The World Communicates Notes

THE WORLD COMMUNICATES PRELIMINARY PHYSICS
1. THE WAVE MODEL CAN BE USED TO EXPLAIN HOW CURRENT TECHNOLOGIES

TRANSFER INFORMATION
- describe the energy transformations required in one of the following:

mobile telephone
(sound ----> electrical ----> EMR ----> electrical ----> EMR ----> electrical
sound)
Mobile phones have a built in microphone that changes sound
waves into electrical signals, which are digitised (converted into a
code of 1s and 0s) and transmitted as radio waves to a base
station.
Base station consists of a system of antennae on top of a tower or
tall building. Each base station accepts and can transmit radio
signals from three adjacent hexagonal-shaped areas called cells.
Arrangement of base station aerials
Each base station is connected to switching centre by cable

network that carries the signal as electrical impulses, which have
been produced by radio-wave energy interacting with the aerial
Each switching centre is connected to other switching centres and
base stations
There are three main possible paths for the signal to take:
1. Telephone call between a mobile and a distant fixed telephone:
The signal may be converted into light and travel along an
optical fibre network to a distant switching centre close to its
destination. From the switching centre, it is moved into the
copper-wire network as an electrical impulse and is decoded in a
receiving telephone.
2. Telephone call between a mobile and a nearby fixed telephone
The signal is converted into an electrical impulse in a copper
wire. It may remain as an electrical impulse in the copper-wire
network until it reaches a switching centre close to its
destination
3. Telephone call between two mobiles
The signal is transferred to a switching centre close to base
station servicing the cell near where the receiving mobile
telephone is located. The signal from the switching station is fed
to the base station as an electrical signal and broadcast as radio
waves to the mobile phone. Once at the mobile the radio signal
is converted into electrical impulses. The electrical impulse
signal is then converted by the speaker in the phone into sound.
fax / modem
radio and television
- describe waves as a transfer of energy disturbance that may occur in one,
two or three dimensions, depending on the nature of the wave and the
medium
One dimension: transverse or longitudinal waves in a slinky;
transverse wave travelling along a rope
Two dimensions: transverse wave travelling from a point source of

disturbance in still water with a circular wavefront
Three dimensions: sound waves travelling from a point source with a
spherical wavefront; light waves travelling from a point
source with a spherical wavefront
- identify that mechanical waves require a medium for propagation while

electromagnetic waves do not
Mechanical waves: waves that require a medium for propagation
e.g. sound waves
transfer energy through a medium by the motion
of particles of the medium itself
particles move as oscillations or vibrations around
a fixed point; there is no bulk transfer of particles,
they remain in exactly the same place as before
they were disturbed
mechanical waves can be classified as either
transver or longitudinal
Electromagnetic waves: waves that propagate as perpendicular
electric and magnetic fields; EM waves do not require
a medium for propagation
e.g. radio waves, light waves
not subject to the same energy losses due to
friction between particles
potentially have much greater travel ranges

- define and apply the following terms to the wave model: medium,
displacement, amplitude, period, compression, rarefaction, crest, trough,
transverse wave, longitudinal waves, frequency, wavelength, velocity
- describe the relationship between particle motion and the direction of
energy propagation in transverse and longitudinal waves
Crest: highest point of a wave

Trough: lowest point of a wave
Amplitude: maximum displacement from rest position
Wavelength: distance between two adjacent crests or troughs; assigned a
symbol
Frequency: number of waves that pass a fixed point per second;
assigned a symbol f and measured in hertz (Hz)
Period: time taken for a single wave to pass a fixed point; assigned
a symbol T
Period and frequency are related through a reciprocal
relationship:
1 1
f= or T=
T f
Transverse waves
Particles of the medium vibrate in a plane that is perpendicular to the
direction of propagation of the wave
Longitudinal waves
Particles of the medium vibrate in the same direction as the direction of
propagation of the wave
Compression is a zone where the particles of the medium are pushed
closer together. It is a zone of higher pressure
Rarefaction is a zone where the particles of the medium are spread
further apart. It is a zone of lower pressure
- quantify the relationship between velocity, frequency and wavelength for a

wave:
v = f
The velocity of wave is how fast the wave transfers energy away from its
source of disturbance. It is the product of the waves frequency and
wavelength, i.e.
v = f
perform a first-hand investigation to observe and gather information about

the transmission of waves in:
slinky springs
water surfaces
ropes
or use appropriate computer simulations
present diagrammatic information about transverse and longitudinal
waves, direction of particle movement and the direction of propagation
perform a first-hand investigation to gather information about the

frequency and amplitude of waves using an oscilloscope or electronic data-
logging equipment
present and analyse information from displacement-time graphs for
transverse wave motion
plan, choose equipment or and perform a first-hand investigation to gather
information to identify the relationship between the frequency and
wavelength of a sound wave travelling at a constant velocity
solve problems and analyse information by applying the mathematical
model of
v = f
to a range of situations
2. FEATURES OF A WAVE MODEL CAN BE USED TO ACCOUNT FOR THE

PROPERTIES OF SOUND
- identify that sound waves are vibrations or oscillations of particles in a
medium
Sound waves are vibrations in a medium that result in pressure variations
within that medium.
The frequency of the sound is dependent on the frequency of the
original vibration
The higher the pitch of the sound, the faster the rate of vibration of the
object
- relate compressions and rarefactions of sound waves to the crests and

troughs of transverse waves used to represent them
Crests of a transverse wave occur at the centre of the compression where

the pressure is at a maximum.
Troughs of a transverse wave occur at the centre of the rarefaction where
the pressure is at a minimum.
Cathode-Ray Oscilloscope (CRO)

The CRO is a device that allows us to view sound waves on a screen, by
plotting the amplitude of the input waveform against time and
displaying the wave shape on a screen by means of a cathode-ray tube
The sound-wave energy is converted into an electrical signal at the

microphone.
The size of the electrical voltage induced at the microphone is a
function of the pressure of the air striking the microphone diaphragm.
The pressure differential changes the voltage to a higher or lower
value, which register on the screen as a trace of a waveform
- Explain qualitatively that pitch is related to frequency and volume to

amplitude of sound waves
The pitch of a sound is directly related to the frequency. The higher the
frequency, the more vibrations per second and the higher the pitch.
The volume of sound is directly related to the amplitude. The higher the
amplitude, the louder the sound.
- explain an echo as a reflection of sound wave

