can be define as the

surface charge on the metal plates, i.e. D = Q/A.
When a vacuum is present, then:
0 = 0
An analogous expression exists for the dielectric case,
that is,
=
18
From the previous equations, we will find that:
= 0 +
One also can see that:
= 1 0 = die 0
where die is the dielectric susceptibility of the
material.
pol
die =
vac
 Dipole moment
19

A dipole moment is defined as: = q, +ze

where is the distance separating the center

of the positive and negative charges q =
ze and is a vector with its positive sense -ze
directed from negative to the positive
charge.
For N dipoles per unit volume, it can be
shown that P is simply equal to N = Nq.
 Combining it with previous equation, it can be shown that:

20

1 = =
0 0
One can further define the polarizability of an atom or
ion as

=
loc
where Nloc is the local electric field to which the atom is
subjected.
21
Forcubic symmetry, the local field is related to the
applied field by:

loc = + 2
3
Combining it with the two previous equations results in
/0 r 1
1 = ; =
1 / 30 + 2 30

Clausius-Mossoti relation
 Primary and Derived Units for Various Electrical
22
Parameters and Field Vectors
 Type of polarization
23

Electronicpolarization
Ionic polarization
Orientation polarization
 Electronic polarization
24

It may be induced to one degree or another in all atoms.

It results from a displacement of the center of the
negatively charged electron cloud relative to the positive
nucleus of an atom by the electric field.
This type is found in all dielectric materials, and, of
course, exists only while an electric field is present.
 Ionic polarization
25

Itoccurs only in materials that are ionic.

An applied field acts to displace cations in one direction
and anions in the opposite direction, which gives rise to a
net dipole moment.
The magnitude of the dipole moment for each ion pair is
equal to the product of the relative displacement and the
charge on each ion.
 Orientation polarization
26

Itis found only in substances that possess permanent

dipole moments.
Polarization results from a rotation of the permanent
moments into the direction of the applied field.
This alignment tendency is counteracted by the thermal
vibrations of the atoms, such that polarization decreases
with increasing temperature.
27

Electronic polarization

Ionic polarization

Orientation polarization
 Dielectric loss
28

The dielectric loss is a measure of the energy dissipated in

the dielectric in unit time when an electric field acts on it.
This power loss represents a wastage of energy as well as
attendant heating of the dielectric.
 If the rate of heat generation is faster than it can be
29

dissipated, the dielectric will heat up, which could lead to

dielectric breakdown and other problem.
As the temperature increases, the dielectric constant is
liable to change as well, which for finely tuned circuits can
create severe problems.
 Dielectric breakdown
30

Dielectric breakdown is defined as the voltage gradient

or electric field sufficient to cause the short circuit.
This phenomenon depends on many factors, such as
thickness, temperature, electrode composition and shape,
and porosity.
 Inceramics, there are two types of breakdown:
31

Intrinsic; electron in the conduction band are

accelerated to such a point that they start to ionize
lattice ions.
Thermal breakdown; the rate of heat generation in the
dielectric, as a result of losses, greater than the rate of
heat removal from the sample. Also called thermal
runaway.
 Capacitors and insulators
32

Whether a dielectric is to be used as a capacitor or as an

insulator depend on its characteristics.
For capacitive function, high relative dielectric constant
are required together with low losses.
For insulative properties, whether in high-power
applications or as a substrate for integrated circuits, then
it is desirable to have as low a dielectric constant as
possible and once again minimal losses.
 Class of dielectric materials
33

Class I dielectrics include ceramics with relatively low and

medium dielectric constants, low 5 to 15 and medium 15
to 500, and dissipation factors of less than 0.003.
Class II dielectrics are high-permittivity ceramics based on
ferroelectrics with the value of 2000 to 20,000.
Class III dielectrics contain a conductive phase to reduce
the thickness of the dielectric and results in very high
capacitance but low breakdown voltage.
 Summary
34

The application of electric field E across a linear dielectric

material results in polarization P or separation of positive and
negative charges.
The relative dielectric constant, r, is a measure of the capacity
of a solid to store charge relative to vacuum and is related to the
extent to which the charges in a solid polarize.
In a linear dielectrics, P is assumed to be linearly related to E with
the proportionality constant related to r.
 Exercise
35

