1.

INTRODUCTION
Solar energy, radiant light and heat and heat from the sun, has been
harnessed by humans since ancient time using a range of ever-
evolving technologies. Solar radiations, along with secondary solar-
powered resources such as wind and wave power, hydroelectricity and
biomass, account for most of the available renewable energy on earth.
Solar technologies are broadly characterized as either passive solar or
active solar depending on the way they capture, convert and distribute
solar energy. Active solar techniques include the use of photovoltaic
panels and solar thermal collectors to harness the energy whereas
passive solar techniques include orienting a building to the Sun,
selecting materials with favorable thermal mass or light dispersing
properties.
Solar powered vehicle works n the active solar techniques.
A solar vehicle is an electric vehicle powered by solar electricity. This is
obtained from solar panels on the surface (generally, the top or
window) of the vehicle or using a solar jacket in electric bicycles.
Photovoltaic (PV) cells convert the sun's energy directly into electrical
energy.
Solar power is the term for using the sun's energy to power a device or
an electrical system. Solar panels are made up of a grid of solar cells.
These cells collect the sun's energy and convert it into electrical
energy .Conversion of solar power to electrical power. Photovoltaic
cells are made of special materials called semiconductors such as
silicon, which is currently used most commonly. Basically, when light
strikes the cell, a certain portion of it is absorbed within the
semiconductor material. This means that the energy of the absorbed
light is transferred to the semiconductor. The energy knocks electrons
loose, allowing them to flow freely. PV cells also all have one or more
electric field that acts to force electrons freed by light absorption to
flow in a certain direction. This flow of electrons is a current, and by
placing metal contacts on the top and bottom of the PV cell, we can
draw that current off for external use. The electron flow provides the
current and the cells electric field cause the generation of
voltage.With both current and voltage we have power.
1
Fig 1. Working principle of Solar powered vehicle

2
 2. LITERATURE REVIEWS

2.1 PREVIOUS HISTORY

The first solar powered vehicle invented was a tiny 15-inch vehicle created
by William G. Cobb of General Motors. Called the Sun mobile, Cobb
showcased the first solar powered vehicle at the Chicago Powerama
convention on August 31, 1955. The solar powered vehicle was made up 12
selenium photovoltaic cells and a small Pooley electric motor turning a pulley
which in turn rotated the rear wheel shaft. In 1962 the first solar powered
vehicle that a person could drive was demonstrated to the public. The
International Rectifier Company converted a vintage model 1912 Baker
electric car (pictured above) to run on photovoltaic energy in 1958, but they
didn't show it until 4 years later. Around 10,640 individual solar cells were
mounted to the rooftop of the Baker to help propel it. In 1977, Alabama
University professor Ed Passereni built the Bluebird solar powered vehicle,
which was a prototype full scale vehicle.

Nowadays also solar powered vehicles are not available commercially to buy
this because of the cost involved and they are low end compared to the
conventional gas cars. These cars are limited to certain groups like the
researchers and students in their projects. Previously these solar panels had
a very high cost but due to the advancement in the semiconductor industry
the costs have gone down significantly.

2.2 NEED OF A SOLAR POWERED VEHICLE

The quest for alternative sources of power for automobiles explored the
possibility of solar power. The concept of driving a car with zero harmful
emissions, one that is very quiet and is very low maintenance, and does not
need an expensive fuel source has been the ideal of many inventors for a
long time. This is the reason why many researches were made to evolve the
design of solar powered vehicle to make it more practical and comfortable.
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3. Layout Of a Solar Powered
Vehicle

Fig.2 Layout of Solar Powered Vehicle

4
4. DIFFERENT COMPONENTS AND
THEIR SPECIFICATION USED
FOR DESIGN
A solar powered vehicle is made up of many components that have
been integrated together so that they work as a single system. For the
ease of explanation it has been broken down into five primary systems:
Driver Controls & Mechanical Systems

Electrical System

Drive Train

Solar Array

Body and Chassis

4.1 Driver Controls and Mechanical Systems

Solar powered vehicles do have some of the standard features found in

conventional cars, such as turn signals, fresh air ventilation, and usually
cruise control. Drivers and passengers can look forward to uncomfortable
seats, cramped positioning, and high cockpit temperatures as these cars
have very few amenities for the driver. High temperatures are obviously bad
for the driver (and passenger), but they are also bad for electrical and
electronic components as high temperatures will generally reduce the
efficiency and shorten the life of solar cells, batteries, motors, motor
controllers and other electronic equipment.

