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Volume 14 Issue 2 Version 1.0 Year 2014
Type: Double Blind Peer Reviewed International Research Journal
Publisher: Global Journals Inc. (USA)
Online ISSN: 2249-460x
460x & Print ISSN: 0975-587X
CriticalExplorationintheUniversityClassroomImplicationsforTeachingand
heUniversityClassroomImplicationsforTeachingandTeachers
2014. Dr. Sabine Hoidn. This is a research/review paper, distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-
Attribution
Noncommercial 3.0 Unported License http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/), permitting all non-commercial
non use,
distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
Critical Exploration in the University Classroom:
Implications for Teaching and Teachers
Dr. Sabine Hoidn
Abstract- The paper introduces an educational approach BrbelInhelder first introduced the term Critical
developed by Eleanor R. Duckworth named Critical Exploration Exploration for Piagets clinical interviewing method as
in the Classroom (section 1) and outlines the basic she applied it to pedagogical contexts that included
educational components central to this approach (section 2).
observing children as well as interviewing and
After that selected finding so fan in-depth case study
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interacting with children who were experimenting and
conducted in Professor Duckworths higher education
classroom at Harvard Graduate School of Education in the investigating a problem set by the researcher. When
Year
United States will be presented. The empirical case study applied in an educational context, Critical Exploration as
investigated how the learning environment in the classroom a scientific method can have two levels of meaning,
was designed to support deep exploratory learning exploring according to Duckworth (1987/2006, p. 159): (1) 39
both, curriculum design and pedagogy (section 3). As a result, exploration of the subject matter by the student (instead
pedagogical implications on how educators can use their
C
ritical Explorationis an approach that challenges thoughts generate the intellectual life of the classroom
the traditional role of the teacher as one who while the teacher provides some direction through
imparts knowledge. Instead, it supports a move environmental resource selection (assignments,
towards students greater intellectual involvement by materials), activities and genuine questions to further
fostering student-centered learning processes in the students engagement. Duckworth (1987/2006, 2009)
classroom. As a progressive approach to learning and stresses the following two major aspects that are
teaching, Critical Exploration puts learners and their original about Critical Exploration as a pedagogical
understanding of the world center-stage. According to approach:
Piaget to understand is to discover, or reconstruct by a) The way teachers use their own subject matter
-
rediscovery; therefore, certain conditions must be knowledge, as curriculum planers and as teachers
complied with if in the future individuals are to be They plan how to engage students minds in
formed who are capable of production and creativity exploring the subject matter, put students in direct
and not simply repetition (1972, p. 20). Duckworth contact with the subject matter and keep them attending
(1987/2006, p. 1) considers the development of closely to the material. For example, the teacher thinks
intelligence to be a creative affair and the having of about what materials he will use, how he proposes to
wonderful ideas to be the essence of intellectual begin the session, different ways in which the session
development. In order for these ideas to arise it is might develop, and what he might do in each case. He
necessary that teachers are willing to listen to students brings materials to the classroom that provide a source
ideas and that they provide educational settings of feedback and against which the students can test
suggesting different ideas for different students so that their ideas.
each student can work on a challenging intellectual b) The way educators focus on the students thoughts
problem (ibid., p. 7). Wonderful ideas can only flourish rather than their own
in an educational environment where students can The teacher invites students to express their
generate their own knowledge and where students and thoughts/ideas to come to understand how students are
teachers are co-learners working alongside each other seeing things. Teachers are getting students to talk
in the educational process. about their thoughts on various matters, they show
Author: Harvard University, USA and University of St. Gallen, interest in what students are saying and they are careful
Switzerland. e-mail: sabine_hoidn@mail.harvard.edu
not to influence what students say as they are saying it. butterflies. And you let them look at them, notice them,
This way, teachers can use their insights to inform their figure out their questions, and come to be familiar with
teaching in terms of how next to call on their knowledge these things. You dont give them words about these
of the subject matter what resources to provide, what things, you give them these things. Now thats similar to
next questions to ask to engage the students minds the poem, too. You dont give them somebody elses
continually with the subject matter and to broaden and words about a poem, you give them the poem.
deepen their understanding. (Duckworth in Meek, 1991, p. 32)
These concrete representations or objects can
II. Basic Components of Critical fulfill several educational functions:
Exploration in the Classroom to
The subject matter itself instead of words allow
Support Deep Conceptual students to act on material things so that they can
Understanding discover the specifics of an object for themselves.