Echo: is a repeated sound created by the reflection of sound waves from a
surface
Hearing an echo requires there to be a time difference of minimum 0.1
seconds
Since sound travels approx. 340ms-1 in air, both the receiver and sound
source must be at least 17m from the surface reflecting sound. A this
distance, sound waves take 0.05 seconds to reach the reflecting
surface and 0.05 seconds to bounce back.
- describe the principle of superposition and compare the resulting waves to

the original waves in sound
Interference is when waves meet and interact as they pass through each
other to reinforce or cancel at different points.
Superposition: is the adding of two or more waves
Superposition principle if two or more waves of the
same type pass through the same
medium at the same time, then the
amplitudes of the waves add together
This principle involves adding individual displacements at
various points in a systematic way
If two out-of-phase sound waves interfere, the amplitude
of the resulting sound wave will be less than either of the
original waves
If two in-phase sound waves interfere, the resultant
sound wave will have a greater amplitude than either of
the original waves
The term beats refer to the change in volume of a sound that occurs when
two sounds of slightly different frequencies occur together
perform a first-hand investigation and gather information to analyse sound

waves from a variety of sources using the Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO)
or an alternate computer technology
perform a first-hand investigation, gather, process and present information
using CRO or computer to demonstrate the principle of superposition for
two waves travelling in the same medium
present graphical information, solve problems and analyse information
involving superposition of sound waves
If the amplitude of the crest of one wave is precisely equal to the

amplitude of the trough of another wave, and the second wave is out of
phase by 180 degrees from the first, then annulment/complete loss of
amplitude in the resulting sound wave is produced
3. RECENT TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPEMNTS HAVE ALLOWED GREATER USE OF

THE ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
- describe electromagnetic waves in terms of their speed in space and their

lack of requirement of a medium for propagation
Electromagnetic spectrum: is a continuum of electromagnetic
waves with artificial divisions based on the
frequency and wavelengths of the waves
EM waves do not require a medium for propagation. The waves are
produced by oscillating, perpendicular electric and magnetic fields.
All EM energy passes through the vacuum of space at the common
speed of light, i.e.
3 x 108m s-1
EM waves are self-propagating which enables them to travel immense
distances away from the source of the radiation
EM waves travel at the speed of light, and can be reflected, refracted
and carry information as codes
EM waves are capable of creating an electrical response in the medium

that they impact
EM waves have frequencies related directly to the vibrational frequency
of their source particle
EM waves can be reflected by certain materials, refracted or bent when
passing from a medium of one density to a medium of a different
density
- identify the electromagnetic wavebands filtered out by the atmosphere,

especially UV, X-rays and gamma rays
Ionosphere: a layer of gas surrounding the Earth, which is partly ionised

(approx. 50km 500km above Earth); generally the upper
layers reflect radio waves below some critical frequency
while the lower layers act as an absorber of radio waves.
The ionosphere can be divided into three layers (D, E and F),
based on the type of electromagnetic radiation absorbed in
each layer.
D region:
Extends approx. 50-80 km above the Earths surface
Hard x-ray radiation with short wavelengths and high frequencies is
absorbed
E region
Extends approx. 80 -105 km above the Earths surface
Soft x-rays (longer wavelengths) are absorbed
F-region
Extends approx. 145 300 km above the Earths surface, although can
reach a height up to 600 km at night
Extreme ultraviolet radiation with short wavelengths such as UVc is
absorbed
- identify methods for the detection of various wavebands in the

electromagnetic spectrum
WAVEBAN RANGE OF METHOD OF DETECTION

D WAVELENGTH
Radio 1000m - ~50cm - Length of wire (antenna) used to
waves receive radio wave and induce
and electrical signal in antenna

by causing electrons in the wire
to oscillate (as the electrons are
subjected to the electric-field of
the radio wave)
Microwave ~50cm - ~100m - (similar to radio waves) Shorter

s aerials/antennae, as the
oscillations are faster, and the
wavelength must shorter
Infrared ~100m - 720nm - Heat-sensing cells in animals

- Charged-Couple Device (CCDs)
in infrared detectors
- Photographic film
Light 720nm - 380nm - Eyes in animals
- CCDs in digital cameras
- Photographic film
UV 400nm - 10nm - CCDs in UV detectors,
photographic film
X-rays 10nm - 0.01nm - Photographic film
- Photostimulable Phosphor (PSP)
plate (used in medical x-ray
imaging)
- Scintillator
- Geiger-Muller tube
Gamma < ~0.01nm - Geiger-Muller tube
rays - Photographic film
- Scintillation screen or plate
- Gamma ray camera using
photomultiplier tubes to record
light from scintillator
- explain
of thethat the
received relationship
signal. between
The relationship the intensity
between intensity of electromagnetic
drop off and
radiation
distance and distance
from source fromofathe
is an example source is anlaw
inverse square example
. of the inverse square law:
1
IThe
inverse
2
square law
d square1lawasapplied to electromagnetic wavesand distance from
The inverse
their source is I ----2 . That is, the intensity of the signal varies inversely with
The relationship d between the strength/intensity of the electromagnetic
the square of the distance. If the receiver is twice the distance from the
wave signal and the square of the distance from the source and is
1 or
source, the intensity is reduced to a factor of ----- --1- of the original intensity.
inversely proportional, i.e. 22 4
If the distance from the source of the radiation is increased by a factor of 3,
1 isdecreased to ---1-2 or 1--- of the original intensity. Thisisillustrated
the intensity
Iinfigure 3.10.
2
3 9
d 1
I = 9
1
I = 4
I =1
Figure 3.10 Theinverse squarelaw

states that the intensity of
Source
electromagnetic radiation is inversely
proportional to thesquareof the d
distance fromthesourceof the
radiation. When the distance is 2d
doubled, theintensity decreases to one
fourth of theoriginal value, and so on. 3d
The easiest type of electromagnetic radiation to observe is light. Light

intensity (illuminance) is measured in units called lux (lx) using a light
meter. To visualise the unit lux, consider the following:
On an average day sunlight ranges from 32000 to 100000 lx.
Rooms are lit to about 500 lx by an incandescent light for a comfortable
light level.
Moonlight lights up an area with an intensity of about 1 lx.
3.2 Using the inverse square law, if you were one metre from a light source
where the light intensity was 16000 lx, then:
Investigating the
inverse square law at two metres the light intensity would be: ---1-2 16000 lux 4000 lx
2
at three metres the light intensity would be: ---1-2 16000 lux 1778 lx
3
1
- outline how the modulation of amplitude or frequency of visible light,

microwaves and/or radio waves can be used to transmit information
Modulation: the process of changing the amplitude or frequency of a
wave to add a signal and transmit information
Radio waves or microwaves are most commonly used,
although the technology of fibre optics is now in favour for
sending large quantities of information
Modulation is achieved through superposition of a signal
wave onto a carrier wave
Amplitude modulation of Radio waves