5
Fig 3 The comfortable interior temperature and air flow rate as a function
of outside temperature.

Something like 10 kilograms of air would typically have to be provided every

minute to approach passenger car comfort levels. Obviously, that's seldom
feasible in a solar powered vehicle due to the drag that it might impose on
the vehicle, if such cooling flows are not also required by electrical, electronic
and mechanical components of the vehicle.Vehicle designers usually use the
same airflow several times over as it passes through the vehicle; for example
cooling driver, electronics, electrics and motor sequentially.

The mechanical systems of a solar powered vehicle are designed to

minimize friction and weight while maintaining the strength needed to
handle the various road conditions. Lightweight metals like titanium and
composites are commonly used to maximize the strength-to-weight ratio. It
includes:

4.1.1 Steering System:

The major design factors for steering are reliability performance. The
and efficient steering
system is designed with precisealignment because even small
steering misalignments can
cause losses and tire wear.cars use different
significant increase Different steering
mechanisms depending on their budget and other considerations.
6
Goal

The steering system as a group needs to be lightweight, affordable, reliable,

and durable. The steering wheel needs to be easy to turn but out of the way
so the driver may get out of the car quickly in case of an emergency.

Types of Steering systems

The steering box is a method of steering cars at high speeds, where accuracy
is of paramount importance. It is a method of preventing the turning of the
steering wheel from having a direct effect on the direction of the wheels,
allowing for a more forgiving driving experience than direct access. A gear
system is placed between the shaft of the steering wheel and the wheel axle,
refining the controls and making driving safer.

Worm and Sector

It comprises a steering wheel shaft with a "worm" screw on the end, and a
section gear that is moved up and down as the steering wheel turns. The
movement of the section gear causes a pitman arm (a rod of metal attached
to the track rod) to lever up and down, turning the wheels.

Worm and Roller

It works on a similar principle to the worm and sector box, with section gear
replaced by a roller attached to a cross shaft. As the steering wheel turns,
the worm rotates and causes the roller to turn. This causes the cross shaft to
twist, moving the pitman arm and forcing the wheels to change direction.

Cam and lever

To reduce wear and friction, the cam and lever design was introduced; it is
very similar to the worm and roller. As the worm turns on the steering shaft,
the cam moves up and down the worm, forcing the pitman arm to move up
and down along with it, causing the wheels to change direction. In this
design, according to carbibles.com, the cross shaft is turned 90 degrees to
the normal, causing it to exit through the side of the steering box instead of
the bottom.

Rack and pinion

A rack and pinion is a pair of gears which convert rotational motion into
linear motion. The circular pinion engages teeth on a flat bar - the rack.
Rotational motion applied to the pinion will cause the rack to move to the
side, up to the limit of its travel. A rack-and-pinion gear set is enclosed in a
metal tube, with each end of the rack protruding from the tube. A rod, called
a tie

7
rod, connects to each end of the rack. The pinion gear is attached to the
steering shaft. When you turn the steering wheel, the gear spins, moving the
rack. The tie rod at each of the steering wheel turns, the worm rotates and
causes end of the rack connects to the steering arm on the spindle.
Working Principle of Rack and Pinion
The steering wheel turns the pinion gear; the pinion moves the rack, which is
a linear gear that meshes with the pinion, converting circular motion into
linear motion along the transverse axis of the car.
The rack-and-pinion gear-set does two things:
It converts the rotational motion of the steering wheel into the
linear motion needed to turn the wheels.
It provides a gear reduction, making it easier to turn the wheels.
We are going to use
rack and pinion arrangement.
We have used Rack and Pinion steering system because of its
following advantages:-

The rack and pinion design has the advantages of a large degree of
feedback.
Rack and pinion steering tends to be more precise because there are
fewer parts and pivot points. Because of this, the steering is more
responsive and easier to control.
Reducing the number of parts in a system also reduces the weight.
Repairing a rack and pinion steering system tends to be easier than a
traditional system. There are two reasons for this.
First, there are fewer moving parts so fewer to fail and
need repairing. Second, it is the most common system,
so most mechanics should
be familiar with it; you do not need a specialist for repairs.

