Gender - Wikipedia

12/23/2016 GenderWikipedia
Gender
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
Genderistherangeofcharacteristicspertainingto,and
differentiatingbetween,masculinityandfemininity.Dependingon
thecontext,thesecharacteristicsmayincludebiologicalsex(i.e.the
stateofbeingmale,femaleoranintersexvariationwhichmay
complicatesexassignment),sexbasedsocialstructures(including
genderrolesandothersocialroles),orgenderidentity.[1][2][3]Some
cultureshavespecificgenderrolesthatcanbeconsidereddistinct
frommaleandfemale,suchasthehijra(chhaka)ofIndiaand
Pakistan.
SexologistJohnMoneyintroducedtheterminologicaldistinction
betweenbiologicalsexandgenderasarolein1955.Beforehiswork,
itwasuncommontousethewordgendertorefertoanythingbut
grammaticalcategories.[1][2]However,Money'smeaningoftheword
didnotbecomewidespreaduntilthe1970s,whenfeministtheory Gendersymbols.Theredisthefemale
embracedtheconceptofadistinctionbetweenbiologicalsexandthe Venussymbol.Thebluerepresentsthemale
socialconstructofgender.Today,thedistinctionisstrictlyfollowed Marssymbol.
insomecontexts,especiallythesocialsciences[4][5]anddocuments
writtenbytheWorldHealthOrganization(WHO).[3]
Inothercontexts,includingsomeareasofsocialsciences,genderincludessexorreplacesit.[1][2]Forinstance,in
nonhumananimalresearch,genderiscommonlyusedtorefertothebiologicalsexoftheanimals.[2]Thischange
inthemeaningofgendercanbetracedtothe1980s.In1993,theUSA'sFoodandDrugAdministration(FDA)
startedtousegenderinsteadofsex.[6]Later,in2011,theFDAreverseditspositionandbeganusingsexasthe
biologicalclassificationandgenderas"aperson'sselfrepresentationasmaleorfemale,orhowthatpersonis
respondedtobysocialinstitutionsbasedontheindividual'sgenderpresentation."[7]
Thesocialscienceshaveabranchdevotedtogenderstudies.Othersciences,suchassexologyandneuroscience,
arealsointerestedinthesubject.Whilethesocialsciencessometimesapproachgenderasasocialconstruct,and
genderstudiesparticularlydo,researchinthenaturalsciencesinvestigateswhetherbiologicaldifferencesinmales
andfemalesinfluencethedevelopmentofgenderinhumansbothinformdebateabouthowfarbiological
differencesinfluencetheformationofgenderidentity.IntheEnglishliterature,thereisalsoatrichotomybetween
biologicalsex,psychologicalgender,andsocialgenderrole.Thisframeworkfirstappearedinafeministpaperon
transsexualismin1978.[2][8]
Contents
1 Etymologyandusage
2 Genderidentityandgenderroles
2.1 Socialassignmentandgenderfluidity
2.2 Socialcategories
2.3 Measurementofgenderidentity
2.4 Feminismtheoryandgenderstudies
2.5 Socialconstructionofsexhypotheses
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gender 1/30
2.5 Socialconstructionofsexhypotheses
3 Biologicalfactorsandviews
3.1 Sexualreproduction
3.2 Gendertaxonomy
3.3 Sexualdimorphism
4 Genderstudies
5 Generalstudies
5.1 Genes
5.2 Brain
5.3 Societyandbehaviors
6 Legalstatus
6.1 Thirdornonbinarygender
6.2 Intersexpeople
7 Genderandsociety
7.1 Languages
7.2 Science
7.3 Religion
7.4 Poverty
7.5 Generalstraintheory
7.6 Economicdevelopment
7.7 Climatechange
7.8 Socialmedia
8 Seealso
9 References
10 Bibliography
11 Externallinks
Etymologyandusage
ThemodernEnglishwordgendercomesfromtheMiddleEnglishgender(alsogendere,gendirgendyr,gendre),a
loanwordfromAngloNormanandMiddleFrenchgendre.This,inturn,camefromLatingenus.Bothwordsmean
"kind","type",or"sort".TheyderiveultimatelyfromawidelyattestedProtoIndoEuropean(PIE)rootgen,[9][10]
whichisalsothesourceofkin,kind,king,andmanyotherEnglishwords.[11]ItappearsinModernFrenchinthe
wordgenre(type,kind,alsogenresexuel)andisrelatedtotheGreekrootgen(toproduce),appearingingene,
genesis,andoxygen.ThefirsteditionoftheOxfordEnglishDictionary(OED1,Volume4,1900)notestheoriginal
meaningofgenderas"kind"hadalreadybecomeobsolete.
Thewordwasstillwidelyattested,however,inthespecificsenseofgrammaticalgender(theassignmentofnouns
tocategoriessuchasmasculine,feminineandneuter).AccordingtoAristotle,thisconceptwasintroducedbythe
GreekphilosopherProtagoras.[12]
In1926,HenryWatsonFowlerstatedthatthedefinitionofthewordpertainstothisgrammarrelatedmeaning:
"Gender...isagrammaticaltermonly.Totalkofpersons...ofthemasculineorfeminineg[ender],
meaningofthemaleorfemalesex,iseitherajocularity(permissibleornotaccordingtocontext)ora
blunder."[13]
However,examplesoftheuseofgendertorefertomasculinityandfemininityastypesarefoundthroughoutthe
historyofModernEnglish(fromaboutthe14thcentury).
Themodernacademicsenseoftheword,inthecontextofsocialrolesofmenandwomen,datesfromtheworkof
JohnMoney(1955),andwaspopularizedanddevelopedbythefeministmovementfromthe1970sonwards(see
Feminismtheoryandgenderstudiesbelow).Thetheorywasthathumannatureisessentiallyepiceneandsocial
distinctionsbasedonsexarearbitrarilyconstructed.Matterspertainingtothistheoreticalprocessofsocial
constructionwerelabelledmattersofgender.
Thepopularuseofgendersimplyasanalternativetosex(asabiologicalcategory)isalsowidespread,although
attemptsarestillmadetopreservethedistinction.TheAmericanHeritageDictionary(2000)usesthefollowing
twosentencestoillustratethedifference,notingthatthedistinction"isusefulinprinciple,butitisbynomeans
widelyobserved,andconsiderablevariationinusageoccursatalllevels."[14]
Theeffectivenessofthemedicationappearstodependonthesex(notgender)ofthepatient.
Inpeasantsocieties,gender(notsex)rolesarelikelytobemoreclearlydefined.
Inthelasttwodecadesofthe20thcentury,theuseofgenderinacademiahasincreasedgreatly,outnumberinguses
ofsexinthesocialsciences.Whilethespreadofthewordinsciencepublicationscanbeattributedtotheinfluence
offeminism,itsuseasasynonymforsexisattributedtothefailuretograspthedistinctionmadeinfeminist
theory,andthedistinctionhassometimesbecomeblurredwiththetheoryitself:"Amongthereasonsthatworking
scientistshavegivenmeforchoosinggenderratherthansexinbiologicalcontextsaredesirestosignalsympathy
withfeministgoals,touseamoreacademicterm,ortoavoidtheconnotationofcopulation".[2]
Genderidentityandgenderroles
Genderidentityreferstoapersonalidentificationwithaparticulargenderand
genderroleinsociety.Thetermwomanhashistoricallybeenusedinterchangeably
withreferencetothefemalebody,thoughmorerecentlythisusagehasbeenviewed
ascontroversialbysomefeminists.[15]
Therearequalitativeanalysesthatexploreandpresenttherepresentationsof
genderhowever,feministschallengethesedominantideologiesconcerninggender
rolesandbiologicalsex.One'sbiologicalsexisdirectlytiedtospecificsocialroles
andtheexpectations.JudithButlerconsiderstheconceptofbeingawomantohave
morechallenges,owingnotonlytosociety'sviewingwomenasasocialcategory
butalsoasafeltsenseofself,aculturallyconditionedorconstructedsubjective
identity.[16]Socialidentityreferstothecommonidentificationwithacollectivityor
socialcategorythatcreatesacommoncultureamongparticipantsconcerned.[17] Genderdepictedasan
Accordingtosocialidentitytheory,[18]animportantcomponentoftheselfconcept ambiguousphenomenon,by
isderivedfrommembershipsinsocialgroupsandcategoriesthisisdemonstrated ayoungSwedishactor
bygroupprocessesandhowintergrouprelationshipsimpactsignificantlyon
individuals'selfperceptionandbehaviors.Thegroupspeoplebelongtotherefore
providememberswiththedefinitionofwhotheyareandhowtheyshouldbehavewithintheirsocialsphere.[19]
Categorizingmalesandfemalesintosocialrolescreatesaproblem,becauseindividualsfeeltheyhavetobeatone
endofalinearspectrumandmustidentifythemselvesasmanorwoman,ratherthanbeingallowedtochoosea
sectioninbetween.[20]Globally,communitiesinterpretbiologicaldifferencesbetweenmenandwomentocreatea
setofsocialexpectationsthatdefinethebehaviorsthatare"appropriate"formenandwomenanddetermine
womensandmensdifferentaccesstorights,resources,powerinsocietyandhealthbehaviors.[21]Althoughthe
specificnatureanddegreeofthesedifferencesvaryfromonesocietytothenext,theystilltendtotypicallyfavor
men,creatinganimbalanceinpowerandgenderinequalitieswithinmostsocieties.[22]Manycultureshave
differentsystemsofnormsandbeliefsbasedongender,butthereisnouniversalstandardtoamasculineor
feminineroleacrossallcultures.[23]Socialrolesofmenandwomeninrelationtoeachotherisbasedonthe
culturalnormsofthatsociety,whichleadtothecreationofgendersystems.Thegendersystemisthebasisof
socialpatternsinmanysocieties,whichincludetheseparationofsexes,andtheprimacyofmasculinenorms.[22]
PhilosopherMichelFoucaultsaidthatassexualsubjects,humansaretheobjectofpower,whichisnotan
institutionorstructure,ratheritisasignifierornameattributedto"complexstrategicalsituation".[24]Becauseof
this,"power"iswhatdeterminesindividualattributes,behaviors,etc.andpeopleareapartofanontologicallyand
epistemologicallyconstructedsetofnamesandlabels.Suchas,beingfemalecharacterizesoneasawoman,and
beingawomansignifiesoneasweak,emotional,andirrational,andisincapableofactionsattributedtoa"man".
Butlersaidthatgenderandsexaremorelikeverbsthannouns.Shereasonedthatheractionsarelimitedbecause
sheisfemale."Iamnotpermittedtoconstructmygenderandsexwillynilly,"shesaid.[16]"[This]issobecause
genderispoliticallyandthereforesociallycontrolled.Ratherthan'woman'beingsomethingoneis,itissomething
onedoes."[16]MorerecentcriticismsofJudithButler'stheoriescritiqueherwritingforreinforcingthevery
conventionaldichotomiesofgender.[25]
Socialassignmentandgenderfluidity
AccordingtogendertheoristKateBornstein,gendercanhaveambiguityandfluidity.[26]Therearetwocontrasting
ideasregardingthedefinitionofgender,andtheintersectionofbothofthemisdefinableasbelow:
TheWorldHealthOrganizationdefinesgenderastheresultofsociallyconstructedideasaboutthebehavior,
actions,androlesaparticularsexperforms.[3]Thebeliefs,valuesandattitudetakenupandexhibitedbythemisas
pertheagreeablenormsofthesocietyandthepersonalopinionsofthepersonisnottakenintotheprimary
considerationofassignmentofgenderandimpositionofgenderrolesaspertheassignedgender.[3]Intersections
andcrossingoftheprescribedboundarieshavenoplaceinthearenaofthesocialconstructoftheterm"gender".
