MD - Handbook and Application Guide For High Performanse Brushless Servo Systems, 2011

Handbook and Application
Guide for High-Performance

Brushless Servo Systems
This updated handbook provides a
technical overview of the components,
theory, and interaction of brushless
motion control systems plus a
helpful guide outlining the design
considerations, calculations and
application of brushless servo sytems,
including helpful engineering formulas
and conversion tables.
This engineering handbook can also be

used to complement the ElectroCraft
motion control guide, DC Motors-
Speed Controls-Servo Systems.
Handbook and Application Guide for
High-Performance Brushless Servo Systems
A simple representation
Figure 1: Block diagram of a typical motion control system
of a typical motion control
system is shown in Figure
PLC or 1. Each of the primary
Position Drive Motor Load
host
controller amplifier components will be reviewed.
computer
Feedback
Contents
Part One: Theory of brushless motion control
Comparison of DC servomotors and brushless servomotors ......................... 3
Sinusoidal and trapezoidal brushless servos...............................................................5
Trapezoidal and sinusoidal EMF and square wave current ................................5
Sinusoidal EMF and sinusoidal current.......................................................................... 6
Sinusoidal control for brushless and induction motors ........................................7
Closed-loop control for high performance ................................................................. 9
Current regulation and tuning guidelines .................................................................... 11
Part Two: Sizing and application guidelines
Mechanical considerations...................................................................................................14
Motion prole considerations.............................................................................................18
Sinusoidal brushless motor specications ............................................................... 20
Electrical noise and its causes ......................................................................................... 20
Filtering, grounding, shielding, and segregation....................................................22
ElectroCraft Incorporated: Company information ...........................................26
2
Essential Guide to Brushless
Drive Motion Control
Figure 2: Principle and construction of a DC servomotor Comparison of DC servomotors
i Permanent
and brushless servomotors
Armature
windings
magnets The traditional permanent magnet DC servomotor
Permanent
P
Per
r
rm magnet
has been the industry workhorse for many decades
field in high-performance servo drive applications. The
primary reason for this is that the DC servomotor is
Brushes
Commutator very easy to control using adjustable DC voltage. A
l brief review of the operating principle of the DC mo-
Ra La T = KTl
Magnetic
ic field vector +
+
tor illustrates this point: See Figure 2.
l
90
Torque V Eg = KEn A xed magnetic eld created by permanent
-
- magnets in the stator interacts with the armature
Armature
current vector
current owing in the rotor winding. Interaction of
the current-carrying conductors in the magnetic eld
produces a rotor torque. This torque is at its maximum value when
the magnetic eld vector is perpendicular to the current vector, but
is zero if the angle between the vectors is zero. The magnitude of the
torque is:
5PSRVF,t#t*tTJO
8IFSF,JTBDPOTUBOU #JTUIFNBHOFUJDnVYEFOTJUZ *JTUIFBSNB-
ture current, and is the angle between the two vectors.
Therefore, as the rotor motion reduces the torque angle to a zero
value, no further motion results. To eliminate this condition, the DC
motor incorporates a commutator on the rotor, which routes the cur-
rent ow in the armature windings as the rotor rotates. In other words,
the current is progressively reversed as the windings connected to
the commutator bars pass beneath the brushes. In a servomotor, the
physical location of the brushes is such that the current vector is main-
tained perpendicular to the xed magnetic eld for any direction of
rotor rotation or for any rotor speed. This results in torque generation
proportional to armature current and motor speed proportional to
armature voltage. The classic equations that describe the DC servo-
motor are then:
5PSRVF,Ut*
&H#BDL&.'7PMUBHF,FtO
Where Kt is the torque constant, Ke is the voltage constant, and n
is the motor speed.
Your Genius. Our Drive. 3

Figure 3: Principle and construction of a brushless servomotor While the control of a DC servo-
motor is straightforward, the primary
Heat has a shorter limitation of the DC servomotor is
path to ambient.
RU SU TU the mechanical commutator. Some
of these limitations include brush
RL SL TL
replacement, brush run-in after re-
QMBDFNFOU CSVTI BSD 3'* SBEJP GSF-
RU RL SU SL TU TL
quency interference) and voltage/
Brushless motor
current limitations.
Control electronics R S The construction of the DC servo-
Heat must travel
farther.
motor also requires the commutator
Commutation signals to rotate. This means the armature
windings must rotate as well which
results in high rotor inertia and a poor
T thermal situation because the heat
from losses is primarily generated in
the rotor. Of course, for any type mo-
DC motor tor, the heat-producing losses must
be minimized and effectively trans-
ferred out of the motor so that temperatures inside the mo-
Figure 4: B-H curves for permanent-magnet materials
tor stay below maximum limits. Replacing the mechanical
13
commutator with an electronic one can eliminate all of these
12
11
DC motor limitations.
ed m 10
The electronically commutated motor or brushless servo-
er iu
nt m
Si dy motor consists of a permanent magnet rotor, a stator with usu-
(Kilo-Gauss)
)
o 9
ne
8 ally three phases, and a rotor position sensor. (See Figure 3.)
G
Due to the construction technique of a brushless servo-

it B (Kil
7
5
Co
Sm 6
NPUPS JOTJEFPVUDPNQBSFEUPUIF%$TFSWPNPUPS
UIFNP-
density
5
tor losses are almost entirely in the stator, resulting in a short
Flux d
4
thermal path to the ambient allowing more input power into
ym ed
m
iu
od nd
Fl
3
ne Bo
2
the windings. Passing air over the motor frame can further
ite
JODSFBTFIFBUUSBOTGFSUPUIFBNCJFOU#ZFMJNJOBUJOHUIF%$
rr
Fe
0 motors mechanical commutator and armature winding on

-12 -10 -8 -6 -4 -2
Demagnetizing
D emagneti ti ing
i fforce H (Kil(Kilo
(Kilo-Oersteds)
O
Oersteds)
t d )
the rotor, the brushless motor design results in lower rotor
inertias, higher rotor speeds, and higher motor supply volt-
ages compared to the conventional DC servomotor. The
polyphase stator winding for a brushless servomotor lends itself to
automatic winding processes.
The permanent-magnet materials used for typical rotor construc-
UJPO BSF UIF SBSF FBSUIT TBNBSJVN DPCBMU BOE OFPEZNJVN JSPO CP-
SPO
PSDFSBNJD GFSSJUF
5ZQJDBMEFNBHOFUJ[BUJPOQMPUTPGUIFTFDPOE
RVBESBOU#)DVSWFTGPSUIFTFNBUFSJBMTBSFTIPXOJOFigure 4.#JT
UIFnVYEFOTJUZBOE)JTUIFNBHOFUJ[JOHGPSDF5IFGFSSJUFNBHOFU
has inferior magnetic properties, yet is low cost and readily available.
5IF TBNBSJVN DPCBMU NBUFSJBM 4N$P5) has excellent magnetic
properties, can operate at higher temperature, but is expensive. The
rare-earth material neodymium iron boron has many impressive mag-
netic properties. At the same time, however, there are limitations.
4
Neodymium iron boron magnet materials have less-than-optimal Figure 5: Torque-speed curves
thermal properties and this must be taken into account in the motor
design. Two forms of Neodymium iron boron magnets are shown in Amplifier current limit
Figure 4. The highest performance is achieved with the fully dense A

Amplifier
voltage limit
voltage
sintered material. The bonded neodymium can be formed into more Brushless servo
Torque
complex shapes simplifying manufacturing processes and lowering DC servo
costs at the expense of performance. The rare-earth permanent mag-

Commutation
C
nets are used for high-performance brushless servomotors that have limit
the lowest rotor inertias and the smallest overall motor size/weight for Speed
S
Spe
peed
a given torque rating.
'SPNBOBQQMJDBUJPOQFSTQFDUJWF UIFUPSRVFTQFFE
Figure 6: Brushless drive technology and terminology
curves of a typical DC servo system versus a typical
brushless servo system are shown in Figure 5. Note Square-wave curren
current
R
square wave current

the ability of the brushless servo system to operate at Brushless DC
Trapezoidal EMF
servo
higher speeds with higher peak torques compared to S Trapezoidal EMF
and
Motor Electrically
the conventional DC servo system. These advantages Commutation
commutated
motor (ECM)
of electronic commutation versus mechanical commuta- T encoder
Brushless Six-step
tion result in superior performance and reduced main- tachometer servo
tenance. Square-wave current

curre
Trapezoidal
square wave current
R
brushless
Sinusoidal EMF
servo
Sinusoidal and trapezoidal S

and
Sinusoidal EMF
Motor
brushless servos Commutation
encoder
T
The basic structure of the DC servomotor and drive Brushless
Brushless
servo
amplier is relatively standard throughout the world. tachometer
)PXFWFS UIFTBNFDBOOPUCFTBJEBCPVUCSVTIMFTTTFSWP- Sinusoidal

oidal current
sinusoidal current
R AC servo
Sinusoidal EMF
motors and drive ampliers. Some of the common brush- Sinusoidal EMF
or
Sinusoidal
and
S brushless
less technologies and terminology are shown in Figure 6. Motor
induction motor
servo
Encoder or
T resolver
Trapezoidal EMF and
square wave current
This type of brushless servo technology was devel-
oped rst because of its analogy to traditional DC motors. The theory
ElectroCraft uses various
of operation is illustrated in Figure 7. As the rotor turns, the current
neodymium iron boron
is electronically commutated from one pair of windings to another. In
magnets (rare earth mag-
UIJTXBZ POMZUIFnBUUPQQPSUJPOTPGUIFCBDL&.'BSFBDUJWF BOEB
nets) in the ElectroCraft RP,
composite DC voltage is created proportional to motor speed. The
RPP, and EXC families of
current amplitude, which is proportional to developed torque, is usu-
brushless servomotors. The
ally controlled by pulse width modulating the active transistors.
newer RP and RPP Series
*OQSBDUJDF BDIJFWJOHUIFUSBQF[PJEBMCBDL&.'XBWFGPSNJNQPTFT
motor families were de-
EJGmDVMUNPUPSEFTJHODPOTUSBJOUT'PSUIJTSFBTPOBOECFDBVTFPGUIF
signed to exhibit superior
FWPMVUJPOPGCSVTIMFTTTFSWPUFDIOPMPHZ XIJDIXFXJMMEFTDSJCFJOGPM-
velocity and torque perfor-
lowing sections) this type of brushless servo drive is rarely used today.
mance, while maintaining a
small footprint and com-
Sinusoidal EMF and square wave current petitive prices.
As stated previously, designing and manufacturing a brushless
TFSWPNPUPSXJUIUSBQF[PJEBM&.'JTOPUQSBDUJDBM TPNPTUCSVTIMFTT
TFSWPNPUPSTBDUVBMMZIBWFBTJOVTPJEBMCBDL&.'#FDBVTFPGUIFTJN-
plicity and low cost of the square-wave current control, it is common