Fig 4: Rack and Pinion Steering system

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Steering Ratio

Steering ratio refers to the ratio between the turn of the steering wheel (in
degrees) and the turn of the wheels (in degrees). The steering ratio is the
amount of degrees you have to turn the steering wheel, for the wheels to
turn an amount of degrees. A higher ratio means that we have to turn the
steering wheel more to get the wheels to turn a given distance. However,
less effort is required because of the higher gear ratio. Generally, lighter,
sportier cars have lower steering ratios than larger cars and trucks. The
lower ratio gives the steering a quicker response -- you don't have to turn the
steering wheel as much to get the wheels to turn a given distance

Ackermann Steering System

It is a term used to define the steering geometry. It gives a relation between

the front inside wheel and front outside wheel during taking a turn. This
concept is to have the correct turning angle of the steering wheels to be
generated during negotiating a corner or to have the four wheels rolling
around a common point during a turn. During a turn the outer wheels have to
cover a larger radius than the inner ones so the steering angle of inner wheel
will be more than that of outer wheel. This allows the vehicle to travel around
a curve without scrubbing the tires.

Fig 5: Ackermann steering system

9
Let,
Wheel base = b
Distance between king-
pins = c Wheel track = a
Taking slip angle as
0 deg Using the
formulae:
cot - cot = c/b
sin( + ) + sin( - ) = 2sin
From these two equations we can get the turning angle for
inner wheel () & turning angle for outer wheel()
Ackermann angle = ( + )/2
Turning Radius =[(-b/sin )^2 + (c^2) + (2*b*c/tan )
+^(1/2) + *(a-c)/2] Lock to lock angle = steering
ratio*Ackerman angle

Parts of Steering System

Rack & Pinion, Centralized
Tie Rod
Rose Joint
Housing
Steering Column
Steering wheel
Tie Rod End
Knuckle Arm
Universal Joint
Inner lock angle was 10 degrees and outer lock angle was 12 degree for
this car.
Wheel Base:- This is the longitudinal distance between the centre lines
of the front and the rear axles.
Track Width:- This is the measure of the distance between the center of
tire contact patches at the front and rear of the vehicle.

Fig 6: Track width and Wheel base

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4.1.2 Brakes:

One of the most important systems of any kind of vehicle is Braking system.
As name indicates, systems which allow moving body to stop. Every moving
body at a particular time needs to come into rest and so vehicle. Here we are
discussing BRAKE SYSTEM before power system , reason behind safety
before running the vehicle is prime importance , we can start the vehicle
with the help of transmission system but we cant stop thats why brake
system need to be designed, fabricated and assembled with very high
accuracy, safety and reliability.
If vehicle will be equipped with proper braking system as per vehicle
specified configuration then driver will be able to control the vehicle speed
easily and can stop the vehicle in panic/accidental situation.
Solar powered vehicles are required to meet rigorous standards for brakes.
Disc brakes are the most commonly used due to their good braking ability
and ability to adjust. The brake pads or shoes are typically designed to
retract to minimize brake drag, on leading cars.
A shoe brake is used in front wheel whereas drum brake is used in rear
wheel.

Fig 7: Shoe brake and Drum Brake

4.1.3 Suspension System :

The suspension must keep the tires on the ground at all times to ensure
optimal traction and grip as the vehicle transverses rough terrain. An
additional purpose of the suspension is to isolate the shocks associated with
traveling over different obstacles from the body of the vehicle, thus sparing
the driver from the forces caused by impact. Protecting the driver is an
especially important goal for our design, as the driver must be able to drive
the car for extended periods of time during the endurance race without
being fatigued from constant

11
vibrations. A four-wheel independent suspension is the optimal arrangement,
as it allows each wheel to move independently. Independent movement of
each wheel is ideal because each wheel can experience different obstacles
due to the varying terrain of the course. Therefore, the primary purposes of
the suspension are to provide the driver with as smooth a ride as possible
over varying terrains, and to provide optimum traction for the vehicle.