Theassignmentofgenderinvolvestakingintoaccountthephysiologicalandbiologicalattributesassignedby
naturefollowedbytheimpositionofthesociallyconstructedconduct.Thesociallabelofbeingclassifiedintoone
ortheothersexisnecessaryforthemedicalstamponbirthcertificates.Genderisatermusedtoexemplifythe
attributesthatasocietyorcultureconstitutesas"masculine"or"feminine".Althoughaperson'ssexasmaleor
femalestandsasabiologicalfactthatisidenticalinanyculture,whatthatspecificsexmeansinreferencetoa
person'sgenderroleasawomanoramaninsocietyvariescrossculturallyaccordingtowhatthingsareconsidered
tobemasculineorfeminine.[27]Theserolesarelearnedfromvarious,intersectingsourcessuchasparental
influences,thesocializationachildreceivesinschool,andwhatisportrayedinthelocalmedia.Itisalsoimportant
tonotethatlearninggenderrolesstartsfrombirthandincludesseeminglysimplethingslikewhatcoloroutfitsa
babyisclothedinorwhattoystheyaregiventoplaywith.Theculturaltraitstypicallycoupledtoaparticularsex
finalizetheassignmentofgenderandthebiologicaldifferenceswhichplayaroleinclassifyingeithersexas
interchangeablewiththedefinitionofgenderwithinthesocialcontext.
Inthiscontext,thesociallyconstructedrulesareatacrossroadwiththeassignmentofaparticulargendertoa
person.Genderambiguitydealswithhavingthefreedomtochoose,manipulateandcreateapersonalnichewithin
anydefinedsociallyconstructedcodeofconductwhilegenderfluidityisoutlawingalltherulesofculturalgender
assignment.Itdoesnotaccepttheprevalenceofthetworigidlydefinedgenders"man"and"woman"andbelieves
infreedomtochooseanykindofgenderwithnorules,nodefinedboundariesandnofulfillingofexpectations
associatedwithanyparticulargender.
Boththesedefinitionsarefacingoppositedirectionswiththeirowndefinedsetofrulesandcriteriaonwhichthe
saidsystemsarebased.
Socialcategories
SexologistJohnMoneycoinedthetermgenderrolein1955.Thetermgenderrole
isdefinedastheactionsorresponsesthatmayrevealtheirstatusasboy,man,girl
orwoman,respectively.Itincludes,butisnotrestrictedto,sexualityinthesenseof
eroticism.[28]Elementssurroundinggenderrolesincludeclothing,speechpatterns,
movement,occupations,andotherfactorsnotlimitedtobiologicalsex.Incontrast
totaxonomicapproaches,somefeministphilosophershavearguedthatgender"isa
vastorchestrationofsubtlemediationsbetweenoneselfandothers",ratherthana
"privatecausebehindmanifestbehaviours".[29]
Becausesocialaspectsofgendercannormallybepresumedtobetheonesof
interestinsociologyandcloselyrelateddisciplines,genderroleisoften
abbreviatedtogenderintheirliterature.
Mostsocietieshaveonlytwodistinct,broadclassesofgenderroles,masculineand MaryFrith("Moll
feminine,thatcorrespondwiththebiologicalsexesofmaleandfemale.Whena Cutpurse")scandalized17th
babyisborn,societyallocatesthechildtoonesexortheother,onthebasisofwhat centurysocietybywearing
theirgenitalsresemble.[27]However,somesocietiesexplicitlyincorporatepeople maleclothing,smokingin
whoadoptthegenderroleoppositetotheirbiologicalsexforexample,thetwo public,andotherwise
spiritpeopleofsomeindigenousAmericanpeoples.Othersocietiesincludewell defyinggenderroles.
developedrolesthatareexplicitlyconsideredmoreorlessdistinctfromarchetypal
femaleandmalerolesinthosesocieties.Inthelanguageofthesociologyofgender,theycompriseathird
gender,[30]moreorlessdistinctfrombiologicalsex(sometimesthebasisfortheroledoesincludeintersexualityor
incorporateseunuchs).[31]OnesuchgenderroleisthatadoptedbythehijrasofIndiaandPakistan.[32][33]Another
examplemaybetheMuxe(pronounced[mue]),foundinthestateofOaxaca,insouthernMexico,"beyondgay
andstraight."[34]
TheBugispeopleofSulawesi,Indonesiahaveatraditionthatincorporatesallthefeaturesabove.[35]Joan
Roughgardenarguesthatsomenonhumananimalspeciesalsohavemorethantwogenders,inthattheremightbe
multipletemplatesforbehavioravailabletoindividualorganismswithagivenbiologicalsex.[36]
Measurementofgenderidentity
Earlygenderidentityresearchhypothesizedasinglebipolardimensionofmasculinityfemininity,withmasculinity
andfemininitybeingoppositesononecontinuum.Assumptionsoftheunidimensionalmodelwerechallengedas
societalstereotypeschanged,whichledtothedevelopmentofatwodimensionalgenderidentitymodel.Inthe
model,masculinityandfemininitywereconceptualizedastwoseparateandorthogonaldimensions,coexistingin
varyingdegreeswithinanindividual.Thisconceptualizationonfemininityandmasculinityremainstheaccepted
standardtoday.[37]
Twoinstrumentsincorporatingthemultidimensionalnatureofmasculinityandfemininityhavedominatedgender
identityresearch:TheBemSexRoleInventory(BSRI)andthePersonalAttributesQuestionnaire(PAQ).Both
instrumentscategorizeindividualsaseitherbeingsextyped(malesreportthemselvesasidentifyingprimarilywith
masculinetraits,femalesreportthemselvesasidentifyingprimarilywithfemininetraits),crosssextyped(males
reportthemselvesasidentifyingprimarilywithfemininetraits,femalesreportthemselvesasidentifyingprimarily
withmasculinetraits),androgynous(eithermalesorfemaleswhoreportthemselvesashighonbothmasculineand
femininetraits)orundifferentiated(eithermalesorfemaleswhoreportthemselvesaslowonbothmasculineand
femininetraits).[37]Twenge(1997)notedthatmenaregenerallymoremasculinethanwomenandwomen
generallymorefemininethanmen,buttheassociationbetweenbiologicalsexandmasculinity/femininityis
waning.[38]
Feminismtheoryandgenderstudies
BiologistandfeministacademicAnneFaustoSterlingrejectsthediscourseofbiologicalversussocialdeterminism
andadvocatesadeeperanalysisofhowinteractionsbetweenthebiologicalbeingandthesocialenvironment
influenceindividuals'capacities.[39]ThephilosopherandfeministSimonedeBeauvoirappliedexistentialismto
women'sexperienceoflife:"Oneisnotbornawoman,onebecomesone."[40]Incontext,thisisaphilosophical
statement.However,itmaybeanalyzedintermsofbiologyagirlmustpasspubertytobecomeawomanand
sociology,asagreatdealofmaturerelatinginsocialcontextsislearnedratherthaninstinctive.[41]
Withinfeministtheory,terminologyforgenderissuesdevelopedoverthe1970s.Inthe1974editionof
Masculine/FeminineorHuman,theauthoruses"innategender"and"learnedsexroles",[42]butinthe1978edition,
theuseofsexandgenderisreversed.[43]By1980,mostfeministwritingshadagreedonusinggenderonlyfor
socioculturallyadaptedtraits.
Ingenderstudiesthetermgenderreferstoproposedsocialandculturalconstructionsofmasculinitiesand
femininities.Inthiscontext,genderexplicitlyexcludesreferencetobiologicaldifferences,tofocusoncultural
differences.[44]Thisemergedfromanumberofdifferentareas:insociologyduringthe1950sfromthetheoriesof
thepsychoanalystJacquesLacanandintheworkofFrenchpsychoanalystslikeJuliaKristeva,LuceIrigaray,and
AmericanfeministssuchasJudithButler.ThosewhofollowedButlercametoregardgenderrolesasapractice,
sometimesreferredtoas"performative".[45]
CharlesE.Hurststatesthatsomepeoplethinksexwill,"...automaticallydetermineone'sgenderdemeanorandrole
(social)aswellasone'ssexualorientation(sexualattractionsandbehavior).[46]Gendersociologistsbelievethat
peoplehaveculturaloriginsandhabitsfordealingwithgender.Forexample,MichaelSchwalbebelievesthat
humansmustbetaughthowtoactappropriatelyintheirdesignatedgendertofilltheroleproperly,andthatthe
waypeoplebehaveasmasculineorfeminineinteractswithsocialexpectations.Schwalbecommentsthathumans
"aretheresultsofmanypeopleembracingandactingonsimilarideas".[47]Peopledothisthrougheverythingfrom
clothingandhairstyletorelationshipandemploymentchoices.Schwalbebelievesthatthesedistinctionsare
important,becausesocietywantstoidentifyandcategorizepeopleassoonasweseethem.Theyneedtoplace
peopleintodistinctcategoriestoknowhowweshouldfeelaboutthem.
Hurstcommentsthatinasocietywherewepresentourgenderssodistinctly,therecanoftenbesevere
consequencesforbreakingtheseculturalnorms.Manyoftheseconsequencesarerootedindiscriminationbasedon
sexualorientation.Gaysandlesbiansareoftendiscriminatedagainstinourlegalsystembecauseofsocietal
prejudices.[48][49][50]Hurstdescribeshowthisdiscriminationworksagainstpeopleforbreakinggendernorms,no
matterwhattheirsexualorientationis.Hesaysthat"courtsoftenconfusesex,gender,andsexualorientation,and
confusetheminawaythatresultsindenyingtherightsnotonlyofgaysandlesbians,butalsoofthosewhodonot
presentthemselvesoractinamannertraditionallyexpectedoftheirsex".[46]Thisprejudiceplaysoutinourlegal
systemwhenapersonisjudgeddifferentlybecausetheydonotpresentthemselvesasthe"correct"gender.
AndreaDworkinstatedher"commitmenttodestroyingmaledominanceandgenderitself"whilestatingherbelief
inradicalfeminism.[51]
PoliticalscientistMaryHawkesworthaddressesgenderandfeministtheory,statingthatsincethe1970sthe
conceptofgenderhastransformedandbeenusedinsignificantlydifferentwayswithinfeministscholarship.She
notesthatatransitionoccurredwhenseveralfeministscholars,suchasSandraHardingandJoanScott,beganto
conceiveofgender"asananalyticcategorywithinwhichhumansthinkaboutandorganizetheirsocialactivity".
