4/25/2017 Howceramictileismadematerial,manufacture,making,used,processing,dimensions,composition,steps

MadeHow(/index.html) / Volume1(index.ht / Ceramic(/knowled

CeramicTile

Background
Wallandfloortileusedforinteriorandexteriordecorationbelongstoaclassofceramicsknownaswhitewares.Theproductionoftiledatesbacktoancient
timesandpeoples,includingtheEgyptians,theBabylonians,andtheAssyrians.Forinstance,theStepPyramidforthePharoahDjoser,builtinancient
Egyptaround2600B.C.,containedcolorfulglazedtile.Later,ceramictilewasmanufacturedinvirtuallyeverymajorEuropeancountryandintheUnited
States.Bythebeginningofthetwentiethcentury,tilewasmanufacturedonanindustrialscale.Theinventionofthetunnelkiln(/knowledge/Kiln.html)
around1910increasedtheautomationoftilemanufacture.Today,tilemanufactureishighlyautomated.
TheAmericanNationalStandardsInstituteseparatestilesintoseveralclassifications.Ceramicmosaic(/knowledge/Mosaic.html)tilemaybeeither
porcelain(../Volume1/Porcelain.html)orofnaturalclaycompositionofsizelessthan39cm2(6in.2).Decorativewalltileisglazedtilewithathinbody
usedforinteriordecorationofresidentialwalls.Pavertileisglazedorunglazedporcelain(/knowledge/Porcelain.html)ornaturalclaytileofsize39cm2(6
in.2)ormore.Porcelaintileisceramicmosaictileorpavertilethatismadebyacertainmethodcalleddrypressing.Quarrytileisglazedorunglazedtileof
thesamesizeaspavertile,butmadebyadifferentformingmethod.
Europe,LatinAmerica,andtheFarEastarethelargestproducersoftile,withItalytheleaderat16.6millionft.2/dayasof1989.FollowingItaly(at24.6
percentoftheworldmarket)areSpain(12.6percent),BrazilandGermany(bothat11.2percent),andtheUnitedStates(4.5percent).Thetotalmarketfor
floorandwalltilein1990accordingtooneestimatewas$2.4billion.

TheUnitedStateshasapproximately100plantsthatmanufactureceramictile,whichshippedabout507millionft.2in1990accordingtotheU.S.
DepartmentofCommerce.U.S.imports,byvolume,accountedforapproximately60percentofconsumptionin1990,valuedataround$500million.Italy
accountsforalmosthalfofallimports,withMexicoandSpainfollowing.U.S.exportshaveseensomegrowth,from$12millionin1988toabout$20million
in1990.
Becausethetileindustryisarelativelymaturemarketanddependentonthebuildingindustry,growthwillbeslow.TheUnitedStatesDepartmentof
Commerceestimatesathreetofourpercentincreaseintileconsumptionoverthenextfiveyears.Anothereconomicanalysispredictsthat494millionft.2
willbeshippedin1992,agrowthofabout4percentfromthepreviousyear.SometilemanufacturersareabitmoreoptimisticanAmericanCeramic
Societysurveyshowedanaveragegrowthofaround36percentpermanufactureroverthenextfiveyears.

RawMaterials
Therawmaterialsusedtoformtileconsistofclaymineralsminedfromtheearth'scrust,naturalmineralssuchasfeldsparthatareusedtolowerthefiring
temperature,andchemicaladditivesrequiredfortheshapingprocess.Themineralsareoftenrefinedorbeneficiatedneartheminebeforeshipmenttothe
ceramicplant.
Therawmaterialsmustbepulverizedandclassifiedaccordingtoparticlesize.Primarycrushersareusedtoreducelarge
lumpsofmaterial.Eitherajawcrusherorgyratorycrusherisused,whichoperateusingahorizontal

Theinitialstepinceramictilemanufacture
involvesmixingtheingredients.Sometimes,
wateristhenaddedandtheingredientsare
wetmilledorgroundinaballmill.Ifwet
millingisused,theexcesswaterisremoved
usingfilterpressingfollowedbyspraydrying.
Theresultingpowderisthenpressedintothe
desiredtilebodyshape.

squeezingmotionbetweensteelplatesorrotatingmotionbetweensteelcones,respectively.