Goals of the Suspension System are as follows

To protect the driver and frame from shock and
impact during the competition
To provide the driver with comfort while traversing rough
terrain
To provide maximum traction for the vehicle over course
obstacles

4.1.4 Wheels:

Wheels, however, are the least efficient part of a solar powered vehicle due
to rolling resistance. About one third of the energy used by a solar powered
vehicle is lost due to this factor. Due to this limitation, contact with the
ground should be minimized. For this reason two Luna tires are used as front
wheel and two Yo- bike tires are used as rear wheels. At each of the rear
wheel 250 watt hub motors are mounted which drives the wheel after using
power from battery. Also sun planet gears are mounted for transmission.

Specification
Front wheels = R 16in, 2.25 in (6 ply rating)
Rear wheels = R 14in, 2.25 in (4 Ply rating)

4.2.Electrical System :
The heart of a solar powered vehicle is the electrical system, which is
made up of
batteries and power electronics. Power electronics include the peak power
trackers, the
motor controller, and the data acquisition system. The primary function of
the power
electronics is to monitor and control the electricity within the system.
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4.2.1 Batteries :

A solar powered vehicle uses the battery pack to store energy, which
will be used at a later time. The battery pack is made up of several individual
modules wired together to generate the required system voltage. The types
of batteries used include:

Lead-Acid
Nickel-Metal Hydride (NiMH)
Nickel-Cadmium (NiCad)
Lithium Ion

The NiCad, NiMH, and Lithium batteries offer improved power to weight ratio
over the more common Lead-Acid batteries, but are more costly to maintain.
4 batteries each of 12 volt and
40 Ampere-hour(on average) are used .

4.2.2 Peak Power Trackers :

The peak power trackers condition the electricity coming from the solar array
to maximize the power and deliver it either to the batteries for storage or to
the motor controller for propulsion. When the solar array is charging the
batteries, the peak power trackers help to protect the batteries from being
damaged by overcharging. Peak power trackers can be very lightweight and
commonly reach efficiencies above 95%. A maximum power point tracker
(MPPT) is a DC-DC converter that matches the output of a PV string to the
battery voltage in a way that maximizes the power generated by the PV
string.

4.2.3 Motor Controllers:

This component performs the complex task of deciding how much current
actually reaches the motor at a given time. This determination of current by
the motor controller allows the car to accelerate, decelerate, or stay at a
constant speed. The better motor controllers are up to 90% efficient.
4.3. Drive Train:

The drive train will consist of the electric motor and the means by which the
motor's power is transmitted to the wheel causing the vehicle to move. In
this project we have used hub motor which eliminates the need for any
external transmission because the motor shaft is connected directly to the
wheel hub. This greatly increases the efficiency of the drive train and
reduces the number of moving parts necessary to drive the wheel. A hub
motor uses low rpm to account for the lack of gear reduction, which tends to
drop their efficiency slightly, but they still can achieve efficiencies in excess
of 95%.

4.4. Solar Insolation:

The energy from the sun strikes the earth throughout the entire day.
However, the amount of energy changes due to the time of day, weather
conditions and geographic location. The amount of available solar energy is
known as the solar insolation or irradiance and is most commonly measured
in watts per meter squared or W / m 2.

Fig 8: Typical solar insolation for a sunny day.

Solar irradiance is generally modeled as having three components:

direct beam irradiance,

diffuse irradiance, from the sky, and
reflected irradiance, from the ground.
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 The sum of these components is called global irradiance. The
irradiance that will fall on a surface depends on the many factors,
including:

the day of the year

the position of the sun in the sky
the inclination of the surface
cloud cover.

These factors should be taken into account while designing the solar
array.