FeministscholarsinPoliticalSciencebeganemployinggenderasananalyticalcategory,whichhighlighted"social
andpoliticalrelationsneglectedbymainstreamaccounts".However,Hawkesworthstates"feministpolitical
sciencehasnotbecomeadominantparadigmwithinthediscipline".[52]
AmericanpoliticalscientistKarenBeckwithaddressestheconceptofgenderwithinpoliticalsciencearguingthata
"commonlanguageofgender"existsandthatitmustbeexplicitlyarticulatedinordertobuilduponitwithinthe
politicalsciencediscipline.Beckwithdescribestwowaysinwhichthepoliticalscientistmayemploy'gender'when
conductingempiricalresearch:"genderasacategoryandasaprocess."Employinggenderasacategoryallowsfor
politicalscientists"todelineatespecificcontextswherebehaviours,actions,attitudesandpreferencesconsidered
masculineorfeminineresultinparticular"politicaloutcomes.Itmayalsodemonstratehowgenderdifferences,not
necessarilycorrespondingpreciselywithsex,may"constrainorfacilitatepolitical"actors.Genderasaprocesshas
twocentralmanifestationsinpoliticalscienceresearch,firstlyindetermining"thedifferentialeffectsofstructures
andpoliciesuponmenandwomen,"andsecondly,thewaysinwhichmasculineandfemininepoliticalactors
"activelyworktoproducefavorablegenderedoutcomes".[53]
Withregardtogenderstudies,JacquettaNewmanstatesthatalthoughsexisdeterminedbiologically,thewaysin
whichpeopleexpressgenderisnot.Genderingisasociallyconstructedprocessbasedonculture,thoughoften
culturalexpectationsaroundwomenandmenhaveadirectrelationshiptotheirbiology.Becauseofthis,Newman
argues,manyprivilegesexasbeingacauseofoppressionandignoreotherissueslikerace,ability,poverty,etc.
Currentgenderstudiesclassesseektomoveawayfromthatandexaminetheintersectionalityofthesefactorsin
determiningpeople'slives.ShealsopointsoutthatothernonWesternculturesdonotnecessarilyhavethesame
viewsofgenderandgenderroles.[54]Newmanalsodebatesthemeaningofequality,whichisoftenconsideredthe
goaloffeminismshebelievesthatequalityisaproblematictermbecauseitcanmeanmanydifferentthings,such
aspeoplebeingtreatedidentically,differently,orfairlybasedontheirgender.Newmanbelievesthisisproblematic
becausethereisnounifieddefinitionastowhatequalitymeansorlookslike,andthatthiscanbesignificantly
importantinareaslikepublicpolicy.[55]
Socialconstructionofsexhypotheses
Sociologistsgenerallyregardgenderasasocialconstruct,andvarious
researchers,includingmanyfeminists,considersextoonlybeamatterof
biologyandsomethingthatisnotaboutsocialorculturalconstruction.For
instance,sexologistJohnMoneysuggeststhedistinctionbetween
biologicalsexandgenderasarole.[28]Moreover,AnnOakley,aprofessor
ofsociologyandsocialpolicy,says"theconstancyofsexmustbeadmitted,
butsoalsomustthevariabilityofgender."[56]TheWorldHealth
Organizationstates,"'[s]ex'referstothebiologicalandphysiological
characteristicsthatdefinemenandwomen,"and"'gender'referstothe
sociallyconstructedroles,behaviours,activities,andattributesthatagiven
"RosietheRiveter"wasaniconic
societyconsidersappropriateformenandwomen."[57]Thus,sexis symboloftheAmericanhomefrontin
regardedasacategorystudiedinbiology(naturalsciences),whilegenderis WWIIandadeparturefromgender
studiedinhumanitiesandsocialsciences.LyndaBirke,afeministbiologist, rolesduetowartimenecessity.
maintains"'biology'isnotseenassomethingwhichmightchange."[58]
Therefore,itisstatedthatsexissomethingthatdoesnotchange,while
gendercanchangeaccordingtosocialstructure.
However,therearescholarswhoarguethatsexisalsosociallyconstructed.Forexample,gendertheoristJudith
Butlerstatesthat"perhapsthisconstructcalled'sex'isasculturallyconstructedasgenderindeed,perhapsitwas
alwaysalreadygender,withtheconsequencethatthedistinctionbetweensexandgenderturnsouttobeno
distinctionatall."[59]
Shecontinues:
Itwouldmakenosense,then,todefinegenderastheculturalinterpretationofsex,ifsexisitselfa
gendercenteredcategory.Gendershouldnotbeconceivedmerelyastheculturalinscriptionof
meaningbasedonagivensex(ajuridicalconception)gendermustalsodesignatetheveryapparatus
ofproductionwherebythesexesthemselvesareestablished.[...]Thisproductionofsexasthepre
discursiveshouldbeunderstoodastheeffectoftheapparatusofculturalconstructiondesignatedby
gender.[60]
Butlerarguesthat"bodiesonlyappear,onlyendure,onlylivewithintheproductiveconstraintsofcertainhighly
genderedregulatoryschemas,"[61]andsexis"nolongerasabodilygivenonwhichtheconstructofgenderis
artificiallyimposed,butasaculturalnormwhichgovernsthematerializationofbodies."[62]MarriaLugonesstates
that,amongtheYorubapeople,therewasnoconceptofgenderandnogendersystematallbeforecolonialism.She
arguesthatcolonialpowersusedagendersystemasatoolfordominationandfundamentallychangingsocial
relationsamongtheindigenous.[63]
Withregardtohistory,LindaNicholson,aprofessorofhistoryandwomen'sstudies,saysthatthenotionofhuman
bodiesbeingseparatedintotwosexesisnothistoricallyconsistent.Shearguesthatmaleandfemalegenitalswere
consideredinherentlythesameinWesternsocietyuntilthe18thcentury.Atthattime,femalegenitalswere
regardedasincompletemalegenitals,andthedifferencebetweenthetwowasconceivedasamatterofdegree.In
otherwords,therewasagradationofphysicalforms,oraspectrum.Therefore,thecurrentperspectivetowardsex,
whichistoconsiderwomenandmenandtheirtypicalgenitaliaastheonlypossiblenaturaloptions,cameinto
existencethroughhistorical,notbiologicalroots.[64]
Inaddition,drawingfromtheempiricalresearchofintersexchildren,AnneFaustoSterling,aprofessorofbiology
andgenderstudies,describeshowthedoctorsaddresstheissuesofintersexuality.Shestartsherargumentwithan
exampleofthebirthofanintersexualindividualandmaintains"ourconceptionsofthenatureofgenderdifference
shape,evenastheyreflect,thewayswestructureoursocialsystemandpolitytheyalsoshapeandreflectour
understandingofourphysicalbodies."[65]Thensheaddshowgenderassumptionsaffectsthescientificstudyofsex
bypresentingtheresearchofintersexualsbyJohnMoneyetal.,andsheconcludesthat"theyneverquestionedthe
fundamentalassumptionthatthereareonlytwosexes,becausetheirgoalinstudyingintersexualswastofindout
moreabout'normal'development."[66]Shealsomentionsthelanguagethedoctorsusewhentheytalkwiththe
parentsoftheintersexuals.Afterdescribinghowthedoctorsinformparentsabouttheintersexuality,sheasserts
thatbecausethedoctorsbelievethattheintersexualsareactuallymaleorfemale,theytelltheparentsofthe
intersexualsthatitwilltakealittlebitmoretimeforthedoctorstodeterminewhethertheinfantisaboyoragirl.
Thatistosay,thedoctors'behaviorisformulatedbytheculturalgenderassumptionthatthereareonlytwosexes.
Lastly,shemaintainsthatthedifferencesinthewaysinwhichthemedicalprofessionalsindifferentregionstreat
intersexualpeoplealsogiveusagoodexampleofhowsexissociallyconstructed.[67]InherSexingthebody:
genderpoliticsandtheconstructionofsexuality,sheintroducesthefollowingexample:
AgroupofphysiciansfromSaudiArabiarecentlyreportedonseveralcasesofXXintersexchildren
withcongenitaladrenalhyperplasia(CAH),ageneticallyinheritedmalfunctionoftheenzymesthat
aidinmakingsteroidhormones.[...]IntheUnitedStatesandEurope,suchchildren,becausethey
havethepotentialtobearchildrenlaterinlife,areusuallyraisedasgirls.Saudidoctorstrainedinthis
EuropeantraditionrecommendedsuchacourseofactiontotheSaudiparentsofCAHXXchildren.A
numberofparents,however,refusedtoaccepttherecommendationthattheirchild,initiallyidentified
asason,beraisedinsteadasadaughter.Norwouldtheyacceptfeminizingsurgeryfortheirchild.[...]
Thiswasessentiallyanexpressionoflocalcommunityattitudeswith[...]thepreferenceformale
offspring.[68]
Thusitmaybesaidthatdeterminingthesexofchildrenisactuallyaculturalact,andthesexofchildrenisinfact
sociallyconstructed.[67]Therefore,itispossiblethatalthoughsexseemsfixedandonlyrelatedtobiology,itmay
beactuallydeeplyrelatedtohistoricalandsocialfactorsaswellasbiologyandothernaturalsciences.
AnotherworkofAnnFaustoSterlingsinwhichshediscussesgenderisTheFiveSexes:WhyMaleandFemale
AreNotEnough.Inthisarticle,FaustoSterlingstatesthatWesternculturehasonlytwosexesandthateventheir
languagerestrictsthepresenceofmorethantwosexes.Shearguesthatinsteadofhavingabinomialnomenclature
fororganizinghumansintotwodistinctsexes(maleandfemale),thereareatleastfivesexesinthebroadspectrum
ofgender.Thesefivesexesincludemale,female,hermaphrodite,femalepseudohermaphrodites(individualswho
haveovariesandsomemalegenitaliabutlacktestes),andmalepseudohermaphrodites(individualswhohave
testesandsomefemalegenitaliabutlackovaries).FaustoSterlingadditionallyaddsthatinthecategoryof
hermaphrodites,thereareadditionaldegreesandlevelsinwhichthegenitaliaaredevelopedthismeansthatthere
maybemoreintersexesthatexistinthiscontinuumofgender.
FaustoSterlingarguesthatsexhasbeengraduallyinstitutionallydisciplinedintoabinarysystemthroughmedical
advances.Shebringsupmultipleinstanceswheregenderinhistorywasnotsplitintostrictlymaleorfemale,
FaustoSterlingmentionedthatbytheendoftheMiddleAge,intersexindividualswereforcedtopickasideinthe
binarygendercodeandtoadherebyit.Shethenaddsonthat"hermaphroditeshaveunrulybodies"andtheyneed
tofitintosociety'sdefinitionofgender.[69]Thus,moderndayparentshavebeenurgedbymedicaldoctorsto
decidethesexfortheirhermaphroditicchildimmediatelyafterchildbirth.Sheemphasizesthattheroleofthe
medicalcommunityisthatofaninstitutionalizeddisciplineonsocietythattherecanonlybetwosexes:maleand
femaleandonlythetwolistedareconsidered"normal."Lastly,FaustoSterlingarguesthatmodernlawsrequire
humanstobelabelledeitherasmaleorfemaleandthat"ironically,amoresophisticatedknowledgeofthe
complexityofsexualsystemshasledtotherepressionofsuchintricacy."[69]Shementionsthisquotetoinformthe
prevailingthoughtthathermaphrodites,withoutmedicalintervention,areassumedtolivealifefullof
psychologicalpainwheninfact,thereisnoevidenceinwhichthatisthecase.Shefinishesupherargumentasking
whatwouldhappenifsocietystartedacceptingintersexindividuals.
