CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 62 (2013) 673694

Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirect

CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology

jou rnal homep age : ht t p: // ees .e lse vi er. com/ci rp/ def a ult . asp

Joining by plastic deformation

Ken-ichiro Mori (1)a,*, Niels Bay (1)b, Livan Fratini (2)c, Fabrizio Micari (1)c, A. Erman Tekkaya (1)d
a
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Toyohashi University of Technology, Toyohashi, Aichi 441-8580, Japan
b
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Lyngby, Denmark
c
Dipartimento di Ingegneria Chimica, Gestionale, Informatica, Meccanica, University of Palermo, Viale delle Scienze, 90128 Palermo, Italy
d
Institut fur Umformtechnik und Leichtbau, Technische Universitat Dortmund, D-44221 Dortmund, Germany

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: As the scale and complexity of products such as aircraft and cars increase, demand for new functional
Joining
processes to join mechanical parts grows. The use of plastic deformation for joining parts potentially
Plastic deformation
offers improved accuracy, reliability and environmental safety as well as creating opportunities to design
Forming
new products through joining dissimilar materials. This paper aims to provide an overview of the state of
the art in such joining processes, including cold welding, friction stir welding, self-pierce riveting,
mechanical clinching and joining by forming. The paper includes description of the mechanism of joint
formation, and analysis of joint performance and applicability.
2013 CIRP.

1. Introduction Friction welding

Vehicles such as aircraft and cars comprise a large number of
mechanical parts produced by a variety of manufacturing processes.
Cars generally consist of 10,00030,000 parts, and the number of
parts in aircraft is counted in millions. A trend in manufacturing such
products is that both the number of parts and their complexity are
increasing, including new combinations of dissimilar materials.
Welding, adhesive bonding and mechanical fastening are
typically used to join components during product assembly. In
fusion welding, workpieces are joined by the application of an
external heat source which melts material around the interface.
Although the use of welding is widespread, the high temperatures
required may reduce the quality, accuracy and reliability of joined
parts. The strength of adhesively bonded and mechanically
fastened joints is almost always lower than that achieved by
welding. Commercial requirements for higher performance, higher
productivity and lower cost in joining operations are becoming
more demanding. In addition, strong joining of dissimilar materials
is increasingly required. For example, high strength steel and
aluminium sheets must be joined in some current car models, to
allow weight reduction [113]. There is therefore a need to identify
new joining methods for new applications and materials.
Plastic deformation in manufacturing is generally used in
forming processes to shape mechanical parts and control their
mechanical properties. However, plastic deformation can also be
used to join parts of sufcient ductility without the external heat
supply used in fusion welding. Processes for joining by plastic
deformation are conveniently divided into two categories:
1) Metallurgical joining
Cold welding by rolling, extrusion, forging, etc.
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: mori@plast.me.tut.ac.jp (K.-i. Mori).
Friction stir welding
Resistance welding, etc.
2) Mechanical joining
Self-pierce riveting
Mechanical clinching
Joining by forming such as hydroforming, electromagnetic
forming and incremental forming
Fastening such as hemming, seaming and staking
In metallurgical joining processes such as cold welding and
friction welding, oxide lms and contaminants at the interface
between workpieces are broken up by severe plastic deformation,
and the resulting clean surfaces are bonded by high interfacial
pressure. The workpieces are internally heated by interfacial
slipping and plastic work so deformation accelerates as workpieces
soften with rising temperature. The metallurgical joining processes
by plastic deformation are also known as solid-state welding
processes [105]. Large plastic deformation is required to attain
metallurgical bonding.
In mechanical joining by plastic deformation, interfacial pressure
and interlocking are used without thermal effects. An example of the
rst type occurs when an inner tube inserted in an outer ring is
plastically expanded by internal pressure, so the pressure remains at
the interface after unloading and thus the workpieces are
mechanically joined. The joining strength may be increased by
forming beads and dimples. An example of the second type occurs
when workpieces are mechanically interlocked by plastic deforma-
tion. In contrast to the metallurgical joining processes, in the
mechanical joining processes the contacting surfaces are not bonded
so the breaking up of the oxide lms and the rise in interfacial
temperature are not required. In the mechanical joining processes,
plastic deformation is controlled in order to generate proper
pressure and interlocks. The mechanical joints can be applied more
widely and are often stronger than joints from mechanical fastening

0007-8506/$ see front matter 2013 CIRP.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cirp.2013.05.004
674 K.- Mori et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 62 (2013) 673694
Table 1
Advantages and disadvantages of joining by plastic deformation.
Advantages Disadvantages
 Wide range of materials, including dissimilar  Mainly overlap joints
ones (metallic/non-metallic), being joined
 Less distortion, embrittlement and tensile  Geometrical unevenness of joining
residual stress
 High process reliability and simple  More difcult correction and repair
quality control
 Environmental safety  Lack of standardisation and
calculation methods
processes such as riveting, stitching and crimping. The mechanical
joining processes are often used in automated assembly operations
to improve the productivity and cost.
Table 1 lists some advantages and disadvantages of joining by
plastic deformation compared to fusion welding. Although joining
processes by plastic deformation have been widely utilised as
seaming of beverage cans and hemming of automobile outer
panels, recent developments and progress of joining processes by
plastic deformation are reviewed in the present paper.
2. Cold welding
2.1. Introduction
Cold welding (also known as cold pressure welding) is a solid-
state welding process normally carried out at ambient temperature.
It is one of the earliest, if not the earliest welding technique almost
dating back to the year 1000 BC [185]. A large number of metals can
be joined in this manner including several dissimilar combinations,
which cannot be fusion-welded, e.g. AlCu, AlFe and AlTi.
Comprehensive reviews of the fundamentals of cold welding are
given by Milner and Rowe [140], Bay [25] and Li et al. [123].
2.2. Parameters in cold welding
In cold welding (without superimposed sliding as in shear
welding discussed in Section 2.5.5), gross plastic deformation of at
least one of the two metals is required to obtain bonding, implying
that the degree of deformation is a basic parameter. It is normally
expressed via the surface expansion X or the degree of surface
exposure Y:
A1  A0 A1  A0
X ; Y (1)
A0 A1
where A0 and A1 are the initial and nal interface areas,
respectively. Fig. 1 shows the bond shear strength obtained in
roll bonding of sheets in various combinations plotted as functions
of Y, which equal the thickness reduction in rolling. It is found that
large plastic deformation is required for cold welding.
A threshold surface exposure has to be reached before bonding
occurs. Beyond this threshold, which depends on the metal
combination, the bond strength increases rapidly with Y reaching a
level corresponding to the strength of the weaker metal. This
[(Fig._1)TD$IG]
Fig. 1. Bond shear strength versus surface exposure/thickness reduction in cold roll
bonding [137,188].
relationship between the bond strength and surface exposure is
fundamental to all cold welding processes, but the threshold
surface expansion for a given metal combination is dependent on
the type of forming process applied for cold welding [22]. In
Section 2.3 a theoretical model explaining these phenomena is
given based on metallographic studies and continuum mechanical
analysis of the local plastic deformation in the weld interface.
Cold welding in normal atmosphere is always associated with
contaminated surfaces, which are unable to adhere to each other
without a surface exposure large enough to fracture the surface
lm. Surface preparation preceding cold welding is therefore a
basic parameter governing the mechanisms of bond formation. A
number of different methods have been investigated in literatures,
e.g. Vaidyanath and Milner [189], Clemmensen et al. [55] and
Jamaati and Toroghinejad [102]. They may be organised in three
different groups, i.e. (1) chemical cleaning, (2) mechanical cleaning
and (3) establishment of a brittle cover layer. Most authors state
that degreasing followed by scratch-brushing with a rotating steel
brush is the most efcient treatment.
Experimental investigations by Bay [22] and Tabata et al. [179]
indicate that the normal pressure on the weld interface has basic
inuence on the weld strength. This explains why different weld
strengths are obtained at the same surface exposure in different
processes.
Andreasen and Bay [15] and Prancs [161] have investigated the
inuence of superimposed relative sliding in the weld interface
and could show that it is possible to obtain good welds without
gross plastic deformation by the so-called shear welding process.
2.3. Mechanisms of bonding and theoretical model of bond strength
Experimental studies on cold welding of scratch brushed
surfaces were performed. Optical microscope analysis of the welds
[137] led to the hypothesis that the fundamental bonding
mechanism arises from the fracture of surface layers leading to
the exposure of clean metal surfaces which weld when subse-
quently brought into contact. Later studies of fractured cold welds
in SEM conrmed this hypothesis [46], showing that surface
preparation before cold welding has paramount importance. The
surface preparation by scratch brushing produces a hard, brittle
surface layer, which will crack, when subjected to expansion. With
larger surface expansion, see Fig. 2, virgin material is exposed,
which extrudes through the cracks of the surface layer and meets
the similarly exposed surface area from the opposing metal [23].
Fig. 2(a) and (b) shows the onset of extrusion at a surface exposure
of Y = 0.375 but no visible bonds, whereas Fig. 2(c) and (d), having a
slightly larger surface exposure, Y = 0.383, shows ductile fracture
of bonds on the top of the extrudate. At higher surface exposure,
Y = 0.72 in Fig. 3, extended areas of the base metal have been
bonded and the unwelded regions of the brittle surface layer are
conned to small isolated islands. The ratio sB/s0 between the
[(Fig._2)TD$IG]
Fig. 2. Bonding surfaces after fracture for (a) and (b) Y = 0.375, p/s0 = 1.9, sB/
s0 = 0.02 and (c) and (d) Y = 0.383, p/s0 = 2.0, sB/s0 = 0.09 [23].
[(Fig._3)TD$IG]
K.- Mori et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 62 (2013) 673694
Fig. 3. Bonding surfaces after fracture for Y = 0.72, p/s0 = 1.8 and sB/s0 = 0.71 [23].
[(Fig._4)TD$IG]
Fig. 4. Model for bonding mechanism in cold welding. (a) Scratch brushed surface,
(b) extrusion of virgin material and (c) bonding [23].
weld strength and base metal strength in the deformed state is
indicated in Figs. 2 and 3, where p is the normal pressure. The
bonding mechanism in cold welding is modelled in Fig. 4.
The investigations in [23] have revealed that scratch brushing
creates a surface partly consisting of a relatively thick, hard and
brittle cover layer (approximately 20 mm), partly a surface only
covered by a contaminant lm of oxides and water vapour.
Bonding in these areas occurs when the contaminant lm, which is
of the order of 10100 nm, is thinned to fracture.
Based on the metallographic studies a continuum mechanic
model for the bond strength for cold welding of two similar
materials has been developed, with bond strength predicted as a
function of normal pressure and surface exposure [23]:
sB p  pE Y  Y0 p
1  b b (2)
s0 s0 1  Y 0 s0
where sB is the bond strength, s0 is the ow stress of the material
after deformation, p is the normal pressure on base metal surfaces, pE
is the pressure required to extrude through cracks of the cover layer
and Y0 is the threshold surface exposure for the contaminant lm.
The rst term in Eq. (2) represents the contribution to the bond
strength from the area where fracture of the brittle cover layer
occurs. This applies in zones where one or both of the mating
surfaces have a brittle cover layer, which appears in a fraction:
b c f2
where cf is the fraction of lm layer on the scratch brushed surface
and is determined by measurements on scanning electron
micrographs of scratch brushed surfaces, cf = 0.645 implying
b = 0.4 for Al 99.5. The pressure p required for extrusion through
cracks of brittle cover layer is a function of the crack width, i.e. the
surface exposure. The relationship, which is shown in Fig. 5, is
calculated by plane strain slipline analysis. The threshold surface
exposure for contaminant lm breakdown of scratch brushed Al
99.5 has been determined to be 0.30  Y0  0.35 by studying a
number of SEM micrographs with different surface exposures to
see at what level welds rst appear [23].
[(Fig._5)TD$IG]
675
[(Fig._6)TD$IG] Fig. 5. Required extrusion pressure for cold welding [23].
Fig. 6. Normalised bond strength vs. surface exposure with normal pressure as
parameter for scratch brushed AlAl [23].
Fig. 6 shows the bond strength normalised with the ow stress
of the deformed material sB/s0 versus the surface exposure with
the normalised normal pressure p/s0 for cold welding of scratch
brushed Al 99.5 (b = 0.4, Y0 = 0.35). At low normal pressure p/
s0 < 2.0 welding is initiated when Y > Y0 by fracture of the
contaminant lm. For p/s0 = 1.5, there is a bend on the curve at
Y = 0.49 corresponding to the starting point of extrusion through
the cracks and weld formation between the segments of the brittle
surface layer. For p/s0 > 2.0 welding is initiated by fracture of the
brittle layer, extrusion through the cracks and weld formation in
between the segments of the brittle surface layer. The lm fracture
mechanism becomes active at Y = Y0 . This explains the bend at
Y = 0.35 of the curves for p/s0 > 2.0 (see Fig. 6). Fig. 7 shows a
comparison of the theoretically calculated weld strength as a
function of surface exposure for two different normal pressures, p/
s0 = 1.85 and 5.1, respectively.
Based on fundamental studies of the inuence of hydrostatic
pressure on the ductility of the cover layer [212] the model was
later expanded to include cold welding of dissimilar metals [213].
Fig. 8(a) shows the theoretically as well as the experimentally
determined bond strength for cold roll bonding aluminium-
aluminium with one-sided, electroless nickel plating, whereas
Fig. 8(b) shows the bond strength for aluminium-mild steel with
one-sided, electroless nickel plating on steel.
The proposed model for the bond strength is generic, applicable
to different types of cold welding by processes such as rolling,
indentation, extrusion and drawing. The different cold welding
processes are presented in Section 2.5. Besides the inuence of
metal combination the threshold surface expansion is dependent
on the type of forming process applied for cold welding, since this
[(Fig._7)TD$IG]
(3)
Fig. 7. Normalised bond strength as function of surface exposure, scratch brushed
aluminiumaluminium for (a) p/s0 = 1.85 and (b) p/s0 = 5.1 [23].
[(Fig._8)TD$IG]
676 K.- Mori et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 62 (2013) 673694
Fig. 8. Calculated and experimental bond strengths as function of reduction in roll
bonding of (a) AlAl with one-sided, electroless Ni-plating and (b) AlSt with
electroless Ni-plating of steel [46].
controls the normalised normal pressure, p/s0. Later work [62]
conrms the proposed mechanisms for bonding in cold pressure
welding.
2.4. Alternative methods of surface preparation
Although scratch brushing is the most commonly used method
of surface preparation, it has disadvantages: the achieved bond
strength has a large scatter caused by the rough surface treatment;
cold welding must be carried out as soon as possible after scratch
brushing and within 10 min.
Systematic investigations of alternative methods for surface
preparation prior to cold roll bonding of aluminiumaluminium
[55], aluminiumcopper, coppercopper and aluminiummild
steel [214] suggest that electrochemical treatment and chemical
plating are good alternatives to scratch brushing. As an example
Fig. 9 shows the weld interface surface after fracture of roll bonded
aluminiumaluminium prepared by electroless nickel plating of
one of the two surfaces. Bonding is already obtained at a reduction
r = 0.35 and at r = 0.5 extensive bonding is established in the cracks
[(Fig._9)TD$IG]
between the fragments of a brittle cover layer.
Fig. 9. Weld interface surface after fracture of roll-bonded, electroless Ni-plated Al
Al [55].
Fig. 10 shows the weld strength in roll bonding aluminium-
aluminium adopting different methods of surface preparation. It
can be seen that electroless nickel plating leads to the earliest bond
formation. Although anodising of aluminium creates a very brittle
cover layer, which is easily fractured by subsequent deformation,
this surface dressing method is not as efcient either as nickel,
electrochemical or electroless plating. This is due to the fragment
size, which is substantially smaller than the one obtained by nickel
[(Fig._10)TD$IG]
Fig. 10. Bond strength as function of reduction and method of surface preparation,
AlAl roll bonding [55].
plating. The optimum choice of surface preparation depends on the
metal combination: electroless nickel plating works best for
coppercopper and aluminiumaluminium; scratch brushing is
efcient for cold roll bonding aluminiumcopper and aluminium
mild steel [214].
2.5. Process variants and applications
2.5.1. Rolling
Roll bonding of two or more sheets is applied in a large variety
of combinations as a cladding process of sheets. Evaporator plates
for heat exchangers made of aluminium and copper used in
refrigerators [123] and solar heat panels are made by roll bonding,
with stop-off ink prints applied to prevent bonding in channels
which are then inated after welding [185]. Other applications of
the roll bonding process include compound plates of aluminium
copper, aluminiumstainless steel and aluminiumcopperstain-
less steel for cookware [19], aluminiumstainless steel for vehicle
bumpers, copperstainless steelcopper for architectural pur-
poses, cupronickelcoppercupronickel for coins [24], and nickel
stainless steelcopper and nickelironnickel for button cell
batteries, see Engineered Materials Solutions [63] and Hitachi
Cable [95]. After cleaning, roll bonding is carried out, reducing the
thickness to approximately 20%. The process may be carried out at
elevated temperatures to facilitate deformation of harder metal
combinations. Subsequent heat treatment may be applied to
improve bond strength by diffusion.
AlSn and AlZn alloys are roll-bonded to mild steel for use in
automotive slide bearings. In this application asymmetrical rolling
is performed using a 3-high mill with a small work roll contacting
the softer aluminium and the larger work roll (of the same size as
the supporting roll for the smaller work roll) contacting the harder
steel strip. In this way the aluminium is smeared out on the steel
surface in a kind of shear welding operation. Precious metal
contacts for the electronics industry are also manufactured by roll
bonding. Stainless steel and Ti alloys are roll-bonded for the
chemical and nuclear industries [218], and Tistainless steelNi is
used for fuel cell electrodes [47].
A combination of base metals like alloys of copper, aluminium,
nickel, iron and stainless steel with inlays of gold, silver, palladium
and tin can be roll-bonded for connectors, lead frames and
industrial electronics [135].
Mathematical modelling of material ow, stresses and strains in
multilayer roll bonding of dissimilar materials has been carried out
by Kiuchi et al. [111] and Steinlage et al. [175] for applications such
as thermostat metals, electronic contacts, aluminium aircraft
panels, electronic motor and relay contacts.
2.5.2. Indentation
Lap joining by local indentation in the two plates or bars to be
welded is a common cold welding operation, normally carried out
by small tool indentation. Indentation may be done from both sides
with opposing indenters or from one side only using an indenter
tool and a at anvil. The indenters may be of round or rectangular
cross section with a diameter or minimum cross section typically
being one to three times the thickness of the sheets. The required
reduction in thickness is 5090%. Lap joining is typically applied to
join aluminiumaluminium, aluminiumcopper, coppercopper
including alloys for electricity supply. Copper terminals are
bonded to aluminium windings for transformers in automotive
starter motors. Cold welding by indentation has also been applied
for sealing of micro tubes made of copper used for cooling of
microelectronics [180].
2.5.3. Butt welding
Cold butt welding of wires and bars is done by multiple
upsetting as illustrated in Fig. 11. No preceding surface treatment
is required since the original, contaminated end surfaces are forced
out into the ash. To obtain a good bond multiple upsetting is
performed 26 times.
[(Fig._1)TD$IG] [(Fig._13)TD$IG]
K.- Mori et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 62 (2013) 673694 677