to have square-wave current servo

Figure 7: Waveforms for two EMF styles and square wave brushless servo drives
ampliers operating sinusoidal back
VBUS &.' CSVTIMFTT NPUPST 5IJT JT DPN-
RU SU TU R
NPOMZSFGFSSFEUPBTB#SVTIMFTT%$
servo system. The theory of opera-
Conceptual schematics
tion is shown in Figure 7.
S T
RL SL TL /PUJDF UIBU XJUI JEFBM CBDL &.'
and current waveforms, the motor
torque constant Kt has a peak-to-
TRAPEZOIDAL EMF SINUSOIDAL EMF
peak divided by peak ripple value
+ +
VR-S 0
-
0
-
equal to 13.4%. The average Kt
Phase-to-phase
value is about 10% higher than the

back EMF
+ +
VR-T 0 0
- -
Kt for sinusoidal currents. In closed-
+ +
VS-T 0
-
0
-
loop velocity servos the Kt ripple is
0 60 120 180 300 0 60 0 60 0 12120 180 80 30
300
00 0 60 0
not necessarily a problem since a
(360) (360)
Rotor position (Electrical degrees) Rotor position (Electrical degrees) high velocity loop gain produces a
RU 1 1
0 0
WFSZ VOJGPSN SPUBUJPO )PXFWFS UIF
Inverter control
SU 1 1
0 0
torque constant ripple does increase

sequence
TU 1 1
0 0
RL 1 1
SL
0
1
0
0
1
0
motor heating, because current is
TL 1
0
1
0 modulated by the ripple function to
1: Transistor ON 2: Transistor OFF 1: Transistor ON 2: Transistor OFF produce the uniform velocity. In fact,
the continuous torque rating is de-
back EMF
13% of peak
Overall
creased by about 5% as compared to

VT-S VR-S VR-T ... 0 60 120 180
Electrical degrees
300 0 60
(360)
sinusoidal current excitation.
Another subject that has not been
discussed yet is motor winding in-
ductance. The coils of wire that make up the motor windings have
Figure 8: Inductance effect
with square wave current SFTJTUBODFBOEJOEVDUBODF'SPN'BSBEBZTMBX DVSSFOUJOBOJOEVDUPS
cannot be changed instantaneously. In practice, the square wave cur-
IR rents suffer from the inductance effectas shown in Figure 8. This
Typical low-speed
current waveform
torque loss progressively worsens as speed or frequency is increased.

IS
Phase advancing the commutation angle can improve this situation at
IT
the expense of additional complexity.
*OTVNNBSZ FYDJUBUJPOPGBTJOVTPJEBM&.'CSVTIMFTTNPUPSXJUI
a square wave current drive is practical and can result in acceptable
Typical high-speed
current waveform
performance for many applications.

IR
This very basic control principle is relatively simple to accomplish
in a servo drive. This approach is still common and results in a lower
0 60 120 180 300 0 60
Electrical degrees (360) cost solution, which requires less hardware and, in many cases, is sim-
pler to install than more sophisticated brushless servo technology.
The ElectroCraft CompletePower5. series of brushless servo drives
and speed controls utilize this control methodology. The Complete-
Power Series of drives can be a cost effective and simple solution to
many motion control applications.
Sinusoidal EMF and sinusoidal current

The sinusoidal brushless servo drive inherently results in the best
rotational uniformity at any speed or torque. Compared to the pre-
6
vious technologies, the primary difference for the sinu-
Figure 9: Sinusoidal three-phase principle of operation
soidal servo drive is a more complex control algorithm,
while the motor, feedback, and power electronics remain
FT Ftotal FT
the same. In recent years, the advancement of high-per- 60 90
formance microcontrollers and Digital Signal Processors
Ftotal
%41T
UIBUOPXDBOIBOEMFDPNQMFYDBMDVMBUJPOTIBTJO- FR FR
creased the capability of the sinusoidal brushless servo

system. The control hardwares capability combined with FS
the decreasing cost of these components has driven fur- FR FT FS FR FT FS
ther development of this control methodology above

others previously described.
120
240
5IF TJOVTPJEBM CBDL &.' NPUPS FYDJUFE XJUI UISFF
120
240
0 0
QIBTF TJOVTPJEBM DVSSFOUT JO UIF QSPQFS SFMBUJPOTIJQ UP 60 90
UIFCBDL&.'BUFWFSZSPUPSQPTJUJPO
QSPEVDFTBDPOTUBOU Current vector
The magnetic field vector and
torque. An explanation of this phenomenon at a steady- current vector are of constant amplitude
state speed and torque is illustrated in Figure 9. and rotate at a constant speed
in a steady-state condition.
The three-phase sinusoidal quantities which are dis- Magnetic field vector
placed spatially by 120 represent the magnetic eld

and current. The three-phase quantities produce a resultant vector
with constant amplitude that rotates at the sinusoidal frequency. The
SPUPSQPTJUJPOTFOTPSUSBDLTUIFCBDL&.'QPTJUJPOBOEBMMPXTUIFDVS-
rent vector command to be generated perpendicular to the magnetic
mFME WFDUPS BU BOZ JOTUBOU " QVMTF XJEUI NPEVMBUFE 18.
DVSSFOU
amplier is necessary to ensure the ability to control the current am-
plitude, frequency, and phase with sufcient dynamic performance.
At this point, the xed magnitude magnetic eld vector, which is per-
pendicular to the adjustable magnitude current vector, is analogous
to the operation of a DC motor.
There are many brushless servo drives and brushless positioning
drives that are designed to produce sinusoidal currents with incre-
mental encoder feedback. This type of servo system combines the
PQUJNVNNPUPSEFTJHOXJUIBTJOVTPJEBMDVSSFOU18.ESJWFUPQSP-
duce the best low-speed and high-speed performance. The Elec-
troCraft CompletePower5. Plus digital servo drive takes this control
capability one step further. True sinusoidal current control can be ac-
complished in these drives without the need for high-resolution in-
cremental encoder feedback. Only the lower resolution commutation
feedback is required. In some applications, this reduces the need and
cost of the additional encoder.
Other benets resulting from the microprocessor-based drive design
include the capability of operating induction motors using eld oriented
control and of sharing the motor mounted encoder with the position
controller. This maximizes exibility and performance and minimizes cost.
Sinusoidal control for permanent magnet

brushless motors and induction motors
The mechanical commutator of the DC servomotor ensures that
the armature current vector is kept perpendicular to the permanent

magnet eld at all speeds and torques. This pro-

Figure 10: Field-oriented control for induction motors
and permanent-magnet brushless motors vides for control of torque by simply adjusting the
armature current level and makes using the DC
Field coodinates (X-Y) Stator coodinates ((R,S,T)
servomotor very straightforward. Using input com-
Field command IR* sin mands analogous to those for a DC servomotor, a
type command signals
(induction motor only)

y)
Sensor
universal control computes the torque producing
IS* sin (

DC motor
Coordinate
transformation
Motor sinusoidal currents for permanent-magnet brush-
Torque
command IS* sin ( MFTT NPUPST 0UIFSXJTF GPS JOEVDUJPO NPUPST JU
computes the torque and eld-producing sinusoidal
sin/cos
Three-phase
current regulator
currents.) This universal control strategy, known as
Slip
constant generator eld-oriented or vector control, is shown in Figure
10.'JFMEPSJFOUFEDPOUSPMFOTVSFTUIBUUIFUPSRVF
S M Rotor electrical position
Slip angle
(induction motor only)
producing current vector is perpendicular to the
PA Optical phase advance angle eld vector at any torque or speed. Some form of
UIJTDPOUSPMJTVTFEXJUIBMMTJOVTPJEBMCBDL&.'BOE
TJOVTPJEBM DVSSFOU CSVTIMFTT TFSWP ESJWFT 'SPN UIF
Figure 11: Resolver feedback for brushless motors
servo users perspective, the torque, velocity, and
position control is then analogous to the traditional
High-frequency
rotor excitation
DC servomotor.
High-frequency
modulated sine Also shown in Figure 10 is an optional phase
Resolver schematic
advance angle. The phase advance angle can be

High-frequency
used to optimize the amplier/motor performance
modulated cosine
characteristics. The most common use of the phase
advance angle is to compensate for the inductance
FGGFDUUIBUDBVTFTBUPSRVFSFEVDUJPOBTTQFFE GSF-
quency) increases. A less common use of the phase
advance angle is to allow permanent magnet brush-
less motors to operate to a higher speed than would
Rotor excitation
normally be possible without the phase advance

angle. If the phase advance angle is used, the mag-
nitude of the angle as a function of torque and/or
speed is normally determined by the servo drive
manufacturer and is not user adjustable.
Incremental encoders and resolvers