ThearticleAdolescentGenderRoleIdentityandMentalHealth:GenderIntensificationRevisitedfocusesonthe
workofHeatherA.Priess,SaraM.Lindberg,andJanetShibleyHydeonwhetherornotgirlsandboysdivergein
theirgenderidentitiesduringadolescentyears.Theresearchersbasedtheirworkonideaspreviouslymentionedby
HillandLynchintheirgenderintensificationhypothesisinthatsignalsandmessagesfromparentsdetermineand
affecttheirchildrensgenderroleidentities.Thishypothesisarguesthatparentsaffecttheirchildren'sgenderrole
identitiesandthatdifferentinteractionsspentwitheitherparentswillaffectgenderintensification.Priessand
amongothersstudydidnotsupportthehypothesisofHillandLynchwhichstated"thatasadolescentsexperience
theseandothersocializinginfluences,theywillbecomemorestereotypicalintheirgenderroleidentitiesand
genderedattitudesandbehaviors."[70]However,theresearchersdidstatethatperhapsthehypothesisHilland
Lynchproposedwastrueinthepastbutisnottruenowduetochangesinthepopulationofteensinrespecttotheir
genderroleidentities.
AuthorsofUnpackingtheGenderSystem:ATheoreticalPerspectiveonGenderBeliefsandSocialRelations,
CeciliaRidgewayandShelleyCorrell,arguethatgenderismorethananidentityorrolebutissomethingthatis
institutionalizedthrough"socialrelationalcontexts."RidgewayandCorrelldefine"socialrelationalcontexts"as
"anysituationinwhichindividualsdefinethemselvesinrelationtoothersinordertoact."[71]Theyalsopointout
thatinadditiontosocialrelationalcontexts,culturalbeliefsplaysaroleinthegendersystem.Thecoauthorsargue
thatdailypeopleareforcedtoacknowledgeandinteractwithothersinwaysthatarerelatedtogender.Everyday,
individualsareinteractingwitheachotherandcomplywithsociety'ssetstandardofhegemonicbeliefs,which
includesgenderroles.Theystatethatsociety'shegemonicculturalbeliefssetstheruleswhichinturncreatethe
settingforwhichsocialrelationalcontextsaretotakeplace.RidgewayandCorrellthenshifttheirtopictowards
sexcategorization.Theauthorsdefinesexcategorizationas"thesociocognitiveprocessbywhichwelabelanother
asmaleorfemale."[71]
Biologicalfactorsandviews
Thebiologyofgenderbecamethesubjectofanexpandingnumberofstudiesoverthecourseofthelate20th
century.Oneoftheearliestareasofinterestwaswhatbecameknownas"genderidentitydisorder"(GID)and
whichisnowalsodescribedasgenderdysphoria.Studiesinthis,andrelatedareas,informthefollowingsummary
ofthesubjectbyJohnMoney.Hestated:
Theterm"genderrole"appearedinprintfirstin1955.Thetermgenderidentitywasusedinapress
release,November21,1966,toannouncethenewclinicfortranssexualsatTheJohnsHopkins
Hospital.Itwasdisseminatedinthemediaworldwide,andsoonenteredthevernacular.The
definitionsofgenderandgenderidentityvaryonadoctrinalbasis.Inpopularizedandscientifically
debasedusage,sexiswhatyouarebiologicallygenderiswhatyoubecomesociallygenderidentity
isyourownsenseorconvictionofmalenessorfemalenessandgenderroleistheculturalstereotype
ofwhatismasculineandfeminine.Causalitywithrespecttogenderidentitydisorderissubdivisible
intogenetic,prenatalhormonal,postnatalsocial,andpostpubertalhormonaldeterminants,butthere
is,asyet,nocomprehensiveanddetailedtheoryofcausality.Gendercodinginthebrainisbipolar.In
genderidentitydisorder,thereisdiscordancebetweenthenatalsexofone'sexternalgenitaliaandthe
braincodingofone'sgenderasmasculineorfeminine.[72]
Moneyreferstoattemptstodistinguishadifferencebetweenbiologicalsexandsocialgenderas"scientifically
debased",becauseofourincreasedknowledgeofacontinuumofdimorphicfeatures(Money'swordis"dipolar")
thatlinkbiologicalandbehavioraldifferences.Theseextendfromtheexclusivelybiological"genetic"and
"prenatalhormonal"differencesbetweenmenandwomen,to"postnatal"features,someofwhicharesocial,but
othershavebeenshowntoresultfrom"postpubertalhormonal"effects.
Althoughcausationfromthebiologicalgeneticandhormonaltothebehavioralhasbeenbroadlydemonstrated
andaccepted,Moneyiscarefultoalsonotethatunderstandingofthecausalchainsfrombiologytobehaviorinsex
andgenderissuesisveryfarfromcomplete.Forexample,theexistenceofa"gaygene"hasnotbeenproven,but
suchageneremainsanacknowledgedpossibility.[73]
Therearestudiesconcerningwomenwhohaveaconditioncalledcongenitaladrenalhyperplasia,whichleadsto
theoverproductionofthemasculinesexhormone,androgen.Thesewomenusuallyhaveordinaryfemale
appearances(thoughnearlyallgirlswithcongenitaladrenalhyperplasia(CAH)havecorrectivesurgeryperformed
ontheirgenitals).However,despitetakinghormonebalancingmedicationgiventothematbirth,thesefemalesare
statisticallymorelikelytobeinterestedinactivitiestraditionallylinkedtomalesthanfemaleactivities.Psychology
professorandCAHresearcherDr.SheriBerenbaumattributesthesedifferencestoanexposureofhigherlevelsof
malesexhormonesinutero.[74]
Sexualreproduction
Sexualdifferentiationdemandsthefusionofgametesthataremorphologicallydifferent.
CyrilDeanDarlington,RecentAdvancesinCytology,1937.
Sexualreproductionisacommonmethodofproducinganewindividual
withinvariousspecies.Insexuallyreproducingspecies,individuals
producespecialkindsofcells(calledgametes)whosefunctionis
specificallytofusewithoneunlikegameteandtherebytoformanew
individual.Thisfusionoftwounlikegametesiscalledfertilization.By
convention,whereonetypeofgametecellisphysicallylargerthanthe
other,itisassociatedwithfemalesex.Thusanindividualthatproduces
exclusivelylargegametes(ovainhumans)iscalledfemale,andonethat
producesexclusivelysmallgametes(spermatozoainhumans)iscalled
Hoverfliesmating
male.
Anindividualthatproducesbothtypesofgametesiscalledhermaphrodite(anameapplicablealsotopeoplewith
onetestisandoneovary).Insomespecieshermaphroditescanselffertilize(seeSelfing),inotherstheycan
achievefertilizationwithfemales,malesorboth.Somespecies,liketheJapaneseAsh,Fraxinuslanuginosa,only
havemalesandhermaphrodites,ararereproductivesystemcalledandrodioecy.Gynodioecyisalsofoundin
severalspecies.Humanhermaphroditesaretypically,butnotalways,infertile.
Whatisconsidereddefiningofsexualreproductionisthedifferencebetweenthegametesandthebinarynatureof
fertilization.Multiplicityofgametetypeswithinaspecieswouldstillbeconsideredaformofsexualreproduction.
However,ofmorethan1.5millionlivingspecies,[75]recordeduptoabouttheyear2000,"nothirdsexcelland
sonothirdsexhasappearedinmulticellularanimals."[76][77][78]Whysexualreproductionhasanexclusively
binarygametesystemisnotyetknown.Afewrarespeciesthatpushtheboundariesofthedefinitionsarethe
subjectofactiveresearchforlighttheymayshedonthemechanismsoftheevolutionofsex.Forexample,the
mosttoxicinsect,[79]theharvesterantPogonomyrmex,hastwokindsoffemaleandtwokindsofmale.One
hypothesisisthatthespeciesisahybrid,evolvedfromtwocloselyrelatedprecedingspecies.
Fossilrecordsindicatethatsexualreproductionhasbeenoccurringforatleastonebillionyears.[80]However,the
reasonfortheinitialevolutionofsex,andthereasonithassurvivedtothepresentarestillmattersofdebate,there
aremanyplausibletheories.Itappearsthattheabilitytoreproducesexuallyhasevolvedindependentlyinvarious
speciesonmanyoccasions.Therearecaseswhereithasalsobeenlost,notablyamongtheFungiImperfecti.[81]
Theblacktipshark(Carcharhinuslimbatus),flatworm(Dugesiatigrina)andsomeotherspeciescanreproduce
eithersexuallyorasexuallydependingonvariousconditions.[82]
Gendertaxonomy
Thefollowingsystematiclistgendertaxonomyillustratesthekindsofdiversitythathavebeenstudiedandreported
inmedicalliterature.Itisplacedinroughlychronologicalorderofbiologicalandsocialdevelopmentinthehuman
lifecycle.Theearlierstagesaremorepurelybiologicalandthelatteraremoredominantlysocial.Causationis
knowntooperatefromchromosometogonads,andfromgonadstohormones.Itisalsosignificantfrombrain
structuretogenderidentity(seeMoneyquoteabove).Brainstructureandprocessing(biological)thatmayexplain
eroticpreference(social),however,isanareaofongoingresearch.Terminologyinsomeareaschangesquite
rapidlyasknowledgegrows.
chromosomes:
46,XX(geneticfemale)46,XY(geneticmale)45,X(Turner'ssyndrome)47,XXY(Klinefeltersyndrome)
47,XYY(XYYsyndrome)47,XXX(XXXsyndrome)48,XXYY(XXYYsyndrome)46,XX/XYmosaic
othermosaic
gonads:
testiclesovariesovarianandtesticulartissues,notinsamegonad(truehermaphroditism),ovotestes,or
othergonadaldysgenesis
hormones:
androgens(includingtestosterone,dihydrotestosterone,etc.),estrogens(includingestradiol,estriol,etc.),
antiandrogens,progestogens,andothers
primarysexualcharacteristics:
genitals(genitaldevelopment)(http://www.dsdguidelines.org/htdocs/parents/handout_genital_development.
html)
secondarysexualcharacteristics
dimorphicphysicalcharacteristics,otherthanprimarycharacteristics(suchasbodyhair,developmentof
breasts)certainchangesinbrainstructureduetoorganizingeffectsofsexhormones(Isitusefultoviewthe
brainasasecondarysexualcharacteristic?)(http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25195165)
genderidentity:
onessenseofoneselfasaman,woman,orgendernonconforming
genderrole:
socialconformitywithexpectationsforeitherofthetwomainsexes
eroticpreference:
gynephilia,androphilia,bisexuality,asexuality,andvariousparaphilias
Sexualdimorphism
Althoughsexualreproductionisdefinedatthecellularlevel,keyfeaturesof
sexualreproductionoperatewithinthestructuresofthegametecells
themselves.Notably,gametescarryverylongmoleculescalledDNAthat
thebiologicalprocessesofreproductioncan"read"likeabookof
instructions.Infact,therearetypicallymanyofthese"books",called
chromosomes.Humangametesusuallyhave23chromosomes,22ofwhich
arecommontobothsexes.Thefinalchromosomesinthetwohuman
gametesarecalledsexchromosomesbecauseoftheirroleinsex
determination.Ovaalwayshavethesamesexchromosome,labelledX.