Secondarycrushingreducessmallerlumpstoparticles.Hammerormullermillsareoftenused.Amullermillusessteelwheels
inashallowrotatingpan,whileahammermill(/knowledge/Hammermill.html)usesrapidlymovingsteelhammerstocrushthe
material.Rollerorconetypecrusherscanalsobeused.

Athirdparticlesizereductionstepmaybenecessary.Tumblingtypesofmillsareusedincombinationwithgrindingmedia.One
ofthemostcommontypesofsuchmillsistheballmill,whichconsistsoflargerotatingcylinderspartiallyfilledwithspherical
grindingmedia.

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4/25/2017 Howceramictileismadematerial,manufacture,making,used,processing,dimensions,composition,steps
Screensareusedtoseparateoutparticlesinaspecificsizerange.Theyoperateinaslopedpositionandarevibrated
mechanicallyorelectromechanicallytoimprovematerialflow.Screensareclassifiedaccordingtomeshnumber,whichisthe
numberofopeningsperlinealinchofscreensurface.Thehigherthemeshnumber,thesmallertheopeningsize.
Aglazeisaglassmaterialdesignedtomeltontothesurfaceofthetileduringfiring,andwhichthenadherestothetilesurfaceduringcooling.Glazesare
usedtoprovidemoistureresistanceanddecoration,astheycanbecoloredorcanproducespecialtextures.

TheManufacturing
Process
Oncetherawmaterialsareprocessed,anumberofstepstakeplacetoobtainthefinishedproduct.Thesestepsincludebatching,mixingandgrinding,
spraydrying,forming,drying,glazing,andfiring.Manyofthesestepsarenowaccomplishedusingautomatedequipment.

Batching
1Formanyceramicproducts,includingtile,thebodycompositionisdeterminedbytheamountandtypeofrawmaterials.Therawmaterialsalso
determinethecolorofthetilebody,whichcanberedorwhiteincolor,dependingontheamountofironcontainingrawmaterialsused.Therefore,itis
importanttomixtherightamountstogethertoachievethedesiredproperties.Batchcalculationsarethusrequired,whichmusttakeintoconsideration
bothphysicalpropertiesandchemicalcompositionsoftherawmaterials.Oncetheappropriateweightofeachrawmaterialisdetermined,theraw
materialsmustbemixedtogether.

Mixingandgrinding
2Oncetheingredientsareweighed,theyareaddedtogetherintoashellmixer,ribbonmixer,orintensivemixer.Ashellmixerconsistsoftwo
cylindersjoinedintoaV,whichrotatestotumbleandmixthematerial.Aribbonmixeruseshelicalvanes,andanintensivemixerusesrapidly
revolvingplows.Thisstepfurthergrindstheingredients,resultinginafinerparticlesizethatimprovesthesubsequentformingprocess(seestep#4
below).
Sometimesitisnecessarytoaddwatertoimprovethemixingofamultipleingredientbatchaswellastoachievefinegrinding.Thisprocessiscalled
wetmillingandisoftenperformedusingaballmill.Theresultingwaterfilledmixtureiscalledaslurryorslip.Thewateristhenremovedfromthe
slurrybyfilterpressing(whichremoves4050percentofthemoisture),followedbydrymilling.

Spraydrying
3Ifwetmillingisfirstused,theexcesswaterisusuallyremovedviaspraydrying.Thisinvolvespumpingtheslurrytoanatomizerconsistingofa
rapidlyrotatingdiskornozzle.Dropletsofthesliparedriedastheyareheatedbyarisinghotaircolumn,formingsmall,freeflowinggranulesthat
resultinapowdersuitableforforming.
Tilebodiescanalsobepreparedbydrygrindingfollowedbygranulation.Granulationusesamachineinwhichthemixtureofpreviouslydryground
materialismixedwithwaterinordertoformtheparticlesintogranules,whichagainformapowderreadyforforming.