Most commonly used in broadcasting AM radio
Signal is added to an AM carrier-wave radio signal by changing the
strength of the signal in way that corresponds to the information
carried by the broadcast
The AM signal remains constant in frequency bandwidth but the
amplitude of the wave varies
The variation in the amplitude of the wave is decoded by a radio
receiver to produce the signal which is amplified by internal circuitry
and converted to the sound signal heard
Advantages:
AM radio requires a much smaller bandwidth of frequencies for
transmission, i.e. the range of frequencies required to transmit a
signal, while FM radio signals require a large bandwidth. Thus, the
number of transmissions possible in the AM band is larger
Disadvantages
Most of the natural and artificial sources of radio noise, called
static, are AM in nature, and hence the quality of sound/signal is not
as good as FM
Frequency modulation of Radio waves

FM radio transmission involves the adding of a signal wave to the
carrier wave to vary the frequency of the wave
A limiting circuit in the radio receiver removes any amplitude variation
that occur during transmission of the radio signal and keeps the
amplitude of the received wave near constant
The signal is converted back into sound by a discriminator circuit
Advantages
FM broadcasts are now more commonly used than AM broadcasts
for transmitting music, as the effects of noise or static are reduced
in FM radio broadcasts by the limiting circuit in the receiver.
This is due to the FM radio signal not being dependent on the
strength (amplitude) of the signal received, but instead is reliant on
the frequency changes to provide the radio signal.
It is much more difficult (however possible) to change the
frequencies only slightly by interference and superposition. Hence,
the music received is closer to that broadcast.
Disadvantages
FM radio signals require a large bandwidth of the limited
electromagnetic spectrum, therefore the number of transmission
possible in the FM band is much smaller than thein AM band.
Amplitude modulation of Visible light

Laser light of fixed frequency range will allow transmission of AM
signals from a laser transmitter to a receiver
e.g. the LaserDot transmitter and receiver
The signal is amplitude modulated as the frequency of light from a
particular laser is of a fixed range and too small for effective frequency
modulation
Sound or data signals can be transferred reliably by a laser device
across approx. 200m without the use of fibre-optic cable
Longer distance transmission is less reliable as there is greater
possibility of interference. Hence, long distance communication is
accomplished along fibre-optic cables with shorter wave
electromagnetic radiation, e.g. infra-red radiation and light, in order to
eliminate the change of interference to the signal
- discuss problems produced by the limited range of the electromagnetic

spectrum available for communication purposes
The part of the electromagnetic spectrum that can current be used in
communication technologies is limited. This restricted range of frequencies
has caused governments to limit the bandwidth over which certain
communication devices can operate.
The limited bandwidth:
Avoids the problem of interference. Different technologies require different
bandwidth separation.
e.g. television stations do not broadcast on frequencies closer than 5 MHz.
and FM radio stations require a 200 KHz separation.
Provides equity for users. The communications industry is competitive and
bandwidth is the subject of intense competition.
Enables communications to form part of the safety infrastructure
Ensures communications systems can develop to a standardized plan
Allows for new technologies to be developed that may require spectrum
bandwidth
e.g. mobile phones now use part of the spectrum that was previously left
without communication travel, as 20 years ago no-one anticipated the
volume of mobile phone traffic that we see today
Al government restrict the bandwidth available for different users and license
that bandwidth. This enables governments to ensure that users have certainty
that they can broadcast or communicate over a certain bandwidth and
confidently invest in developing technology that is able to use that bandwidth
for communication.
On the other hand, long-distance communication using infra-red radiation and

light via optical fibres is not restricted by the range of spectrum available as
they are utilised within enclosed systems where penetration and attenuation
(decrease in the strength of the signal or light) are the issues that restrict the
spectrum range used.
plan, choose equipment or resources for and perform a first-hand investigation

and gather information to model the inverse square law for light intensity and
distance from the source
analyse information to identify the waves involved in the transfer of energy

that occurs during the use of one of the following
mobile phone
television
radar
Radar is an application of radio waves, which sends out evenly spaced
pulses of radio-wave energy of a precisely known wavelength.
Electrons moving in an alternating current create pulses, which strike
an object to create an echo that is detected by the radar antenna
The received radio waves generate an alternating electric current in the
aerial.
A computer receives the alternating-current information about where
the radio-wave echo is coming from by determining whether the
wavelength has been altered and the time taken for each pulse to
return.
This information is then used to create a visible-light track of the
moving object on the radar operators visual display.
The radar can measure the speed of the object by looking at the
Doppler shift, i.e. the change in wavelength of the radio wave as a
result of being reflected off the moving object:
o Wavelengths will be lengthened as a result of the collision and
reflection if the object is moving away from the source of the
radio wave
o Wavelengths will be shortened if the object is moving towards
the source of the radio wave
The relative change in the wavelength is proportional to the speed of
the object, either towards or away from the radar antenna.
Applications of the radar include:
The tracking of aeroplane traffic into and out of busy airports
Police purposes in detecting the speed of passing motorists
Tracking satellites and space debris
Military uses, to detect the enemy and to guide weapons
Weather forecasting, to track storms and cyclones
Automatic devices, such as those for opening doors
analyse information to identify the electromagnetic spectrum range utilised in