This way, they can make a connection to the world
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assimilation allows an individual to take external subject matter and their ability to think further and gain
elements into previously constructed structures and confidence in their own minds.
thus, provides for continuity and sense-making in a
c) The Role of the Teacher in the Learning Process
persons cognitive development. Accommodation is
The students learning is the focus of teaching;
any modification of an assimilatory scheme or structure
therefore, the teachers role is to help students learn.
by the elements it assimilates (Piaget, 1976, pp. 170
The teacher facilitates learn ersso that they can have
and 172). The process of accommodation is responsible
wonderful ideas on their own and realize the power of
for the transformation of already existing structures and
their own minds. Understanding requires searching
thus, for further cognitive development. Through the
thought about the nature of the subject matter on the
intrinsic process of equilibration, which Piaget considers
part of the students and avoiding technical words to
to be the motive for cognitive growth, a learner actively
open a variety of connections to the subject matter. A
constructs structures throughout his life while acting
teacher cannot assume that students have understood
upon the world either alone or in social collaboration.
something because he has led them through it very
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Hence, for students to connect to the world, they must
carefully (Duckworth, 1999). Telling is not effective,
construct their own wonderful ideas, move their ideas
Year
especially when it comes to promoting higher order
forward via exploration, discuss them with each other
thinking processes, as Duckworth (in Meek, 1991, p. 30)
and (collaboratively) assess them against materials
points out: telling people what they ought to
which provide reliable grounds. In this process students 41
understand has very little impact on what they actually
share with the teacher the responsibility of making sure
understand. You have to put them in a situation where
-
students with yet further elements of subject matter
with confusions and conflicts being seen as
to help them to take charge of their own
valuable aspects of learning;
explorations of the subject matter and deepen their
try to make sense by testing ideas and posing
knowledge.
questions, by thinking out loud and explaining what
b) The teacher has the students explain the sense they
they think and why in a convincing fashion, and in
are making and provides them with the time to
the light of the phenomena they are trying to
create their own meaning while he is observing and
understand;
listening. The teacher listens genuinely without
have the courage to submit an idea of their own to
trying to guide students explorations asking, What
someone elses scrutiny. Students form their own
do you notice? What do you think? or How do you
ideas, share what they think, see how their ideas
think about it?, for example. He keeps trying to find
relate to the ideas of others and are open to the
out and understand what sense the students are
questioning of their peers (Duckworth, 1987/2006,
making and helps them to develop their ideas
p. 67).
further offering new aspects for consideration while
A student-centered learning process requires at the same time assessing and monitoring their
students to consider and discuss each others thinking progress. He attends to them with the neutrality of a
in relation to their own thoughts and to their ongoing researcher, that is, he reacts to the substance of
observations and explorations of the material proving their answers without judging them. The teacher
ground. Thus, they develop their understanding of the invites students to talk and establishes their feeling
2014 Global Journals Inc. (US)
Critical Exploration in the University Classroom: Implications for Teaching and Teachers
of self-confidence instead of explaining things to the connected to the subject matter and listen while learners
students and imposing his knowledge. do the sense-making and explaining were continually
In short, in the course of the educational enacted and explored in the classroom and through
process, engaging learners in phenomena and working equivalent field work. The aim of the empirical case
to understand the sense they are making are the main study was to gain first-hand knowledge of how an expert
aspects of teaching. This take on the educational instructor in the field of higher education designs an
process has further implications for the design of exploratory learning environment that engages teacher
learning environments. The following Figure two students in deep learning. The case study triangulated
summaries important core tasks of a teacher(teaching- the following research methods: participant
researcher) as outlined above: observation/videotaping, a handful interviews with
students and one interview with the instructor, and
Figure 2 : Core tasks of a teacher as critical explorer
document analysis (syllabus, classroom materials,
course evaluation) (see Hoidn, 2010 for a detailed
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learning activities are more open in nature allowing very carefully to what the students are saying while
students to explore the educational material available. trying to avoid any (judging) comments on students
Work relevant for exploratory learning environments has ideas. The instructor is the one who