Fig. 11. (a) Schematic outline of cold butt welding with multiple upset and (b) cold
butt welded copper bar, cross section 3 mm  5 mm.

Cold butt welding is applied for joining wire ends in wire-

drawing production and electrical busbars, for example when
providing aluminium busbars with copper terminals. Automotive
aluminium wheel rims are manufactured by cold butt welding at
aluminium band, which is subsequently roll-formed to the
required prole shape. Cold butt welding of similar materials is
used in wire drawing production of aluminium and copper and in
electried transport like trolley buses and electric trains [176].
Machines for cold butt welding include small, manually operated
machine tools for thin wire combination (0.072.0 mm) and
hydraulic machines for larger butt welds [41].
2.5.4. Extrusion
Tube transition joints of aluminiumstainless steel, alumi-
niumtitanium and zirconiummild steel are manufactured for
nuclear power [166] and space technology [197] by forward tube
extrusion. Fig. 12(a) shows that the harder tube is placed nearest to
[(Fig._12)TD$IG]
Fig. 13. (a) and (b) Extruded groove and tongue for shear welding, (c) assembled
joint, (d) sandwich constructions assembled by shear welding of extruded
aluminium proles and (e) air cooler, courtesy of Honsel [134].
3. Friction stir welding
3.1. Introduction
Solid-state welding operations using friction and plastic
deformation have been known for several decades. Materials
around the interface are heated by friction between continuously
moving surfaces, and then the force is applied to cause large plastic
deformation for bonding the surfaces [190]. A few different
variations have been presented as rotary, linear and orbital friction
[(Fig._14)TD$IG]welding processes (Fig. 14) [191].

Fig. 14. Different variations of friction welding operations. (a) Rotary, (b) linear and
(c) orbital motions.
Fig. 12. (a) Forward tube extrusion of transition joints [166] and (b) encapsulation
by ironing [24]. In 1991, TWI (The Welding Institute) patented a new solid-state
welding process dened as Friction Stir Welding (FSW) [181]. In
this process, plastic deformation leading to the joining of the parts
the conical die opening. The punch is provided with a mandrel is induced by a specially designed rotating tool with a pin at its end
tting the tube holes, thereby eliminating inwards ow. Electronic which is inserted with a tilt angle into the adjoining edges of the
devices and nuclear fuel elements are encapsulated by cold sheets to be welded up to a proper tool sinking depth, and then it is
welding using an extrusion process, where the lid is joined to the
[(Fig._15)TD$IG]
can housing by an ironing operation, Fig. 12(b), [176]. Co-axial bi-
metallic tubes of A1050 clad with A2014 are made by multi-billet
extrusion in which the two metals are joined in the die. In the same
way, two-layer and three-layer tubes of metals and ceramics can
be produced [51].

2.5.5. Shear welding

In several special cases, relative sliding between two surfaces in
the so-called shear welding is applied. Fig. 13(a)(c) shows the
principle of combining extruded aluminium proles using a
groove and tongue like joint. The groove geometry ensures
large local surface expansion and the taper of the tongue ensures
high normal pressure in the interface together with the shear
deformation. This technique is applied for joining half open
aluminium extrusion proles to closed sandwich constructions as
shown in Fig. 13(d). They are used for house building, stiffened
panels for containers, trucks and vans and ships sides. Fig. 13(e) Fig. 15. (a) FSW process for joining workpieces and (b) welded AA6181-T4 and
shows an air cooler assembled by the same technique [134]. DP600 [56].
[(Fig._16)TD$IG]
678 [(Fig._18)TD$IG]
K.- Mori et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 62 (2013) 673694

Fig. 16. Material and thermal ows in FSW of (a) butt, (b) lap and (c) T-joints.

moved along the seam (Fig. 15) [141]. The frictional work of tool
rotation causes a local increase in material temperature, in turn
softening the material [35]. As the tool feeds, the large plastic
deformation caused by the stirring of materials leads to material
welding. The combination of the rotational speed and feed rate of
the tool leads to an asymmetric metal ow. An advancing side
(A.S.) and a retreating side (R.S.) are observed in the joint section:
the former is characterised by the positive combination of the
tool feed rate and rotational speed; on the contrary, in the latter the
two velocity vectors are in opposite directions [148].
Although research work on FSW has mainly focused on the butt
joint, the most common welded joints are the lap [196] and T-joint
[210] congurations occurring in three-dimensional space-frames.
In the butt joint, the surfaces to be welded are vertical, while the
surfaces in the lap and T-joints are horizontal and located at the
bottom of the top blank to be welded, respectively (Fig. 16). For the
lap and T-congurations, more heat ux is required and proper tool pin
shapes must be chosen carefully to force a downwards material ow.
The application of FSW has spread widely in the transportation
[108], aeronautical [126], automobile [32] and building industries
(see Fig. 17). In airplanes and trains, the use of aluminium increases
because of the reduction in weight, and thus FSW is employed to
join aluminium workpieces. Although FSW is used mainly for
joining of aluminium, the application is extended to harder metals
[(Fig._17)TD$IG] dissimilar metals.
and
Fig. 17. Industrial applications of FSW to (a) trains [108] and (b) aeroplane [126].
Fig. 18. (a) Friction stir spot welding of sheets, (b) joining of automobile aluminium
[(Fig._19)TD$IG]
and steel panels and (c) cross section of joint (Mazda Motor Corporation) [75].
Fig. 19. Microstructure in cross section of AA 7075-T6 butt joint [65].
3.2. Processes and results
The microstructure in a transverse section through a welded
joint is asymmetrical due to the difference in metal ow on the
advancing and retreating sides of the tool as shown in Fig. 19 [87].
Moving from the periphery towards the welding line of the joint,
the base material is found rst. Then the heat affected zone (HAZ) is
reached: in this region the material has undergone a thermal cycle
which has modied the microstructure and the mechanical
properties. The next distinct zone, the thermo-mechanically
affected zone (THAZ), shows material that has been plastically
deformed by the tool and heated [35]. Finally the so-called nugget
zone close to the welding line is found. In this zone, micro-
structural evidence suggests that a continuous dynamic recrys-
tallisation process has occurred, with the disruptive mechanical
and heating action of the tool pin creating ne, equiaxed and
recrystallised grains with a nominal dimension of few a micro-
metres [206]. Some shapes of tool pins have been proposed to
extend the nugget zone as much as possible, improving mechanical
joint performance [182].
The thermal effect on joints by FSW is smaller than that by
fusion welding due to lower temperatures as shown in Fig. 20, and
the accuracy of the joint is improved [142].
In aeronautical and aerospace applications, it is often necessary
to locally enhance the stiffness of the structure through so-called
[(Fig._20)TD$IG]
skin and stringer congurations. For the development of T-joints,

Friction stir spot welding has been developed as an alternative

to resistance spot welding motivated by the difculty of resistance
welding of aluminium sheets [157]. In this process the rotating
tool penetrates the lapped sheets without feeding as shown in
Fig. 18, and only the spot is welded. This operation is repeated
along a seam, commonly used in resistance spot welding. Friction
stir spot welding is mainly applied for joining automotive
aluminium panels, but has also been used to join aluminium Fig. 20. Distortion of aluminium alloy sheets joined by (a) FSW and (b) MIG welding
and steel panels [75]. [142].
[(Fig._21)TD$IG]
K.- Mori et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 62 (2013) 673694
Fig. 21. (a) Effective bonding for AA6082 T-joints and (b) ow defect for AA2024 T-
joints [67].
two welding seams are usually carried out on the two sides of the
stringer part close to the interface. The application of FSW seems to
be a promising means to improve the mechanical performance of
the joint, with the tool applied on the external surface of the skin
(Fig. 16(c)). In this case, a strong forging action is exerted on the
material by the lower part of the clamping xture, in order to
create the nal shape of the joint, and in particular its llets.
Compared to the process used for butt joints, larger values of the
tilt angle must be chosen for T-joints in order to avoid ow defects
during the process [66].
The mechanical performance of T-joints by FSW depends on the
response of the materials being joined to the temperatures, strains
and strain rates that arise from the chosen tool rotational speed
and feed rate. Fig. 21 shows effective bonding and a ow defect
arising in joints of AA6082 and AA2024, respectively [67].
3.3. Joint strength
Joint strength for FSW depends on both local micro-mechanical
and distributed macro features. The process mechanics determine
local variations of material behaviour. Microhardness tests carried
out in the transverse section of the joints demonstrate how
material evolves during FSW [35]. In particular, precipitation
hardened aluminium alloys typically show a softening of the
material along the transverse section of the joint due to a reduction
of the precipitate density after welding. If the solubilisation
threshold temperature is reached, precipitate zones solubilise with
the matrix material, creating the opposite of the effect of
precipitation hardening. The microhardness in the nugget zone
is higher than that in the HAZ and TMAZ areas [69]. This is due to
the strong reduction in average dimension of grains and the
prevention of reduction of the precipitate density [20]. For work-
hardened aluminium alloys, an increase in hardness is observed in
the nugget area, due grain renement from the stirring action, and
with no change in the distribution of precipitates. The same
macroscopic behaviour is seen in Ti6Al4V [215]. However,
titanium alloys are more metallurgically complex: above the b-
transition temperature, these alloys may form a duplex structure
and experience dynamic recrystallisation.
The static strength of butt joints by FSW is summarised in
Fig. 22 from a review of published tensile tests. The static strength
is dependent on the materials and welding conditions, and is as
[(Fig._2)TD$IG]
high as that of fusion-welded joints.
Fig. 22. Relationship between ratio of tensile strength of FSW butt joint to base
metal and thickness of workpiece for various materials [18,28,74,104,163,173,207].
[(Fig._23)TD$IG]
679
Fig. 23. Fatigue strengths of FSW and fusion-welded joints [64].
The fatigue strength of the FSW joint is compared with those of
the fusion-welded joints in Fig. 23 [64]. The fatigue strength is
superior to fusion welding.
3.4. Joining of dissimilar workpieces
The FSW processes have been used to join dissimilar metals in a
solid state. Aluminium alloy and steel workpieces were joined by
preventing the formation of brittle intermetallic compounds at the
interface [76]. Aluminium alloy and high strength steel [56] and
aluminium alloy and stainless steel [187] were joined (see Fig. 24).
Lap joints between aluminium and steel have also been created
by FSW [48]. The performance of the joint depends strongly on the
depth to which the pin of the FSW tool penetrates into the lower
steel plate [49]. Aluminium and copper plates have also been
welded in lap joints [1]. At the interface between the two materials
a dark area was observed with several intermetallic compounds
[167].
Aircraft stringers are typically extruded and are stronger than
wing skins, but can be welded to the skin plate either in lap or in T-
joint congurations. In Fig. 25 macro and micro images of a T-joint
conguration of a skin and stringer panel are shown: the skin is
2.3 mm thick AA2024-T4 and the stringer is a 2.8 mm thick
[(Fig._24)TD$IG]
AA7075-T6 extruded part [13].
Fig. 24. Macroscopic overview of cross section of Al 6013-T4 alloy to X5CrNi18-10
[(Fig._25)TD$IG]
stainless steel by FSW [187].
Fig. 25. Cross section of T-joint of AA2024-T4 skin and AA7075-T6 stringer [13].
3.5. Special treatments related to simulation and calculated results
Two main approaches have been used for numerical simulation
of the FSW processes: thermal models [168], taking into account
the heat generated by both friction and plastic deformation [174],
and 2D and 3D thermo-mechanical analyses based on the nite
element method [127]. The latter contributions have been focused
on the coupling phenomena [40], on the evolution of material
characteristics [217] and on the contact conditions at the tool
[(Fig._26)TD$IG]
680
K.- Mori et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 62 (2013) 673694
Fig. 26. Distributions of temperature, strain and strain-rate in FSW of AA5754-H111
(rotational speed: 700 rpm, feed rate: 100 mm/min) [34].
workpiece interface [16]. A 3D continuous FEM model of the FSW
processeswas presented to show the distribution of the most
important eld variables, namely metal ow, strain, strain-rate and
temperature (Fig. 26) [34]. The model was based on the single block
approach [33]: the interaction between a single blank and a rotating
and advancing tool was simulated without taking into account the
bonding of two separate blanks. Microstructure evolution has been
included in the model [65] which can also account for FSW of
dissimilar blanks [36]. However, simulation of solid bonding
phenomena is still an open issue, particularly for 3D simulations.
4. Self-pierce riveting and mechanical clinching of sheets
4.1. Introduction
The reduction in weight of automobile parts is a key target in
improving the fuel consumption of cars. For this purpose, high
strength steel and aluminium alloy sheets are attractive [120]. In
particular, the use of high strength steel sheets for body-in-white
parts is increasing. If high strength steel and aluminium sheets are
used together, an appropriate joining process is required. However,
as steel and aluminium melt at very different temperatures,
resistance spot welding cannot be used. In addition, it is not easy to
weld aluminium sheets because of their high thermal conductivity,
low melting point, and natural surface oxide layer. To solve these
problems, self-pierce riveting and mechanical clinching have been
developed. In these processes the sheets are mechanically
interlocked without metallurgical bonding by controlled plastic
deformation. Because the processes operate at ambient tempera-
ture, the different melting temperatures do not create a difculty.
In self-pierce riveting the sheets are pierced with a tubular
rivet, without a pre-drilled hole as shown in Fig. 27. The rivet is
driven through the upper sheet and the skirt of the rivet is ared in
the lower sheet to create an interlock: the lower sheet is hooked on
[(Fig._27)TD$IG]the ared skirt.
Fig. 27. Joining of sheets by self-pierce riveting. (a) Start, (b) driving through upper
sheet and (c) formation of interlock.
The requirements for successful self-pierce riveting are:
 driving the rivet skirt through the upper sheet into the lower
sheet;
 aring the rivet skirt in the lower sheet the rivet must have
sufcient strength to penetrate the upper sheet, but also
sufcient ductility for aring;
 avoiding fracture in the lower sheet that might cause corrosion.
In the rst patent for self-pierce riveting, led by Fuhrmeister
[73], the skirt of the rivet was driven entirely through the lower
[(Fig._28)TD$IG]
Fig. 28. Equipment of self-pierce riveting attached to robot and application to
joining of automobile body panels.
sheet. However, the self-pierce riveting process largely used in
practice today, in which the lower sheet is not fully penetrated,
was developed by Henrob Ltd. [96]. Applications of the process
have grown over the last decade mainly in the automobile
industry, introduction to automotive parts [21], comparison with
the welding processes [92] and inclusion in assembly processes
[139] (see Fig. 28). The applicable range also extends to air
conditioners and housing steel frames. Self-pierce riveting is
mainly used to join aluminium sheets, but is also applied to coated
steel, copper, sandwich materials [159], plastics [170], multiple
sheets [106] and dissimilar materials.
In mechanical clinching, sheets are joined by local hemming
with a punch and die, but without a rivet as shown in Fig. 29. The
joining mechanism is similar to that of self-pierce riveting: the
sheets are bulged with the punch, and then compressed with the
punch and die. An interlock is formed between the upper and lower
sheets by the different amounts of plastic deformation of the two
sheets, which creates a round button. The ring groove of the die
cavity assists the formation of the interlock. The requirements for
[(Fig._29)TD$IG]
joining the sheets in mechanical clinching are:
Fig. 29. Joining of sheets by mechanical clinching. (a) Start, (b) bulging, (c)
compression and (d) formation of interlock.
 forming the interlock by control of the plastic deformation of the
sheets;
 avoiding excessive thinning of the upper sheet at the neck of the
joint;
 avoiding fracture of either sheet which would allow corrosion.
The strength of the joint is inuenced by the degree of interlock
and the thickness of the upper sheet at the neck.
Mechanical clinching originates from shear clinching using
local cutting and upsetting of sheets with rectangular tools [124];
later, clinching became a joining process using an interlock
without cutting [192]. Mechanical clinching is widely used for
electrical appliances and cars [153] (see Fig. 30).
The advantages of self-pierce riveting and mechanical clinching
without heating are:
 short joining time
 high tool life
 simple equipment
In addition, self-pierce riveting features higher strength of the
joint, and mechanical clinching has cheaper joining cost without a
rivet.
[(Fig._30)TD$IG] [(Fig._32)TD$IG]
K.- Mori et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 62 (2013) 673694 681