The most commonly used motor-mounted position feedback
devices for sinusoidal brushless servos are either incremental opti-
cal encoders or brushless resolvers. The primary advantages of the
resolver are that the position information is absolute and it is robust
CFDBVTFJUJTTJNJMBSJODPOTUSVDUJPOUPUIFNPUPS)PXFWFS PUIFS
factors favor the encoder over the resolver, including lower overall
cost, digital feedback, higher resolution and accuracy, and easy line
DPVOU nFYJCJMJUZ CJOBSZ PS EFDJNBM
5IF BEWBODFNFOU PG NBHOFUJD
and capacitance-based incremental encoder technology further en-
IBODFTUIFQPTJUJPOPGFODPEFSCBTFEGFFECBDLEFTJHO)PXFWFS UIF
use of both encoder and resolver feedback will likely continue into
the foreseeable future as both solutions service the need of specic
applications and operating environments.
8
The resolver used in brushless servo drives is il-
Figure 12: Incremental encoder feedback for brushless motors
lustrated in Figure 11. The high-frequency excitation
signal is transferred to the rotor via a circular trans-
former. The raw resolver feedback is a high-frequen- A+
A-
cy AC signal modulated by the sine and cosine of B+
the rotor angle. The raw resolver feedback is not very B-

I+ Once per revolution:
useful, so some form of external circuitry is required Encoder I- Marker of index pulse
to create usable information. In brushless servo drive

applications the resolver feedback is usually pro-
cessed by commercial resolver-to-digital-converters Optical encoder construction
Light sensor Electronics
that add signicant cost. The output of the resolver Shaft
Coded disk
to digital converter is an absolute digital position Coded disk
word and analog velocity. Gap
The incremental encoder used in brushless servo Lens

drives is illustrated in Figure 12. The raw encoder Mounting surface
feedback, already in digital format, is typically pro-
LED
cessed with low-cost commercial circuitry to produce
a digital position word. The posi-
tion information interfaces directly Figure 13: Closed-loop control for high-performance motion
to the microcontroller of digital

MOTOR
drives. If the velocity loop is analog, and
POSITION CONTROLLER SERVO DRIVE SENSOR
then an additional circuit processes
the encoder feedback to produce
Position controller Velocity controller Current controller Power amplifier
an analog tachometer signal. No- Motor
tice that encoder feedback signals

are differential, for high noise im-
Position
command - - -
Position feedback
munity, and for locating the encod- Speed feedback Current feedback
Sensor
er at long distances from the drive. d

dt
Permanent-magnet servomo-
tors also use a low-resolution
absolute signal in addition to the
incremental encoder. This is used Closed-loop frequency response
to locate the magnetic eld vec-
tor at startup. The low-resolution 20
-45 phase shift
-3 dB bandwidth
bandwidth
absolute signal is often built into 10
0
UIF JODSFNFOUBM FODPEFS VTV- 0
Gain (dB)
Phase angle (Degrees)
Log frequency (Hz) -20
ally called commutation signals) -10

Gain
-40
-60
or is generally provided from a -20

Phase angle
-80
-100
TFQBSBUF )BMMFGGFDU PS DPNNV- -30 -120

-140
tation, encoder. In some cases, -40 -160

-180
these commutation signals are
incorporated into the incremental
encoder and are provided by a
single device, thus eliminating the separate commutation feedback
device, reducing the cost and complexity of the servomotor design.
Induction motors do not require an additional low-resolution abso-
lute encoder because they do not use permanent magnets to estab-
lish the magnetic eld vector.

Figure 14: Three-phase current loop for a PWM power amplifier Closed-loop control for high performance mo-
tion control, the most common structure for high-
I*R
performance motion controllers, is illustrated in
-I PHASE R CURRENT CONTROLLER
Figure 13. This cascade control structure has an
R
innermost current loop, a velocity loop around
I*S the current loop, and a position loop around the
Motor
WFMPDJUZMPPQ5IFTFRVFODFPGDVSSFOU UPSRVF

-I PHASE S CURRENT CONTROLLER
S velocity, and position is natural as it matches the

PHASE T CURRENT CONTROLLER structure of the process to be controlled.
On/Off
I*T
Current error
Voltage
command command This multi-loop control structure functions
properly only if the bandwidths of the loops have
-I the proper relationship.
T
VTriangle
Current feedback
#BOEXJEUI JT UIF NFBTVSF PG IPX XFMM UIF
controlled quantity tracks and responds to the
DPNNBOETJHOBM'JHVSFTIPXTBDMPTFEMPPQ
frequency response and denitions for the two most common band-
XJEUITE#CBOEXJEUIBOEQIBTFTIJGUCBOEXJEUI5IFDVS-
rent loop must have the highest bandwidth, then the velocity loop;
nally, the position loop has the lowest bandwidth. Therefore, tuning
control-loop regulators is accomplished by starting with the inner-
most loop and working outward.
Current regulation
The current control for three-phase brushless servomotors is usu-
BMMZQFSGPSNFEXJUIB18.QPXFSBNQMJmFSBOEDMPTFEMPPQDPOUSPM
of the current in each phase. A block diagram of the current loop and
power amplier is shown in Figure 14.
The power devices must be able to withstand high voltages, switch
high currents, and exhibit low conduction and switching losses. Tradi-
UJPOBMMZ UIFCJQPMBSUSBOTJTUPSBOEQPXFSmFMEFGGFDUUSBOTJTUPST '&5T

have been the most common output devices for high performance
TFSWPTZTUFNT)PXFWFS UIFTFTXJUDIFTBSFCFJOHSFQMBDFEXJUIJOTP-
MBUFEHBUF CJQPMBSUSBOTJTUPST *(#5T
BOEJOUFMMJHFOUQPXFSNPEVMFT
as these devices have lower losses and can operate at higher power
levels. These devices combine the rugged output of a bipolar tran-
TJTUPSXJUIUIFHBUFESJWFBOEGBTUUVSOPGGUJNFTPGBQPXFS'&55IF
18.GSFRVFODZPGNPEFSOTFSWPESJWFTJTUZQJDBMMZCFUXFFOBOE
L)[5IFIJHI18.GSFRVFODZBMMPXTGPSBIJHIDVSSFOUMPPQHBJOBOE
keeps the current ripple frequency and audible noise to a low level.
The current feedback sensor is critical and must provide an exact
representation of the actual current. The current feedback signal is
compared to the current command to generate a current error sig-
nal. The current regulator processes current error to create a motor
voltage command. The voltage command signal is compared to a
USJBOHMFXBWFUPDSFBUFUIF18.TJHOBMUIBUDPNNBOETUIFQPXFS
devices to turn on and off at the proper time. There is additional
circuitry that provides lockout to ensure that the upper and lower
devices are never on at the same time, even during turn-off and
10
turn-on transitions. Too much lockout Figure 15: Velocity loop block diagram
time results in excessive deadband in the
Load torque
current loop while too little lockout time PROPORTIONAL PLUS disturbance
INTEGRAL CONTROLLER
results in short-circuit or shoot-through Current
controller
TL
Inertial
load
current owing through upper and lower * m I* I T
1 m 1 m
1
PGAIN KT
EFWJDFT 5IF 18. UFDIOJRVF SFTVMUT JO Velocity
command
- TS + 1 JS S
the most efcient conversion of DC to IGAIN

S
variable AC power.
#FDBVTF UIF DVSSFOU DPOUSPMMFS UVOJOH Motor velocity
is very important for proper drive perfor-

mance, most drive manufacturers do not
allow users to perform this adjustment. In the past, to eliminate the
need for current controller adjustments by the drive user, specic
amplier model numbers were matched with specic motor model
numbers, or plug-in personality modules matched an amplier with
a motor. The next generation of ElectroCraft CompletePower5. Plus
brushless servo motors and drives will self-detect the motor and drive
combination and automatically determine the correct current control
gain settings eliminating the possibility of incorrect setting. The end
result of a properly tuned current controller is an actual current that
GPMMPXTUIFDPNNBOEFEDVSSFOUXJUIE#CBOEXJEUITDPNNPOMZJO
FYDFTTPGL)[5PUIFPVUFSWFMPDJUZMPPQ BQSPQFSMZUVOFEDVSSFOU
controller can be approximated by a xed gain and rst order lag
TVDIUIBUUIFMPXGSFRVFODZDIBSBDUFSJTUJDT VQUPGSFRVFODJFTPGDPO-
cern to the velocity loop) approximate the low frequency characteris-
tics of the more complicated actual transfer function.
One limitation of the current loops is gain, phase, and offset errors
that occur due to imperfect sensors and other circuitry. These errors
are one source of torque ripple so it is important to keep these errors
to an absolute minimum. Another limitation of the properly designed
current controller is insufcient voltage to generate the necessary cur-
rent. This situation occurs for large value current commands at higher
NPUPSTQFFETXIFOUIFCBDL&.'PGUIFNPUPSCFHJOTUPBQQSPBDI
the motor supply voltage. In applications requiring high torque at
high speeds, careful observation of the motor/drive system peak
torque envelope is required.
Velocity regulation and tuning guidelines

The most common velocity controller structure is the proportional
QMVTJOUFHSBM 1*
SFHVMBUPS"CMPDLEJBHSBNPGBTJNQMFWFMPDJUZMPPQ
appears in Figure 15. The choice of the P gain and I gain for the
desired response are based upon the application requirements. Pro-
portional gain is always used with higher bandwidths resulting from
higher P gain values. The integral gain provides stiffness to load
torque disturbances and reduces the steady-state velocity error to a
[FSPWBMVF)PXFWFS JOUFHSBMHBJOEPFTBEEQIBTFTIJGUUPUIFWFMPD-
ity controller closed-loop frequency response and can lengthen set-
tling time. Therefore, a low or zero-value integral gain is sometimes