Forming
4Mosttileisformedbydrypressing.Inthismethod,thefreeflowingpowdercontainingorganicbinderoralowpercentageofmoistureflowsfrom
ahopperintotheformingdie.Thematerialiscompressedinasteelcavitybysteelplungersandisthenejectedbythebottomplunger.Automated
pressesareusedwithoperatingpressuresashighas2,500tons.
Severalothermethodsarealsousedwherethetilebodyisinawetter,moremoldableform.Extrusion(/knowledge/Extrusion.html)pluspunchingis
usedtoproduceirregularlyshapedtileandthinnertilefasterandmoreeconomically.Thisinvolvescompactingaplasticmassinahighpressure
cylinderandforcingthematerialtoflowoutofthecylinderintoshortslugs.Theseslugsarethenpunchedintooneormoretilesusinghydraulicor
pneumaticpunchingpresses.
Rampressingisoftenusedforheavilyprofiledtiles.Withthismethod,extrudedslugsofthetilebodyarepressedbetweentwohalvesofahardor
porousmoldmountedinahydraulicpress.Theformedpartisremovedbyfirstapplyingvacuumtothetophalfofthemoldtofreethepartfromthe
bottomhalf,followedbyforcingairthroughthetophalftofreethetoppart.Excessmaterialmustberemovedfromthepartandadditionalfinishing
maybeneeded.

Anotherprocess,calledpressureglazing,hasrecentlybeendeveloped.Thisprocesscombinesglazingandshapingsimultaneouslybypressingthe
glaze(inspraydriedpowderform)directlyinthediefilledwiththetilebodypowder.Advantagesincludetheeliminationofglazinglines,aswellasthe
glazingwastematerial(calledsludge(/knowledge/Sludge.html))thatisproducedwiththeconventionalmethod.

Drying
5Ceramictileusuallymustbedried(athighrelativehumidity)afterforming,especiallyifawetmethodisused.Drying,whichcantakeseveraldays,
removesthewaterataslowenoughratetopreventshrinkagecracks.Continuousortunneldriersareusedthatareheatedusinggasoroil,infrared
(/knowledge/Infrared.html)lamps,ormicrowaveenergy.Infrareddryingisbettersuitedforthintile,whereasmicrowavedryingworksbetterforthicker
tile.Anothermethod,impulsedrying,usespulsesofhotairflowinginthetransversedirectioninsteadofcontinuouslyinthematerialflowdirection.

Glazing
6Topreparetheglaze,similarmethodsareusedasforthetilebody.Afterabatchformulationiscalculated,therawmaterialsareweighed,mixed
anddryorwetmilled.Themilledglazesarethenappliedusingoneofthemanymethodsavailable.Incentrifugalglazingordiscing,theglazeisfed
througharotatingdiscthatflingsorthrowstheglazeontothetile.Inthebell/waterfallmethod,astreamofglazefallsontothetileasitpassesona
conveyorunderneath.Sometimes,theglazeissimplysprayedon.Formultipleglazeapplications,screenprintingon,under,orbetweentilethathave
beenwetglazedisused.Inthisprocess,glazeisforcedthroughascreenbyarubbersqueegeeorotherdevice.

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4/25/2017 Howceramictileismadematerial,manufacture,making,used,processing,dimensions,composition,steps
Dryglazingisalsobeingused.Thisinvolvestheapplicationofpowders,crushedfrits(glassmaterials),andgranulatedglazesontoawetglazedtile
surface.Afterfiring,theglazeparticlesmeltintoeachothertoproduceasurfacelikegranite.

Firing
7Afterglazing,thetilemustbeheatedintenselytostrengthenitandgiveitthedesiredporosity.Twotypesofovens,or

Afterforming,thefileisdriedslowly(forseveraldays)andathighhumidity,to
preventcrackingandshrinkage.Next,theglazeisapplied,andthenthetileis
firedinafurnaceorkiln.Althoughsometypesoftilerequireatwostepfiring
process,wetmilledtileisfiredonlyonce,attemperaturesof2,000degrees
Fahrenheitormore.Afterfiring,thetileispackagedandshipped.