Fig. 32. Self-pierce riveting with cylindrical rivets. (a) Start, (b) driving through
Fig. 30. Industrial applications of mechanical clinching [183]. upper sheet, (c) formation of interlock and (d) joined sheets [107].

The disadvantages of the two processes are:
 access required from both sides of joint with punch and die
 bulges and indents in joint
 relatively large joining force
The punch and die are mounted on a C-frame commonly used
for resistance spot welding to allow access to both sides of the joint
as shown in Fig. 28.
A cylindrical aluminium rivet without a skirt has also been
developed [107], with an optimised die to form the interlock as
shown in Fig. 32. Manufacturing these cylindrical rivets is simpler
than conventional designs, and they lead to reduced distortion
around the joint [152]. A pipe rivet has also been developed [99].
Neugebauer et al. [149] developed self-pierce riveting and
mechanical clinching without a die using hydrostatic pressure
have been (see Fig. 33). In this approach the need to access the
second side of the joint is avoided by substituting hydrostatic
pressure for the lower die. This approach is effective in joining

4.2. Processes and results

[(Fig._3)TD$IG]
tubes because it is difcult to install a die in an inner tube.

4.2.1. Self-pierce riveting

The interlock in self-pierce riveting is created by controlling the
plastic deformation of the sheets and rivet, and this depends on the
thickness of the sheets, ow stress and ductility of the sheets and
the rivet, shapes of tools, etc. The shapes of the rivet and die can be
optimised for each sheet combination, although it is difcult to use
self-pierce rivets with thin lower sheets due to the danger of
rupture. Fig. 33. Hydrostatic self-pierce riveting of tubes. (a) Start, (b) driving through outer
tube and (c) formation of interlock [149].
The bottom of the die cavity generally has a ring groove for
aring the skirt of the rivet. As the diameter and depth of the die 4.2.2. Mechanical clinching
cavity increase, the riveting load decreases because the deforma-
Mechanically clinched joints fail either due to neck fracture or
tion is less constrained. The degree of interlock may be increased button separation (Fig. 34) [146] which occurs due to excessive
by high speed riveting [198] and the effect of speed was evaluated
neck thinning or insufcient interlock, respectively [121]. The
[151]. Taguchi method has been used to improve tool designs to avoid
Self-pierce riveting can be applied to joining of more than three
these failures [155], and tool maintenance has been discussed
sheets [91]. In the design of the joining process of more than three
sheets, the sheets except for the lower sheet are treated as one
[(Fig._34)TD$IG]
[194].

sheet, because the rivet skirt is driven through these sheets [106].
Rivets are mostly made from high strength boron steel, with a
hardness between 400 and 530 HV, although the required strength
depends on the materials being joined [177]. The rivet is often
plated with zinc to prevent corrosion. Hard steel rivets are
generally used when joining aluminium sheets, but aluminium
rivets have also been developed to improve recyclability [3], the
effects of shapes [7] and heat treatment [97] of the aluminium Fig. 34. Failures of joint by mechanical clinching. (a) Neck fracture and (b) button
rivets have been examined. As rivets made from aluminium are separation [146].
less strong than that of steel, a conventionally designed skirt of a
rivet would be compressed during riveting as shown in Fig. 31(a).
Mechanical clinching is useful for joining zinc-coated steel
The shapes of the rivet and die can therefore be optimised to form
sheets [193], which are increasingly used in car bodies and
[(Fig._31)TD$IG] interlock as shown in Fig. 31(b).
the
electrical appliances, and which cause problems for resistance spot
welding. The layer thicknesses of coating on the upper surface of
the upper sheet and on the lower surface of the lower sheet are
reduced due to contact with the punch and bulging into the ring
groove, respectively [26]. A at bottomed die without a ring groove
was developed to improve corrosion resistance [8], and the effect
on the prevention was examined as shown in Fig. 35 [10],
approaching corrosion resistance of the as-received coated sheet.
Round tools are generally employed for mechanical clinching.
Joints made by square tools were compared with those of round
Fig. 31. Self-pierce riveting with aluminium alloy rivets [3]. (a) Conventional and (b) ones [38]. The joint strength for the round tools is stronger, as
optimised die and rivet. shown in Fig. 36.
[(Fig._35)TD$IG]
682 [(Fig._38)TD$IG]
K.- Mori et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 62 (2013) 673694

Fig. 35. Improvement of corrosion resistance for joining of steel sheets by

mechanical clinching with die having at bottom in comparison with spot welding.
[(Fig._36)TD$IG]
(a) 590 MPa and (b) 370 MPa steel sheets [10].

Fig. 38. Failures and loadstroke curves for static tension-shearing test of
aluminium alloy sheets joined by self-pierce riveting, mechanical clinching and
resistance spot welding. (a) Cross sections after test and (b) loadstroke curves
[146].

examined the effect of interfacial conditions on the fretting fatigue.

Sun et al. [178] showed that the fatigue strength of self-pierce
riveted joints is considerably higher than that of the resistance spot
welded joints. Carboni et al. [43] found that the location of crack
formation in fatigue testing of steel sheets joined by mechanical
clinching corresponds to the location of stress concentrations
Fig. 36. Comparison between shear loads obtained from round and square tools calculated by nite element simulation. The fatigue strength is
[38]. strongly dependent on the stress distribution during repeated
loading of the joint.
The bottom of joints formed by mechanical clinching is The failures and loadstroke curves for static tension-shearing
attened by compression with a at die as shown in Fig. 37 test of aluminium sheets joined by self-pierce riveting, mechanical
[94]. Heated at dies have been used to reduce the pre-heating clinching and resistance spot welding are shown in Fig. 38 [146]. In
time for magnesium alloy sheets having low ductility [150]. The the static tension-shearing test, failures occur after large plastic
temperature around the joint was raised by heat transfer from the deformation. In self-pierce riveting, the rivet is pulled out of the
die, and the danger of sheet fracture was reduced by relieving the lower sheet, the upper sheet fractures at the neck in mechanical
[(Fig._37)TD$IG]
concentration of plastic deformation with the at die. clinching, and the weld nugget fractures in resistance spot
welding. The maximum load for self-pierce riveting is the highest,
resistance spot welding is in the middle and mechanical clinching
is the lowest. This trend is similar to that for the static cross-
tension test.
[(Fig._39)TD$IG]

Fig. 37. Flattening of bottom of joint formed by mechanical clinching [150].

4.3. Joint strength

Since the self-pierce riveting and mechanical clinching

processes are based on mechanical joining with no metallurgical
bonding, the strength characteristics are different from the
metallurgical joining processes. Fatigue strength in particular is
crucial for joined car body panels. Fu and Mallick [72] examined
the fatigue behaviour of self-pierce riveted joints in aluminium
sheets. Li and Fatemi [122] compared static and fatigue strengths
of self-pierce riveted joints in aluminium sheets. Chen et al. [50]
and Han et al. [90] investigated the fretting fatigue of self-pierce Fig. 39. Relationship between load amplitude and number of cycles in fatigue
riveted joints in two aluminium sheets, and Han et al. [89] tension-shearing test [146].