AbouthalfofspermatozoaalsohavethissameXchromosome,therest
haveaYchromosome.Atfertilizationthegametesfusetoformacell,
usuallywith46chromosomes,andeitherXXfemaleorXYmale,
Sexualdifferentiationinpeafowl
dependingonwhetherthespermcarriedanXoraYchromosome.Someof
theotherpossibilitiesarelistedabove.
ThehumanXYsystemisnottheonlysexdeterminationsystem.Birdstypicallyhaveareverse,ZWsystem
malesareZZandfemalesZW.[83]Whethermaleorfemalebirdsinfluencethesexofoffspringisnotknownforall
species.Severalspeciesofbutterflyareknowntohavefemaleparentsexdetermination.[84]
Theplatypushasacomplexhybridsystem,themalehastensexchromosomes,halfXandhalfY.[85]
Genderstudies
Genderstudiesisafieldofinterdisciplinarystudyandacademicfielddevotedtogender,genderidentityand
genderedrepresentationascentralcategoriesofanalysis.ThisfieldincludesWomen'sstudies(concerningwomen,
feminity,theirgenderrolesandpolitics,andfeminism),Men'sstudies(concerningmen,masculinity,theirgender
roles,andpolitics),andLGBTstudies.[86]SometimesGenderstudiesisofferedtogetherwithStudyofSexuality.
Thesedisciplinesstudygenderandsexualityinthefieldsofliteratureandlanguage,history,politicalscience,
sociology,anthropology,cinemaandmediastudies,humandevelopment,law,andmedicine.[87]Italsoanalyses
race,ethnicity,location,nationality,anddisability.[88][89]
Generalstudies
Genes
Chromosomeswerelikenedtobooks(above),alsolikebookstheyhave
beenstudiedatmoredetailedlevels.Theycontain"sentences"calledgenes.
Infact,manyofthesesentencesarecommontomultiplespecies.
Sometimestheyareorganizedinthesameorder,othertimestheyhavebeen
"edited"deleted,copied,changed,moved,evenrelocatedtoanother
"book",asspeciesevolve.Genesareaparticularlyimportantpartof
understandingbiologicalprocessesbecausetheyaredirectlyassociated
withobservableobjects,outsidechromosomes,calledproteins,whose
influenceoncellchemistrycanbemeasured.Insomecasesgenescanalso
Chimpanzee
bedirectlyassociatedwithdifferencescleartothenakedeye,likeeyecolor
itself.Someofthesedifferencesaresexspecific,likehairyears.The"hairy
ear"genemightbefoundontheYchromosome,[90]whichexplainswhyonlymentendtohavehairyears.
However,sexlimitedgenesonanychromosomecanbeexpressedand"say",forexample,"ifyouareinamale
bodydoX,otherwisedonot."Thesameprincipleexplainswhychimpanzeesandhumansaredistinct,despite
sharingnearlyalltheirgenes.
Thestudyofgeneticsisparticularlyinterdisciplinary.Itisrelevanttoalmosteverybiologicalscience.Itis
investigatedindetailbymolecularlevelsciences,anditselfcontributesdetailstohighlevelabstractionslike
evolutionarytheory.
Brain
"Itiswellestablishedthatmenhavealargercerebrumthanwomenbyabout810%(Filipeketal.,1994
Nopoulosetal.,2000Passeetal.,1997a,bRabinowiczetal.,1999Witelsonetal.,1995)."[91][92]However,what
isfunctionallyrelevantaredifferencesincompositionand"wiring".RichardJ.Haierandcolleaguesatthe
universitiesofNewMexicoandCalifornia(Irvine)found,usingbrainmapping,thatmenhavemoregreymatter
relatedtogeneralintelligencethanwomen,andwomenhavemorewhitematterrelatedtointelligencethanmen
theratiobetweengreyandwhitematteris4%higherformenthanwomen.[91]
Greymatterisusedforinformationprocessing,whilewhitematterconsists
oftheconnectionsbetweenprocessingcenters.Otherdifferencesare
measurablebutlesspronounced.[93]Mostofthesedifferencesareproduced
byhormonalactivity,ultimatelyderivedfromtheYchromosomeand
sexualdifferentiation.However,differencesthatarisedirectlyfromgene
activityhavealsobeenobserved.
Asexualdimorphisminlevelsofexpressioninbraintissue
wasobservedbyquantitativerealtimePCR,withfemales
presentinganupto2foldexcessintheabundanceof
PCDH11Xtranscripts.Werelatethesefindingstosexually
dimorphictraitsinthehumanbrain.Interestingly,
Humanbrain
PCDH11X/YgenepairisuniquetoHomosapiens,sincethe
XlinkedgenewastransposedtotheYchromosomeafterthe
humanchimpanzeelineagessplit.
[94]
Ithasalsobeendemonstratedthatbrainprocessingrespondstotheexternal
environment.Learning,bothofideasandbehaviors,appearstobecodedin
brainprocesses.Italsoappearsthatinseveralsimplifiedcasesthiscoding
operatesdifferently,butinsomewaysequivalently,inthebrainsofmen
andwomen.[95]Forexample,bothmenandwomenlearnanduselanguage
however,biochemically,theyappeartoprocessitdifferently.Differences
infemaleandmaleuseoflanguagearelikelyreflectionsbothofbiological
preferencesandaptitudes,andoflearnedpatterns.
Twoofthemainfieldsthatstudybrainstructure,biological(andother) Languageareasofthebrain:
causesandbehavioral(andother)resultsarebrainneurologyandbiological Angulargyrus
psychology.Cognitivescienceisanotherimportantdisciplineinthefieldof
Supramarginalgyrus
brainresearch.
Broca'sarea
Societyandbehaviors Wernicke'sarea
Primaryauditorycortex
Manyofthemorecomplicatedhumanbehaviorsareinfluencedbyboth
innatefactorsandbyenvironmentalones,whichincludeeverythingfrom
genes,geneexpression,andbodychemistry,throughdietandsocialpressures.Alargeareaofresearchin
behavioralpsychologycollatesevidenceinanefforttodiscovercorrelationsbetweenbehaviorandvarious
possibleantecedentssuchasgenetics,generegulation,accesstofoodandvitamins,culture,gender,hormones,
physicalandsocialdevelopment,andphysicalandsocialenvironments.
Acoreresearchareawithinsociologyisthewayhumanbehavioroperatesonitself,inotherwords,howthe
behaviorofonegrouporindividualinfluencesthebehaviorofothergroupsorindividuals.Startinginthelate20th
century,thefeministmovementhascontributedextensivestudyofgenderandtheoriesaboutit,notablywithin
sociologybutnotrestrictedtoit.
Socialtheoristshavesoughttodeterminethespecificnatureofgenderinrelationtobiologicalsexandsexuality,
withtheresultbeingthatculturallyestablishedgenderandsexhavebecomeinterchangeableidentificationsthat
signifytheallocationofaspecific'biological'sexwithinacategoricalgender.Thesecondwavefeministviewthat
genderissociallyconstructedandhegemonicinallsocieties,
remainscurrentinsomeliterarytheoreticalcircles,KiraHall
andMaryBucholtzpublishingnewperspectivesasrecentlyas
2008.[96]
Contemporarysocialisationtheoryproposesthenotionthat
whenachildisfirstbornithasabiologicalsexbutnosocial
gender.Asthechildgrows,"...societyprovidesastringof
prescriptions,templates,ormodelsofbehaviorsappropriateto
theonesexortheother,"[97]whichsocialisesthechildinto
belongingtoaculturallyspecificgender.Thereishuge
incentiveforachildtoconcedetotheirsocialisationwith Spain'sdesperatesituationwheninvadedby
gendershapingtheindividualsopportunitiesforeducation, NapoleonenabledAgustinadeAragntobreakinto
acloselyguardedmalepreserveandbecomethe
work,family,sexuality,reproduction,authority,[98]andto
onlyfemaleprofessionalofficerintheSpanish
makeanimpactontheproductionofcultureand
Armyofhertime(andlongafterwards).
knowledge.[99]Adultswhodonotperformtheseascribedroles
areperceivedfromthisperspectiveasdeviantandimproperly
socialized.[100]
Somebelievesocietyisconstructedinawaythatsplitsgenderintoadichotomyviasocialorganisationsthat
constantlyinventandreproduceculturalimagesofgender.JoanAckerbelievesgenderingoccursinatleastfive
differentinteractingsocialprocesses:[101]
Theconstructionofdivisionsalongthelinesofgender,suchasthoseproducedbylabor,power,family,the
state,evenallowedbehaviorsandlocationsinphysicalspace
Theconstructionofsymbolsandimagessuchaslanguage,ideology,dressandthemedia,thatexplain,
expressandreinforce,orsometimesoppose,thosedivisions
Interactionsbetweenmenandwomen,womenandwomenandmenandmenthatinvolveanyformof
dominanceandsubmission.Conversationaltheorists,forexample,havestudiedthewaythatinterruptions,
turntakingandthesettingoftopicsrecreategenderinequalityintheflowofordinarytalk
Thewaythattheprecedingthreeprocesseshelptoproducegenderedcomponentsofindividualidentity,i.e.,
thewaytheycreateandmaintainanimageofagenderedself
Genderisimplicatedinthefundamental,ongoingprocessesofcreatingandconceptualisingsocialstructures.
LookingatgenderthroughaFoucauldianlens,genderistransfiguredintoavehicleforthesocialdivisionof
power.Genderdifferenceismerelyaconstructofsocietyusedtoenforcethedistinctionsmadebetweenwhatis
assumedtobefemaleandmale,andallowforthedominationofmasculinityoverfemininitythroughthe
attributionofspecificgenderrelatedcharacteristics.[102]"Theideathatmenandwomenaremoredifferentfrom
oneanotherthaneitherisfromanythingelse,mustcomefromsomethingotherthannaturefarfrombeingan
expressionofnaturaldifferences,exclusivegenderidentityisthesuppressionofnaturalsimilarities."[103]
Genderconventionsplayalargeroleinattributingmasculineandfemininecharacteristicstoafundamental
biologicalsex.[104]Socioculturalcodesandconventions,therulesbywhichsocietyfunctions,andwhichareboth
acreationofsocietyaswellasaconstitutingelementofit,determinetheallocationofthesespecifictraitstothe
sexes.Thesetraitsprovidethefoundationsforthecreationofhegemonicgenderdifference.Itfollowsthen,that
gendercanbeassumedastheacquisitionandinternalisationofsocialnorms.Individualsarethereforesocialized
throughtheirreceiptofsocietysexpectationsof'acceptable'genderattributesthatareflauntedwithininstitutions
suchasthefamily,thestateandthemedia.Suchanotionof'gender'thenbecomesnaturalizedintoapersonssense
ofselforidentity,effectivelyimposingagenderedsocialcategoryuponasexedbody.[103]
TheconceptionthatpeoplearegenderedratherthansexedalsocoincideswithJudithButlerstheoriesofgender
performativity.Butlerarguesthatgenderisnotanexpressionofwhatoneis,butrathersomethingthatone
does.[105]Itfollowsthen,thatifgenderisactedoutinarepetitivemanneritisinfactrecreatingandeffectively
embeddingitselfwithinthesocialconsciousness.Contemporarysociologicalreferencetomaleandfemalegender
rolestypicallyusesmasculinitiesandfemininitiesinthepluralratherthansingular,suggestingdiversityboth
withinculturesaswellasacrossthem.