modern communication technologies
Radio waves
Wavelengths ranging from 10cm to 1000m
Assigned to the AM, FM, VHF, or UHF category based on their frequency
Used to transmit television, FM and AM radio, radar and some mobile
telephone signals
Microwaves
Wavelengths between 1mm 30cm
Microwave oven emits waves tuned to frequency of 2450 MHz. The water
in food absorbs the energy of the microwaves and becomes warmer
Microwaves can be emitted from objects such as cars, planes and from the
atmosphere, which can then be detected and interpreted to give
information, such as the temperature of the object that emitted them
Microwave links are used to transmit mobile phone signals on frequencies
of around 900 MHz. Transmission can be across distances of up 100 km,
however there must be a direct line of sight from the microwave
transmitter to the receiver dish
Infrared radiation
Wavelengths around 700nm 1mm
Infra-red radiation levels can be measured using electronic detectors
Electronic remote controls (television, garage doors) and remote-control
wireless connections to computers use infra-red radiation to transfer the
signal from the control device to the consumer item
Broadcasting data over relatively short distances from computer to
computer, without the need for wiring
Infra-red lasers send information down optical fibres in telecommunications
industry
Medical treatment for soft tissue injury
Detecting heat leaks from houses
Airplanes that carry infra-red detectors can identify forest-fire hotspots
even when hidden by a curtain of smoke.
Visible light
Wavelength of 400 700nm
Fibre optic telecommunications
Remote sensing of vegetation patterns from satellite and areoplane
surveys
Identification of different objects by their visible colour
Ultraviolet radiation
Wavelength 10nm 400nm
Small dose is beneficial to humans as it encourages the production of
vitamin D, which is essential for strong bonds. Larger doses can lead to cell
and tissue damage, possibly causing skin cancer or eye cataracts that
severely affect vision
Used to cure plastics. Liquid plastic components are designed to contain
photo-initiator chemicals that start the polymerization reaction in plastics,
which is useful where maintaining transparency is important, e.g. repairing
cracks in windshields
Making astronomical observations
Sterilising hospital equipment and hairdressers combs
Sterilising water in water purification systems through high-output UV
lamps
X-rays
Wavelength 0.01 10nm
Detected with photographic film
Used in the standard medical examination of hard or dense parts of the

body without the need for surgery
X-ray devices use din engineering to inspect welds for cracks
Used in X-ray crystallography to see the structure of crystalline materials
Manufacture of electronic microchips and in the efficient production of
many biomolecular materials
Gamma rays
Wavelengths less than 0.01 nm
Detected with Geiger-counter
Treatment of some cancers in radiation therapy
Astronomical investigations of high-energy event sin space
4. MANY COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES USE APPLICATION SOF REFLECTION