Figure 16: Velocity responses to poorly tuned and well-tuned velocity loops used with very high bandwidth position
controllers in point-to-point positioning
TACH RESPONSE TACH RESPONSE
TO VELOCITY COMMAND TO TORQUE DISTURBANCE applications, while a signicant integral
Well tuned gain value is used with contouring applica-
W tuned
Well Poorly tuned
tions to provide high stiffness.
Velocity
Poorly tuned
In practice, the velocity controller tuning
is rarely determined solely by calculation.
Often tuning is done manually through trial-
and-error, with the motor connected to the
actual load. This tuning is simplied though
Figure 17: Position controller block diagram
the use of sophisticated set-up software
and a PC connected to the servo drive.
POSITION COMMAND
VELOCITY
CONTROLLER
CONTROLLER
ACTUAL POSITION The ElectroCraft CompletePower5. Set-Up
* 1 1 Software Utility provides the user a manual
K
TS + 1 S
- tuning mode that allows a small step ve-
locity command to be applied to the drive
while the motor is attached to the actual
load. Within the software utility, real-time adjustment of the velocity
loop gains can then be made while observing oscilloscope waveforms
on the PC to optimize the velocity loop tuning for the application. A
typical example of velocity responses to the step changes in veloc-
ity command and load torque for a poorly tuned velocity loop and a
well-tuned velocity loop are shown in Figure 16. Tuning should be per-
formed with small signal responseswhich means that the current
stays away from the current limit at all times.
Position regulator
and tuning guidelines
Position control applications typically fall into two basic catego-
ries: contouring and point-to-point. Contouring applications require
that the actual position follow the commanded position in a very
predictable manner with high stiffness to reject external torque
disturbances. Notice that predictability is required, but this does not
necessarily mean that position error must be zero at all times.
The other type of position controlpoint-to-point positioning
is typically dened by move time, settling time, and velocity prole,
not paths.
Independent of the positioning application, the form of a simple
position controller is shown in Figure 17. The velocity controller has
been approximated by a unity gain and a rst-order lag with a time
constant equal to the velocity loop -45 phase shift bandwidth.
A position controller with only proportional gain K is very com-
NPO QBSUJDVMBSMZGPSDPOUPVSJOHBQQMJDBUJPOT
BOEUIFQPTJUJPOMPPQ
response can be easily calculated for a certain crossover frequency or
gain. The open-loop frequency response for the proportional position
controller is shown in Figure 18. The crossover frequency is related to
the common method of expressing gain:
)[SBETFDJODINJONJMWFMPDJUZQPTJUJPOFSSPS
12
Where 1 inch/min./mil also equals 1 Figure 18: Position controller response and Kp gain
meter/min./mm. In most position control-
POSITION CONTROLLER OPEN-LOOP
lers, the Kp gain is related to position loop FREQUENCY
Q C RESPONSEO
gain as shown in Figure 18. A general po-

m/min. in./min. rad
sition loop regulator is more complicated 1 =1 = 16.66 2.65 Hz
Decibels
Crossover = K
Crossove mm mil sec
than the simple proportional gain-only
Rad/sec
type. The general position loop regula-
tor is Proportional-Integral-Derivative with Velocity loop scaling
GFFEGPSXBSE WFMPDJUZ BOE BDDFMFSBUJPO
motor rpm per command volts
Position loop gain
and is illustrated in Figure 19.'PMMPXJOHJT
a brief explanation of the purpose for the m/min. in./min.
n.// min . rpm Volts Kp
= = C Counts bit 60 16.66
ve adjustment terms. mm mil Volt
The proportional gain Kp is the most Typically four times the
number of encoder lines Full-scale velocity
command divided by 2n
important term and generates a velocity per revolution
where n = DAC resolution
command proportional to position error.

In other words, if just Kp gain is present,
motion is only possible if a position error Figure 19: General structure of position loop
exists. In fact, higher velocities result in
proportionally higher position following Fgain
error. Only increasing Kp gain can reduce KI

K ff
UIFQPTJUJPOGPMMPXJOHFSSPS)PXFWFS CF- Position

command
Actual position
Velocity loop
V
cause the velocity loop has a given -45 * 1
KP
phase-shift bandwidth, Kp gains that push
position-loop bandwidth above about 1/3 Kd
of this velocity loop -45 phase-shift band-

width cause actual position to overshoot Derivative gain = Kd
the commanded position which is usu-

ally undesirable. Figure 20: Effect of velocity feedforward
The feed-forward gain Kff generates a velocity com- on position error profile
mand signal proportional to the derivative of the position 2.0
0
8
1.8
command. Therefore, if there is no change in the posi-
Position error (rads)
6
1.6
4
1.4 No velocity feedforward
tion command, then the feed-forward command is always 2
1.2
zero. Ideally, 100% feed-forward provides the exact veloc- 0
1.0
8
0.8
ity command without the need for any position error. In 6
0.6
75% velocity feedforward
4
0.4
practice, actual systems including loads are not ideal, so 2
0.2
0
a more conservative setting of feed-forward gain is often 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4
Time (sec)
UBLFO PSMFTT
CFDBVTFUPPNVDIGFFEGPSXBSEHBJO
DBVTFT BDUVBM QPTJUJPO UP PWFSTIPPU UIF DPNNBOEFE QPTJUJPO #F-
cause the feed-forward command is generated open loop, there is no
effect on the position loop stability. The function of the feed-forward
command is to signicantly reduce the constant velocity following
error even though the Kp gain is maintained at a proper level for sta-
bility. Figure 20 shows an example of the feed-forward velocity com-
mand effect on position following error when making a trapezoidal
velocity prole move.
The derivative gain Kd as shown in Figure 19 creates a command
signal that is proportional to the derivative of actual position feedback.
The derivative term is used in two different situations. One situation

Figure 21: Components of a basic servo system occurs when the normal velocity servo is
SFQMBDFECZBUPSRVF DVSSFOU
TFSWP XIJDI
Optional
transformer VL1 Rectifier VBUS VR requires that the derivative term be used to
From AC supply
Mandatory Dissipative
V provide the necessary damping in the form
50/60 Hz
NEC branch VL2 + shunt S

Motor
circuit
protection VL3
-
regulator
VT
of a velocity feedback signal. The other sit-
uation occurs with a normal velocity servo
PWM inverter
to reduce overshooting of the position if
a higher-than-normal Kp gain is necessary.
5IFOFYUHBJOUFSNJTUIFBDDFMFSBUJPOGFFEGPSXBSEHBJO 'HBJO
which scales the second derivative of position command. This term
allows position following error to be reduced when the velocity is
changing. The acceleration feed-forward term is useful in combina-
tion with the velocity feed-forward term when trying to maintain a low
following error at all times which can be useful in tracking applica-
tions, or if a fast settling time is required.
The last term is the integral gain, Ki, which can provide a velocity
command signal to reduce static position errors to zero. Integral gain
provides stiffness against torque disturbances and friction torques
and is usually handled in the velocity controller. Therefore, integral
gain in the position controller is normally avoided except for special
TJUVBUJPOT#FDBVTFJOUFHSBMHBJODBVTFTPWFSTIPPUJOH TPNFQPTJUJPO
controllers with integral gain allow the integrator to only be active
during certain conditions such as when the position command is
not changing, and when the actual position is very close to the com-
manded position.
Application guidelines for sinusoidal brushless

servomotors and drive ampliers
The trapezoidal or square wave current brushless servo is char-
acterized the same as a brush-type servo drive and is generally well
understood. The principles of sizing the sinusoidal brushless servo
drive are similar, but there are some differences which merit review.
Therefore, this section provides the guidelines for applying and sizing
a servo drive using the sinusoidal brushless servo drive as an exam-
ple. The basic structure of the servo system to be sized is illustrated
in Figure 21.
.BOZMBCPSJPVTDBMDVMBUJPOTBSFNBEFJOUIFUZQJDBMTJ[JOHQSPDFTT
$BMDVMBUJPOTJODMVEFSFnFDUFEMPBEJOFSUJBT 3.4BOEQFBLUPSRVFT
BWFSBHFBOEQFBLDVSSFOUT 3.4NBYJNVNTQFFET BOETPPO
Mechanical transmissions, gearing,

and torsional resonances
The most commonly encountered mechanical transmissions can
be analyzed for many applications and are shown in Figure 22. The
choice of mechanical transmission is determined by application re-
quirements. Useful equations in Figure 22 characterize the various
transmission types.
"OPUIFSJNQPSUBOUEFDJTJPOJTUIFDIPJDFPGSPUBSZHFBSJOH JGBOZ
14
between the motor shaft and Figure 22: Classification of common mechanical transmissions
the mechanical transmission/
load to be moved. There are
GEARBOX OR BELT DRIVE TRANSMISSION
many reasons for considering
Motor velocity Angular distance (rad)
gear reduction in a motion Gear ratio = N
Load velocity Angular velocity (rad/sec)
control application such as: m N L and m N L J Moment of inertia (lb - in.- sec 2 )
Motor Load
m, m, Jm, Tm 1 T Torque
TL Load torque reflected to motor
Reducing inertial mismatch N
One revolution = 2 radians
between motor and load.
Inertial mismatch should be LEAD SCREW TRANSMISSION
Reflected load inertia J L
minimized for high-perfor- L dT
Load 1 2 W 1 2
m
mance applications, and is 1:1 2P g 2P
Force Velocity v (in./min.)
F
GPS CFTU SFTVMUT (FBSJOH SF- Distance x (in.) Load torque = TL
2P
duces the reected inertia by Pitch P
Revolutions
L 2Px and L
2Pv
Motor Leadscrew length 60
the square of the reduction ra- m , , J
m m m, T
RPM n Pv
UJP'PSFYBNQMF BHFBS W Weight
ratio reduces reected load Gravity constant g 386 in./sec 2
inertia by 10 squared or 100. BELT-AND-PULLEY, CONVEYOR, TANGENTIAL, OR RACK-AND-PINION TRANSMISSION