kilns,areusedforfiringtile.Walltile,ortilethatispreparedbydrygrindinginsteadofwetmilling(see#2and#3above),usuallyrequiresatwostep
process.Inthisprocess,thetilegoesthroughalowtemperaturefiringcalledbisquefiringbeforeglazing.Thisstepremovesthevolatilesfromthe
materialandmostoralloftheshrinkage.Thebodyandglazearethenfiredtogetherinaprocesscalledglostfiring.Bothfiringprocessestakeplace
inatunnelorcontinuouskiln,whichconsistsofachamberthroughwhichthewareisslowlymovedonaconveyoronrefractorybattsshelvesbuiltof
materialsthatareresistanttohightemperaturesorincontainerscalledsaggers.Firinginatunnelkilncantaketwotothreedays,withfiring
temperaturesaround2,372degreesFahrenheit(1,300degreesCelsius).
Fortilethatonlyrequiresasinglefiringusuallytilethatispreparedbywetmillingrollerkilnsaregenerallyused.Thesekilnsmovethewaresona
rollerconveyoranddonotrequirekilnfurnituressuchasbattsorsaggers.Firingtimesinrollerkilnscanbeaslowas60minutes,withfiring
temperaturesaround2,102degreesFahrenheit(1,150degreesCelsius)ormore.
8Afterfiringandtesting,thetileisreadytobepackagedandshipped.

Byproducts
Avarietyofpollutantsaregeneratedduringthevariousmanufacturingstepstheseemissionsmustbecontrolledtomeetaircontrolstandards.Amongthe
pollutantsproducedintilemanufacturearefluorineandleadcompounds,whichareproducedduringfiringandglazing.Leadcompoundshavebeen
significantlyreducedwiththerecentdevelopmentofnoleadorlowleadglazes.Fluorineemissionscanbecontrolledwithscrubbers,devicesthatbasically
spraythegaseswithwatertoremoveharmfulpollutants.Theycanalsobecontrolledwithdryprocesses,suchasfabricfilterscoatedwithlime.Thislime
canthenberecycledasarawmaterialforfuturetile.
Thetileindustryisalsodevelopingprocessestorecyclewastewaterandsludgeproducedduringmilling,glazing,andspraydrying.Alreadysomeplants
recycletheexcesspowdergeneratedduringdrypressingaswellastheoversprayproducedduringglazing.Wasteglazeandrejectedtilearealsoreturned
tothebodypreparationprocessforreuse.

QualityControl
Mosttilemanufacturersnowusestatisticalprocesscontrol(/knowledge/Statistical_process_control.html)(SPC)foreachstepofthemanufacturingprocess.
Manyalsoworkcloselywiththeirrawmaterialsupplierstoensurethatspecificationsaremetbeforethematerialisused.Statisticalprocesscontrolconsists
ofchartsthatareusedtomonitorvariousprocessingparameters,suchasparticlesize,millingtime,dryingtemperatureandtime,compactionpressure,
dimensionsafterpressing,density,firingtemperatureandtime,andthelike.Thesechartsidentifyproblemswithequipment,outofspecconditions,and
helptoimproveyieldsbeforethefinalproductisfinished.

Thefinalproductmustmeetcertainspecificationsregardingphysicalandchemicalproperties.Thesepropertiesaredeterminedbystandardtests
establishedbytheAmericanSocietyofTestingandMaterials(ASTM).Propertiesmeasuredincludemechanicalstrength,abrasionresistance,chemical
resistance,waterabsorption,dimensionalstability,frostresistance,andlinearcoefficient(/knowledge/Attenuation_coefficient.html)ofthermalexpansion.
Morerecently,theslipresistance,whichcanbedeterminedbymeasuringthecoefficientoffriction,hasbecomeaconcern.However,nostandardhasyet
beenestablishedbecauseotherfactors(suchasproperfloordesignandcare)canmakeresultsmeaningless.

TheFuture
Inordertomaintainmarketgrowth,tilemanufacturerswillconcentrateondevelopingandpromotingnewtileproducts,includingmodularorcladdingtile,
largersizedtile,slipandabrasionresistanttile,andtilewithapolished,graniteormarblefinish.Thisisbeingaccomplishedthroughthedevelopmentof
differentbodyformulations,newglazes,andglazeapplications,andbynewandimprovedprocessingequipmentandtechniques.Automationwillcontinue
toplayanimportantroleinanefforttoincreaseproduction,lowercosts,andimprovequality.Inaddition,changesinproductiontechnologydueto
environmentalandenergyresourceissueswillcontinue.

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