K.- Mori et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 62 (2013) 673694
The relationship between the load amplitude and number of
cycles in the fatigue tension-shearing test is shown in Fig. 39 [146].
Each test was ended when the displacement became excessive. In
mechanical clinching, self-pierce riveting and resistance spot
welding the upper sheet fractures at the neck in the joint, around
the head of the rivet and around the weld nugget, respectively. The
static strength of self-pierce riveting shown in Fig. 38 is about 1.5
times as large as that of resistance spot welding, while the fatigue
strength is increased threefold, and the fatigue strength for
mechanical clinching is similar to that of resistance spot welding.
Self-pierce riveting has superior fatigue strength.
Both static and fatigue strengths in mechanical clinching were
increased by means of the step punch as shown in Fig. 40 [11]. The
thickness of the upper sheet at the neck of the joint was increased
by compressing the sheets with the step portion of the punch and,
[(Fig._40)TD$IG]
thus, not only static strength but also fatigue strength is improved.
Fig. 40. Comparison between fatigue strengths of joint by punches with and
without step portion [11].
4.4. Joining of dissimilar sheet metals
Self-piece riveting and mechanical clinching allow the joining
of dissimilar sheet metals. In particular joining of steel and
aluminium sheets may enable some lightweighting in cars. Defects
in joints between dissimilar sheet metals typically arise due to
differences in the ow stress and ductility of the sheets, which
suggest a need for careful control of the plastic deformation of both
sheets. It is, however, comparatively easy to join mild steel and
aluminium sheets by self-piece riveting [2] and mechanical
clinching [4] because they have similar ow stresses and sufcient
ductility. The effect of the different ow stresses of steel and
aluminium on the joinability of self-pierce riveting has been
examined by nite element simulation [42].
Different high strength steel sheets were joined with alumi-
nium sheets by self-pierce riveting using a conventional rivet and
die [145]. Satisfactory interlocks were formed in 440 and 590 MPa
steel sheets, but for the 980 MPa steel sheet, the rivet skirt was
largely compressed and not driven through the upper sheet. By
optimising the shape of the die it was possible to join the 980 MPa
steel and aluminium sheets in self-pierce riveting as shown in
Fig. 41 [9]. Three aluminium and steel sheets [5] as well as polymer
and aluminium sheets [170] and breglass composite and
aluminium sheets [68] were joined by self-pierce riveting.
[(Fig._41)TD$IG]
Fig. 41. Self-pierce riveting of 980 MPa steel and aluminium alloy sheets using (a)
conventional and (b) optimised dies [9].
[(Fig._42)TD$IG]
683
Fig. 42. Mechanical clinching of upper aluminium alloy and lower high strength
steel sheets [6].
In mechanical clinching of an aluminium sheet onto a high
strength steel sheet, fracture was observed in the steel sheet due to
a high degree of deformation around the corner of the punch.
Cracks were caused by the tensile stress in the bulged part of the
steel sheet in the groove of the die (see Fig. 42) [6]. These defects
were prevented by optimising the shape of the die [12] and by
punching the lower sheet [39]. Injection-moulded plastic ribs have
also been joined to clinched sheets [84].
4.5. Special treatments related to simulation and calculated results
Finite element simulation can be used to optimise self-pierce
riveting and mechanical clinching processes. For example, in a
particular case study, tool shapes for mechanical clinching were
optimised using the response surface methodology [156].
Plastic deformation of the sheets is concentrated around the
rivet skirt tip in self-pierce riveting and around the corner of the
punch in mechanical clinching. In simulating such large plastic
deformations, element meshes are severely distorted so accuracy
deteriorates and analyses may even terminate prematurely due to
convergence problems. Thus adaptive remeshing is used to avoid
the severe mesh distortion in self-pierce riveting [160] and
mechanical clinching [86]. Forming limits to driving the rivet skirt
through the upper sheet in self-pierce riveting have been predicted
using the normalised Latham and Cockroft damage law and kill-
element technique [52], the GursonTvergaard damage model [17]
and the Lemaitre coupled damage model [30]. When element
aspect ratios deteriorated, elements were deleted, as fracture
would occur [5] (see Fig. 43). This leads to simple treatment
without damage models.
The point-connector model was employed to evaluate the static
strength of the joint by self-pierce riveting in the shell element
approximation [93].
[(Fig._43)TD$IG]
Fig. 43. Treatment of driving through upper sheet by elimination of elements in
nite element simulation of self-pierce riveting. (a) Punch stroke: 0, (b) 1.7, (c) 3.7
and (d) 5.0 mm [5].
684 K.- Mori et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 62 (2013) 673694
5. Joining by forming
5.1. Joining mechanism
Functions of joining workpieces are incorporated into forming
processes such as extrusion, forging, tube forming and sheet metal
forming. In joining by forming, workpieces are mechanically joined
by controlling plastic deformation [83]. The development of new
joining processes is comparatively active in this led because of
excellent use of plastic deformation during forming.
An interference-t joint is based on a difference in the elastic
recovery of the two parts being joined, leading to an interference
pressure between the parts after deformation. Such joints can be
manufactured between tubular workpieces, for example, either by
expansion or compression of the parts to be joined. The two parts
are aligned (Fig. 44) and then the inner part the tube in this case
is expanded by the internal forming pressure. When the pressure
exceeds a critical value, plastic deformation starts from the
internal surface of the tube and expands towards the outside. After
the assembly gap is bridged the tube touches the ring and the parts
expand together as the forming pressure increases. When the
forming pressure is released, both parts recover elastically. Since
the elastic recovery of the ring is larger than that of the tube, the
tube prevents a complete recovery of the ring. This difference in
elastic deformation can be achieved, for instance, by using a ring
material with a higher yield stress than the tube material. As a
result, the interference pressure at the interface between the two
parts is formed [81]. The optimal maximum forming pressure is
reached just before the outer part starts to deform plastically [132].
A further increase of the forming pressure would increase the
interference pressure only minimally due to work-hardening of the
[(Fig._4)TD$IG]
parts.
Fig. 44. Principle of interference-t joint manufactured by expansion. (a)
Positioning, (b) maximum expansion under forming pressure and (c) elastic
recovery [132].
The joint strength of an interference-t connection is deter-
mined by Coulombs law of friction. The joint strength depends on
the coefcient of friction, the interference pressure and the area of
the joining zone usually constrained by design restrictions in
industrial applications. However, it may be possible to increase the
coefcient of friction, for example by cleaning the contact areas of
the parts to be joined, or increasing the surface roughness [132].
Shot peening and machining with different cutting parameters
have been used to increase the surface roughness, and thus the
joint strength increases [88].
For form-t joints, one of the parts to be joined has additional
geometric elements such as circumferential grooves (Fig. 45). To
create the connection, the tube material is formed into these
elements and an undercut produced [200]. Such joints can be
exposed to high loads and provide a good seal [209]. The push-out
force increases as the width of the additional element decreases
[(Fig._45)TD$IG]
and its depth increases. The inuence of the groove cross section
Fig. 45. Form-t joint manufactured by electromagnetic forming [200]. (a) CT
picture showing lling of groove (material: EN AW-6060T6; tube:
40 mm  2 mm; mandrel: 36 mm) and (b) and (c) different forming pressures.
(for example rectangular, triangular or circular grooves) has been
investigated showing that rectangular grooves lead to the highest
joint strength [200]. An increased forming pressure leads to a
higher connection strength, as it leads to a higher deformation in
the joining area (Fig. 45(b) and (c)), [209]). Joint strength is also
improved by increasing the number of grooves [158].
Impulse welded joints are solid-state welds in which a metallic
bond is created from the impact of joining parts at very high
velocities vim, up to several hundred m/s, and with impact
pressures up to a few thousands MPa. To create such joints, at least
one of the joining parts must be accelerated rapidly [129]. During
the process, the jetting effect occurs, cleaning the surface by
ejecting a thin layer of material from the contact gap, leaving a
chemically pure surface (Fig. 46). The joint is formed due to
pressure not heat [172]. During the collision, it appears that the
atoms of the two joining parts are pressed towards each other with
such high forces that they overcome their natural repulsive forces.
As a result, they form a new stable equilibrium, sharing and
exchanging electrons. Evidence for this description is provided by
numerical studies of electromagnetic pulse welding [169]. Never-
theless, in some cases indications of melting and solidication
were found in the microstructure of the weld seam [31]. The
interface morphology of an impact weld exhibits a wavy or rippled
pattern [31]. These waves are due to the KelvinHelmholtz
instability [27]. The reected shock waves are responsible for this
pattern. The major parameters affecting the weld quality are the
collision velocity vc, the collision angle b and the material
[(Fig._46)TD$IG]
properties of the joining parts (e.g. density) [57].
Fig. 46. Principle of impulse welding with KelvinHelmoltz waves [27].
The parameters vc and b are primarily related to the applied
forming energy and the initial gap between the joining parts. The
initial gap has to be large enough to provide allow sufcient
workpiece acceleration to generate the required kinetic energy
[154]. However, if the gap is too wide, the moving part starts to
decelerate and the kinetic energy drops below the critical value
required to generate a weld.
Fig. 47 shows the process window of impulse welding
schematically [147]. In area A no welding occurs since the values
of vc and b are too small. Area C is characterised by a joining zone
with large brittle intermetallic phases due to high impact energies
causing melting. The target weld is achieved only in area B. Impulse
[(Fig._47)TD$IG]
Fig. 47. Process window of impulse welding [147].
[(Fig._48)TD$IG] [(Fig._50)TD$IG]
K.- Mori et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 62 (2013) 673694 685

Fig. 48. Examples of components joined by forming. (a) Camshaft, (b) heat
exchanger and (c) mechanically crimped water hose coupling (NEOPERL GmbH).
[(Fig._49)TD$IG]
Fig. 50. Process principle electromagnetic (a) compression and (b) expansion [162].
primary current. The opposing currents cause a repulsive force
between the workpiece and tool coil.
Equations to determine the magnetic eld and the acting forces
are introduced in [114]. The process typically takes place between
10 and 100 ms and the workpiece reaches strain rates of 104 s1 or
higher [162]. Depending on the material properties, the geometry
of the parts and the joint type, the required forming pressures vary
from about 10 MPa up to a few hundred MPa [200]. A simple
analytical model to determine the minimal necessary forming
pressure pmin for form-t joints is introduced [37].

 2
pmin t t
3 (4)
sf w r

where sf is the ow stress, t is the wall thickness of the tube, w is

the groove width and r is the inner diameter of the tube. All three
joint types introduced in Section 5.1 can be manufactured by
electromagnetic forming. Some of the earliest reported industrial
applications were from the electrical industry, like swaging of
copper tubes to coaxial cables [29], joining of metal ttings to
Fig. 49. (a) Lightweight frame structure (SFB Transregio 10), (b) torque tubes (PST ceramic insulators and joining of high voltage cables [165]. The
Products GmbH) and (c) hydraulic compensation vessels (Poynting GmbH).
electrical connections manufactured by electromagnetic forming
have a contact resistance 1.52 times lower than connections
produced by a hydraulic press [172]. Applications for the
welding allows the combination of different metals, such as
automotive industry, e.g. the sealing of rubber protective boots
between aluminium and steel [116], magnesium [117], copper
to ball joint housings and the assembly of air brake hoses, are given
[199] and nickel [77]. Processes used to create impulse welds
in [165]. The manufacturing of high-pressure hoses by electro-
include magnetic impulse welding, explosive welding and laser
magnetic compression is also reported in [100]. Further specic
impact welding (Section 6.6).
examples for the automotive, electrical, nuclear and defence
In this chapter, the following processes for joining plates, tubes
industries were presented in [205]. Depending on the joint type,
and shapes without the use of additional fasteners are introduced:
connection strengths up to the strength of the weakest part can be
joining by electromagnetic forming and by die-less hydroforming,
achieved by joining through electromagnetic forming [158].
mechanical and hydraulic crimping, joining by incremental
Impulse welded joints are discussed in Section 5.7. A parameter,
forming, joining by rolling, hemming and impulse welding, etc.
which is specically important for interference-t joints generated
Figs. 48 and 49 show a selection of components manufactured by
by electromagnetic forming, is the initial gap a0 between the
these joining processes. Typical industrial applications for joining
workpieces [115]. The part is rst accelerated to a certain
by forming are joint camshafts (Fig. 48(a)), heat exchangers
maximum velocity and afterwards it decelerates. In order to
(Fig. 48(b)) and hose couplings (mechanical crimping, Fig. 48(c)).
achieve the highest joint strength, a0 shall be chosen so that the
Other possible applications include the joining of lightweight
impact velocity corresponds to the maximum one reached at a
frame structures and torque tubes (Fig. 49(a) and (b)).
given charging energy (Fig. 51).
[(Fig._51)TD$IG]
5.2. Joining by electromagnetic forming

Electromagnetic forming is a contactless impulse forming

process [204]. The technique uses pulsed magnetic elds to form
highly conductive metals such as aluminium. The process can be
used for the compression or expansion of proles with a closed
cross section as well as for forming of sheet metal [162]. Fig. 50
shows the general setup for tube compression and expansion by
electromagnetic forming. It consists of the electromagnetic
forming machine, the tool coil and the workpieces. This setup
can be represented by an RLC circuit, in which the forming machine
is symbolised by the resistance R, the inductance L and the
capacitance C. A sudden discharge of the capacitor generates a
damped sinusoidal current I(t) typically between 104 and 106 kA
through the coil [60]. The resulting magnetic eld around the coil Fig. 51. Joint strength versus gap for electromagnetically joined interference-t
induces a secondary current in the workpiece, which opposes the connections [115].
686 [(Fig._53)TD$IG]
K.- Mori et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 62 (2013) 673694

Besides circumferential grooves, knurled or treaded surfaces

are suitable for electromagnetically joined connections [131]. Due
to the impact velocities of the process, these small elements are
lled and high joint strengths can be achieved.

5.3. Joining by die-less hydroforming

Die-less hydroforming is a joining by forming process that uses

a pressurised hydraulic uid to generate interference-t and form-
t joints. The process was originally introduced as an alternative to
joining by rolling used for the production of tube-to-tubesheet
joints in tube bundle heat exchangers (Fig. 48(b)) [119]. In the rst
process step the ring is aligned coaxially to the tube and a hydro-
probe is positioned inside the inner joining part [132]. The probe is
placed in the axial direction in the joining area underneath the
outer ring (Fig. 52). In the next step a pressurised uid (e.g. water
and oil) is applied to the joining area, which is sealed in the axial
direction. Therefore, the uid pressure pf can only act locally in this
area [208]. The gap between the two parts, which is in the range of
a few tenths of a millimetre, is closed after which both parts are
deformed together. In the last step the forming pressure is released
and the parts recover elastically creating the interference-t or
form-t joint (Fig. 52). The interference pressure in the resulting
joint is determined mainly by the ratio of the geometry and yield
[(Fig._52)TD$IG]
stresses of the parts.
Fig. 53. Process window of joining by hydroforming obtained from analytical
calculation [132].
other parameters remain unchanged (see Fig. 53, example pf,1).
Since the stiffness of the outer ring decreases, less uid pressure is
required to reach the point where the plastic deformation of the
ring begins. Therefore, the resulting elastic recovery as well as the
interference pressure is higher than in rings with larger wall
thicknesses. Similarly, the upper limit to joint strength decreases
as the stiffness of the outer part decreases [132]. The uid pressure
for form-t joints to achieve a complete lling of circular
circumferential grooves (Fig. 50) can be estimated analytically
by [79]:

2
p f p s f ;I
3
20 s11 3
 2  2 p
6 DI;o 1 1 w A 1 3  tI 7
 t I 4@ b b  5 (8)
2 2 2 2 b w2

where
2
4d w2
Fig. 52. Process principle of die-less hydroforming. (a) Interference-t and (b) form-
b (9)
4d
t joints [79].
The uid pressure for complete groove lling is affected by the
groove geometry, dened by the groove width w and the groove
An analytical approach to determine the interference pressure p
depth d, and by the yield stress sf,I, diameter DI,o and thickness tI of
for an interference-t connection is given in [132]:
the inner part.
  Industrial application of joining by die-less hydroforming is
p f s f ;I lnQ1 1QO2 2Q 2 s lnQ
I
nO I f ;I 2 I mainly on the following elds or products (Fig. 48(a) and (b) and
EO 1QO2 EI 1QO
p     (5) Fig. 49(a)): tube bundle heat exchangers [208], camshafts [132]
1 1QO2 1 1Q 2
EO 2
1QO
nO EI 1QI
I
2
nI and lightweight frame structures [98].
Joining of camshafts by die-less hydroforming (Fig. 48(a)) is, by
where p is inuenced by the yield stress of the inner joining part sf,I far, the most important example of application. In comparison to
as well as by the Youngs module EI and EO and the Poison ration nI camshafts, which are conventionally forged and machined out of
and nO of the two components. p is also affected by the ratios of the
[(Fig._54)TD$IG]
inner and outer diameters of the inner and outer parts QI and QO.
The maximum uid pressure pf,max that leads to the highest
interference pressure is found in [132] to be:
 
1 1
p f ;max 2  s f ;I  ln s f ;O  1  QO2 (6)
QI 2

where sf,O represents the yield stress of the outer part. Above this
pressure, the ring starts to deform plastically and no further
signicant increase of the interference pressure can occur. The
minimum uid pressure pf,min required to create an interference
pressure (Fig. 53), is given as:
2 !1 3
2  
E O 1 Q 1
p f ;min s f ;I  4  O
nO ln 5 (7)
EI 1  QO2 QI