Motor
)PXFWFS EPOPUGBJMUPJODMVEF m, m, Jm, Tm
the extra inertia of couplings, Force
Load T
x
L and L
v
Drive radius Y
pulleys, or gears, as these can r 60r Load
L o
0SS\Z[YH[PVUZJV\Y[LZ`4V[PVU:`Z[LT+LZPNUTHNHaPUL
v
be signicant and offset the rpm n
2r
inertia reduction. The addi- J L Reflected load inertia = mr 2
Acceleration torque T J
tion of couplings or thin drive , Motor W
r 2 m(
v 2
)
m m, Jm, Tm g 2n Where
rad
shafts will increase the compli- Drive radius Y sec 2
TL Load torque = Fr 1 hp 746 Watts
ance of the system as the mo-
Power (Watts) T (Nm) ! (rad/sec)
tor winds up the transmission T (lb - in.) ! n (rpm)
Power (hp)
like a spring, this will result in 63,024
resonances as the load moves

and the spring is unwound. Also note that adding a gearbox will add
backlash to the system, effectively removing the load from the mo-
tor within the backlash angle. This can lead to motor high frequency
instability at standstill, causing excess motor heating and failure to
accurately track contoured moves.
t)JHIUPSRVFBOEMPXTQFFEBQQMJDBUJPOT.PTUDPOWFOUJPOBMCSVTI-
less servomotors can operate at high speeds, such as 3,000 to 6,000
SQN5IFUPSRVFJODSFBTFEVFUPUIFHFBSSFEVDUJPO NPUPSUPSRVFJT
multiplied by the gear ratio) is used to keep the motor physical size as
TNBMMBTQPTTJCMF5IJTJTCFDBVTFUIFDPOUJOVPVTUPSRVFSBUJOH BOEOPU
IPSTFQPXFS
EFUFSNJOFTUIFNPUPSTJ[FBOEDPTU)PSTFQPXFSJTFRVBM
to torque x speed. Therefore, for minimum motor size and inertia, mo-
tor speed should be as high as possible.
t -JNJUFE TQBDF If there are space constraints, the use of gearing

can allow a smaller overall package or it can allow the motor to be
repositioned in a different location or orientation.
.BOZEJGGFSFOUGBDUPSTOFFEUPCFUBLFOJOUPBDDPVOUXIFOTFMFDU-

Figure 23: Classification of common mechanical transmissions
Gearing Technology Physical parameters Performance Typical applications

orientaation
Ratio range Compactness Backlash Stiffness Torque Smoothness Efciency Maximum Inertia Price
range input rpm
Parallel
Timing belt <3:1 98% per Unlimited Inexpensive and allows exible mo-
pass tor orientations. Low ratios only.
Inline
Spur/ Full range 96 to 98% Unlimited Most common general-purpose
helical per pass reducer. High backlash can cause
problems in some applications.
Planetary Full range 90 to 95% 4,000 Best overall choice for higher-
per pass performance applications.
Harmonic High ratios 75 to 85% 3,000 Usually good for higher ratios.
Cycloidal High ratios 70 to 80% 3,000 Common with larger torques and
higher speeds.
Right angle
Bevel Low 96 to 98% Unlimited Right angle equivalent of spur gear.
per pass
Worm High 50 to 70% 3,000 Common choice for right-angle ap-
plications that require low backlash.
ing gearing technology. The rst step for a high-performance servo

application is to determine which gearing technology best ts the
applicationby answering the following questions:1. What are the
QIZTJDBMMJNJUBUJPOTGPSUIFBQQMJDBUJPO 'PSFYBNQMF JOUPXIBUFO-
velope must the motor/gearing t, and must the motor be positioned
at a right angle to the load? The three basic orientations are parallel,
in-line, and right angle gearing.
8IBUSFEVDUJPOSBUJPJTSFRVJSFE After deciding on the basic

classication, the next factor to consider is the reduction ratioil-
lustrated in Figure 23 for the most common gearing technologies.
'PSFYBNQMF UJNJOHCFMUTBSFHFOFSBMMZOPUVTFEGPSSBUJPTBCPWF
while harmonic type gearing is usually not available with ratios below
about 40:1.
At this point in the selection process, the performance param-
eters of the gearing technologies are examined to further narrow the
choice. Figure 23 includes the most important performance param-
eters and their relative ranking. These are only approximate rankings
and variations do exist.
'PS IJHIQFSGPSNBODF TFSWP BQQMJDBUJPOT UISFF PG UIF QFSGPS-
mance parameters are of particular importance and need additional
explanation: accuracy, torque-carrying capability, and reliability.
"DDVSBDZ is often equated to backlash but there is more that must

CF DPOTJEFSFE #BDLMBTI JT UIF TQBDF CFUXFFO NBUJOH QBSUT PS
gears and it is usually specied in degrees or arc minutes. Normal-
ly, gears need backlash to run reliably because space is needed to
accommodate lubrication, manufacturing errors, and eccentricities
16
in the gears and other components. Figure 24: Mechanical model of motor and load with compliant connection
The tradeoff is to keep the backlash as and open-loop frequency response
low as possible without sacricing ef-
ciency or other performance features.
Excessive backlash can cause position-
ing error and instability so low-back-
lash gearing is generally preferred with MOTOR LOAD
brushless servo drives.

Other components of accuracy in-
DMVEFTUJGGOFTT DPNQMJBODF
USBOTNJTTJPO
error, and output smoothness. Stiffness is the amount of deection
measured when a load is applied to the reducer. Insufcient stiffness
will result in positioning errors or torsional resonance problems. Trans-
mission error is a measure of how accurately the motor input shaft po-
TJUJPOJTUSBOTMBUFEUISPVHIUIFSFEVDFS(FBSSBUJPTBSFTFMEPNFYBDU
and positional inaccuracies are also caused by gear imperfections. The
torque and speed output must also be smooth and free from ripple if
the input speed and torque is smooth and ripple-free. Eccentric-type
SFEVDFST TVDI BT IBSNPOJD PS DZDMPJEBM HFBST
UZQJDBMMZ IBWF PVUQVU
ripple under some operating conditions; timing belts and spur, bevel,
planetary, or worm gearing are less susceptible to this characteristic.
5IFUPSRVFDBSSZJOHDBQBCJMJUZ varies among the different types of

reducers and is usually related to the frame size within any one type
of technology. The objective is to ensure that the chosen reduction
method has ample torque-carrying capability for the application.
Some applications are light-duty and do not place heavy torque de-
mands on the reducer. The torque-carrying capability of the reducer
should have a 25 to 50% safety margin to ensure a long life.
'JOBMMZ SFMJBCJMJUZ is primarily a function of the reducer component

RVBMJUZ FGmDJFODZ BOEUIFMJGFFYQFDUBODZGPSUIFSFEVDFSUZQF'PS
example, timing belts usually wear out faster than spur gears. Worm
gears, due to their sliding gear action, also usually wear out faster
than spur gears. Preloaded contact members, as found in harmonic
and cycloidal gearing, wear out faster than the other forms of gear-
JOH5JNJOHCFMUHFBSJOHTIPVMEPOMZCFPGUIF)5%UZQFUPFOTVSF
IJHI TUJGGOFTT XIJMF 7 CFMUT OPO)5% UZQF UJNJOH CFMUT BOE DIBJOT
should be avoided with high performance servo drives.
)JHI QFSGPSNBODF TFSWP ESJWFT UZQJDBMMZ BSF BQQMJFE XJUI IJHI
velocity loop bandwidths. In practice, a torsional resonance exists
due to mechanical compliance between the load inertia and the mo-
tor inertia. A model of this mechanical system and the open-loop fre-
quency response is shown in Figure 24. The compliance is modeled
BT B UPSTJPOBM TQSJOH XJUI JUT JOFSUJB BOE EBNQJOH OFHMFDUFE #FTU
results are obtained if the torsional resonant frequency is kept as
high as practical. Torsional stiffness K of a solid round shaft is propor-
tional to the fourth power of the diameter and inversely proportional

to the length. Therefore, torsional stiffness is dramatically

Figure 25: Example of velocity and torque profile
for incremental motion application improved by selecting a motor and other mechanical trans-
mission element with the largest shaft diameter.
Velocity profile
RMS velocity A common torsional problem is improper coupling of
the motor to the load. A key-type coupling should be avoid-
Time
ed if possible; a compression-type coupling that is clamped
Torque profile as close as possible to the motor ange is best. Axial shaft
RMS torque
loading due to impact shocks as a result of hammering the
Time coupling on the shaft is absolutely not allowed, as this can
damage the motor bearings or break the encoder disc.
Motor shaft power profile
Peak motoring power 'JOBMMZ JGTPNFUPSTJPOBMSFTPOBODFJTVOBWPJEBCMFBOEJT
Motoring
Average
motoring power
affecting the servo system performance, many suppliers can
provide electronic damping schemes in the servo drives that
Generating
Average Time
generating power
Peak
help minimize the torsional resonance effect.
generating power
Motion prole considerations