AND REFRACTION OF MAGNETIC WAVES
arrow heads representing the travel direc- Many of the technologies used in communication rely directly on
Therayapproachingthe all rays lie
tion. A ray can be likened to an infinitely properties of electromagnetic radiation called refraction and reflec
ident ray) isreected from Figure 4.3 The incident ray, the These properties have direct analogies in other types of waves, su
thin beam of electromagnetic radiation.
surface. The angle of
The incident ray, the reflected ray and normal to thereecting surfaceand water waves and sound.
quals the angle of
the normal at the point of incidence in thereected ray, all liein thesame
THE4.2 WORLD COMMUNICATES
in one plane. That plane. For any chosen incident ray, PRELIMINARY PHYSICS
figures and 4.3 all lie
means they can all be drawn as though they theplaneisat 90 totheplaneof the 4.1 THE LAW OF REFLECTION
Observer A lie on one flat sheet of paper. This is shown reecting surface. Many ofathe technologies
in figure 4.3. When wave is reflectedused fromina communication
flat-surface plane rely
it wdirectly
ill obeyon thethe L
The normal is the line that is properties
Reflection.of The electromagnetic
Law of Reflection radiationstatescalled
that therefraction
angle of and thereflection.
incomin
perpendicular to the reecting These properties have direct analogies in other types of waves, such as
incident,
the weffect ave in relation to a line perpendicular to the reflecting su
Using
- describethe Law and ofapply
Reectionthe law surfaofcereflection
at the point where and the explain water
(norm waves
al) andis equalsound. of reflection
to the angle the reflected wave will make with
Observer B from a plane surface ra
on waves y hits it.
Electromagnetic waves can be reflected from smooth, flat, mirror-like normal.
surfaces orLaw from of Reflection: the angle Whenof incidence
waves are is equal toofthe anglecan ofbe summar-
irregular or bumpy surfaces.
reflected from a flat surface, the reflection is regular. When
reflection
the
the reflec-
in relation
4.1 THE LAW OF REFLECTION
to the
The Law
ised normal
Reflection
as: the angle of incidence equals the ray
Incident
tion is from a bumpy or irregular surface, it is diffuse. Normal In both cases, the Normal
angleaof
When wavreflection.
e is reflected Usuallyfromthe law is repre-
a flat-surface plane it will obey the Law oRf
reflection obeys the Law of Reflection. The normal is the line that is Angle of
Irregular surface Re sented
fle ctio n. in
The diagrammatic
Law of Reflectionform as
states shown
that in
the angle of the incoming,
incidence or
If a surface is some distance away from a Incident
light source,
perpendicula the
r to thelight
reectingReflected
rays that incident,
figure 4.2. wave in relation to a line perpendicular to the reflectingAngle surface of
ray
surfa ce at the point w here the ray
Reection froman reach the surface are considered to be parallel. When the surface is (normal) reflection
ray hitsAngle
it. of Angle of To study reflection,
is equal to the a ray
anglemodel theisreflected
useful. wave will make i with the
urface. Thedotted lines irregular, each of the parallel incident rays that hits the surface does so at normal. r
incidence reflection The raymodel includes the assumption that
he normal to the reecting a different angle of incidence. This means that each ray is reflected with The Law of Reflection
electromagnetic waves can be summar-
travel in straightIncident
he point of reection for a different angle of reflection and the rays are no longer parallel. To two ised lines.as: Hence,
the angle theof incidence equals
electromagnetic the are
waves ray
nt ray. For each individual observers, A and B, the reflected rays will not be as intense as the incident Normal
Normal Mirror angleshown of reflection.
in diagrams Usually the law islines
as straight repre-with Reflecte
y, the Law of Reection is rays because the reflection is diffuse (see figure 4.4). Angle of
Mirror surface Planera
Incident Reflected
sented
arrowinheads diagrammatic
representing formthe as shown in
travel direc- incidence
te that at the points where When the surface is regular, the incoming When 4.2waves
ray parallel
Figure erayapreflect
incident
Th prays
roachin are from
tall
grayhe figure a flat
4.2. surface, the
tion. A ray can be likened to an infinitely
reflection Angle of all rays
raysstrikethesurface, the reflection
reflected back parallel to each other. For m
is regular observers,
irror (in
Anglecidethe
nt ray
of intensity
) isreof
Angle ecteof the
d fro m To study reflection, a ray model is useful. Figure 4.3 The in cid e nt ray
the surface arenot thin beam of electromagnetic radiation. i
r
reflected light is greater than that of the themirro incidence reflection TheThe ray model includes
r surfac e. The
Normal angle of
incident ray, the theassumption
reflected ray thatand normal to thereecting surfa
same light reflected from an irregular incidence equals theangle of electromagnetic waves travel in straight
the normal at the point of incidence in thereected ray, all lie in the
surface (see figure 4.5). reection. lines. Hence, the electromagnetic waves are
Mirror
figures 4.2 and 4.3 all lie in one plane. That plane. For any chosen inciden
shown in diagrams as straight lines with
Figure 4.5 Theincident parallel
means they can all be drawn as though they theplaneisat 90Plane
arrow heads representing the travel direc- Mirrorresurface
totheplan
in whic
Observer A ecting surfac e.all rays lie
rays arereected fromthe plane surface Incident
Figure 4.2 Th e ray app ro ac Reflected
hin g the lie on
tion. A onecan
ray flatbe sheet of paper.
likened to an This is shown
infinitely
mrays
irror (incident ray) isreected frorays m in figure 4.3. Figure 4.3 The incident ray, the
and remain parallel. An observer sees that thin beam of electromagnetic radiation.
themirror surface. Theangle of
the intensity of light ismaximised. Reflecting surface The incident ray, the reflected ray and normal to thereecting surfaceand
incidence equals the angle of
When theUsing
anormal the
at theLaw pointof Reection
of incidence in it thereected ray, all liein the same
reection. waves reflect from
Observer B figures
bumpy/irregular surface, plane. For any chosen incident ray,
4.2 and 4.3 all lie in
Electromagnetic waves can be reflectedthe one plane. That from smooth, flat, mirro
is dispersed means they can all be drawn as though they planeisat 90 to theplaneof th
CHAPTER 4 REFLECTION AND REFRACTION OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES 47 surfaces or from irregular or bumpy surfaces. When
reecting surfac e. the waves
Observer A liereflected
on one flat sheet
from a offlatpaper.
surface, Thistheis shown
reflection is regular. When the r
intion
figure 4.3. a bumpy or irregular surface, it is diffuse. In both cases
is from
reflection obeys the Law of Reflection.
Irregular surface Using the Law
If a surface is some of Reection
distance away from a light source, the light rays
Figure 4.4 Reection froObserver man B Electromagnetic waves
reach the surface are considered can be reflected to from smooth,When
be parallel. flat, mirror-like
the surfa
irregular surface. Thedotted lines surfaces
irregular, or eachfromofirregular
the parallel or incident
bumpy surfaces.rays that Whenhits thethe wavesdoes
surface are
represent thenormal to thereecting reflected
a different from a flatofsurface,
angle incidence. the Thisreflection
means is that
regular.
eachWhen
ray isthe reflec-
reflected
surfaceat thepoint of reection for tion is from aangle
a different bumpy ofor irregularand
reflection surface,
the raysit is are
diffuse. In bothparallel.
no longer cases, the To
each incident ray. ForIrregular dividual reflection
each insurface observers, obeys
A and theB, Lawtheofreflected
Reflection. rays will not be as intense as the inc
incident ray, theLaw of Reection is If a surface
rays becauseisthe some distance is
reflection away from(see
diffuse a light source,
figure 4.4).the light rays that
Figure 4.4 Reection froman
obeyed. Notethat at thepoints where reach When
the surface are considered to be parallel. When the surface is
the surface is regular, the incoming parallel incident rays a
irregular surface. The dotted lines
- describe ways in which applications theincident raysstrik ofethe surface, the irregular,
reflection of light,
reflected
each
back
of the parallel
radio waves
parallel
incident
to each and rays that hits the surface does so at
other. For observers, the intensity o
represent thenormal to thereecting a different angle of incidence. This means that each ray is reflected with
microwaves have assistednsurfac inals
orm
einformation
at thepoint of reectiotransfer
to thesurfacearenot
n for a reflected
different angle light is ofgreater
reflection than and that theofrays
theare no longer parallel. Normal To two
parallel. same light reflected from anrays irregular
Torches and driving lights each incident ray. For each individual observers, A and B, the reflected will not be as intense as the incident
incident ray, theLaw of Reection is surface (see figure 4.5). is diffuse (see figure 4.4).
Torches and driving lights often have parabolic,
obeyed. Note that at thepoints where
rays because the reflection
concave-mirror
When the surface is regular, the incoming parallel incident rays are all
reflectors theincident raysstrikethesurface, the reflected back Figure parallel 4.5to The each incother.
ident paralle
For lobservers, the intensity of the
Some torches have norm the
als toability
the surface aretonoadjust
t the filament
reflected rays are
light reectedthan
from
is greater fro
themtthat
he plan
ofethe
focus, surface Incident Re
rays Normal
parallel. same light andreflected
remain paralle from l. An anobsirregular
erver sees that
resulting in the ability to produce a spot or flood beam.
surface (see figure thein4.5).
tensity of light is maximised. Reflecting surface
When the beam is adjusted to spot the filament is at the focus; when
the beam is set to flood the filament is beyond or before
Figure 4.5 Thethe focus
incident parallel of
rays areree
CHAPTER 4ctREFLECTION
ed fromtheplan urface Incident
e sREFRACTION
AND
Reflected
the reflector mirror raysOF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVESrays
and remain parallel. An observer sees that
theintensity of light is maximised. Reflecting surface
Satellite dish
Satellite dishes receive weak radio signals from satellites in space or
CHAPTER 4 REFLECTION AND REFRACTION OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES 47
detect naturally emitted radio frequencies from astronomical objects
The radio signals are received by the dish as parallel rays that hit the
dish surface
A large, concave, parabolic reflecting dish collects the weak-intensity
signals, reflects them and focuses the signals to a receiver aerial at the
focus of the satellite dish
This increases the strength of the signals received.
- describe one application of reflection for each of the following:

plane surfaces
Plane mirror
A persons body acts as a source of light waves that travel towards
the mirror, which are then reflected back towards the persons eye
where the light waves are focused to form an image
The apparent position of an image of an object in a plane mirror can

be located using rays and the Law of Reflection in a geometric
construction:
concave surfaces
Car headlights
Convex mirrors/lens concentrate the initially parallel light rays to a
point known as the focus and are therefore called converging
mirrors
Focus: the point where all rays from a converging lens or
mirror are concentrated
Light bulb is placed at the focus
Rays incident on the reflector and reflect straight out in front of the
car
convex surfaces
Car rear-view mirrors
Convex mirrors/lens cause the parallel incident rays on their surface
to be reflected as though they diverge from a focus behind the
mirror, hence they are known as diverging mirrors.
Convex mirrors are commonly used in security and safety
situations, e.g. sharp bends or in shopping centres where shoplifting
is an issue, as they provide a wider field of view
radio waves being reflecting by the ionosphere