The effect of the ring thickness on the interference pressure, for

example, can be observed in Fig. 53.
At a constant uid pressure, decreasing the thickness of the Fig. 54. Joining of proles with rectangular cross sections by die-less hydroforming
outer ring leads to an increase of the interference pressure if all [201].
 K.- Mori et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 62 (2013) 673694
one piece, the cams and shaft can be machined separately and
joined afterwards. This allows a considerable reduction in material,
machining work and the camshaft weight.
Lightweight frame structures joined by die-less forming
(Fig. 49(a)) are the focus of recent investigations [98]. For this
purpose, a tool prototype for joining of rectangular proles was
developed and demonstrated [133] (Fig. 54).
5.4. Joining by mechanical and hydraulic crimping
Joining by mechanical crimping uses segmented tools, so-called
crimping dies, which are positioned around the outer part to apply
the required forming pressure [164]. The process was developed in
1930 to join couplings onto hydraulic hoses. In comparison to
swaging, which uses two semi-circular dies, the increased number
of dies in crimping (4, 6, 8 or even 10) leads to a more uniform
distribution of the radial forming pressure and to a higher process
exibility as one tool set can cover a wide range of compression
radii. Before compression starts, the three parts, sleeve, hose and
tting, are loosely assembled (Fig. 55(a)) as described in [53]. The
sleeve and tting are made of metal, while the hose is made of
plastic or rubber and often reinforced with steel wires to resist high
working pressures. In the second step a force or distance controlled
movement of the crimping dies starts (Fig. 55(b)), leading to plastic
compression of the sleeve, resulting in a form-t or interference-t
joint of all three parts. A detailed investigation of mechanical
crimping by numerical simulation is presented in [54], considering
both the elasticplastic deformation of joining and the time-
dependent relaxation of the rubber hose. The results prove that the
interference pressure between the two parts signicantly
decreases due to stress relaxation. This may reduce the pull-out
[(Fig._5)TD$IG]strength or connection tightness.
Fig. 55. Process principle of mechanical crimping. (a) Positioning and (b) crimping
[53].
The most important application of mechanical crimping is for
assembling hoses and hose couplings for hydraulic or pneumatic
applications as described in Fig. 48(c).
Joining by hydraulic crimping uses an elastomer to apply the
required forming pressure [171]. In the rst step the parts to be
joined, typically a tube and mandrel, are positioned inside the
elastomer (Fig. 56(a)). Then a pressure is applied at the outer
circumference of the elastomer by working media (Fig. 56(b)). The
resulting reversible deformation of the elastomer causes plastic
deformation of the outer part causing it to bulge into the grooves or
to create an interference-t with the inner part. In comparison to
[(Fig._56)TD$IG]
Fig. 56. Process principle of hydraulic crimping. (a) Positioning and (b)
pressurisation [171].
687
mechanical crimping, applying pressure via an elastomer allows a
more uniform pressure distribution around the outer part and
leads to scratch-free forming of complex groove geometries.
5.5. Joining by incremental forming
The tube spinning process can be used to manufacture
multilayer material tubes [144]. Two aluminium tubes with
different diameters are mounted together on the mandrel. A force-
t joint is produced by adjusting the gap between roller tool and
mandrel, and moving the forming tool so the thickness of both
parts is reduced. For the parts tested, achieving sufcient joint
strength required 50% thickness reduction and forming at around
230 8C.
In [184] shear spinning is used to manufacture compound
structures. The process is composed of two steps as shown in
Fig. 57. First a preform with undercuts is shaped by the use of a split
mandrel. In the second step a ring is positioned on another mandrel
together with the preform. Both the ring and preform are then
formed by shear spinning to create a form-t joint. Rotary swaging
[(Fig._57)TD$IG]may also be used to achieve the same compound structures.
Fig. 57. Process principle of joining by shear spinning. (a) Preforming and (b) nal
stages [184].
An application of joining by shear spinning is shown in Fig. 58. A
set of forming tools is arranged around the workpiece. To shape the
part, the tools are moved simultaneously several times in the radial
direction at high speed while the workpiece is rotated. The
aluminium cartridge with the integrated ring magnets could be
[(Fig._58)TD$IG]manufactured by this method [82].
Fig. 58. (a) Produced aluminium cartridge with integrated ring magnets by shear
spinning and (b) sectional view of part design [82].
5.6. Joining by rolling
Joining by rolling uses the mechanical contact between the
rolling elements of a tool and an inner part (tube) to expand both
[(Fig._59)TD$IG]parts being joined (Fig. 59). If the expansion (dened by the
Fig. 59. Process principles of joining by rolling with (a) adjustable joining zone and
(b) adjustable expansion [85].
688
K.- Mori et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 62 (2013) 673694
difference between the outer diameter of the motion of the rolling
elements and the initial inner tube diameter) is chosen properly, a
plastic expansion of the inner part and a purely elastic expansion of
the outer part are caused creating an interference-t connection
[103]. Two basic variants of this joining process can be
distinguished [85]:
 Joining by rolling with an adjustable joining zone (Fig. 59(a)): the
required expansion is dened beforehand and cannot be
adjusted during process operation.
 Joining by rolling with an adjustable expansion (Fig. 59(b)): the
axial position of the joining tool is xed and the expansion is
adjusted as required.
Early investigations on joining by rolling [103] deal with the
inuence of different material combinations on the joint quality.
The results are similar to those for the interference-t
mechanism (Section 5.1) and reveal that an outer part with a
higher yield stress than the inner part gives high strength joints.
Originally, joining by rolling was developed for the production of
tube-to-tubesheet joints. Heat exchangers, as depicted in Fig. 48
(b), are typical examples.
5.7. Joining by impulse welding
Explosive welding was rst patented by DuPont in 1964 [58]. In
this process the two parts are stacked on top of each other at a
dened distance and the top plate is covered with a specic
amount of explosive. The detonation expands from the ignition
point. At the detonation front the yer and the target plate collide
at a very high velocity under the impact angle b (Fig. 46). As the
angle b is constant throughout the process, a continuous metallic
bond is generated between the two parts [44]. A typical application
of explosive welding is the cladding of chemical process vessels to
fabricate an interior corrosion-resistant lining.
A process for joining parts by metallic bonding through
electromagnetic forces was rst patented in [129]. The principle
of magnetic impulse welding (Fig. 60) is similar to form-t or
interference-t joining by electromagnetic forming (Section 5.2)
[216]. The major difference is in the required forming energy; the
impact velocity is usually above 200 m/s to form an impulse weld
[60]. Compared to those created in explosive welding, weld seams
fabricated by magnetic impulse welding are not continuous [199].
Numerical investigations [118] showed that normal Lorentz forces
and a rebound effect cause these non-welded zones. A major
advantage of magnetic impulse welding over explosive welding is
that it can be applied in a factory environment without any safety
[(Fig._60)TD$IG]concerns.
Fig. 60. (a) Process principle of magnetic impulse welding [216] and (b) weld seam
(courtesy of Institute of Forming Technology and Lightweight Construction, TU
Dortmund).
5.8. Hemming
Hemming is used in the last steps of stamping operations to
improve part stiffness and the appearance and quality of the edge.
Hemming is a multi-stage operation consisting of anging, pre-
hemming and nal hemming. When another edge of a sheet is
sandwiched in the hemmed edge, these edges are mechanically
[(Fig._61)TD$IG]
Fig. 61. Defects occurring in hemming processes. (a) Roll-in and roll-out, (b) recoil
and warp (c) wrinkling and splitting and (d) hem-out.
joined. Hemming is used for assembly in automotive, electrical
appliance and food industries.
Since hemming occurs after stamping, it may inuence the
quality of the nished parts. Although the deformation behaviour
in hemming is more complex than that in simple bending,
hemming processes were conventionally designed by means of
trial and error experiments. The defects occurring in hemming are
springback, roll-in, roll-out, recoil, warp, wrinkling, splitting, hem-
out, etc. (Fig. 61), and are inuenced by the mechanical properties
and thickness of the sheets, the geometry of the hem edge, the
ange length and the deformation undergone during the previous
stamping stages. Finite element simulations of hemming have
been carried out to improve the hem quality [125] and used to
design and optimise the process [211]. In [130], the quality of the
bending corner produced by roller hemming was compared with
that produced by press hemming, and it was shown that the
quality of roller hemming was higher due to the press hemming.
Aluminium sheets may be attractive for reducing the weight of
cars. Successful hemming requires that the sheet has enough
ductility to prevent cracking, but the ductility of the aluminium
sheets is not high. Thus hemming can only occur with a large
radius, particularly for 6xxx series aluminium sheets which are
subsequently paint bake-hardened [71]. A two-stage anging
process was developed to address this problem [80]. Laser heating
was employed to improve the formability of AA6xxx and 7xxx
sheets in roller hemming [112]. Since it is difcult to hem
magnesium alloy sheets at room temperature, warm hemming of
magnesium alloy sheets was performed, and the effect of the
heating temperature on the quality of the outer surface of the
bending corner was examined [45].
5.9. Manufacturing of shaft having ange
Shafts with a ange were produced by joining bars and disks by
plastic deformation. The heated (and thus softened) disc was
punched with the non-heated (and therefore harder) bar as shown
in Fig. 62 [136]. The disc is then xed to the bar by the shrink
during subsequent cooling. A CrMo low-alloyed steel bar and a
0.45% carbon steel disc and an aluminium bar and disc were joined
[(Fig._62)TD$IG]by this process.
Fig. 62. Joining of heated disc and non-heated bar by punching [136].
A shaft having a ange was produced by inserting a bar with a
serrated edge into a disc with a central hole as shown in Fig. 63
[110]. Joining is reached by plastically deforming the serrated teeth
of the bar and the hole of the disc.
[(Fig._63)TD$IG] K.- Mori et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 62 (2013) 673694
Fig. 63. Production of shaft having ange by joining bar with serrated edge and disc
with hole [110]. (a) Forming of teeth in bar by extrusion, (b) joining of shaft and disc
[(Fig._64)TD$IG]
and (c) joined product.
Fig. 64. Production of tube having ange by sandwiching ring between two wrinkles
generated by axial compression of tube. (a) 1st wrinkling, (b) 2nd wrinkling and (c)
joined product [14].
A tube having a ange was produced by sandwiching a ring
between two wrinkles generated by axial compression of the tube
as shown in Fig. 64 [14]. The tube and ring are xed by controlled
plastic deformation.
6. Future trends
6.1. Low ductility and high strength materials
In joining by plastic deformation, sufcient ductility of work-
pieces is required to avoid fracture. However, emerging applica-
tions require the joining of newer high strength materials which
typically have reduced ductility. For instance, new ultra-high
strength steel sheets do not have enough ductility to be joined by
plastic deformation.
Magnesium is the lightest of the practical metals, and the
applications of magnesium in electrical and automotive products
are increasing. Magnesium alloy sheets have low ductility at room
temperature as they have a small number of slip systems. To
improve ductility, the sheet can be heated, for example by a laser
beam in self-pierce riveting [61]. Laser heating has also been
employed for friction stir welding of steel and aluminium alloys,
showing very different mechanical properties [78].
Although the use of titanium alloys is also increasing, for
example in airplanes and nuclear plants, it is not easy to apply
joining by plastic deformation to titanium alloys due to its high
strength. For example, typical tool materials such as tool steels or
[(Fig._65)TD$IG]
tungsten carbides cannot be used for friction stir welding of
Fig. 65. (a) Cross section of titanium alloy workpieces joined by FSW and (b) broken
pin of tungsten carbide tool [69].
689
titanium as the tools fail too rapidly for industrial use as shown in
Fig. 65 [69]. In turn, polycrystalline cubic boron nitride (PCBN) is a
rather expensive alternative. An Ir-based tool for friction stir
welding of high temperature materials was developed, and
stainless steel plates were joined together [143].
6.2. Integration of joining into other manufacturing processes
Some processes for joining by plastic deformation are integrated
into other manufacturing processes as shown in Fig. 66. The
hemming and staking processes are generally used in the last stages
of stamping operations of sheet metal components, and similar
applications are available for the mechanical clinching and self-
pierce riveting processes. Joining by forming can sometimes be
integrated into other forming operations. In addition, joining by
plastic deformation can be used for assembly. This integration leads
to reductions in production cost and lead time and may give an
[(Fig._6)TD$IG]improvement in dimensional accuracy.
Fig. 66. Integration of joining into other manufacturing process.
A process combination consisting of deep drawing and cold
forging was developed to produce composite metal structures
made of a sheet metal and a bulk metal components [101]. Initially,
the deep drawing punch is replaced with a cylindrical workpiece,
and a sheet blank is deep-drawn into the shape of a cup, covering
the cylindrical workpiece partly. By increasing the stroke, the cup
covering the cylindrical workpiece is extruded (Fig. 67). This
process might be useful for producing lightweight parts with a
wear-resistant surface or products with different heat conductiv-
ities between the core and the sleeve.
[(Fig._67)TD$IG]
Fig. 67. (a) Process principle of joining by combined deep drawing and cold forging
and examples of composite parts manufactured by combined deep drawing and (b)
forward rod extrusion and (c) backward can extrusion [101].