With the load dened, the worst-case velocity-time or
Figure 26: Torque-speed curve of brushless system
WFMPDJUZEJTUBODFQSPmMF BTJOFigure 25) is analyzed to de-
termine the following signicant information:
t3.4BOEQFBLUPSRVFSFRVJSFNFOUPGUIFNPUPS
t3.4BOENBYJNVNTQFFESFRVJSFNFOUPGUIFNPUPS
t"WFSBHFBOEQFBLDVSSFOUSFRVJSFNFOUPGUIFBNQMJmFS
t"WFSBHFBOEQFBLNPUPSJOHQPXFS
t"WFSBHFBOEQFBLHFOFSBUJOHQPXFS
Arbitrary motion proles can be dened and, along
with the mechanical system information, are used to calcu-
late the signicant sizing information. Different mechanical
QBSBNFUFST TVDI BT HFBSJOH
NPUJPO QSPmMFT BOE NPUPS
choices can be quickly and easily analyzed for the optimum
selection of a motor/amplier combination.
Sinusoidal brushless motor specications
ElectroCraft species the important motor constants for
BUISFFQIBTFTJOVTPJEBMCBDL&.'NPUPSBT
,FMJOFUPMJOFQFBLWPMUT,31.
,UJOMCQFBLQIBTFBNQT
R = line-to-line resistance (Ohms)
L = line-to-line inductance (Henrys)
The peak value of the line-to-line voltage or phase amps is de-
mOFEBTUIF[FSPUPQFBLWBMVFPGUIFTJOFXBWF'PSSFGFSFODF UIF
3.4WBMVFPGBTJOFXBWFJTUIFQFBLWBMVFEJWJEFECZUIFTRVBSFSPPU
of two. Also, Kt is related to Ke:
,U,FGPSB%$NPUPS
,U ,F GPS B TJOVTPJEBM DVSSFOU XJUI B TJOVTPJEBM&.'
brushless motor.
The torque-speed curve of a brushless servo system is shown in
Figure 26. The continuous operating region is dened by operating
the motor to the maximum allowable winding temperature at various
speeds and recording the output torque. The continuous torque rat-
18
ing is worst case if the motor is in free air during the Figure 27: Per-phase model of sinusoidal brushless motor
test. ElectroCraft brushless motors are normally rated
mounted to an aluminum plate of a specied dimen-
sion. Notice that the continuous torque output of the
motor decreases as the speed is increased. Eventu-
ally the continuous torque is reduced to zero, this oc-
DVSTXIFOUIF#&.'WPMUBHFBOEXJOEJOHJOEVDUBODF
limit the current to a level where the motor generated
torque matches the motors internal drag torque from
bearing friction and windage. The low-speed portion of the peak
Figure 28: Voltage relationships
curve is usually limited by the amplier peak current rating; avail- for sinusoidal brushless motors
able amplier voltage usually limits the high-speed portion of
the peak torque curve. As the speed increases, a voltage limit is
reached which causes peak torque to roll off at higher speeds.
To better understand the torque-speed characteristics of the
sinusoidal brushless motor, refer to the steady state per phase
model shown in Figure 27. The voltage and current quantities are
sinusoidal and are related as shown in Figure 28.
Notice how the voltage drop across the inductance begins
UPEPNJOBUFBTTQFFE PSGSFRVFODZ
JODSFBTFT XIJDIFWFOUVBMMZ
causes the peak torque to roll off as mentioned before.
#ZLOPXJOHUIFNBYJNVNBWBJMBCMFMJOFUPOFVUSBMNPUPSUFS- Figure 29: Transformer load regulation curve
minal volts, the peak torque characteristic as a function of speed
can be calculated using the per phase motor model. The maxi-
mum line-to-neutral volts can be calculated using the following
SFMBUJPOTIJQT 3FGFSUP Figure 28.)
7CVT<%$WPMUT>Y7L1-L2 <WPMUT3.4MJOFUPMJOF>
.BYJNVN73/<QFBLWPMUT>7CVT
Once completing the work to calculate the motor and ampli-
er requirements, the torque-speed curves are used to select the
proper ElectroCraft motor/amplier combination.
5IFDPOUJOVPVTNPUPSUPSRVFTIPVMECFBWBJMBCMFBUUIF3.4
velocity of the motion prole. Some allowance should be made for mo-
tor Kt and Ke tolerance and for voltage drop due to low line conditions
and transformer load regulation.
Figure 25 shows the motoring and generating power for this in-
cremental motion prole. Only the motoring power is supplied from
the AC power line, as ElectroCraft servo drives do not regenerate
power to the AC power line.
Actual AC power requirements are higher than the average motor-
shaft power due to power losses in the motor, drive, and transformer.
A multiplication safety factor of about two is used to account for the
MPTTFTBOEQPXFSGBDUPS.BOZTVQQMJFSTQSPWJEFMPBESFHVMBUJPODVSWFT
for their standard transformers; one such curve is shown in Figure 29.
In servo applications, the peak power requirements for good
transformer voltage regulation usually require selection of a power
transformer that is oversized for continuous power requirements.
Conservatively sized motor/amplier operates longer without failure

and reduces application problems that are caused by under sizing

Figure 30: Duty cycle characteristics
(motor only) the motor/amplier combination.
90 Up to now, it has been assumed that the motion prole cycle time
110%
80 is short compared to the motor thermal time constant. The motor
7
70 120%
thermal time constant is dened as the time to reach 63.2% of the
Duty (Percent)
6
60 130%
30%
rated temperature rise when rated current is supplied to the motor.
5
50 140%
4
40
The motor thermally averages the power losses and reaches a con-
160%
0%
3
30 180%
80%
%
stant steady state temperature. Some applications apply power and
2
20 200%
20 % remove power to the motor with cycle times that are similar to the
10
10 motor thermal time constant. In these cases, the motor temperature
0
1 3 6 10 30 60
0 1
100
00
0 will uctuate up and down as the power is applied and removed. To
ON time (Minutes)
Motor
M t ththermall ti
time constant
t t = 47 min.
i properly size these applications, duty cycle curves can be provided
for the motors as shown in Figure 30. 'PS FYBNQMF UIF PQFSBUJOH
point labeled A in Figure 30 allows the motor to repetitively produce
200% continuous torque for about 6 minutes and no torque for about
24 minutes. The amplier has a very short thermal time constant com-
pared to the motor so the amplier must be oversized to handle the
peak motor torque on a continuous basis in these types of overload
applications.
Brushless amplier dissipative shunt

The nal consideration in sizing the amplier concerns the dis-
sipative shunt regulator shown in Figure 21. #SBLJOH UIF NPUPS SF-
turns energy stored in the rotating mechanical mass to the amplier
QPXFS TVQQMZ #FDBVTF UIF QPXFS TVQQMZ JT OPU BCMF UP SFHFOFSBUF
this energy back to the AC input supply, the power supply capacitor
is charged up beyond its normal level. If the excess braking energy is
low, then the capacitor may be able to absorb the excess energy and
TJNQMZSFUVSOJUUPUIFNPUPSEVSJOHUIFOFYUNPUPSJOHQFSJPE)PX-
ever, if the excess energy is high, then a clamp circuit is used to limit
the bus voltage to a safe level and to dissipate the excess energy as
heat in a power resistor.
The shunt regulator is specied to handle a peak power and a
continuous power. If the peak power is exceeded, then the clamp cir-
cuit will be unable to limit the voltage to a safe level and the amplier
turns off. In practice, if peak shunt power is being exceeded, check to
see if the current limit can be lowered or if the deceleration time can
be lengthened. Applications that frequently stop and start with high
inertia and high speed should be studied closely to see if continu-
PVTTIVOUQPXFSJTFYDFFEFE7FSUJDBMBQQMJDBUJPOTXJUIBHSBWJUZMPBE
FTQFDJBMMZ POFT XJUIPVU BOZ GPSN PG DPVOUFSCBMBODF
NVTU CF WFSZ
carefully considered as to continuous shunt power.
ElectroCraft drives have the ability to add external shunt resistors
that extend the continuous and peak shunt power of the system. Fig-
ure 25 shows the generating power for an incremental motion pro-
le: Actual dissipated power is less than the regenerated motor shaft
power due to motor losses, amplier losses, and energy absorbed by
the bus capacitor.
20
Electrical noise considerations Figure 31: EMI soure-victim model
Perhaps no other subject discussed so far in this handbook is
as misunderstood as electrical noise. Nothing strikes fear in the in- Conducted EMI
dustrial equipment user more than being told by the drive vendor, EMI source EMI victim
You have a noise problem. While the subject is complex and the
UIFPSZ DBO BOE EPFT
FBTJMZ mMM CPPLT UIJT TFDUJPO QSPWJEFT TPNF
guidelines that can minimize noise problems. Radiated EMI
5IFNBKPSJUZPGJOTUBMMBUJPOTFYIJCJUOPOPJTFQSPCMFNT)PXFWFS EMI victim

ltering and shielding guidelines are countermeasures if problems
arise. In contrast, grounding, bonding guidelines combined with
good panel layout are simply good practice and should be followed
in all installations.
There are two characteristics to electrical noise: the genera-
UJPOPSFNJTTJPOPGFMFDUSPNBHOFUJDJOUFSGFSFODF &.*
BOEUIFSF-
TQPOTF PSJNNVOJUZUP&.*5IFEFHSFFUPXIJDIBEFWJDFFNJUTOP
&.* BOEJTJNNVOFUP&.* JTDBMMFEUIFEFWJDFT electromagnetic
DPNQBUJCJMJUZ
Figure 31 TIPXTUIFDPNNPOMZVTFE&.*NPEFM5IFNPEFMDPO-
TJTUT PG BO &.* TPVSDF B DPVQMJOH NFDIBOJTN BOE BO &.* WJDUJN
%FWJDFTTVDIBTTFSWPESJWFTBOEDPNQVUFST XIJDIDPOUBJOTXJUDIJOH
QPXFSTVQQMJFTBOENJDSPQSPDFTTPST
BSF&.*TPVSDFT5IFNFDIB-
nisms for the coupling of energy between the source and victim are
DPOEVDUJPOBOESBEJBUJPO7JDUJNFRVJQNFOUDBOCFBOZFMFDUSPNBH-
OFUJDEFWJDFUIBUJTBEWFSTFMZBGGFDUFECZUIF&.*DPVQMFEUPJU
Equipment immunity is primarily determined by its design, but
IPXPOFXJSFTBOEHSPVOETUIFEFWJDFJTBMTPDSJUJDBMGPS&.*JNNV-
nity. Therefore, selecting equipment designed and tested for indus-
trial environments is paramount. Selecting equipment that is certi-
ed or designed to meet industrial immunity standards is a good
start. Laying out the electrical panel in Clean and Dirty zones to
segregate motor power wires from sensitive analog inputs etc. will
cost very little in planning time compared to the cost of sending an
FOHJOFFSUPTJUFUPmOEBOJOUFSNJUUFOU&.*FWFOU
Another tip: In industrial environments, use encoders with differ-
ential line driver outputs rather than single-ended outputs, and use
digital inputs/outputs with electrical isolation, such as those pro-
vided with optocouplers.
Reconsider Figure 31.5IJT&.*NPEFMQSPWJEFTPOMZUISFFPQ-
UJPOTUPFMJNJOBUFUIFFNJTTJPOQSPCMFN5IF&.*TPVSDFDPVMECF
reduced, which in the case of servo drives would require slowing
QPXFS TFNJDPOEVDUPS TXJUDIJOH TQFFET )PXFWFS UIJT EFHSBEFT
drive performance with respect to heat dissipation and speed/
torque regulation.
Another possibility is to harden the victim equipment, which may
not be possible or practical. The nal and most realistic solution is
to reduce the coupling mechanism between the source and victim
with ltering, shielding, and grounding.