been done in educational theory (e.g. Bruner, 1966), orchestratesexploratory activities, carries out
educational technology (e.g. Papert, 1993; Resnick, demonstrations (modeling) and is mainly in charge of
Bruckman & Martin, 1996), and educational psychology moderating large class discussions (including, for
(Duckworth, 1987/2006). example, students reflections on activities). Students
The following section draws on the results of a explore and do the talking and explaining using artifacts
case study that was conducted over the course of one as testing-grounds for their ideas and thus, as a source
semester (13 classes) in professor Duckworths of authority. Translated into pedagogical practice this
signature university course at Harvard Graduate School means that the instructor
of Education during Fall term 2009: T-440: Teaching has to know her subject matter (what she teaches),
and Learning: The Having of Wonderful Ideas. The diverse ways into a subject matter, and has to find
university course was designed to develop teacher out what her students know about it trying to
students ability to engage different peoples minds in engage with students at their level of understanding;
thinking about subject matter and to learn how to make provides a fluent and flexible course
sense of how their learners are thinking about that structure/syllabus that can adapt to changes and
material. Situations where teachers keep learners incorporate a variety of students ideas, questions,
viewpoints and pathways (students as co- everyone understood each other within a comfortable,
designers); responsiveand productive environment.
designs diverse class activities (exploratory
activities, discussions, demonstrations) and related Constructing knowledge through student-driven
open-ended assignments aligned with assessment explorations and discussions
tasks; It was the students who actively constructed
presentsstudents with interesting/stimulating meaning individually and collectively inside and
problems and materialsthat engage and outside of the classroom. Thus, students shared
challengethem, and spark their interest; responsibility and were held accountable for their own
organizes teaching and learning as an interactive as well as for others learning leading to increased
process encouraging (joint) student-driven autonomy on part of the students. The instructor
explorations, discussions and reflections requiring provided space for student thinking and validated that
high student involvement as well as shared thinking by making it auditable and visible to the entire
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responsibilities; group (e.g., students wrote on chalkboards, presented
supports class activities with different their solutions). Working on their questions and having
Year
artifacts/objectsin order to carry certain activities some choice around what and how to explore helped
out, to make it easier for students to think about a students to come up with their own ideas, make more
problem and visualize their thoughts, and to use the connections, deepen their understanding and get more 43
material as the source of authority to test their ideas; engaged with the subject matter they were learning
-
capable and independent. Her constructivist
presenting implications for the creation of exploratory
pedagogical viewpoint and respect for others ways of
learning environments:
understanding led the instructor to shift the power from
Establishing a positive classroom climate and a teacher to students and to share responsibility for the
productive learning culture direction the learning in the classroom had taken.
The overall atmosphere in the classroom both
during class meetings and sections was described as Shaping and maintaining positive social
quite relaxing, quite friendly, lively, fun, relationships in a safe environment
fantastic, positive and inclusive by the The instructor created a space where people
interviewees, because you could talk about everything felt safe and accepted and where they were encouraged
that was on your mind. Students (and the instructor) sat to feel free to explore and talk. She modeled inclusive an
in a big circle, called each other by their first names appreciative instructional behaviors and flexibly
andstudents were activeconstructing knowledge structured the course to account for students interests,
(doing), participating in exploratory activities and ideas and questions. This way, students could feel that
discussions (involvement/interaction), and reflecting on their ideas were worthwhile having and were motivated
the subject matter as well as on their learning to following through. The class was a very positive
processes. Students had the freedom to make choices experience for the students and a place where positive
with what and how to engage and they shared as well as negative emotions, like surprise, excitement,
responsibilities with the instructor to make sure that confusion and frustration, involved in the process of joint
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212). New York: New American Library.
12. Piaget, J. (1985). The equilibrium of cognitive
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structures. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
13. Resnick, M., Bruckman, A. & Martin, F. (1996).
Pianos not stereos: Creating computational 45
construction kids. Interactions, 3(6), 40-50.
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Global Journal of Human Social Science ( B ) Volume XIV Issue II Version I