Thedifferencebetweenthesociologicalandpopulardefinitionsofgenderinvolveadifferentdichotomyandfocus.
Forexample,thesociologicalapproachto"gender"(socialroles:femaleversusmale)focusesonthedifferencein
(economic/power)positionbetweenamaleCEO(disregardingthefactthatheisheterosexualorhomosexual)to
femaleworkersinhisemploy(disregardingwhethertheyarestraightorgay).Howeverthepopularsexualself
conceptionapproach(selfconception:gayversusstraight)focusesonthedifferentselfconceptionsandsocial
conceptionsofthosewhoaregay/straight,incomparisonwiththosewhoarestraight(disregardingwhatmightbe
vastlydifferingeconomicandpowerpositionsbetweenfemaleandmalegroupsineachcategory).Thereisthen,in
relationtodefinitionofandapproachesto"gender",atensionbetweenhistoricfeministsociologyand
contemporaryhomosexualsociology.[106]
Legalstatus
Aperson'ssexasmaleorfemalehaslegalsignificancesexisindicatedongovernmentdocuments,andlaws
providedifferentlyformenandwomen.Manypensionsystemshavedifferentretirementagesformenorwomen.
Marriageisusuallyonlyavailabletooppositesexcouplesinsomecountriesandjurisdictionstherearesamesex
marriagelaws.
Thequestionthenarisesastowhatlegallydetermineswhethersomeoneisfemaleormale.Inmostcasesthiscan
appearobvious,butthematteriscomplicatedforintersexortransgenderpeople.Differentjurisdictionshave
adopteddifferentanswerstothisquestion.Almostallcountriespermitchangesoflegalgenderstatusincasesof
intersexualism,whenthegenderassignmentmadeatbirthisdetermineduponfurtherinvestigationtobe
biologicallyinaccuratetechnically,however,thisisnotachangeofstatusperse.Rather,itisrecognitionofa
statusdeemedtoexistbutunknownfrombirth.Increasingly,jurisdictionsalsoprovideaprocedureforchangesof
legalgenderfortransgenderpeople.
Genderassignment,whenthereareindicationsthatgenitalsexmightnotbedecisiveinaparticularcase,is
normallynotdefinedbyasingledefinition,butbyacombinationofconditions,includingchromosomesand
gonads.Thus,forexample,inmanyjurisdictionsapersonwithXYchromosomesbutfemalegonadscouldbe
recognizedasfemaleatbirth.
Theabilitytochangelegalgenderfortransgenderpeopleinparticularhasgivenrisetothephenomenainsome
jurisdictionsofthesamepersonhavingdifferentgendersforthepurposesofdifferentareasofthelaw.For
example,inAustraliapriortotheReKevindecisions,transsexualpeoplecouldberecognizedashavingthe
genderstheyidentifiedwithundermanyareasofthelaw,includingsocialsecuritylaw,butnotforthelawof
marriage.Thus,foraperiod,itwaspossibleforthesamepersontohavetwodifferentgendersunderAustralian
law.
Itisalsopossibleinfederalsystemsforthesamepersontohaveonegenderunderstatelawandadifferentgender
underfederallaw.
Thirdornonbinarygender
Athirdgenderorthirdsexisaconceptinwhichindividualsarecategorized,eitherbythemselvesorbysociety,as
neithermannorwoman.Italsodescribesasocialcategorypresentinthosesocietiesthatrecognizethreeormore
genders.Theconceptsof"third","fourth",and"some"genderroles,whichdifferfromthatculture'stwomainroles
of"man"and"woman",whilefoundinanumberofnonWesterncultures,isstillsomewhatnewtomainstream
WesterncultureandcanbedifficultforsometounderstandwithintraditionalWesternconceptualthought.[107]
Anumberofcountriesnowrecognizethirdornonbinarygenders.Thefirstpersonknowntobelegallyof
indeterminategender(thatis,neithermanorwomaninlegalterms)isAlexMacFarlane,fromAustralia,whose
statuswasreportedinJanuary2003.
Intersexpeople
Forintersexpeople,bornaccordingtotheUNOfficeoftheHighCommissionerforHumanRights,"donotfit
typicalbinarynotionsofmaleorfemalebodies",[108]accesstoanyformofidentificationdocumentwithagender
markermaybeanissue.[109]Forotherintersexpeople,theremaybeissuesinsecuringthesamerightsasother
individualsassignedmaleorfemaleotherintersexpeoplemayseeknonbinarygenderrecognition.[110]
Genderandsociety
Languages
Naturallanguagesoftenmakegenderdistinctions.Thesemaybeofvariouskinds,moreorlesslooselyassociated
byanalogywithvariousactualorperceiveddifferencesbetweenmenandwomen.Somegrammaticalgender
systemsgobeyond,orignore,themasculinefemininedistinction.
Manylanguagesincludetermsthatareusedasymmetricallyinreferencetomenandwomen.Concernthat
currentlanguagemaybebiasedinfavorofmenhasledsomeauthorsinrecenttimestoarguefortheuseofa
moregenderneutralvocabularyinEnglishandotherlanguages.
Severallanguagesattesttheuseofdifferentvocabularybymenandwomen,todifferingdegrees.See,for
instance,GenderdifferencesinspokenJapanese.Theoldestdocumentedlanguage,Sumerian,recordsa
distinctivesublanguageonlyusedbyfemalespeakers.Conversely,manyIndigenousAustralianlanguages
havedistinctiveregisterswithalimitedlexiconusedbymeninthepresenceoftheirmothersinlaw(see
Avoidancespeech).Aswell,quiteafewsignlanguageshaveagendereddistinctionduetoboardingschools
segregatedbygender,suchasIrishSignLanguage.
SeverallanguagessuchasPersianorHungarianaregenderneutral.InPersianthesamewordisusedin
referencetomenandwomen.Verbs,adjectivesandnounsarenotgendered.(SeeGenderneutralityin
genderlesslanguages)
Grammaticalgenderisapropertyofsomelanguagesinwhicheverynounisassignedagender,oftenwithno
directrelationtoitsmeaning.Forexample,thewordfor"girl"ismuchacha(grammaticallyfeminine)in
Spanish,Mdchen(grammaticallyneuter)inGerman,andcailn(grammaticallymasculine)inIrish.
Theterm"grammaticalgender"isoftenappliedtomorecomplexnounclasssystems.Thisisespeciallytrue
whenanounclasssystemincludesmasculineandfeminineaswellassomeothernongenderfeatureslike
animate,edible,manufactured,andsoforth.AnexampleofthelatterisfoundintheDyirballanguage.Other
gendersystemsexistwithnodistinctionbetweenmasculineandfeminineexamplesincludeadistinction
betweenanimateandinanimatethings,whichiscommonto,amongstothers,Ojibwe,BasqueandHittite
andsystemsdistinguishingbetweenpeople(whetherhumanordivine)andeverythingelse,whicharefound
intheDravidianlanguagesandSumerian.
Severallanguagesemploydifferentwaystorefertopeoplewheretherearethreeormoregenders,suchas
NavajoorOjibwe.
Science
Historically,sciencehasbeenportrayedasamasculinepursuitinwhichwomenhavefacedsignificantbarriersto
participate.[111]Evenafteruniversitiesbeganadmittingwomeninthe19thcentury,womenwerestilllargely
relegatedtocertainscientificfields,suchashomescience,nursing,andchildpsychology.[112]Womenwerealso
typicallygiventedious,lowpayingjobsanddeniedopportunitiesforcareeradvancement.[112]Thiswasoften
justifiedbythestereotypethatwomenwerenaturallymoresuitedtojobsthatrequiredconcentration,patience,and
dexterity,ratherthancreativity,leadership,orintellect.[112]Althoughthesestereotypeshavebeendispelledin
moderntimes,womenarestillunderrepresentedinprestigious"hardscience"fieldssuchasphysics,andareless
likelytoholdhighrankingpositions.[113]
Religion
ThistopicincludesinternalandexternalreligiousissuessuchasgenderofGodanddeitiescreationmythsabout
humangender,rolesandrights(forinstance,leadershiprolesespeciallyordinationofwomen,sexsegregation,
genderequality,marriage,abortion,homosexuality)
AccordingtoKatiNiemeloftheChurchResearchInstitute,womenareuniversallymorereligiousthanmen.
Theybelievethatthedifferenceinreligiousitybetweengendersisduetobiologicaldifferences,forinstance
usuallypeopleseekingsecurityinlifearemorereligious,andasmenareconsideredtobegreaterrisktakersthan
women,theyarelessreligious.Althoughreligiousfanaticismismoreoftenseeninmenthanwomen.[114]
InTaoism,yinandyangareconsideredfeminineandmasculine,respectively.TheTaijituand
conceptoftheZhouperiodreachintofamilyandgenderrelations.Yinisfemaleandyangis
male.Theyfittogetherastwopartsofawhole.Themaleprinciplewasequatedwiththesun:
active,bright,andshiningthefemaleprinciplecorrespondstothemoon:passive,shaded,and
reflective.Maletoughnesswasbalancedbyfemalegentleness,maleactionandinitiativeby
femaleenduranceandneedforcompletion,andmaleleadershipbyfemalesupportiveness.
yinandyang
InJudaism,Godistraditionallydescribedinthemasculine,butinthemysticaltraditionofthe
Kabbalah,theShekhinahrepresentsthefeminineaspectofGod'sessence.However,Judaism
traditionallyholdsthatGodiscompletelynoncorporeal,andthusneithermalenorfemale.Conceptionsofthe
genderofGodnotwithstanding,traditionalJudaismplacesastrongemphasisonindividualsfollowingJudaism's
traditionalgenderroles,thoughmanymoderndenominationsofJudaismstriveforgreateregalitarianism.Aswell,
traditionalJewishculturedictatesthattherearesixgenders.
InChristianity,GodistraditionallydescribedinmasculinetermsandtheChurchhashistoricallybeendescribedin
feminineterms.Ontheotherhand,Christiantheologyinmanychurchesdistinguishesbetweenthemasculine
imagesusedofGod(Father,King,GodtheSon)andtherealitytheysignify,whichtranscendsgender,embodies
allthevirtuesofbothgendersperfectly,whichmaybeseenthroughthedoctrineofImagoDei.IntheNew
Testament,Jesusatseveraltimesmentionswiththemasculinepronouni.e.John15:26amongotherverses.Hence,
theFather,theSonandtheHolySpirit(i.e.Trinity)areallmentionedwiththemasculinepronounthoughthe
exactmeaningofthemasculinityoftheChristiantriuneGodiscontended.