Figure 32: AC line filter installation

Filtering
Poor setup
p Good setup
As mentioned, high-frequency energy can be coupled
between circuits via radiation or conduction. The AC power
Conducted Drive
EMI wiring is one of the most important paths for both types of
AC line
Conducted
Cond
E
ducted
EMI Drive coupling mechanisms. The AC line can conduct noise into the
Radiated
ated EMI
EM
drive from other devices, or can emit conducted noise directly
Filter
AC line
e
Conducted
Radiated
EMI into other devices. It can also act as an antenna and transmit
Filter
Radiated EMI EMI
or receive noise between the drive and other devices.
0OFNFUIPEPGJNQSPWJOHUIF&.$DIBSBDUFSJTUJDTPGB
drive is to use an isolation AC power transformer to feed
Figure 33: Single-point ground types the amplier its input power. This minimizes inrush currents
on power-up, and provides electrical isolation. In addition,
Circuit Circuit Circuit Circuit Circuit Circuit
One Two Three One Two Three it provides common mode ltering, though the effect is lim-
ited in frequency by the inter-winding capacitance.
Note: Common mode noise is present on all conduc-
Series connection Parallel connection
tors referenced to ground while differential mode noise is
present on one conductor referenced to another conductor.
An alternative is to use AC line lters to reduce the con-
EVDUFE&.*FNJUUJOHGSPNUIFESJWF5IJTBMMPXTOFBSCZFRVJQNFOUUP
operate undisturbed. In most cases, an AC line lter is not required
unless other sensitive circuits are powered off the same AC branch cir-
cuit. The basic operating principle is to minimize the high frequency
power transfer through the lter.
An effective lter achieves this by using capacitors and inductors
UPNJTNBUDIUIFTPVSDFJNQFEBODF "$MJOF
BOEUIFMPBEJNQFEBODF
ESJWF
BUIJHIGSFRVFODJFT
The machine builder is responsible for the suitability of the lter
selection in a specic application.
Selection of the proper lter is only the rst step in reducing con-
ducted emissions. Correct lter installation is crucial to achieving both
&.*BUUFOVBUJPOBOEUPFOTVSFTBGFUZ"MMPGUIFGPMMPXJOHHVJEFMJOFT
should be met for effective lter use.
1. The lter should be mounted to a grounded conductive surface to

FTUBCMJTIBIJHIGSFRVFODZ )'
DPOOFDUJPOUPUIBUTVSGBDF5PBDIJFWF
UIF)'HSPVOE UIFTVSGBDFJOUFSGBDFCFUXFFOUIFmMUFSBOETUSVDUVSF
must be free of paint or any other insulator. This may require paint
removal from the inside of a cabinet. A wire should not be used to
ground the lter because it will act as an antenna when ground cur-
rents are present.
1. The lter must be mounted close to the drive input terminals. If

the distance exceeds 1 ft, then a strap should be used to connect the
drive and lter, rather than a wire.
2. The wires connecting the AC source to the lter should be shielded
GSPN PSBUMFBTUTFQBSBUFEGSPN UIFXJSFT PSTUSBQ
DPOOFDUJOHUIF
drive to the lter. If the connections are not segregated from each oth-
FS UIFOUIF&.*POUIFESJWFTJEFPGUIFmMUFSDBODPVQMFPWFSUPUIF
22
source side of the lter, thereby reducing, or eliminating the lter
Figure 34: Encoder shielding method
effectiveness. The coupling mechanism can be radiation, or stray for brushless servomotors
capacitance between the wires. The best method of achieving Amplifier
Brushless motor
this is to mount the lter where the AC power enters the enclo-
sure. Figure 32 shows a good installation and a poor installation. Encoder cable
Motor
case
When multiple power cables enter an enclosure, an unl- Shield
tered line can contaminate a ltered line external to the enclo-

sure. Therefore all lines must be ltered to be effective.
The situation is similar to a leaky boat. All the holes must Figure 35: Motor power winding methods
be plugged in order to prevent sinking. to minimize noise emissions
WARNING: The lter must be grounded for safety be- Amplifier
Brushless motor
Twisted together
GPSFBQQMZJOHQPXFSEVFUPUIFMFBLBHFDVSSFOUT'BJMVSFUP R
R
S S
properly ground the lter can be hazardous. T T
Motor case
Chassis
The only reasonable ltering at the drive output termi- To single point
OBMTJTUIFVTFPGJOEVDUBODF $BQBDJUPSTXPVMETMPXUIF earth common
output switching, and deteriorate the drive performance.) Amplifier

Brushless motor
Twisted together
" DPNNPO NPEF DIPLF DBO CF VTFE UP SFEVDF UIF )' R
R
S S
voltage at the drive output to reduce emission coupling T T
Motor case
Chassis
UISPVHIUIFESJWFCBDLUPUIF"$MJOF)PXFWFS UIFNPUPS To single point
Shield
DBCMF TUJMM DBSSJFT B MBSHF )' WPMUBHF BOE DVSSFOU *O GBDU earth common
Common mode choke

motor cable length directly affects the amplitude and fre- Amplifier
(10 to 20 turns on common
ferrite toroidal core)
Brushless motor
quency of emissions on the AC line. Therefore, it is very im- Twisted together
R
portant to segregate the motor cable from the AC power S
R
S
T T
DBCMF PSUPVTFBTIJFMEFENPUPSDBCMF'PSBQQMJDBUJPOT Chassis
Motor case
where long motor cables are required, the need for AC line To single point
earth common
mMUFSJOH JODSFBTFT .PSF JOGPSNBUJPO PO DBCMF TIJFMEJOH
and segregation is contained in the section on shielding.
Grounding
)JHIGSFRVFODZ )'
HSPVOEJOHJTEJGGFSFOUGSPNTBGFUZHSPVOEJOH
A long wire is sufcient for a safety ground, but is completely ineffec-
UJWFBTB)'HSPVOEEVFUPUIFXJSFJOEVDUBODF"TBSVMFPGUIVNC
BXJSFIBTBOJOEVDUBODFPGO)JO SFHBSEMFTTPGEJBNFUFS"UMPX
frequencies it acts as constant impedance; at intermediate frequen-
cies as an inductor; and at high frequencies as an antenna. The use
PGHSPVOETUSBQTJTBCFUUFSBMUFSOBUJWFUPXJSFT)PXFWFS UIFMFOHUI
to width ratio must be 5:1 or better yet 3:1 to remain a good high
frequency connection.
The ground systems primary purpose is to function as a return
current path. It is commonly thought of as an equipotential circuit ref-
erence point, but different locations in a ground system may be at dif-
ferent potentials. This is due to the return current owing through the
ground systems nite impedance. In a sense, ground systems are the
sewer systems of electronics and as such are sometimes neglected.
The primary objective of a high frequency ground system is to pro-
WJEFBXFMMEFmOFEQBUIGPS)'DVSSFOUT BOENJOJNJ[FUIFMPPQBSFBPG
UIF)'DVSSFOUQBUIT*UJTBMTPJNQPSUBOUUPTFQBSBUF)'HSPVOETGSPN
sensitive circuits grounds. A single-point parallel-connected ground

system is recommended. Figure 33 shows

Figure 36: Conversion tables for motion and loads
TJOHMFQPJOU HSPVOET GPS CPUI TFSJFT EBJTZ
EQUATIONS FOR STRAIGHT-LINE MOTION WITH CONSTANT ACCELERATION DIBJO
BOEQBSBMMFM TFQBSBUF
DPOOFDUJPOT
v t = v i + at A ground bus bar or plane should be
xt = xi +
1
(v i + v f )t used as the single point at which circuits
2
are grounded. This minimizes common
Velocity
v 2f = v i2 + 2a( x f x i )
T12 t1 + T22 t 2 + T32 t 3 + T42 t 4