Consider a parallel-plate capacitor having an area of 6.45

cm2 and a plate separation of 0.2 cm across which a
potential of 10 V is applied. If a material having a
dielectric constant of 6.0 is positioned within the region
between the plates, compute the capacitance, the magnitude
of the charge stored on each plate, the dielectric
displacement D, and the polarization.
 Non-linear dielectric ceramics
37

Piezoelectric materials are those that become electrically

polarized or undergo a change in polarization when
subjected to a stress.
Pyroelectric materials are ones that are spontaneously
polarizable and in which a change in temperature
produces a change in that spontaneous polarization.
 Ferroelectric materials are those that are spontaneously
38

polarized.
Antiferrolectric materials are materials in which the
neighboring lines of ions are displaced in opposite senses,
creates two alternating dipole sub-lattices of equivalent
but opposite polarization.
 Ferroelectric ceramics
39

Ferroelectricity is define as the spontaneous alignment of

electric dipoles by their mutual interaction.
Ferroelectricity usually disappear above a certain
temperature Tc, above that temperature the crystal is said
to be in a paraelectric state and obeys a Currie-Weiss
law.
 Below Tc, spontaneous polarization occurs in domains.
40

A typical plot of polarization vs. electric field will exhibit

a hysteresis loop.
 Higher piezoelectric coefficient
41
such as BaTiO3 and PZT
Ferroelectrics are materials
which possess a spontaneous
electric polarization (Ps) which
can be reversed by applying a
suitable electric field E.
This process is known as
switching, and is followed by
hysteresis.
 Hysteresis
42

In addition to resulting in very

large r at Tc spontaneous
P

polarization will result in Ps

P
tan ( x'i 1) 0
E i
hysteresis loop. Pr
E

At low applied fields, the EC

polarization is reversible and

almost linear with the applied
fields.
 At higher field strength, the polarization increase
43

considerably due to switching of the ferroelectric domain.

Further increase in the electric field continue to increase
the polarization as a result of further distortion of the
structure.
Upon removal of the applied fields, P does not go to zero
but remains at a finite value called the remnant
polarization, Pr.
 Structural origin of ferroelectric
44

Ferroelectric materials go through a phase transition from

a centrosymmetric nonpolar lattice to a non-
centrosymmetric polar lattice at Tc.
In order to understand the origin of the paraelectric to
ferroelectric transition and the accompanying structural
phase transition it is important to understand how the local
field, Eloc is affected by the polarization of the lattice.
 Thelocal field relates to the applied field, E and the
45

polarization by:

loc = +
0

where is a measure of the enhancement of the local

field.
 The three equations:

46

loc =+
0

1 =
0
and

=
Eloc
 Combination of the three equations results in:
/
47

1 = =
0
where Tc = C/0.
Comparing this expression with Currie-Weiss law:

=

It follows that TC = C; where C is the Currie constant.
 Piezoelectric ceramics
48

Piezoelectric ceramics
are solids that are
capable of converting
mechanical energy to
electrical energy and
vice versa.
 When an external force is applied to produce a
49

compressive or tensile strain in ceramics, a change is

generated in the dipole moment, and a voltage is
developed across the ceramics.
The opposite is also true, application of an electric field
will result in a change in the dimension of the crystal.
 Poling
50

Poling ~ the process that induces

piezoelectric properties in the
ceramic.
The orientation of the dc poling
field determines the orientation
of the mechanical and electrical
axes
 Under the dc poling field, all domains will align along the
51

direction of the poling field.