Radio waves generated on Earth are bounced by the ionosphere
towards the Earths surface, where they are bounced back again
towards the ionosphere
Due to the high altitude of the ionosphere, its curvature is not very
large, hence the waves are essentially bouncing off a plane surface
and so obey the Law of Reflection
In this way short wavelength radio waves can travel around the
globe by constantly reflecting off the ionosphere and the Earths
surface from a single transmitter
The altitude of the ionosphere rises at night when incoming solar
radiation decreases, hence the range of short-wavelength radio
waves increases at night as they bounce off a higher ionosphere
- explain that refraction is related to the velocities of wave in different media

and outline how this may result in the bending of a wavefront
Refraction: the phenomenon where waves that are incident on any
angle except the normal, bend as they pass from one
medium to another of different densities
The velocity of a wave changes as it moves across an interface from
one medium to another
The frequency of the wave does not change
When a wave moves from one medium to another, where its speed is
lower, the ray bends towards the normal
When a wave moves from one medium to another, where its speed is
faster, the ray bends away from the normal
Incident ray Normal If a ray passes from a vacuum to another material of fixed composition
and density, the degree of bending that occurs at the interface between the
Vacuum
i nvac = 1.0000 vacuum and the material is a constant. This constant is given the symbol n
and is known as the absolute refractive index. This means that all refractive
v = 3 x 108 m s1 indices are measured with respect to a vacuum. A vacuum by definition has
an absolute refractive index of 1.0000 for the electromagnetic spectrum.
The absolute refractive index of any transparent material is a measure, or
ratio, of how much an electromagnetic wave slows down at the interface
Medium 1 between a vacuum and that material (see figure 4.31). That is, the absolute
vvac
- define refractive
refractive index of someindex in nterms
material, 1, is: n1 of
--------changes
v1
. in the velocity of wave in passing
r Refracted rayfrom one medium to another
Note that a refractive index is a comparative measure of the velocities
Figure 4.31 The absolute refractive Refractive
of electromagnetic index: a comparative
radiation in a vacuum measure
and in the material. That is, inof the velocities of
index of a substance is determined by this case it is referring to the velocity of electromagnetic radiation rela- relative to their velocity in
comparing thespeed of the
electromagnetic
tive to the velocity of electromagnetic radiation in a vacuum.
radiation
electromagnetic wave in that a vacuum and their velocity
Table 4.1 lists the absolute refractive indices for some common materials. in a particular in the
substance to the speed of thesame
electromagnetic wave in a vacuum
material
Table 4.1 Refractive indices of selected materials
such as space. Because the refractive Absolute refractive indices for some common materials
index is derived by dividing a speed V E L O C IT Y O F L IG H T IN A B S O L U T E R E F R A C T IV E
by a speed, the unit has no SU B STA N C E M E D IU M (m s 1 ) IN D E X O F M E D IU M
dimensions.
8
Vacuum 3 10 1.000000
8
Air 2.999 10 1.00028
8
Water 2.26 10 1.33
8
Crown glass 1.97 10 1.52
8
Denser crown glass 1.92 10 1.56
4.4 Flint glass 1.86 10

8
1.61
Determining refractive index 8
Denser flint glass 1.72 10 1.74
of glass
8
Perspex 2 10 1.46
8
Diamond 1.24 10 2.42
Notice that the absolute refractive index for air is 1.00028. This is very
- define
closeSnells Lawindex for a vacuum, hence you can use the approx-
to the refractive
e B o o k p lu s
v sin i
imation that the refractive index of air is 1.0 for most purposes and com-
pare 1the refractive
= index of other substances to that of air. In other
eLesson:
Refraction and v
words, assume nair 1.0.
2 sinr
Snells Law Snells Law applies equally to waves slowing down and speeding up as
eles-0037 they move
If a across
ray thepasses
interfacefrom
betweenaone
vacuum
medium and toanother.
another As with material of fixed composition
Interactivity: water waves at an interface, the frequency of the waves does not change as
Refraction and and density, the degree of bending
they speed up or slowdown, so it is the wavelength of the wave that changes.
that occurs at the interface
Snells Law
int-0056 between the vacuum and material v sin i is a constant, which is given the
This is expressed in the Snells Law relationship: -----1 ----------- ----1- .
symbol n and is known as the v2 absolute
sin r 2 refractive index.
TheAll refractive
refractive index is indices are measured
useful for determining what will with happenrespect to to a vacuum
electromagnetic waves that pass across an interface between transparent
materials.
Assume nairrefractive
The absolute = 1.0indices can be used directly to determine
a number
Snells Law
of factors. Thisshows thebecause
comes about relationship
v1 sin -i between
----- ----------
n
-----1 -----2 . speed, wavelength and
v2 sin r n1
angles of incidence and refraction: 2
v1 sin i 1
58 THE WORLD COMMUNICATES = =
v2 si n r 2
The absolute refractive indices can be used directly to determine a
number of factors. This is because:
v1 sin i 1 n2
= = =
v2 sinr 2 n1
- identify conditions necessary for total internal reflection with reference to the
critical angle
Total internal reection: the total reflection of a light ray reaching an

interface with a less dense medium when the angle
of incidence exceeds the critical angle.
Critical angle: the angle of incidence that yields an angle of
refraction to be 90 degrees; the refracted ray cannot
escape the high-refractive-index material and is
forced to travel along the interface of the two
mediums.
When the incidence ray exceeds the critical angle,

the interface of the two media acts as mirror and
total internal reflection of light rays occurs. The rays
then obey the Law of Reflection at the interface and
the ray is trapped internally within the denser
material.
Calculating the critical angle