InHinduism
OneoftheseveralformsoftheHinduGodShiva,isArdhanarishwar(literallyhalffemaleGod).Here
ShivamanifestshimselfsothatthelefthalfisFemaleandtherighthalfisMale.Theleftrepresents
Shakti(energy,power)intheformofGoddessParvati(otherwisehisconsort)andtherighthalfShiva.
WhereasParvatiisthecauseofarousalofKama(desires),Shivaisthekiller.Shivaispervadedbythe
powerofParvatiandParvatiispervadedbythepowerofShiva.
WhilethestoneimagesmayseemtorepresentahalfmaleandhalffemaleGod,thetruesymbolic
representationisofabeingthewholeofwhichisShivaandthewholeofwhichisShaktiatthesame
time.Itisa3DrepresentationofonlyshaktifromoneangleandonlyShivafromtheother.Shivaand
ShaktiarehencethesamebeingrepresentingacollectiveofJnana(knowledge)andKriya(activity).
AdiShankaracharya,thefounderofnondualisticphilosophy(Advaita"nottwo")inHinduthought
saysinhis"Saundaryalahari"ShivahShaktayaayuktoyadibhavatishaktahprabhavitumnache
devumdevonakhalukushalahspanditamapi"i.e.,ItisonlywhenShivaisunitedwithShaktithatHe
acquiresthecapabilityofbecomingtheLordoftheUniverse.IntheabsenceofShakti,Heisnoteven
abletostir.Infact,theterm"Shiva"originatedfrom"Shva,"whichimpliesadeadbody.Itisonly
throughhisinherentshaktithatShivarealizeshistruenature.
ThismythologyprojectstheinherentviewinancientHinduism,thateachhumancarrieswithin
himselfbothfemaleandmalecomponents,whichareforcesratherthansexes,anditistheharmony
betweenthecreativeandtheannihilative,thestrongandthesoft,theproactiveandthepassive,that
makesatrueperson.Suchthought,leavealoneentailgenderequality,infactobliteratesanymaterial
distinctionbetweenthemaleandfemalealtogether.ThismayexplainwhyinancientIndiawefind
evidenceofhomosexuality,bisexuality,androgyny,multiplesexpartnersandopenrepresentationof
sexualpleasuresinartworksliketheKhajurahotemples,beingacceptedwithinprevalentsocial
frameworks.
[115]
InanumberofNorthAmericanIndigenouscultures,nonman/womanindividualssometimescarriedspecific
roleswithinthatnation'sreligiousstructures.ThesecouldbetheLakotawkte,Navajonadleeh,Anishinaabe
niizhmanidoowagandhundredsmore.Recently,NorthAmericanNativeAmericansandFirstNationshave
adoptedthetermTwoSpirittorefertothemosaicofdifferentgenderscrossculturally.
Poverty
Genderinequalityismostcommoninwomendealingwithpoverty.Manywomenmustshoulderallthe
responsibilityofthehouseholdbecausetheymusttakecareofthefamily.Oftentimesthismayincludetaskssuch
astillingland,grindinggrain,carryingwaterandcooking.[116]Also,womenaremorelikelytoearnlowincomes
becauseofgenderdiscrimination,asmenaremorelikelytoreceivehigherpay,havemoreopportunities,andhave
overallmorepoliticalandsocialcapitalthenwomen.[117]Approximately75%ofworld'swomenareunabletoget
authorizebankloansbecausetheyhaveunstablejobs.[116]Itshowsthattherearemanywomenintheworld's
populationbutonlyafewrepresentworld'swealth.Inmanycountries,thefinancialsectorlargelyneglectswomen
eventhoughtheyplayanimportantroleintheeconomy,asNenaStoiljkovicpointedoutinD+CDevelopmentand
Cooperation.[118]In1978DianaM.Pearcecoinedthetermfeminizationofpovertytodescribetheproblemof
womenhavinghigherratesofpoverty.[119]Womenaremorevulnerabletochronicpovertybecauseofgender
inequalitiesinthedistributionofincome,propertyownership,credit,andcontroloverearnedincome.[120]
Resourceallocationistypicallygenderbiasedwithinhouseholds,andcontinueonahigherlevelregardingstate
institutions.[120]
GenderandDevelopment(GAD)isaholisticapproachtogiveaidtocountrieswheregenderinequalityhasagreat
effectofnotimprovingthesocialandeconomicdevelopment.Itisaprogramfocusedonthegenderdevelopment
ofwomentoempowerthemanddecreasethelevelofinequalitybetweenmenandwomen.[121]
Thelargestdiscriminationstudyofthetransgendercommunity,conductedin2013,foundthatthetransgender
communityisfourtimesmorelikelytoliveinextremepoverty(incomeoflessthan$10,000ayear)thanpeople
whoarecisgender(nottransgender).[122][123]
Generalstraintheory
Accordingtogeneralstraintheory,studiessuggestthatgenderdifferences
betweenindividualscanleadtoexternalizedangerthatmayresultin
violentoutbursts.[124]Theseviolentactionsrelatedtogenderinequalitycan
bemeasuredbycomparingviolentneighborhoodstononviolent
neighborhoods.[124]Bynoticingtheindependentvariables(neighborhood
violence)andthedependentvariable(individualviolence),it'spossibleto Abargraphcomparingpoverty
analyzegenderroles. [125]Thestraininthegeneralstraintheoryisthe differencesbasedonageandgender
removalofapositivestimulusandortheintroductionofanegative in2012.
stimulus,whichwouldcreateanegativeeffect(strain)withinindividual,
whichiseitherinnerdirected(depression/guilt)orouterdirected
(anger/frustration),whichdependsonwhethertheindividualblamesthemselvesortheirenvironment.[126]Studies
revealthateventhoughmalesandfemalesareequallylikelytoreacttoastrainwithanger,theoriginoftheanger
andtheirmeansofcopingwithitcanvarydrastically.[126]Malesarelikelytoputtheblameonothersforadversity
andthereforeexternalizefeelingsofanger.[124]Femalestypicallyinternalizetheirangersandtendtoblame
themselvesinstead.[124]Femaleinternalizedangerisaccompaniedbyfeelingsofguilt,fear,anxietyand
depression.[125]Womenviewangerasasignthatthey'vesomehowlostcontrol,andthusworrythatthisangermay
leadthemtoharmothersand/ordamagerelationships.Ontheotherendofthespectrum,menarelessconcerned
withdamagingrelationshipsandmorefocusedonusingangerasameansofaffirmingtheirmasculinity.[125]
Accordingtothegeneralstraintheory,menwouldmorelikelyengageinaggressivebehaviordirectedtowards
othersduetoexternalizedangerwhereaswomenwoulddirecttheirangertowardsthemselvesratherthan
others.[126]
Economicdevelopment
Gender,andparticularlytheroleofwomeniswidelyrecognizedasvitallyimportanttointernationaldevelopment
issues.[127]Thisoftenmeansafocusongenderequality,ensuringparticipation,butincludesanunderstandingof
thedifferentrolesandexpectationofthegenderswithinthecommunity.[128]
Inmoderntimes,thestudyofgenderanddevelopmenthasbecomeabroadfieldthatinvolvespoliticians,
economists,andhumanrightsactivists.GenderandDevelopment,unlikeprevioustheoriesconcerningwomenin
development,includesabroaderviewoftheeffectsofdevelopmentongenderincludingeconomic,political,and
socialissues.Thetheorytakesaholisticapproachtodevelopmentanditseffectsonwomenandrecognizesthe
negativeeffectsgenderblinddevelopmentpolicieshavehadonwomen.Priorto1970,itwasbelievedthat
developmentaffectedmenandwomeninthesamewayandnogenderedperspectiveexistedfordevelopment
studies.However,the1970ssawatransformationindevelopmenttheorythatsoughttoincorporatewomeninto
existingdevelopmentparadigms.
WhenEsterBoseruppublishedherbook,WomansRoleinEconomicDevelopment,therewasarealizationthat
developmentaffectedmenandwomendifferentlyandtherebegantobemoreofafocusonwomenand
development.Boseruparguedthatwomenweremarginalizedinthemodernizationprocessandpracticesof
growth,development,anddevelopmentpolicythreatenedtoactuallymakewomenworseoff.Boserupswork
translatedintothebeginningofalargerdiscoursetermedWomeninDevelopment(WID)coinedbytheWomens
CommitteeoftheWashingtonDCChapteroftheSocietyforInternationalDevelopment,anetworkoffemale
developmentprofessionals.TheprimarygoalofWIDwastoincludewomenintoexistingdevelopmentinitiatives,
sinceitwasarguedthatwomenweremarginalizedandexcludedfromthebenefitsofdevelopment.Insodoing,the
WIDapproachpointedoutthatthemajorproblemtowomensunequalrepresentationandparticipationweremale
biasedandpatriarchaldevelopmentpolicies.Inshort,theWIDapproachblamedpatriarchy,whichdidnotconsider
womensproductiveandreproductivework.Infact,womenweretiedtodomesticworkhencewerealmost
invisibleindevelopmentprograms.TheWIDapproach,however,begantogaincriticismasignoringhow
womenseconomicmarginalizationwaslinkedtothedevelopmentmodelitself.
Somefeministsarguedthatthekeyconceptforwomenanddevelopmentshouldbesubordinationinthecontextof
newcapitalistformsofinsecureandhierarchicaljobstructures,ratherthanmarginalizationasWIDapproaches
emphasized.TheriseofcriticismagainsttheWIDapproachledtotheemergenceofanewtheory,thatofWomen
andDevelopment(WAD).
However,justasWIDhaditscritics,sodidWAD.CriticsofWADarguedthatitfailedtosufficientlyaddressthe
differentialpowerrelationsbetweenwomenandmen,andtendedtooveremphasizewomensproductiveas
opposedtoreproductiveroles.Also,risingcriticismoftheexclusionofmeninWIDandWADledtoanewtheory
termedGenderandDevelopment(GAD).Drawingfrominsightsdevelopedinpsychology,sociology,andgender
studies,GADtheoristsshiftedfromunderstandingwomensproblemsasbasedontheirsex(i.e.theirbiological
differencesfrommen)tounderstandingthemasbasedongenderthesocialrelationsbetweenwomenandmen,
theirsocialconstruction,andhowwomenhavebeensystematicallysubordinatedinthisrelationship.
Attheirmostfundamental,GADperspectiveslinkthesocialrelationsofproductionwiththesocialrelationsof
reproductionexploringwhyandhowwomenandmenareassignedtodifferentrolesandresponsibilitiesin
society,howthesedynamicsarereflectedinsocial,economic,andpoliticaltheoriesandinstitutions,andhowthese
relationshipsaffectdevelopmentpolicyeffectiveness.AccordingtoproponentsofGAD,womenarecastnotas
passiverecipientsofdevelopmentaid,butratherasactiveagentsofchangewhoseempowermentshouldbea
centralgoalofdevelopmentpolicy.Incontemporarytimes,mostliteratureandinstitutionsthatareconcernedwith
women'sroleindevelopmentincorporateaGADperspective,withtheUnitedNationstakingtheleadof
mainstreamingtheGADapproachthroughitssystemanddevelopmentpolicies.