The poling field can be applied in various directions or
combination of directions so that the ceramic exhibits
different piezoelectric responses
 Ferroelectricity vs. Antiferroelectricity
52
 Hysteresis of Antiferroelectrics
53
 Applications
54

The main use of dielectric ceramics are for capacitors,

generation of charge at high voltages, detection of
mechanical vibrations, control of frequency, and
generation of acoustic vibration.
Most commercial piezoelectric materials are based on
ferroelectric crystals.
 The first commercially developed piezoelectric material
55

was BaTiO3.
The most widely exploited today is based on Pb(Ti,Zr)O3
or PZT solid solution system.
56
Gas sensors
One of the first applications of the new nitride
Semiconductor technology. The Green light uses
10% of the power and last more than 10x longer.
62

Magnetic Ceramics
 Introduction
63

The first magnetic material exploited by man as a

navigational tool was a ceramic, Fe3O4, known as
lodestone.
Many of the magnetic characteristic of ceramics are
analogues to their dielectric characteristics.
 Magnetic polarization and dielectric polarization,
64

permanent electric dipoles and permanent magnetic

dipoles, spontaneous magnetization and a spontaneous
electric moment, and other similarities between magnetic
and dielectric phenomena are striking.
The magnetic characteristic of ceramic materials are of
increasing importance as the field of solid-state
electronics continues to expand.
 Magneticmaterials made an important contribution to the
65

development of the consciousness of mankind, because

they paved the way to discoveries of new continents once
the compass had been invented.
 Magnetic phenomena
66

A phenomenon of magnetism, i.e. the mutual attraction of

two pieces of iron or iron ore has been known since the
antique world.
The designation magnetism is said to be derived from a
region in Turkey which was known by the name of
Magnesia and which had plenty of iron ore.
 Basic concept in magnetism
67

A magnetic field intensity H is generated whenever

electric charges are in motion, such as electrons flowing in
a conductor or the orbital motion and spins electrons
around nuclei and/or around themselves.
For a circular loop of radius r through which a current i is
flowing, the magnetic field intensity, H is

=
2
 Invacuum, H will result in a magnetic field, B, given by:
68

B = 0H
where the constant 0 is the permeability of free spaces
which is 4 x 10-7 Wb/(A.m).
B can be expressed in a number of equivalent units such
as V.s/m2 = Wb/m2 = T (tesla) = 104 G (gauss).
 A magnetic induction of 1 T will generate a force of 1 N
69
a conductor carrying current of 1 A perpendicular to the
direction of induction.
In the presence of a solid, B will be composed of two
parts: that which would be observed in the absence of the
solid plus that due to the solid, or B = 0(H + M), where
M is the magnetization of the solid, defined as the net
magnetic moment ion per unit volume.

=

 In paramagnetic and diamagnetic solids, B is a linear
70

function of H such that:

B = H
where is the permeability of solid.
For ferro- and ferimagnetic, B and H are no longer
linearly related, can vary rapidly with H.
 The magnetic susceptibility is defined as:

71

mag =

The relative permeability r is given as:

=
0
and it compares the permeability of a medium to that of
vacuum, while r and mag are related by: r = mag + 1
 Measuring magnetic properties
72

To measure the magnetic Sensitive balance

properties, a small cylinder

of the solid is suspended
Solenoid
with n turns

from a sensitive balance into

Sample
the center of the solenoid.
N
z-axis
Permanent magnet

S
 According to Amperes law, passing a current i
through the solenoid will create an axial uniform
73

magnetic field intensity H of strength H = ni.

It can be shown that the magnetic force on a material
with magnetization M and volume V is given by

= ion =

where dB/dz is gradient in magnetic field along the z
axis due to the permanent magnet.
74
Combining this equation with the magnetic
susceptibility gives

= mag

 Experimental outcomes
75

The sample is very weakly repelled by the permanent

magnet, and the weight of the sample will appear to
diminish, implying that mag is negative.
Increasing H by increasing the current in the selenoid will
linearly increase the repulsive force.
The material is termed a diamagnetic material.
 The sample is weakly attracted to the permanent magnet,
76

with a force of attraction that is proportional to H.

The sample will appear to have gained weight, implying
a positive mag.
Such as solid are known as paramagnets.
 The sample is strongly attracted to the permanent
77

magnet.
The shape of curve of the curve obtained, however will
depend on the samples history.
The line will be Oxy for virgin sample, while for sample
that has been magnetized it will follow the hysteresis
curve.
Such behavior is termed ferromagnetic or ferrimagnetic.
 An antiferromagnetic material behaves similarly to a
78

paramagnetic one, i.e. weakly attracted.