The critical angle of refraction at a boundary between two media can be
calculating using Snells Law:
v1 sin i 1 n2
= = =
v2 sinr 2 n1
in particular
sin i n2
=
sinr n1
At the critical angle, the angle of refraction is 90 degrees. Sin 90 degrees is

equal to 1, hence the equation simplifies to:
sini n2
=
1 n1
n2
sin ic =
n1
where ic is the critical angle
note: n2 < n1 for light to bend away from the normal.
- outline how total internal reflection is used in optical fibres

The practical application of total internal reflection of electromagnetic
waves has led to optical fibres becoming a major data carrier in
telecommunications.
Optical fibres are mad from thin, cylindrical strands of ultra-high-purity
glass
Contain a central, high-refractive-index- region called a core
Outer region, called the cladding, is made from a lower refractive index
glass
After EM radiation enters the optical fibre, it is totally internally
reflected at the interface between the higher refractive-index core and
the lower refractive-index cladding
The EM radiation is not able to escape through the surface of the

optical fibre and instead the light is trapped internally, and continually
moves forward through the optical fibre, following the Law of Reflection
To allow for the transfer of this trapped light to be faster and more
efficient, the path-length travelled by the narrow beam of light is
reduced, by making the diameter of the core around 10m
Advantages of optical fibres:

Allow for the transmission of light to or from locations where straight
line transmission of the light would not be possible
Optical fibres are flexible which allow electromagnetic radiation, and in
particular, visible and infra-red radiation to be reflected easily and
precisely around corners without the need for any physical reflective
device such as a silvered mirror.
Optical fibres are used in:

Communication for carrying signals precisely, and at the speed of light
Medicine; operating doctors view sites such as the intestines,
previously inaccessible without invasive surgery, by using optical fibres
in instrument known as endoscopes
perform first-hand investigations and gather information to observe the

path of light rays and construct diagrams indicating both the direction of
travel of the light rays and a wave front
present information using ray diagrams to show the path of waves
reflected from:
plane surfaces
E LAW OF REFLECTION
a wave is reflected from a flat-surface plane it will obey the Law of
on. The Law of Reflection states that the angle of the incoming, or
THE
nt, wave in relation to a line WORLD COMMUNICATES
perpendicular to the reflecting surface PRELIMINARY PHYSICS
al) is equal to the angle the reflected wave will make with the
.
Law of Reflection can be summar- Incident
: the angle of incidence equals the ray
Normal
of reflection. Usually the law is repre- Reflected
Angle of
in diagrammatic form as shown in ray
incidence
4.2. Angle of
reflection
udy reflection, a ray model is useful. i
r
y model includes the assumption that
magnetic waves travel in straight
Hence, the electromagnetic waves are
in diagrams as straight lines with
Plane in which
heads representing the travel direc- Mirror surface all rays lie
ray can be likened to an infinitely
eam of electromagnetic radiation. Figure 4.3 Theincident ray, the
incident ray, the reflected ray and concave
normal to there surfaces
ecting surface and
rmal at the point of incidence in the reected ray
When light , all lie in
raysthesam e
strike a concave surface in a direction that is
4.2 and 4.3 all lie in one plane. That plane.parallel
For any chosen incident ray,
with the principle axis, they are reflected so that they
eisat 90 to theplaneof the
they can all be drawn as though they theplan
reectconverge
ing surface. to a single point called the focus. This point is the focal
one flat sheet of paper. This is shown
re 4.3.
point of the mirror.
The focus is at a distance equal to half the centre-of-curvature
g the Law of Reection radius of the mirror
omagnetic waves can be reflected from smooth, flat, mirror-like
es or from irregular or bumpy surfaces. When the waves are
ed from a flat surface, the reflection is regular. When the reflec-
from a bumpy or irregular surface, it is diffuse. In both cases, the
on obeys the Law of Reflection.
surface is some distance away from a light source, the light rays that
the surface are considered to be parallel. When the surface is
ar, each of the parallel incident rays that hits the surface does so at
rent angle of incidence. This means that each ray is reflected with
rent angle of reflection and the rays are no longer parallel. To two
convex surface
ers, A and B, the reflected rays will not be as intense as the incident
When light is reflected by a convex mirror, any incident rays hitting
4.4).
cause the reflection is diffuse (see figure
theincident
n the surface is regular, the incoming parallel mirror rays
(parallel
are all to the principal axis) are reflected and diverge
ed back parallel to each other. For observers,as though they
the intensity of originate
the at a point behind the mirror, and hence
ed light is greater than that of the the focus
Normal is behind the reflecting surface.
ight reflected from an irregular Convex mirrors cannot produce a real image, although an observer
e (see figure 4.5).
looking into the mirror can see the virtual image it produces.
Figure 4.5 The incident parallel
Incident Reflected
rays arereected fromtheplane surface
rays rays
and remain parallel. An observer sees that
the intensity of light is maximised. Reflecting surface
CHAPTER 4 REFLECTION AND REFRACTION OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES 47
the ionosphere
perform an investigation and gather information to graph the angle of

incidence and refraction for light encountering a medium change showing
the relationship between these angles
perform a first-hand investigation and gather information to calculate the

refractive index of glass or Perspex
solve problems and analyse information using Snells Law
5. ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES HAVE POTENTIAL FOR FUTURE COMMUNICATION

TECHNOLOGIES AND DATA STORAGE TECHNOLOGIES
- identify types of communication data that are stored or transmitted in digital

form
Digital communication: systems are based on signals that have two
values, on or off (1s and 0s)
Advantages
enhanced security
ability to persevere the signal and still be able to read it after it has
suffered more interference and superposition; in analogue waves,
information added to the wave (due to interference) changes the actual
shape of the wave, and hence the data it is carrying
If a digital signal is subjected to interference or degraded due to
attenuation occurring over a long distance, then the receiving instrument
can still generally tell whether the pulse represents a 1 or a 0. The
message can then be decoded or if necessary, be cleaned and re-
transmitted by a repeater station without loss of information from the
original transmission
The digital revolution