6.3. Fibre-reinforced plastics
Modern lightweight design concepts have driven a trend towards
increased use of multi-material designs. In these designs materials
are selected for local conditions such as mechanical loads. As metal
has good mechanical properties such as high strength and ductility,
nearly isotropic material behaviour, and can be processed effectively,
[(Fig._68)TD$IG]
690
K.- Mori et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 62 (2013) 673694
Fig. 68. Freight bicycle in multi-material-design. Source: Institute of Lightweight
Engineering and Polymer Technology of TU Dresden, Germany.
metal parts are especially suitable for complex shaped components
exposed to multidimensional loadings.
In contrast, because of their low density and very high specic
stiffness, bre-reinforced plastics (FRP) are suitable for large and
thin-walled parts. Therefore, the combination of FRP and metal in a
multi-material design has potential for weight reduction with
reasonable costs. Fig. 68 shows an example of a composite
structure manufactured out of aluminium proles and carbon-
reinforced plastic components.
As the material properties of metal and FRP are very different,
only a few joining processes may be used. For example, welding is
not applicable for this material combination. Adhesive bonding
and mechanical joining by screws or rivets are therefore used most
often. However, drilling holes for mechanical fasteners create an
unwanted interruption to the bres in composite parts, and critical
notch stresses can occur, which might lead to a failure of the part
[186]. Adhesive bonding is typically time-consuming, due to the
curing process. In addition to stringent requirements for surface
cleaning, for some material combinations, adhesive bonding also
requires a mechanical, chemical, or electro-chemical surface
treatment to remove oxide layers and create dened adhesive
characteristics [138]. The strength of an adhesive bond may also
decrease due to ageing driven by substances in the surrounding
environment or thermal effects.
A promising approach to avoid these disadvantages for the
manufacturing of multi-material connections, for example in
tubular workpieces, is joining by forming. However, as yet no
guidelines for the design of the joining zone nor for the joining
process for these material combinations have been dened. There
is a particular lack of knowledge about the inuences of the bre
architecture and the matrix material on deformation during
joining and after the forming pressure is released. This is important
to achieve sufcient connection strengths. Therefore, joining by
forming of metal-FRP connections requires signicant research.
6.4. Joining of micro-components
Cold welding has recently been used to join ultrathin gold wires
with diameters smaller than 10 nm inside a TEM-scanning
tunnelling microscope [128]. The absence of oxides and the high
vacuum ensure virgin surfaces, implying that strong bonding is
obtained with low normal pressure and little plastic deformation.
Another application within micro-manufacturing is the fabri-
cation of organic light-emitting devices by low-pressure cold
welding [109], where an array of 200 mm diameter cathodes was
patterned by cold welding of 100 nm thick gold and 0.5 nm LiF/
0.4 nm Al/15 nm Au on a glass base in high vacuum with an
elastomeric punch to ensure a homogeneous distribution of
pressure. The normal pressure to obtain good bonding was
180 kPa.
6.5. In-process heat treatments using FSW
During FSW, in addition to establishing a joint, mechanical
properties of the joint can be improved by in-process heat
treatments. The effect of in-process cooling on the mechanical
properties of the joint was investigated by nite element
[(Fig._69)TD$IG]
Fig. 69. Improvement of mechanical properties of joint by in-process cooling
treatment in FSW [70].
simulation as shown in Fig. 69 [70]. The ZenerHollomon
parameter Z is a function of temperature and strain rate, and is
strongly related to rates of grain growth. The narrower area
showing large Z values in the area cooled by water implies a
reduction in the TMAZ and HAZ areas, and thus the mechanical
performance of the joint is improved. The benet of this in-process
cooling was experimentally conrmed by the micro-hardness
values measured in the transverse section of the joints.
6.6. Joining by laser impact
Laser impact welding was introduced in 2009 [59]. During the
process a high power laser shines through the transparent
substrate adjacent to the yer [216] (Fig. 70). The surface of the
yer plate is darkened with ink to make it optically absorbent. The
laser vaporises the ink. The resulting plasma-based pressure pulse
acts between the substrate and yer and accelerates the plate over
a time of a few nanoseconds. The yer collides with the target block
at very high impact velocities, which cause the metallic bonding
between both parts. The process is especially suitable for
manufacturing joints of thin foils within the millimetre length
[(Fig._70)TD$IG]scale range [216].
Fig. 70. Process principle of joining by laser impact welding [216].
A further method to generate joints between thin foils is given
by laser shock forming. Laser shock forming is a high speed forming
process for micro applications, where a TEA-CO2-laser induced
shock wave is applied to the surface of a foil. Through the laser
treatment free electrons are generated out of the surface by thermo
emission. These free electrons absorb energy by inverse Brems-
strahlung absorption. Further ions and electrons are produced by
impact processes until it comes to an optical breakdown and thus a
plasma formation. The inverse Bremsstrahlung increases with the
square of the wave length, so that, in contrast to Nd:YAG-induced
shock wave initiation for example, the longer wave length of the
CO2-laser is nearly completely absorbed by the plasma and does
not affect the surface any longer [202]. The plasma induces a shock
[(Fig._71)TD$IG]
wave which is used for forming of thin sheets [195].
Fig. 71. Laser shock joining of stainless steel (100 mm in thickness) and aluminium
foils (50 mm in thickness) for pulse energy 5.6 J and 50 pulses (BIAS) [203].
 K.- Mori et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 62 (2013) 673694
With this non-contact cold forming method, undercuts of mm-
foils can be produced [203] and thus used to join dissimilar
materials as shown in Fig. 71. Because this is a non-contact
process, constraints arising from the need for accessibility are
avoided.
7. Conclusions
With recent advances in component production processes such
as cutting, forming and casting, joining processes face increasing
demands to achieve high productivity, low cost, material
versatility, high dimensional accuracy, high strength and environ-
mental safety. Intelligent application of plastic deformation in
joining is an increasingly useful solution for meeting these
requirements. Recent progress in the development of joining
processes by plastic deformation was reviewed in this paper.
Approaches for joining workpieces with controlled plastic
deformation and without failures, have been introduced and their
application allows designers to create new functions.
Acknowledgements
The authors gratefully acknowledge contributions and assis-
tance by J.M. Allwood (2), University of Cambridge, T. Altan (1),
Ohio State University, A. Azushima (1), Yokohama National
University, P.F. Bariani (1), University of Padova, B.-A. Behrens
(2), Leibniz Universitat Hannover, L. Filice (2), University of
Calabria, M. Geiger (1), Universitat Erlangen-Nurnberg, P. Groche
(1), Technische Universitat Darmstadt, M.K. Khraisheh (2), Masdar
Institute of Science and Technology, M. Kiuchi (1), University of
Tokyo, M. Kleiner (1), Technische Universitat Dortmund, J.G.
Lenard (1), University of Waterloo, M. Liewald (3), Universitat
Stuttgart, P.A.F. Martins (2), TU Lisbon, M. Merklein (2), Friedrich-
Alexander-Universitat Erlangen-Nurnberg, R. Neugebauer (1),
Fraunhofer IWU, S.I. Oh (1), Soul National University, K. Osakada
(1), Osaka University, F. Vollertsen (1), BIAS, R. Shivpuri (1), Ohio
State University, J. Yanagimoto (2), University of Tokyo, Y. Abe,
Toyohashi University of Technology and C. Weddeling, Technische
Universitat Dortmund.
References
[1] Abdollah-Zadeh A, Saeid T, Sazgari B (2008) Microstructural and Mechanical
Properties of Friction Stir Welded Aluminum/Copper Lap Joints. Journal of
Alloys and Compounds 460(12):535538.
[2] Abe Y, Kato T, Mori T (2006) Joinability of Aluminium Alloy and Mild Steel
Sheets by Self Piercing Rivet. Journal of Materials Processing Technology 177(1
3):417421.
[3] Abe Y, Kato T, Mori K (2007) Joining of Aluminium Alloy Sheets by Aluminium
Alloy Self-Piercing Rivet. Proceedings of 2nd International Conference on New
Forming Technology, Bremen, 451460.
[4] Abe Y, Kato T, Mori K (2007) Joining of Aluminium Alloy and Mild Steel Sheets
Using Mechanical Clinching. Materials Science Forum 561565:10431046.
[5] Abe Y, Kato T, Mori K (2008) Self-Pierce Riveting of Three High Strength Steel
and Aluminium Alloy Sheets. International Journal of Material Forming
1(Suppl. 1):12711274.
[6] Abe Y, Matsuda A, Kato T, Mori K (2008) Plastic Joining of Aluminium Alloy
and High Strength Steel Sheets by Mechanical Clinching. Steel Research
International Special Edition 79(1):649657.
[7] Abe Y, Kato T, Mori K (2009) Aluminium Alloy Self-Pierce Riveting for Joining
of Aluminium Alloy Sheets. Key Engineering Materials 410411:7986.
[8] Abe Y, Kishimoto M, Kato T, Mori K (2009) Joining of Hot-Dip Coated Steel
Sheets by Mechanical Clinching. International Journal of Material Forming
2(Suppl. 1):291294.
[9] Abe Y, Kato T, Mori K (2009) Self-Piercing Riveting of High Tensile Strength
Steel and Aluminium Alloy Sheets Using Conventional Rivet and Die. Journal
of Materials Processing Technology 209(8):39143922.
[10] Abe Y, Kato T, Kishimoto M, Mori K (2010) (2010) Joining of Hot-Dip Coated
High-Strength Steel Sheets by Mechanical Clinching. Steel Research Interna-
tional Supplement Metal Forming 81(9):11281131.
[11] Abe Y, Taromaru K, Kato T, Mori K (2011) Improvement of Joinability in
Mechanical Clinching of Sheets Using Step Punch. Steel Research International
Special Edition ICTP 2011:667672.
[12] Abe Y, Mori K, Kato T (2012) Joining of High Strength Steel and Aluminium
Alloy Sheets by Mechanical Clinching with Dies for Control of Metal Flow.
Journal of Materials Processing Technology 212(4):884889.
691
[13] Acerra F, Buffa G, Fratini L, Troiano G (2009) On the FSW of AA2024-T4 and
AA7075-T6 T-joints: An Industrial Case Study. International Journal of
Advanced Manufacturing Technology 48(912):11491157.
[14] Alves LM, Dias EJ, Martins PAF (2011) Joining Sheet Panels to Thin-Walled
Tubular Proles by Tube End Forming. Journal of Cleaner Production 19:712719.
[15] Andreasen P, Bay N (1981) Mechanisms of Bonding in Slide Pressure Welding.
Proceedings of Institute Metallurgical Spring Research Conference The Joining of
Metals 18(2):6975.
[16] Assidi M, Fourment L, Guerdoux S, Nelson T (2010) Friction Model for Friction
Stir Welding Process Simulation: Calibrations from Welding Experiments.
International Journal of Machine Tools and Manufacture 50(2):143155.
[17] Atzeni E, Ippolitol R, Settineril L (2007) FEM Modeling of Self Piercing Riveted
Joint. Key Engineering Materials 344:655662.
[18] Aydn H, Bayram A, Uguz A, Akay KS (2009) Tensile Properties of Friction Stir
Welded Joints of 2024 Aluminum Alloys in Different Heat-Treated-State.
Materials and Design 30(6):22112221.
[19] Bae DS, Kim SK, Lee SP, Shibayama T, Bae DH (2007) Interface Properties of
Copper/Aluminium/Stainless Steel Clad Materials. Key Engineering Materials
345-346:14971500.
[20] Barcellona A, Buffa G, Fratini L, Palmeri D (2006) On Microstructural Phe-
nomena Occurring in Friction Stir Welding of Aluminum Alloys. Journal of
Materials Processing Technology 177(13):340343.
[21] Barnes TA, Pashby IR (2000) Joining Techniques for Aluminium Spaceframes
Used in Automobiles: Part II. Adhesive Bonding and Mechanical Fasteners.
Journal of Materials Processing Technology 99(13):7279.
[22] Bay N (1979) Cold Pressure WeldingThe Mechanisms Governing Bonding.
Transactions of the ASME Journal of Engineering for Industry 101:121127.
[23] Bay N (1983) Mechanisms Producing Metallic Bonds in Cold Welding. Weld-
ing Research Supplement 62:137s142s.
[24] Bay N (1986) Cold Welding 2 Process Variants and Applications. Metal
Construction 18(8):486490.
[25] Bay N (2011) Cold Welding. Lienert TJ, Babu SS, Siewert TA, Acoff VL, (Eds.)
Metals Handbook Vol 6A, Welding Fundamentals and Processes. 711716.
[26] Behrens BA, Hubner S, Eckold CP, Schnapp JD (2008) Reducing Damage of
Coating Caused by Clinching of Aluminum Sheet Metal by Process Optimiza-
tion. Proceedings of 9th International Conference Technology of Plasticity,
Gyeongju, 13041309.
[27] Ben-Artzy A, Stern A, Frage N, Shribman V, Sadot O (2010) Wave Formation
Mechanism in Magnetic Pulse Welding. International Journal of Impact Engi-
neering 37(4):397404.
[28] Bilgin MB, Meran C (2012) The Effect of Tool Rotational and Traverse Speed on
Friction Stir Weldability of AISI 430 Ferritic Stainless Steels. Materials and
Design 33:376383.
[29] Birdsall D, Ford F, Furth HP, Riley R (1961) Magnetic Forming. American
Machinist/Metalworking Manufacturing 105(6):117121.
[30] Bouchard PO, Laurent T, Tollier L (2008) Numerical Modeling of Self-Pierce
RivetingFrom Riveting Process Modeling down to Structural Analysis. Jour-
nal of Materials Processing Technology 202(13):290300.
[31] Brown WF, Bandas J, Olson NT (1978) Pulsed Magnetic Welding of Breeder
Reactor Fuel Pin and Closures. Proceedings of the AWS 59th Annual Meeting,,
New Orleans.
[32] Buffa G, Fratini L, Hua J, Shivpuri R (2006) Friction Stir Welding of Tailored
Blanks: Investigation on Process Feasibility. CIRP Annals - Manufacturing
Technology 55(1):279282.
[33] Buffa G, Hua J, Shivpuri R, Fratini L (2006) A Continuum Based FEM Model for
Friction Stir Welding Model Development. Material Science and Engineering A
419(12):389396.
[34] Buffa G, Hua J, Shivpuri R, Fratini L (2006) Design of the Friction Stir Welding
Tool Using the Continuum Based FEM Model. Material Science and Engineering
A 419(12):381388.
[35] Buffa G, Fratini L, Pasta S, Shivpuri R (2008) On the Thermo-Mechanical Loads
and the Resultant Residual Stresses in Friction Stir Processing Operations.
CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 57(1):287290.
[36] Buffa G, Fratini L, Lo Monaco L (2010) Improved FE Model for the Simulation
of Friction Stir Welding of Different Materials. Science and Technology of
Welding and Joining 15(3):199207.
[37] Buhler H, von Finckenstein E (1971) Bemessung von Sickenverbindungen fur
ein Fugen durch Magnetumformung. Werkstatt und Betrieb 104:4551.
[38] Busse S, Merklein M, Roll K, Ruther M, Zurn M (2010) Development of a
Mechanical Clinching Joining Process for Automotive Body-in-White Produc-
tion. International Journal of Material Forming 3(Suppl. 1):10591062.