However, the susceptibility of an antiferromagnetic
material will appear to go through a maximum as the
temperature lowered, while for paramagnet material will
continuously increase with decreasing temperature.
 Para-, ferro-, and antiferromagnetic
79

Ferromagnetic
Paramagnetic
Antiferromagnetic

Paramagnetic Paramagnetic

Temperature TC Temperature TN Temperature

80
Schematic representation of
magnetic field line in para- or N

ferromagnetic. The magnetic 0H

S
induction (B) inside the 0 0 0
B M M M
material consists of the free
space component (0H) plus a 0H
N

contribution by the material S

(0M)
81
Schematic representation of
magnetic field line: magnetic
field outside a material
point from the north to the N
south, whereas inside of
para- or ferromagnetic, B S
and 0M point from south to
north
82
Schematic representation of
N
magnetic field: In diamagnetic,
the response of material
counteracts the external magnetic
0M
field.

S
83
Schematic representation of magnetic
field: In a thin surface layer of a N

superconductor, a supercurrent is
created which cause the magnetic
field that opposes the external field.
As a consequence, the magnetic flux
lines are expelled from the interior of
S
the material.
 Paramagnetism
84

Paramagnetism solids are those in which the atoms have

permanent magnetic dipole, i.e. unpaired electron.
In the absence of magnetizing field, the magnetic
moments of the electrons are randomly distributed, and
the net magnetic moment per unit volume is zero.
 A magnetizing field tends to orient these moment in the
85

same direction of the field such that a net magnetic

moment in the same sense as the applied field develops.
The susceptibilities are thus positive but small, given by:

mag =

where C is a constant known as Curie constant. This 1/T
dependence, known as Curies law.
 Ferromagnetism
86

Incertain class of magnetic materials, i.e. ferro-and

ferrimagnets, the temperature dependence of mag
obeys not Curies law, but rather the modified version:

mag =

known as the Curie-Weiss law.
 Above a critical temperature, Tc, known as the Curie
87
temperature, the material behaves paramagnetically,
whereas below Tc spontaneous magnetization sets in.
To understand the temperature dependence of
ferromagnetic materials, one needs to find expression for
the local field Bloc in which
Bloc = 0(H + M)
where is called mean field constant or coupling
coefficient, and is a measure of the strength of the
interaction between neighboring moments.
 Antiferromagnetism and ferrimagnetism
88

In some materials, the coupling coefficient is negative,

which implies that the magnetic moments on adjacent
ions are anti parallel.
If these moments are equal, they cancel and the net
moment is zero: such solids are known as
antiferromagnets.
 Inthis material, maximum susceptibility is observed at
89
temperature TN known as Nel temperature. Above TN the
Curie-Weiss law holds again, but it is modified to read

mag =
+
A variation of antiferromagnetism is seen in the situation
where the coupling is negative but the adjacent moments
are unequal, which implies that they do not cancel.
Such materials are termed ferrimagnets, which include all
magnetic ceramics.
 Ferromagnetic vs. antiferromagnetic
90

(a) The parallel alignment of individual magnetic moments in a

ferromagnetic material and (b) the antiparallel arrangement of
spins in an antiferromagnetic material.
 Piezomagnetism and magnetostriction
91

Piezomagnetism is an effect in which

magnetization is stress dependent.
The inverse of piezomagnetism is called
magnetostriction, an effect which describes a
change in dimensions when a ferromagnetic
substance is exposed to a magnetic field.
Magnetostriction is also observed in ferrimagnetic
and antiferromagnetic materials.
 M Comp. stress
92
M

Tensile stress
No stress

Ni
Comp. stress

No stress

Tensile stress
Fe

H H
(a) Nickel (b) Iron
 Classification of Magnetic Materials
93

Hard magnets: Known as permanent magnets

Primarily found in solids with domain walls that do not
move easily
Produces a large hysteresis loop and have high
magnetic field strength - as reflected in the value of
(BH)max - an example being the iron-nickel alloy.
E.g. Silicon-Iron, 45 Permalloy, Ferroxcube A and B,
Cobalt-Samarium, Iron-Neodymium-Boron
94
 Soft Magnets; e.g. Martensitic carbon steel, tungsten steel,
95