HSPVOE
JNQFEBODF OPJTF DPVQMJOH 5IJT
Trms =
T1 Time t1 + t 2 + t 3 + t 4 HSPVOECVTCBS (##
TIPVMECFDPOOFDUFE
where x f = Final position
to the AC ground, and if necessary, to the
Torque
T2 x i = Initial position
T4
T3
v f = Final velocity
enclosure. All circuits or subsystems should
t1 t2 t3 t4
v i = Initial velocity CFDPOOFDUFEUPUIF(##CZTFQBSBUFDPO-
a = Acceleration nections. These connections should be as
t = Time
short as possible, and straps should be used
AREA, VOLUME, AND INERTIA FOR COMMON SHAPES if possible. The motor ground conductor
must return to the ground terminal on the
L
L L ESJWF OPUUPUIF(##
Do = 2ro
H D = 2r
Shielding and segregation
Di = 2ri 5IF QSJNBSZ QSPQBHBUJPO SPVUF GPS &.*
W
emissions from a drive is through cabling.
Aside = L h
Aend = r 2 (
4
)
Aend = Do2 Di2
5IF&.*SBEJBUJOHGSPNUIFESJWFFODMPTVSF
V = Aend L V = Aend L
V =Lhw
mD2 Wr 2 itself drops off very quickly with distance.
J=
W
h2 + w2( ) J=
8
=
2g
m
( )
J = Do2 + Di2 =
8
W
2g
( )
ro2 + ri2
5IFDBCMFTDPOEVDUUIF&.*UPPUIFSEFWJD-
12g
L r 4 L
=
2g
=
2g
( )
ro4 ri4 FT BOEDBOBMTPSFSBEJBUFUIF&.*5IFSF-
fore, cable segregation and shielding can
V = Volume (in. 3 ) J = Inertia (in./lb/sec 2 )
r = Radius (in.) be important to reducing emissions. Cable
g = Gravity (386 in/sec 2 ) shielding can also increase the level of im-
L = Length (in.) m = Mass (lb/m)
h = Height (in.) W = Weight (lb) = Density (lb/in.3 ) munity of a drive.
w = Width (in.) D = Diameter (in.) A = Area (in.2 ) The following suggestions are recom-
= 3.14
mended for all installations, because they
are inexpensive to implement.
4JHOBMDBCMFT FODPEFS TFSJBM BOBMPH
TIPVMECFSPVUFEBXBZGSPN
the motor cable and power wiring. Separate steel conduit can be used
to provide shielding between the signal and power wiring. Do not
route signal and power wiring through common junctions or raceways.
Signal cables from other circuits should not pass within 1 ft of the drive.
The length of parallel runs between other circuit cables and the
motor or power cable should be minimized. A rule of thumb is 1 ft of
separation for each 30 ft of parallel run. The 1-ft separation can be
reduced if the parallel run is less than 3 ft. Cable intersections should
always occur at right angles to minimize magnetic coupling.
Do not route any cables connected to the drive directly over drive
vent openings. Otherwise, the cables will pick up the higher levels of
emissions leaked through the vent slots.
If you are constructing your own motor cable, a four-conductor
cable should be used, with the four conductors twisted. The ground
conductor must be attached to the motor and drive earth terminals.
The encoder mounted on the brushless servomotor should be
24
connected to the amplier with a
Figure 37: Conversion tables for motion and loads for various units
cable using multiple twisted wire
pairs and an overall cable shield Conversion of length
Otherwise noise on the encoder

signals can cause drive faults in
the drive.
*G &.* QSPCMFNT QFSTJTU BE-
ditional counter measures can be
BUUFNQUFE)FSFBSFTFWFSBMTVH-
gestions for system modications.
Placing a ferrite donut around
a signal cable may help. The ferrite Conversion of torque
attenuates common mode noise

but does nothing for differential
mode noise. Connecting cable
shields directly to the drive chas-
sis instead of the cable connectors
can reduce the effect of external
&.*POUIFESJWFPQFSBUJPO
Use a shielded motor cable
terminated at the circular section Conversion of moment of inertia
at both ends. The shield should

be connected to the drive earth
terminal, or chassis at the drive
end, and the motor frame at the
motor end. The coaxial congura-
tion provides magnetic shielding,
and the shield provides a return
QBUIGPS)'DVSSFOUT XIJDIBSFDB-
pacitively coupled from the motor
windings to the frame. If power frequency circulating currents are an
JTTVF B7"$DBQBDJUPSTIPVMECFVTFEBUPOFPGUIFDPOOFDUJPOT
UPCMPDLUIF)[DVSSFOUT CVUQBTTUIF)'DVSSFOUTFigure 35 il-
lustrates all the motor cable options discussed in this section.
Suppress each switched inductive device that is near the servo
amplier. This includes solenoids, relay coils, starter coils and AC mo-
UPST TVDI BT NPUPS ESJWFO NFDIBOJDBM UJNFST
%$ DPJMT TIPVME CF
suppressed with a freewheeling diode connected across the coil in
the non-conducting direction. AC coils should be suppressed with RC
lters: A 220 ohm 1/2 watt resistor in series with a 1/2 microfarad, 600
volt capacitor is commonly used.
Note:5IJTIBOECPPLTFDUJPOQSFTFOUTTPNFHVJEFMJOFTUIBUDBONJOJNJ[FOPJTFQSPCMFNT
)PXFWFS FRVJQNFOU&.$QFSGPSNBODFNVTUNFFUSFHVMBUPSZSFRVJSFNFOUTJOWBSJPVTQBSUTPG
UIFXPSME TQFDJmDBMMZJOUIF&VSPQFBO6OJPO*UJTUIFSFTQPOTJCJMJUZPGUIFNBDIJOFCVJMEFSUP
ensure that a machine meets the appropriate requirements as installed.

ElectroCraft, Inc. is a global provider of fractional-horsepower
motor and motion control solutions for both industrial and com-
mercial applications. Capitalizing on many years of experience
has resulted in a broad family of motor and motion control com-
ponents available. ElectroCraft products include:
t4JOVTPJEBMCSVTIMFTTTFSWPNPUPSTVUJMJ[JOHFJUIFSUIFIJHIFOFSHZ
product neodymium iron boron permanent magnets for the low-
est rotor inertias or the cost-effective ferrite permanent magnets
for medium rotor inertias.
t%JHJUBMTJOVTPJEBMCSVTIMFTTTFSWPBNQMJmFSTEFTJHOFEUPQSP-
WJEFUPEBZT0&.XJUINBYJNVNCSVTIMFTTTFSWPQFSGPSNBODFBU
the lowest possible cost. The ACE500 Series utilizes the latest in
DSP-based drive design architecture to provide software select-
BCMFUPSRVF WFMPDJUZ BOEQPTJUJPONPEF PQUJPOBM
PQFSBUJPO
Sine wave commutation using encoder feedback provides smooth
torque at low speeds for demanding motion control requirements
found in robotic, direct drive, and linear motor applications.
t$PTUFGGFDUJWFBOBMPHBOEUXPRVBESBOUCSVTIMFTT%$TQFFE
controls. These drives include ramp generator and braking func-
UJPOTGPSDPOUSPMMFEBDDFMFSBUJPOBOEEFDFMFSBUJPO.PEFPGPQFSB-
tion is set by simple DIP switches.
All of the above components can be combined from a single

manufacturer to produce high performance motion control
systems for a variety of automation tasks. Typical applications
JODMVEFNBDIJOFUPPMT &%.NBDIJOFT DPJMXJOEJOHFRVJQNFOU
medical equipment, press feeders, thermoforming machines,
robotics, automotive assembly and machining equipment,
postal sorting machines, material handling equipment, packag-
ing equipment, and other types of specialty machines requiring
precise control of torque, velocity and position.
&MFDUSP$SBGUJTIFBERVBSUFSFEJO%PWFS /FX)BNQTIJSFXJUI
operations in the United States, Europe, and Asia.

MD - Handbook and Application Guide For High Performanse Brushless Servo Systems, 2011

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Handbook and Application

Guide for High-Performance

This engineering handbook can also be

Your Genius. Our Drive. 3

Due to the construction technique of a brushless servo-

0 motors mechanical commutator and armature winding on

Figure 4. The highest performance is achieved with the fully dense A

costs at the expense of performance. The rare-earth permanent mag-

square wave current

tenance. Square-wave current

Sinusoidal and trapezoidal S

)PXFWFS UIFTBNFDBOOPUCFTBJEBCPVUCSVTIMFTTTFSWP- Sinusoidal

Your Genius. Our Drive. 5

to have square-wave current servo

value is about 10% higher than the

torque constant ripple does increase

creased by about 5% as compared to

torque loss progressively worsens as speed or frequency is increased.

performance for many applications.

Sinusoidal EMF and sinusoidal current

creased the capability of the sinusoidal brushless servo

the decreasing cost of these components has driven fur- FR FT FS FR FT FS

ther development of this control methodology above

placed spatially by 120 represent the magnetic eld

Sinusoidal control for permanent magnet

Your Genius. Our Drive. 7

magnet eld at all speeds and torques. This pro-

(induction motor only)

advance angle. The phase advance angle can be

normally be possible without the phase advance

Incremental encoders and resolvers

the rotor angle. The raw resolver feedback is not very B-

to create usable information. In brushless servo drive

word and analog velocity. Gap

The incremental encoder used in brushless servo Lens

to the microcontroller of digital

tice that encoder feedback signals

er at long distances from the drive. d

Phase angle (Degrees)

Log frequency (Hz) -20

ally called commutation signals) -10

or is generally provided from a -20

TFQBSBUF )BMMFGGFDU PS DPNNV- -30 -120

tation, encoder. In some cases, -40 -160

Your Genius. Our Drive. 9

S velocity, and position is natural as it matches the

the most efcient conversion of DC to IGAIN

is very important for proper drive perfor-

Velocity regulation and tuning guidelines

Your Genius. Our Drive. 11

gain as shown in Figure 18. A general po-

command proportional to position error.

error. Only increasing Kp gain can reduce KI

UIFQPTJUJPOGPMMPXJOHFSSPS)PXFWFS CF- Position

position-loop bandwidth above about 1/3 Kd

of this velocity loop -45 phase-shift band-

the commanded position which is usu-

Your Genius. Our Drive. 13

NEC branch VL2 + shunt S

Application guidelines for sinusoidal brushless

Mechanical transmissions, gearing,

inertia by 10 squared or 100. BELT-AND-PULLEY, CONVEYOR, TANGENTIAL, OR RACK-AND-PINION TRANSMISSION

resonances as the load moves

TFQBSBUF )BMMFGGFDU PS DPNNV- -30 -120

UIFQPTJUJPOGPMMPXJOHFSSPS)PXFWFS CF- Position

t -JNJUFE TQBDF If there are space constraints, the use of gearing

8IBUSFEVDUJPOSBUJPJTSFRVJSFE After deciding on the basic

5IFUPSRVFDBSSZJOHDBQBCJMJUZ varies among the different types of

5IFNBKPSJUZPGJOTUBMMBUJPOTFYIJCJUOPOPJTFQSPCMFNT)PXFWFS EMI victim