[39] Busse S, Merklein M, Roll K, Zurn M, Schubert H (2011) Numerical and
Experimental Investigations of an Innovative Clinching Process. Proceedings
of 10th International Conference on Technology of Plasticity, Aachen, 736741.
[40] Butan D, Monaghan J (2009) Thermomechanical Modelling Friction Stir
Welding Aluminium 2024-T3. International Journal of Computational Materials
Science and Surface Engineering 2(12):6372.
[41] BWE Ltd., http://www.bwe.co.uk.
[42] Cacko R, Czyzewski P, Kocanda A (2004) Initial Optimization of Self-Piercing
Riveting Process by Means of FEM. Steel Grips 2:307310.
[43] Carboni M, Beretta S, Monno M (2006) Fatigue Behaviour of Tensile-Shear
Loaded Clinched Joints. Engineering Fracture Mechanics 73(2):178190.
[44] Carpenter SH, Wittman RH (1975) Explosion Welding. Annual Review of
Materials Science 5:177199.
[45] Carsley J, Kim S (2007) Warm Hemming of Magnesium Sheet. Journal of
Materials Engineering and Performance 16(3):331338.
[46] Cave JA, Williams JD (1973) The Mechanisms of Cold Pressure Welding by
Rolling. Journal Institute of Metals 101:203207.
[47] Chen L, Yang Z, Jha B, Xia G, Stevenson JW (2005) Clad Metals Roll Bonding
and their Applications for SOFC Interconnects. Journal of Power Sources
152:4045.
692 K.- Mori et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 62 (2013) 673694
[48] Chen YC, Komazaki T, Kim YG, Tsumura T, Nakata K (2008) Interface Micro-
structure Study of Friction Stir Lap Joint of AC4C Cast Aluminum Alloy and
Zinc-Coated Steel. Materials Chemistry and Physics 111(23):375380.
[49] Chen YC, Nakata K (2008) Effect of the Surface State of Steel on the Micro-
structure and Mechanical Properties of Dissimilar Metal Lap Joints of
Aluminum and Steel by Friction Stir Welding. Metallurgical and Materials
Transactions A Physical Metallurgy and Materials Science 39(8):
19851992.
[50] Chen YK, Han L, Chrysanthou A, OSullivan JM (2003) Fretting Wear in Self-
Piercing Riveted Aluminium Alloy Sheet. Wear 255(712):14631470.
[51] Chen Z, Ikeda K, Murakami T, Takeda T, Xie JX (2003) Fabrication of Compo-
site Pipes by Multi-Billet Extrusion Technique. Journal of Materials Processing
Technology 137:1016.
[52] Chenot JL, Massoni E (2006) Finite Element Modelling and Control of New
Metal Forming Processes. International Journal of Machine Tools and Manu-
facture 46(11):11941200.
[53] Cho JR, Song JI, Noh KT, Jeon DH (2005) Nonlinear Finite Element Analysis of
Swaging Process for Automobile Power Steering Hose. Journal of Materials
Processing Technology 170(12):5057.
[54] Cho JR, Song JI (2007) Swaging Process of Power Steering Hose, Its Finite
Element Analysis Considering the Stress Relaxation. Journal of Materials
Processing Technology 187188:497501.
[55] Clemmensen C, Juelstorp O, Bay N (1986) Cold Welding 3Inuence of
Surface Preparation on Bond Strength. Metal Construction 18:625629.
[56] Coelho RS, Kostka A, dos Santos JF, Kaysser-Pyzalla A (2012) Friction-Stir
Dissimilar Welding of Aluminium Alloy to High Strength Steels: Mechanical
Properties and their Relation to Microstructure. Materials Science and Engi-
neering A 556:175183.
[57] Cowan G, Bergmann O, Holtzman A (1971) Mechanism of Bond Zone Wave
Formation in Explosive-Clad Metals. Metallurgical Transactions 2:31453155.
[58] Cowan G, Douglass J, Holtzman A (1964) Explosive Bonding, United States
Patent. No. 3,137,937, patented June 23.
[59] Daehn GS, Lipphold JC (2009) Low Temperature Spot Impact Welding Driven
without Contact, US Patent PCT/US09/36299.
[60] Daehn GS (2011) Energy Field Methods and Electromagnetic Sheet Metal
Forming, Intelligent Energy Field Manufacturing, Interdisciplinary Process Inno-
vations, CRC Press, Taylor and Francis Group: 978-1-42-007101-6471504.
[61] Durandet Y, Deam R, Beer A, Song W, Blacke S (2010) Laser Assisted Self-
Pierce Riveting of AZ31 Magnesium Alloy Strips. Materials & Design 31:S13
S16. Supplement 1.
[62] Eizadjou M, Manesh HD, Janghorban K (2009) Mechanism of Warm and Cold
Roll Bonding of Aluminium Alloy Strips. Materials and Design 30(10):4156
4161.
[63] Engineered Materials Solutions, http://www.emsclad.com.
[64] Ericsson M, Sandstrom R (2003) Inuence of Welding Speed on the Fatigue of
Friction Stir Welds, and Comparison with MIG and TIG. International Journal of
Fatigue 25(12):13791387.
[65] Fratini L, Buffa G, Palmeri D, Hua J, Shivpuri R (2006) Material Flow in FSW of
AA7075-T6 Butt Joints: Numerical Simulations and Experimental Verica-
tions. Science and Technology of Welding and Joining 11(4):412421.
[66] Fratini L, Buffa G, Filice L, Gagliardi F (2006) FSW of AA6082-T6 T-joints:
Process Engineering and Performance Measurement. Journal of Engineering
Manufacture Part B 220(5):669676.
[67] Fratini L, Buffa G, Shivpuri R (2009) Inuence of Material Characteristics on
Plastomechanics of the FSW process for T-joints. Materials and Design
30(7):24352445.
[68] Fratini L, Ruisi VF (2009) Self-Piercing Riveting for Aluminium Alloys-Com-
posites Hybrid Joints. International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Tech-
nology 43:6166.
[69] Fratini L, Micari F, Buffa G, Ruisi VF (2010) A New Fixture for FSW Processes of
Titanium Alloys. CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 59(1):271274.
[70] Fratini L, Buffa G, Shivpuri R (2010) Mechanical and Metallurgical Effects of in
Process Cooling during Friction Stir welding of AA7075-T6 Butt Joints. Acta
Materialia 58:20562067.
[71] Friedman PA, Luckey SG (2002) Failure of AlMgSi Alloys in Bending.
Practical Failure Analysis 2(1):3342.
[72] Fu M, Mallick PK (2003) Fatigue of Self-Piercing Riveted Joints in Aluminum
Alloy 6111. International Journal of Fatigue 25(3):183189.
[73] Fuhrmeister R (1978) United States Patent 4106180.
[74] Fujii H, Cui L, Maeda M, Nogi K (2006) Effect of Tool Shape on Mechanical
Properties and Microstructure of Friction Stir Welded Aluminum Alloys.
Materials Science and Engineering A 419(12):2531.
[75] Fujimoto M (2011) Friction Stir Spot Welding. Sokeizai 52(7):1520. (in
Japanese).
[76] Geiger M, Micari F, Merklein M, Fratini L, Contorno D, Giera A, Staud D (2008)
Friction Stir Knead Welding of Steel Aluminium Butt Joints. International
Journal of Machine Tools and Manufacture 48(5):515521.
[77] Gerland M, Presles H, Guin J, Bertheau D (2000) Explosive Cladding of a Thin
Ni-Film to an Aluminium Alloy. Materials Science and Engineering A 280:
311319.
[78] Giera A, Merklein M, Baumeister P (2007) Laser-Assisted Friction Stir Welding
of Dissimilar Steel and Aluminum Alloys. Proceedings of 2nd International
Conference on New Forming Technology, Bremen, 421430.
[79] Gies S, Weddeling C, Marre M, Kwiatkowski L, Tekkaya AE (2012) Analytical
Prediction of the Process Parameters for Form-Fit Joining by Die-Less Hydro-
forming. Key Engineering Materials 504506:393398.
[80] Golovashchenko SF (2005) Sharp Flanging and Flat Hemming of Aluminum
Exterior Body Panels. Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance
14(4):508515.
[81] Groche P, Tibari K (2006) Fundamentals of Angular Joining by Means of
Hydroforming. CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 55(1):259262.
[82] Groche P, Turk M (2011) Smart Structures Assembly through Incremental
Forming. CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 60(1):2124.
[83] Grote KH, Antonsson EK (2009) Springer Handbook of Mechanical Engineering,
Springer. 978-3-540-49131-6 686689.
[84] Grujicic M, Sellappan V, Arakere G, Seyr N, Obieglo A, Erdmann M, Holzleitner
J (2009) The Potential of a Clinch-Lock Polymer Metal Hybrid Technology for
Use in Load-Bearing Automotive Components. Journal of Materials Engineering
and Performance 18(7):893902.
[85] Hagedorn M (2005) Herstellung von Verbundbauteilen durch Einwalzen
Verfahrensentwicklung und experimentelle Grundlagen, Institute of Machining
Technology. Technische Universitat Dortmund, Dortmund. (Dr.-Ing. Thesis).
[86] Hamel V, Roelandt JM, Gacel JN, Schmit F (2000) Finite Element Modeling of
Clinch Forming with Automatic Remeshing. Computers & Structures
77(2):185200.
[87] Hamilton C, Dymek S, Blicharski M (2008) A Model of Material Flow during
Friction Stir Welding. Materials Characterization 59(9):12061214.
[88] Hammers T, Marre M, Rautenberg J, Barreiro P, Schulze V, Biermann D,
Brosius A, Tekkaya AE (2009) Inuence of Mandrels Surface and Material
on the Mechanical Properties of Joints Produced by Electromagnetic Com-
pression. Steel Research International 80(5):366375.
[89] Han L, Chrysanthou A, OSullivan JM (2006) Fretting Behaviour of Self-
Piercing Riveted Aluminium Alloy Joints under Different Interfacial Condi-
tions. Materials & Design 27(3):200208.
[90] Han L, Chrysanthou A, Young KW, OSullivan JM (2006) Characterization of
Fretting Fatigue in Self-Piercing Riveted Aluminium Alloy Sheets. Fatigue &
Fracture of Engineering Materials & Structures 29(8):646654.
[91] Han L, Chrysanthou A, Young KW (2007) Mechanical Behaviour of Self-
Piercing Riveted Multi-Layer Joints under Different Specimen Congurations.
Materials & Design 28(7):20242033.
[92] Han L, Young K, Hewitt R, Blundel N, Thornton M (2009) Advanced Joining
Technologies for Aluminium Assembly for the Automotive Industry. Key
Engineering Materials 410411:105116.
[93] Hanssen AG, Olovsson L, Porcaro R, Langseth M (2010) A Large-Scale Finite
Element Point-Connector Model for Self-Piercing Rivet Connections. Eur-
opean Journal of Mechanics A/Solids 29(4):484495.
[94] He X (2010) Recent Development in Finite Element Analysis of Clinched
Joints. International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology 48:607
612.
[95] Hitachi Cable, Ltd., http://www.hitachi-cable.com.
[96] Henrob (1993) British Patent WO94/14554.
[97] Hoang NH, Porcaro R, Langseth M, Hanssen AG (2010) Self-Piercing Riveting
Connections Using Aluminium Rivets. International Journal of Solids and
Structures 47(34):427439.
[98] Homberg W, et al (2006) Joining by Forming of Lightweight Frame Structures.
Advanced Materials Research Flexible Manufacture of Lightweight Frame Struc-
tures 10:89100.
[99] Huang ZC, Fan KC, Lai JM (2011) The Mechanical Behaviour of Self-Piercing
Riveting with Pipe Rivet. Proceedings of the 10th International Conference on
Technology of Plasticity, Aachen, 742745.
[100] Hurlimann J (1965) Magnetische Pulsformung von dunnen Blechen. DGRR-
Fachbuchreihe Fortschritte in der Raumfahrtforschung, Deutsche Gesellschaft,
Munchen111125.
[101] Jager A, Hanisch S, Brockerhoff S, Tekkaya AE (2011) Process for the Man-
ufacturing of Composite Metal Structures by Combined Deep Drawing and
Cold Forging, International Patent Application, Reference number, PCT/
DE2011/001053.
[102] Jamaati R, Toroghinejad MR (2011) The Role of Surface Preparation Para-
meters on Cold Roll Bonding of Aluminium Strips. Journal of Materials
Engineering and Performance 20(2):191197.
[103] Jantscha R (1929) Uber das Einwalzen und Einpressen von Kessel- und Uber-
hitzerrohren bei Verwendung verschiedener Werkstoffe, Technische Hochschule
Darmstadt, Darmstadt. (Dr.-Ing. Thesis).
[104] Jayaraman M, Sivasubramanian R, Balasubramanian V (2010) Establishing
Relationship between the Base Metal Properties and Friction Stir Welding
Process Parameters of Cast Aluminum Alloys. Materials and Design
31(9):45674576.
[105] Kalpakjian S, Schmid SR (2010) Manufacturing Engineering & Technology, 6th
ed. Prentice Hall: 900920.
[106] Kato T, Abe Y, Mori K (2007) Finite Element Simulation of Self-Piercing
Riveting of Three Aluminium Alloy Sheets. Key Engineering Materials 340
341(2):14611466.
[107] Kato T, Abe Y, Mori K (2010) Plastic Joining of Aluminium Alloy Sheets by
Aluminium Alloy Cylinder. Steel Research International Supplement Metal
Forming 81(9):1361139.
[108] Kawasaki T, Makino T, Todori S, Takai H, Ezumi M, Inada Y (2000) Application
of Friction Stir Welding to the Manufacturing of Next Generation A-train
Type Rolling Stock. Proceedings of 2nd International Symposium on Friction Stir
Welding, Gothenburg, Sweden.
[109] Kim C, Forrest SR (2003) Fabrication of Organic Light-Emitting Devices by
Low-Pressure Cold Welding. Advanced Materials 15(6):541545.
[110] Kitamura K, Hirota K, Ukai Y, Matsunaga K, Osakada K (2012) Cold Joining of
Rotor Shaft with Flange by Using Plastic Deformation. CIRP Annals - Manu-
facturing Technology 61(1):275278.
[111] Kiuchi M, Shintani K, Hwang YM (1992) Mathematical Simulation of Clad
Sheet Rolling and Sandwich Sheet Rolling. Annals of the CIRP 41(1):
289292.
[112] Kleeh T, Merklein M, Roll K (2011) Modeling Laser Heating for Roller Hem-
ming Applications. Key Engineering Materials 473:501508.
[113] Kleiner M, Geiger M, Klaus A (2003) Manufacturing of Lightweight Compo-
nents by Metal Forming. CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 52(2):
521542.
 K.- Mori et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 62 (2013) 673694
[114] Kleiner M, Beerwald C, Homberg W (2005) Analysis of Process Parameters
and Forming Mechanisms within the Electromagnetic Forming Process. CIRP
Annals - Manufacturing Technology 54(1):225228.
[115] Kleiner M, Marre M, Beerwald C, Homberg W, Lohe D, Barreiro P, Schulze V
(2006) Investigation of Force-Fit Joints Produced by Electromagnetic Tube
Compression. Annals of the German Academic Society for Production Engineer-
ing WGP XIII(1) 227230.
[116] Kore SD, Date PP, Kulkarni SV (2007) Effect of Process Parameters on
Electromagnetic Impact Welding of Aluminum Sheets. International Journal
of Impact Engineering 34(8):13271341.
[117] Kore SD, Imbert J, Worswick MJ, Zhou Y (2009) Electromagnetic Impact
Welding of Mg to Al Sheets. Science and Technology of Welding and Joining
14(6):549553.
[118] Kore SD, Dhanesh P, Kulkarni SV, Dat PP (2010) Numerical Modelling of
Electromagnetic Welding. International Journal of Applied Electromagnetics
and Mechanics 32:119.
[119] Krips H, Podhorsky M (1984) Vorrichtung zum druckdichten Befestigen von
Rohren in Rohrboden, Patent application DE 34 23 961 A1.
[120] Lai M, Brun R (2007) Latest Developments in Sheet Metal Forming Technol-
ogy and Materials for Automotive Application: the Use of Ultra High Strength
Steels at Fiat to Reach Weight Reduction at Sustainable Costs. Key Engineering
Materials 344:18.
[121] Lee CJ, Kim JY, Lee SK, Ko DC, Kim BM (2010) Design of Mechanical Clinching
Tools for Joining of Aluminium Alloy Sheets. Materials & Design 31(4):1854
1861.
[122] Li B, Fatemi A (2006) An Experimental Investigation of Deformation and
Fatigue Behaviour of Coach Peel Riveted Joints. International Journal of Fatigue
28(1):918.
[123] Li L, Nagai K, Yin F (2008) Progress in Roll Bonding of Metals. Science and
Technology of Advanced Materials 9(2):111.
[124] Liebig P, Beyer R (1987) Press Joining of Especially Coated Steel and Alumi-
nium Sheets. Advanced Technology of Plasticity, 2, Springer-Verlag: 933940.
[125] Livatyali H, Muderrisoglu A, Ahmetoglu MA, Akgerman N, Kinzel GL, Altan T
(2000) Improvement of Hem Quality by Optimizing Flanging and Pre-Hem-
ming Operations Using Computer Aided Die Design. Journal of Materials
Processing Technology 98(1):4152.