Cunife, Cunico
Found in solids with domain walls that can move readily. Area of
the hysteresis loops is usually small; used in transformers
Prepared to have high resistance (with the addition of
impurities) to reduce ac loss
Includes ceramic magnets such as ferrites and garnets (these are
mixed metal oxides usually with the presence of iron)
Applications include use in magnetic tapes and disks
96
 Magnetic ceramics and their applications
97

Soft magnetic materials are characterized by large

saturation magnetization at low H values and low coercive
fields and are typically used in applications where rapid
reversal of the magnetization is required such as
electromagnets, transformer cores, and relays.
 The major advantageous of soft magnetic ceramics,
98

compared to their metal counterparts, is the fact that they

are electrical insulators, keeping them from eddy current
loss.
Hard magnets are characterized by high saturation
magnetization as well as high coercive forces, i.e. they are
not easily demagnetized.
Hard magnetic solids are thus used to make permanent
magnets and recording media.
99

Computer core memory provides a means to store

digital information.
The magnetic cores are arranged in a matrix interlaced
through fine metal wires both horizontally and vertically.
A change in the magnetic state of the core is facilitated
when the currents in the wires passing through the core
reinforce each other: otherwise, no change occurs.
The cores can be accessed randomly.
100
Reading the information stored in a core
requires a third (sense) wire threaded through
the core.
It picks up an induced current when test signals
passing through the (access) wires change the
state of the core.
 Y1 Y2 Y3 Y4

101
B 0 State X1
Bs
Br
X2

H X3
Hs Hs
I H3 X4
Sense
wire
1 State
(a) (b) (c)

a) Single ferrite core which is magnetized by a current-induced

magnetic field.
b) Square-shaped hysteresis loop of a soft ferrite memory core.
c) One plane of coincident-current core memory device.
 The most common form of core memory, X/Y
102 line coincident-current used for the main
memory of a computer, consists of a large
number of small ferrite (ferromagnetic
ceramic) rings cores held together in a
grid structure (each grid called a plane), with
wires woven through the holes in the cores'
middle.
In early systems there were four wires, X, Y,
Sense and Inhibit, but later cores combined
the latter two wires into one Sense/Inhibit
line.
 Each ring stores one bit (a 0 or 1).
103

One bit in each plane could be accessed

in one cycle, so each machine word in an
array of words was spread over a stack
of planes.
Each plane would manipulate one bit of a
word in parallel, allowing the full word to
be read or written in one cycle.
 Magnetic recording
104

Magnetic recording involves ~

a magnetic tape/disk and a
recording head. Magnetic layer

The principle relies on a

current-carrying coil placed Substrate

close to the magnetic medium

Tape motion

such as a magnetic
tape/disk.
105
The required current to magnetize the medium
can sometimes be quite large and a coil of
many windings is used.
The latter forms a part of the recording head,
which also consists of a magnetic armature.
106
The current in the coil controls the strength of
magnetization induced on the tape/disk.
Reading the tape/disk is simply the reverse of
the recording process.
The magnetic patterns in the tape/disk are
sensed by the coil and picked up in the form of
a voltage.
 Hard drive
107

Traditional
longitudinal
recording aligns
bits horizontally
along the track.
108
Today's
Perpendicular
Magnetic
Recording
(PMR) is based
on vertical
alignment of
magnetizable
data storage http://images.tomshardware.com/

particles.
 Exercise
109

A chunk of a magnetic ceramic weighing 20 g is attached to the

sensitive balance and suspended in the center of a solenoid with
10 turns per centimeter. A current of 9 A is passed through the
coils. The magnetic field gradient due to the permanent magnet
measured to be 100 G/cm. When the current was turn on, such
that H was in the same direction as the permanent magnet, the
weight of the sample was found to increase to 20.00005 g. The
density of the solid is 5 g/cm3. Calculate the susceptibility of the
material, the magnetization M of the solid. What conclusion can
be inferred concerning its magnetic properties?
 References
113

M.W. Barsoum, Fundamental of Ceramics, Institute of

Physics Publishing, Philadelphia, 2003.
W.D. Kingery, H.K. Bowen, D.R. Uhlmann, Introduction to
Ceramics, 2nd ed., John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1976.