4.5. Solar Array:

Solar cells or Photovoltaics collected the energy from the sun and converts
it into usable electrical energy. They are made from silicon by joining an n-
type and a p-type silicon semiconductor, creating an electron rich and an
electron poor layer. When sunlight strikes the cell, photons cause atoms of
the semiconductor to free electrons, leaving behind positive charges. The
flow of electrons thus created constitutes an electromotive force that drives
the current to charge a battery or power a motor. The cell's positive contact
is on the bottom while the negative contact, or bus bar, is located on the top
of the cell. Each cell produces approximately .5 volts and 3 amps of current.
Connecting the cells in series, i.e., positive to negative, increases voltage.
Parallel connections, i.e., negative to negative and positive to positive,
increase current. Therefore, connecting the cells in various series and
parallel configurations produces modules of different voltages and currents.

Fig 9 : Schematic Diagram of a Solar

Three solar panels are used on the basis of power required by battery to get
charged, whose calculation is shown afterwards.
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4.6. Frame and Body:

4.6.1 Frame

A solar powered vehicle's frame is designed to be as minimal as possible,

while still able to protect the driver and support the rest of the car's
components. To verify the safety of the frame, it is simulated in various
collision and rollover situations using finite element analysis (FEA). In
addition, the frame is welded to ensure high quality construction.

4.6.2 Body and Chassis:

The body of a solar powered vehicle is designed with two primary goals:
providing a large top surface area for mounting solar cells, and
being as aerodynamic as possible. Solar powered vehicles often have a
smooth, wing-like shape and covered wheels, which helps reduce
aerodynamic drag.

The chassis is the backbone of the vehicle; it must support all the cars
subassemblies as well as protect the driver. The chassis design is crucial to
the success of the project because if the chassis fails, that puts the vehicle
and the driver at tremendous risk.
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 CONCLUSION
From the above calculation as we can see that using a solar powered vehicle
is very economic and cost effective compared to an electric car. Solar power
is becoming more important in recent years as society comes to understand
the limited nature of fossil fuels. Nowhere is this more important than in the
automobile. The invention of the solar car brought the possibility of efficient
renewable power to the auto industry and meant the potential to reduce
pollution dramatically.
 MERITS AND DEMERITS OF SOLAR
POWERED VEHICLE
ADVANTAGES

Economical
One of the long-term benefits of driving a solar-powered car is the fuel. This
is probably the most obvious advantage. People driving solar cars no longer
need to purchase gasoline or any other type of fuel. The energy used to run
these cars comes directly from the sun, meaning the cars have no regular
expense aside from maintenance and repairs.
Environmentally Friendly
Solar cars have no emissions to threaten the environment, making solar
power preferable to just about anything else out there. The exhaust
emissions from vehicles burning fossil fuels are known to affect the
environment negatively and could potentially contribute greatly to global
warming.
The use of solar cars as a combustion engine replacement could significantly
reduce greenhouse emissions from drivers and improve air quality around
the world.

DISADVANTAGES

Speed
One of the disadvantages of solar cars is power and speed. It takes longer to
reach your destination when driving a solar car simply because of the far
inferior amount of power supplied by the solar energy or the electrical
backup battery.
This so-called problem is a matter of patience. While the muscle of today's
combustion engines will allow drivers to drive at high rates of speed, the
solar car will slow the pace. This can be considered a downfall of the solar
car, but it could also make the roads safer if consumers reach a point where
the average car on the road is solar and moving at slower speeds.
Size and Safety
There is a reason people like to drive SUVs despite their poor fuel economy.
The reason is safety. Big cars and trucks put a lot of steel between the
passengers and any object they might collide with. Solar cars do not have
this luxury. Because of the limited power of a solar car, it is not possible to
make large, reinforced vehicles that can withstand impact because the solar
power simply will not pull it.
No solar car has been developed yet that is equal to even a full-size
sedan. Instead, these are very small cars that could be dangerous in
an accident.
Weather
Solar cars need sunshine to power them. When it's dark outside or
dark clouds fill the skies for days on end, there may be a problem with
getting where you need to go. The weather can directly affect the
performance of the car, making another minor disadvantage for the
solar-powered cars.
Apart from all these disadvantages, it does not have zero emission
effect in true sense. Because all the parts as solar panel and electrical
systems are where manufactured, emits pollutant in enough amounts.
So solar powered vehicles are not pollution free completely.