Optical fibres and the laser were inventions made to transport digital signals
and the devices to encode and read digital information.
The data sent along optical-fibre cables is always a digitalized signal
o Optical-fibre communication systems for transmitting data or sound
use special lasers to transmit messages that are encoded as pulses of
light.
o They can transmit more information than traditional copper-wire
analogue system which send information encoded as electrical pulses
through large cables/
Mobile phones use a digital signal for data and voice transmission
Television is now broadcast as a digital signal
The internet operates on digital transmission along data and phone lines
identify data sources, gather, process and present information from secondary
sources to identify areas of current research and use the available evidence to
discuss some of the underlying physical principles used in one application of
physics related to waves, such as:
Global Positioning System (GPS)
GPS is made up of a set of satellites orbiting the Earth in precise
locations at elevations of about 17,600 km
The location of these satellites is such that the entire surface of the
globe has a direct line-of-sight connection between at least some of the
satellites
To locate you position on the surface of the Earth you must have a GPS
receiver and be in line-of-sight contact with at least three satellites
This is necessary for the GPS receiver because it only detects line-of-
sight transmissions from the satellite
Satellites act in conjunction with a series of ground stations that are in
constant communication with the satellites by radio. These radio
communications tell the satellites exactly where they are with respect
to the Earths surface at any time.
Each satellite is constantly broadcasting a radio signal that contains
information about the time that the signal was sent and from which
satellite the signal was sent. Software corrects for any delays the radio
signal experiences as it travels through the atmosphere on its way to
GPS receivers.
The more satellites your GPS receiver can receive radio signals from at
the one time, the more accurate it can determine your position
Due to the satellites high orbit and the curvature of the Earth, a GPS
receiver may see up to nine satellites at any time
A minimum of three satellites must be seen to locate a position on the
Earths surface.
The GPS can locate a position accurately because the speed of
transmission of the radio signal from the GPS is known. Hence, the
distance of each satellite from the GPS receiver on an imaginary sphere
drawn on the surface of the Earth can be very accurately calculated.
The position of the GPS receiver is determined by the intersection of
the different spheres of possible position suggested by each different
GPS satellite. This is called triangulation.
The in-car navigation system is an advanced GPS developed through
combining small hand-held mobile computing devices with clever
software, detailed maps as well as voice simulation.
CD technology
The compact disc is a plastic, metal-coated disc that stores information
digitally.
Information (that can be converted to picture or sound) is stored as a

series of pits, representing 1s, on a spiraling track. The lack of a pit
burned into a track represents a 0.
When playing an audio CD, the disc spins in a CD player while a laser
beam shines on the pit spiral.
The metal coating on the CD reflects the light. The intensity of the
reflected light changes as the beam enters and leaves the pits and it is
the difference in this reflected beams intensity that translates into an
electrical signal.
the internet (digital process)

DVD technology

The World Communicates Notes

Transféré par

Informations du document

Copyright

Formats disponibles

Partager ce document

Partager ou intégrer le document

Options de partage

Avez-vous trouvé ce document utile ?

Ce contenu est-il inapproprié ?

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

The World Communicates Notes

Transféré par

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

THE WORLD COMMUNICATES PRELIMINARY PHYSICS

1. THE WAVE MODEL CAN BE USED TO EXPLAIN HOW CURRENT TECHNOLOGIES

- describe the energy transformations required in one of the following:

Each base station is connected to switching centre by cable

Two dimensions: transverse wave travelling from a point source of

- identify that mechanical waves require a medium for propagation while

Crest: highest point of a wave

- quantify the relationship between velocity, frequency and wavelength for a

perform a first-hand investigation to observe and gather information about

perform a first-hand investigation to gather information about the

2. FEATURES OF A WAVE MODEL CAN BE USED TO ACCOUNT FOR THE

- relate compressions and rarefactions of sound waves to the crests and

Crests of a transverse wave occur at the centre of the compression where

Cathode-Ray Oscilloscope (CRO)

The sound-wave energy is converted into an electrical signal at the

- Explain qualitatively that pitch is related to frequency and volume to

- explain an echo as a reflection of sound wave

- describe the principle of superposition and compare the resulting waves to

perform a first-hand investigation and gather information to analyse sound

If the amplitude of the crest of one wave is precisely equal to the

3. RECENT TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPEMNTS HAVE ALLOWED GREATER USE OF

- describe electromagnetic waves in terms of their speed in space and their

EM waves are capable of creating an electrical response in the medium

- identify the electromagnetic wavebands filtered out by the atmosphere,

Ionosphere: a layer of gas surrounding the Earth, which is partly ionised

- identify methods for the detection of various wavebands in the

WAVEBAN RANGE OF METHOD OF DETECTION

and electrical signal in antenna

Microwave ~50cm - ~100m - (similar to radio waves) Shorter

Infrared ~100m - 720nm - Heat-sensing cells in animals

Figure 3.10 Theinverse squarelaw

The easiest type of electromagnetic radiation to observe is light. Light

- outline how the modulation of amplitude or frequency of visible light,

Amplitude modulation of Radio waves

Frequency modulation of Radio waves

Amplitude modulation of Visible light

- discuss problems produced by the limited range of the electromagnetic

On the other hand, long-distance communication using infra-red radiation and

plan, choose equipment or resources for and perform a first-hand investigation

analyse information to identify the waves involved in the transfer of energy

analyse information to identify the electromagnetic spectrum range utilised in

Used in the standard medical examination of hard or dense parts of the

4. MANY COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES USE APPLICATION SOF REFLECTION

- describe one application of reflection for each of the following:

The apparent position of an image of an object in a plane mirror can

radio waves being reflecting by the ionosphere

- explain that refraction is related to the velocities of wave in different media

4.4 Flint glass 1.86 10

Total internal reection: the total reflection of a light ray reaching an

When the incidence ray exceeds the critical angle,

Calculating the critical angle

At the critical angle, the angle of refraction is 90 degrees. Sin 90 degrees is

- outline how total internal reflection is used in optical fibres

The EM radiation is not able to escape through the surface of the

Advantages of optical fibres:

Optical fibres are used in:

perform first-hand investigations and gather information to observe the

CHAPTER 4 REFLECTION AND REFRACTION OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES 47

perform an investigation and gather information to graph the angle of

perform a first-hand investigation and gather information to calculate the

5. ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES HAVE POTENTIAL FOR FUTURE COMMUNICATION

- identify types of communication data that are stored or transmitted in digital

The digital revolution

Information (that can be converted to picture or sound) is stored as a