[126] Lohwasser D (2000) Application of Friction Stir Welding for Aircraft Industry,
Proceedings of 2nd International Symposium on Friction Stir Welding,
Gothenburg, Sweden.
[127] Lorrain O, Serri J, Favier V, Zahrouni H, Hadrouz M (2009) A Contribution to a
Critical Review of Friction Stir Welding Numerical Simulation. Journal of
Mechanics of Materials and Structures 4(2):351369.
[128] Lu Y, Huang JY, Wang C, Sun S, Lou J (2010) Cold Welding of Ultrathin Gold
Nanowires. Nature Nanotechnology 5:218224.
[129] Lysenko DN, Ermolaev VV, Dudin AA (1970), Method of Pressure Welding, US
Patent 3,520,049.
[130] Le Maou t N., Thuillier S, Manach PY (2010) Drawing, Flanging and Hemming
of Metallic Thin Sheets, A Multi-Step Process. Materials and Design
31(6):27252736.
[131] Marre M, Brosius A, Tekkaya AE (2008) Joining by Compression and Expan-
sion of (None-) Reinforced Proles. Advanced Materials Research 43:5768.
[132] Marre M (2009) Grundlagen der Prozessgestaltung fur das Fugen durch Weiten
mit Innenhochdruck, Institut fur Umformtechnik und Leichtbau, Technische
Universitat Dortmund, Dortmund (Dr.-Ing. Thesis), http://hdl.handle.net/
2003/26445.
[133] Marre M, Andreas R, Heuse R, Tekkaya AE (2011) Verfahren zum lokalen
Fugen und/oder zum lokalen Umformen von Hohlprolen mittels Hoch-
druck, Patent application DE 10, 2012, 012 452 A1.
[134] Martinrea Honsel, http://www2.honsel.com/en/home/.
[135] Materion Corporation, http://www.technicalmaterials.com.
[136] Matsumoto R, Hanami S, Ogura A, Yoshimura H, Osakada K (2008) New
Plastic Joining Method Using Indentation of Cold Bar to Hot Forged Part. CIRP
Annals - Manufacturing Technology 57(1):279282.
[137] McEwan KJ, Milner DR (1962) Pressure Welding of Dissimilar Metals. British
Welding Journal 9:406420.
[138] Messler RW (2004) Joining of Materials and Structures, From Pragmatic Process
to Enabling Technology, Butterworth Heinemann978-0-7506-7757-8.
[139] Michalos G, Makris S, Papakostas N, Mourtzis D, Chryssolouris G (2010)
Automotive Assembly Technologies Review: Challenges and Outlook for a
Flexible and Adaptive Approach. CIRP Journal of Manufacturing Science and
Technology 2(2):8191.
[140] Milner DR, Rowe GW (1962) Fundamentals of Solid Phase Welding. Metal-
lurgical Reviews 7(28):433480.
[141] Mishra RS, Ma ZY (2005) Friction Stir Welding and Processing. Materials
Science and Engineering R Reports 50(12):178.
[142] Miyamoto T, Kitabayashi H, Yamaga T (2001) Environmental-Friendly New
Railway Train Concept. Hitachi Hyoron 83(8):511514. (in Japanese).
[143] Miyazawa T, Iwamoto Y, Maruko T, Fujii H (2011) Development of Ir Based
Tool for Friction Stir Welding of High Temperature Materials. Science and
Technology of Welding and Joining 16(2):88192.
[144] Mohebbi MS, Akbarzadeh A (2010) A Novel Spin-Bonding Process for Man-
ufacturing Mulitlayered Clad Tubes. Journal of Materials Processing Technology
210:510517.
[145] Mori K, Kato T, Abe Y, Ravshanbek Y (2006) Plastic Joining of Ultra High
Strength Steel and Aluminium Alloy Sheets by Self Piercing Rivet. CIRP Annals
- Manufacturing Technology 55(1):283286.
[146] Mori K, Abe Y, Kato T (2012) Mechanism of Superiority of Fatigue Strength for
Aluminium Alloy Sheets Joined by Mechanical Clinching and Self-Pierce
Riveting. Journal of Materials Processing Technology 212(9):19001905.
[147] Mousavi A, Sartangi F (2009) Experimental Investigation of Explosive Weld-
ing of Cp-Titanium/AISI 304. Materials and Design 30(3):459468.
693
[148] Nandan R, Debroy T, Bhadeshia HKDH (2008) Recent Advances in Friction Stir
Welding Process, Weldment Structure and Properties. Progress in Materials
Science 53(6):9801023.
[149] Neugebauer R, Mauermann R, Grutzner R (2008) Hydrojoining. International
Journal of Material Forming 1(Suppl. 1):13031306.
[150] Neugebauer R, Kraus C, Dietrich S (2008) Advances in Mechanical Joining of
Magnesium. CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 57(1):283286.
[151] Neugebauer R, Bouzakis KD, Denkena B, Klocke F, Sterzing A, Tekkaya AE,
Wertheim R (2011) Velocity Effects in Metal Forming and Machining Pro-
cesses. CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 60(2):627650.
[152] Neugebauer R, Rossinger M, Wahl M, Schulz F, Eckert A, Schutzle W (2011)
Predicting Dimensional Accuracy of Mechanically Joined Car Body Assem-
blies. Key Engineering Materials 473:973980.
[153] Nong N, Keju O, Yu Z, Zhiyuan Q, Changcheng T, Feipeng L (2003) Research on
Press Joining Technology for Automotive Metallic Sheets. Journal of Materials
Processing Technology 137(13):159163.
[154] Okagawa K, Aizawa T (2004) Impact Seam Welding with Magnetic Pressure
for Aluminum Sheets. Material Science Forum 465466:231236.
[155] Oudjene M, Ben-Ayed L (2008) On the Parametrical Study of Clinch Joining of
Metallic Sheets Using the Taguchi Method. Engineering Structures
30(6):17821788.
[156] Oudjene M, Ben-Ayed L, Delamezie`re A, Batoz JL (2009) Shape Optimization
of Clinching Tools Using the Response Surface Methodology with Moving
Least-Square Approximation. Journal of Materials Processing Technology
209(1):289296.
[157] Pan TY, Joaquin A, Wilkosz DE, Reatherford L, Nicholson JM, Feng Z, Santella
ML (2004) Spot Friction Welding for Aluminum Joining. Proceedings of Fifth
International Symposium on Friction Stir Welding, Metz, France, 1-903761-04-
217(CD-ROM).
[158] Park Y, Kim H, Oh S (2005) Design of Axial/Torque Joint Made by Electro-
magnetic Forming. Thin-Walled Structures 43(5):826844.
[159] Pickin CG, Young K, Tuersley I (2007) Joining of Lightweight Sandwich Sheets
to Aluminium Using Self-Pierce Riveting. Materials & Design 28(8):2361
2365.
[160] Porcaro R, Hanssen AG, Langseth M, Aalberg A (2006) Self-Piercing Riveting
Process: An Experimental and Numerical Investigation. Journal of Materials
Processing Technology 171(13):1020.
[161] Pranch AS (1973) The Cold Shear Welding of Metals. Avt Svarka 7:5657.
[162] Psyk V, Risch D, Kinsey BL, Tekkaya AE, Kleiner M (2011) Electromagnetical
FormingA Review. Journal of Materials Processing Technology 211(5):787
829.
[163] Ramulu M, Edwards PD, Sanders DG, Reynolds AP, Trapp T (2010) Tensile
Properties of Friction Stir Welded and Friction Stir Welded-Superplastically
Formed Ti6Al4V Butt Joints. Materials and Design 31(6):30563061.
[164] Rasmussen D (1977) Evolution of the Crimped Hydraulic Hose Assembly.
Hydraulic & Air Engineering 4(6):5562.
[165] Rowland A (1967) Metal Forming by Magnetic Means. Proceedings of the
Conference on Electrical Methods of Machining and Forming, London, 192197.
[166] Ruge J, Thomas K (1975) Kaltpressschweissen von Rohrverbindunge aus
hochlegiertem Stahl und AlMg3 in Fliesspressvorgangen. Schweiss u Schnei-
den 27:445449.
[167] Saeid T, Abdollah-Zadeh A, Sazgari B (2009) Weldability and Mechanical
Properties of Dissimilar AluminumCopper Lap Joints Made by Friction Stir
Welding. Journal of Alloys and Compounds 490(12):652655.
[168] Schmidt H, Hattel J, Wert J (2004) An Analytical Model for the Heat Gen-
eration in Friction Stir Welding. Modeling and Simulation in Materials Science
and Engineering 12:143157.
[169] Serizawa H, Shibahara I, Rashed S, Murakawa H (2009) Numerical Study of
Joining Process in Magnetic Pressure Seam Welding. Transactions of JWRI
38(1):6368.
[170] Settineri L, Atzeni E, Ippolito R (2010) Self Piercing Riveting for Metal-
Polymer Joints. International Journal of Material Forming 3(Suppl. 1):
995998.
[171] Shirgaokar M, Ngaile G, Altan T, Yu JH, Balconi J, Rentfrow R, Worrell WJ
(2004) Hydraulic Crimping, Application to the Assembly of Tubular Compo-
nents. Journal of Materials Processing Technology 146(1):4451.
[172] Shribman V, Tomer Y (2006) Magnetic Pulse Technology for Improved Tube
Joining and Forming. Tube & Pipe Technology 9195.
[173] Singh RKR, Sharma C, Dwivedi DK, Mehta NK, Kumar P (2011) The Micro-
structure and Mechanical Properties of Friction Stir Welded AlZnMg Alloy
in as Welded and Heat Treated Conditions. Materials and Design 32(2):
682687.
[174] Song M, Kovacevic R (2003) Thermal Modeling of Friction Stir Welding in a
Moving Coordinate System and its Validation. International Journal of Machine
Tools and Manufacture 43(6):605615.
[175] Steinlage GA, Bowman KJ, Trumble KP (1996) A Comparison of Three
Mechanical Models for Cold Roll Bonding Metal Laminates. Journal of Adhe-
sion Science and Technology 10(3):199229.
[176] Stroiman IM, Mitrukov GA (2002) Cold-Welding of Aluminium and Copper.
Welding International 16(6):488490.
[177] Sun X, Khaleel MA (2005) Performance Optimization of Self-Piercing Rivets
through Analytical Rivet Strength Estimation. Journal of Manufacturing Pro-
cesses 7(1):8393.
[178] Sun X, Stephens EV, Khaleel MA (2007) Fatigue Behaviors of Self-Piercing
Rivets Joining Similar and Dissimilar Sheet Metals. International Journal of
Fatigue 29(2):370386.
[179] Tabata T, Masaki S, Azekura K (1989) Bond Criterion in Cold Pressure Welding
of Aluminum. Materials Science and Technology 5:377381.
[180] Tang Y, Lu LS, Deng DX, Yuan D (2009) Cold Welding Sealing of Copper-Water
Micro Heat Pipe Ends. Transactions of Nonferrous Metals Society of China
19(3):568574.
694 K.- Mori et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 62 (2013) 673694
[181] Thomas WM, Nicholas ED, Needham JC, Murch MG, Temple-Smith P, Dawes
CJ (1991) Friction Stir Butt Welding, International Patent Application, No.
PCT/GB92/02203.
[182] Thomas WM, Johnson KI, Wiesner CS (2003) Friction Stir WeldingRecent
Developments in Tool and Process Technologies. Advanced Engineering Mate-
rials 5(7):485490.
[183] Tox Pressotechnik, Production Report of Tox Joining-Systems.
[184] Turk M, Groche P (2010) Integration of Adaptive Components by Incremental
Forming Processes. Proceedings of the SPIE Smart Structures San Diego, 7643,
111119.
[185] Tylecote RF (1968) The Solid Phase Welding of Metals, Edward Arnold Ltd.,
London.
[186] Ucsnik S, Scheerer M, Zaremba S, Pahr DH (2010) Experimental Investigation
of a Novel Hybrid Metal-Composite Joining Technology. Composites Part A
41:369374.
[187] Uzun H, Dalle Donne C, Argagnotto A, Ghidini T, Gambaro C (2005) Friction
Stir Welding of Dissimilar Al 6013-T4 to X5crni18-10 Stainless Steel. Materi-
als and Design 26(1):4146.
[188] Vaidyanath LR, Nicholas MG, Miler DR (1959) Pressure Welding by Rolling.
British Welding Journal 6:1328.
[189] Vaidyanath LR, Milner DR (1960) Signicance of Surface Preparation in Cold
Pressure Welding. British Welding Journal 16.
[190] Vairis A, Frost M (1998) High Frequency Linear Friction Welding of a
Titanium Alloy. Wear 217(1):117131.
[191] Varis A, Frost M (1999) On Extrusion stage of Linear Friction Welding of Ti-
6Al-4V. Materials Science and Engineering A 271(12):477484.
[192] Varis JP (2002) The Suitability of Round Clinching Tools for High Strength
Structural Steel. Thin-Walled Structures 40(3):225238.
[193] Varis JP, Lepisto J (2003) A Simple Testing-Based Procedure and Simulation of
the Clinching Process Using Finite Element Analysis for Establishing Clin-
ching Parameters. Thin-Walled Structures 41(8):691709.
[194] Varis J (2006) Economics of Clinched Joint Compared to Riveted Joint and
Example of Applying Calculations to a Volume Product. Journal of Materials
Processing Technology 172(1):130138.
[195] Vollertsen F, Schulze Niehoff H, Wielage H (2009) On the Acting Pressure in
Laser Deep Drawing. Production Engineering Research and Development
3(1):18.
[196] Kellenberger O, Silvanus J, Vollner G, Zah Michael F (2007) Potential of
Robotic Friction Stir Welding Using the Example of Aeronautics. Welding
and Cutting 6(6):348351.
[197] Wagener HW, Haats J (1994) Pressure Welding of Corrosion Resistant Metals
by Cold Extrusion. Journal of Materials Processing Technology 45:275280.
[198] Wang B, Hao C, Zhang J, Zhang H (2006) A New Self-Piercing Riveting Process
and Strength Evaluation. Transaction of ASME Journal of Manufacturing Science
and Engineering 128(2):580587.
[199] Watanabe M, Kumai S, Aizawa T (2006) Interfacial Microstructure of Mag-
netic Pressure Seam Welded AlFe AlNi and AlCu Lap Joints. Materials
Science Forum 519521:11451150.
[200] Weddeling C, Woodward ST, Marre M, Nellesen J, Psyk V, Tekkaya AE,
Tillmann W (2011) Inuence of Groove Characteristics on Strength of
Form-Fit Joints. Journal of Materials Processing Technology 211(5):925935.
[201] Weddeling C, Marre M, Brosius A, Tekkaya AE (2011) Umformtechnisches
Fugen leichter Tragwerksstrukturen, Fortschrittsbericht VDI 2/678: 978-3-18-
367802-0169191.
[202] Wielage H, Vollertsen F (2011) Analysis of Fracture Behavior in Plastic
Shaping by Laser Shock Forming. Proceedings of 10th International Conference
on Technology of Plasticity, Aachen, 10761080.
[203] Wielage H, Vollertsen F (2011) Undercuts by Laser Shock Forming. Proceed-
ings of 14th International ESAFORM Conference on Material Forming AIP Con-
ference Proceedings 1353, American Institute of Physics, pp. 13091312.
[204] Winkler R (1973) Hochgeschwindigkeitsbearbeitung, VEB Verlag Technik,
Berlin.
[205] Wolf H, Meinel M (1989) Fugen durch Magnetumformung Erreichbare
Effekte. Fertigungstechnik und Betrieb 39(11):672673.
[206] Xu S, Deng X (2008) A Study of Texture Patterns in Friction Stir Welds. Acta
Materialia 56(6):13261341.
[207] Xunhonga W, Kuaishe W (2006) Microstructure and Properties of Friction Stir
Butt-Welded AZ31 Magnesium Alloy. Materials Science and Engineering A
431(12):114117.
[208] Yokell S (1990) A Working Guide to Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchangers, McGraw-
Hill, New York, USA.
[209] Yokell S (1992) Expanded, and Welded-and-Expanded Tube-to-Tubesheet
joints. Journal of Pressure Vessel Technology 114:157165.
[210] Zaeh MF, Voellner G (2010) Three-Dimensional Friction Stir Welding Using a
High Payload Industrial Robot. Production Engineering 4(2):127133.
[211] Zhang G, Hu SJ, Wu X (2003) Numerical Analysis and Optimization of
Hemming Processes. Journal of Manufacturing Processes 5(1):8796.
[212] Zhang W, Bay N (1992) Inuence of Hydrostatic Pressure in Cold Pressure
Welding. Annals of the CIRP 41(1):293297.
[213] Zhang W, Bay N (1997) Cold WeldingTheoretical Modeling of the Weld
Formation. Welding Journal Supplement 76(10):417s420s.
[214] Zhang W, Bay N (1997) Cold Welding Experimental Investigation of the
Surface Preparation Methods. Welding Journal Research Supplement
76(8):326s330s.
[215] Zhang Y, Sato YS, Kokawa H, Park SHC, Hirano S (2008) Microstructural
Characteristics and Mechanical Properties of Ti-6Al-4V Friction Stir Welds.
Materials Science and Engineering A 485(12):448455.
[216] Zhang Y, Babu S, Prothe C, Blakely M, Kwasegroch J, LaHa M, Daehn GS (2011)
Application of High Velocity Impact Welding at Varied Different Length
Scales. Journal of Materials Processing Technology 211(5):944952.
[217] Zhang Z, Chen JT (2008) The Simulation of Material Behaviors in Friction Stir
Welding Process by Using Rate Dependent Constitutive Model. Journal of
Materials Science 43(1):222232.
[218] Zhao DS, Yan JC, Wang Y, Yang SQ (2009) Relative Slipping of Interface
Titanium Alloy to Stainless Steel during Vacuum Hot Roll Bonding. Materials
Science and Engineering A 499(12):282286.