ResearchersattheOverseasDevelopmentInstitutehavehighlightedthatpolicydialogueontheMillennium
DevelopmentGoalsneedstorecognizethatthegenderdynamicsofpower,poverty,vulnerabilityandcarelinkall
thegoals.[129]ThevariousUnitedNationsinternationalwomensconferencesinBeijing,MexicoCity,
Copenhagen,andNairobi,aswellasthedevelopmentoftheMillenniumDevelopmentGoalsin2000havetakena
GADapproachandholisticviewofdevelopment.TheUnitedNationsMillenniumDeclarationsignedatthe
UnitedNationsMillenniumSummitin2000includingeightgoalsthatweretobereachedby2015,andalthoughit
wouldbeadifficulttasktoreachthem,allofthemcouldbemonitored.Theeightgoalsare:
1.Halvetheproportionofpeoplelivinginextremepovertyatthe1990levelby2015.
2.Achieveuniversalprimaryeducation
3.Promotegenderequalityandempowerwomen
4.Reducechildmortalityrates
5.Improvematernalhealth
6.CombatHIV/AIDS,Malariaandotherdiseases
7.Ensureenvironmentalsustainability
8.Globalpartnership
TheMDGshavethreegoalsspecificallyfocusedonwomen:Goal3,4and5butwomensissuesalsocutacrossall
ofthegoals.Thesegoalsoverallcompriseallaspectsofwomenslivesincludingeconomic,health,andpolitical
participation.
Genderequalityisalsostronglylinkedtoeducation.TheDakarFrameworkforAction(2000)setoutambitious
goals:toeliminategenderdisparitiesinprimaryandsecondaryeducationby2005,andtoachievegenderequality
ineducationby2015.Thefocuswasonensuringgirlsfullandequalaccesstoandachievementingoodquality
basiceducation.ThegenderobjectiveoftheDakarFrameworkforActionissomewhatdifferentfromtheMDG
Goal3(Target1):"Eliminategenderdisparityinprimaryandsecondaryeducation,preferablyby2005,andinall
levelsofeducationnolaterthan2015".MDGGoal3doesnotcompriseareferencetolearnerachievementand
goodqualitybasiceducation,butgoesbeyondtheschoollevel.Studiesdemonstratethepositiveimpactofgirls
educationonchildandmaternalhealth,fertilityrates,povertyreductionandeconomicgrowth.Educatedmothers
aremorelikelytosendtheirchildrentoschool.[130]
Someorganizationsworkingindevelopingcountriesandinthedevelopmentfieldhaveincorporatedadvocacyand
empowermentforwomenintotheirwork.TheFoodandAgricultureOrganizationoftheUnitedNations(FAO)
adopteda10yearstrategicframeworkinNovember2009thatincludesthestrategicobjectiveofgenderequityin
accesstoresources,goods,servicesanddecisionmakinginruralareas,andmainstreamsgenderequityinall
FAO'sprogramsforagricultureandruraldevelopment.[131]TheAssociationforProgressiveCommunications
(APC)hasdevelopedaGenderEvaluationMethodologyforplanningandevaluatingdevelopmentprojectsto
ensuretheybenefitallsectorsofsocietyincludingwomen.[132]
TheGenderrelatedDevelopmentIndex(GDI),developedbytheUnitedNations,aimstoshowtheinequalities
betweenmenandwomeninthefollowingareas:longandhealthylife,knowledge,andadecentstandardofliving.
TheUnitedNationsDevelopmentProgramme(UNDP)hasintroducedindicatorsdesignedtoaddagendered
dimensiontotheHumanDevelopmentIndex(HDI).Additionally,in1995,theGenderrelatedDevelopmentIndex
(GDI)andtheGenderEmpowermentMeasure(GEM)wereintroduced.Morerecently,in2010,UNDPintroduced
anewindicator,theGenderInequalityIndex(GII),whichwasdesignedtobeabettermeasurementofgender
inequalityandtoimprovetheshortcomingsofGDIandGEM.
Climatechange
Genderisatopicofincreasingconcernwithinclimatechangepolicyandscience.[133]Generally,gender
approachestoclimatechangeaddressgenderdifferentiatedconsequencesofclimatechange,aswellasunequal
adaptationcapacitiesandgenderedcontributiontoclimatechange.Furthermore,theintersectionofclimatechange
andgenderraisesquestionsregardingthecomplexandintersectingpowerrelationsarisingfromit.These
differences,however,aremostlynotduetobiologicalorphysicaldifferences,butareformedbythesocial,
institutionalandlegalcontext.Subsequently,vulnerabilityislessanintrinsicfeatureofwomenandgirlsbutrather
aproductoftheirmarginalization.[134]Roehr[135]notesthat,whiletheUnitedNationsofficiallycommittedto
gendermainstreaming,inpracticegenderequalityisnotreachedinthecontextofclimatechangepolicies.Thisis
reflectedinthefactthatdiscoursesofandnegotiationsoverclimatechangearemostlydominatedby
men.[136][137][138]Somefeministscholarsholdthatthedebateonclimatechangeisnotonlydominatedbymenbut
alsoprimarilyshapedinmasculineprinciples,whichlimitsdiscussionsaboutclimatechangetoaperspectivethat
focusesontechnicalsolutions.[137]Thisperceptionofclimatechangehidessubjectivityandpowerrelationsthat
actuallyconditionclimatechangepolicyandscience,leadingtoaphenomenonthatTuana[137]termsepistemic
injustice.Similarly,MacGregor[136]atteststhatbyframingclimatechangeasanissueofhardnaturalscientific
conductandnaturalsecurity,itiskeptwithinthetraditionaldomainsofhegemonicmasculinity.[136][138]
Socialmedia
Genderrolesandstereotypeshaveslowlystartedtochangeinsocietywithinthepastfewdecades.Thesechanges
occurmostlyincommunication,butmorespecificallyduringsocialinteractions.[139]Thewayspeople
communicateandsocializehavealsostartedtochangealongsideadvancementintechnology.Oneofthebiggest
reasonsforthischangeisduetosocialmedia.
Overthepastfewyears,theuseofsocialmediagloballyhasstartedtorise.Thisrisecanbecontributedtothe
abundanceoftechnologyavailableforuseamongyouth.Recentstudiessuggestthatmenandwomenvalueand
usetechnologydifferently.[140]Forbespublishedanarticlein2010thatreported57%ofFacebookusersare
women,whichattributedtothefactthatwomenaremoreactiveonsocialmedia,becauseonaveragewomenhave
8%morefriendsandaccountfor62%ofpoststhataresharedviaFacebook.[141]Anotherstudyin2010foundthat
inmostWesterncultures,womenspendmoretimesendingtextmessagescomparedtomenaswellasspendmore
timeonsocialnetworkingsitesasawaytocommunicatewithfriendsandfamily.[142]
Socialmediaismorethanjustthecommunicationofwords.Withsocialmediaincreasinginpopularity,pictures
havebecomealargeroleinhowmanypeoplecommunicate.Researchconductedin2013foundthatover57%of
picturespostedonsocialnetworkingsitesweresexualandwerecreatedtogainattention.[143]Moreshockingly,
58%ofwomenand45%ofmendon'tlookintothecamera,whichiscreatinganillusionofwithdrawal.[143]Other
factorstobeconsideredaretheposesinpicturessuchaswomenlayingdowninsubordinatepositionsoreven
touchingthemselvesinchildlikeways.[143]Inconclusion,researchhasfoundthatimagessharedonlinethrough
socialnetworkingsiteshelpestablishpersonalselfreflectionsthatindividualswanttosharewiththeworld.[143]
Accordingtorecentresearch,genderplaysastrongroleinstructuringoursociallives,especiallysincesociety
assignsandcreates"male"and"female"categories.[144]Individualsinsocietymightbeabletolearnthe
similaritiesbetweengenderratherthanthedifferences.Untilthen,genderwillnevertrulybeequal,whichisa
problem.[145]Socialmediahelpscreatemoreequality,becauseeveryindividualisabletoexpresshimorherself
howevertheylike.Everyindividualalsohastherighttoexpresstheiropinion,eventhoughsomemightdisagree,
butitstillgiveseachgenderanequalamountofpowertobeheard.[146]
YoungadultsintheU.S.frequentlyusesocialnetworkingsitesasawaytoconnectandcommunicatewithone
another,aswellastosatisfytheircuriosity.[147]Adolescentgirlsgenerallyusesocialnetworkingsitesasatoolto
communicatewithpeersandreinforceexistingrelationshipsboysontheotherhandtendtousesocialnetworking
sitesasatooltomeetnewfriendsandacquaintances.[148]Moreimportantly,socialnetworkingsiteshaveallowed
individualstotrulyexpressthemselves,astheyareabletocreateanidentityandsocializewithotherindividuals
thatcanrelate.[149]Socialnetworkingsiteshavealsogivenindividualsaccesstocreateaspacewheretheyfeel
morecomfortableabouttheirsexuality.[149]Recentresearchhasindicatedthatsocialmediaisbecomingastronger
partofyoungerindividualsmediaculture,asmoreintimatestoriesarebeingtoldviasocialmediaandarebeing
intertwinedwithgender,sexuality,andrelationships.[149]
TeensareavidinternetandsocialmediausersintheUnitedStates.ResearchhasfoundthatalmostallU.S.teens
(95%)aged12through17areonline,comparedtoonly78%ofadults.Oftheseteens,80%haveprofilesonsocial
mediasites,ascomparedtoonly64%oftheonlinepopulationaged30andolder.Accordingtoastudyconducted
bytheKaiserFamilyFoundation,11to18yearoldsspendonaverageoveroneandahalfhoursadayusinga
computerand27minutesperdayvisitingsocialnetworksites,whichaccountsformorethanonefourthoftheir
dailycomputeruse.[150]"
Teengirlsandboysdifferinwhattheypostintheironlineprofiles.Studieshaveshownthatfemaleuserstendto
postmore"cute"pictures,whilemaleparticipantsweremorelikelytopostpicturesofthemdoingactionactivities.
WomenintheU.S.alsotendtopostmorepicturesoffriends,whileboystendtopostmoreaboutsportsand
humorouslinks.Thestudyalsofoundthatmaleswouldpostmorealcoholandsexualreferences.[150]Theroles
werereversedhowever,whenlookingatateenagedatingsite.Womenreferredtosexualreferencessignificantly
morethanmales.
Boyssharemorepersonalinformation,liketheirhometownandphonenumber.Whilegirlsaremoreconservative
aboutthepersonalinformationtheyallowtogopubliconthesesocialnetworkingsites.Boys,meanwhile,are
morelikelytoorienttowardstechnology,sports,andhumorintheinformationtheyposttotheirprofile.[151]
Socialmediagoesbeyondtheroleofhelpingindividualsexpressthemselves,asithasgrowntohelpindividuals
createrelationships,particularlyromanticrelationships.Alargeamountofsocialmediausershavefounditeasier
tocreaterelationshipsinalessdirectapproach,comparedtothetraditionalapproachofawkwardlyaskingfor
someone'snumber.[152]
Socialmediaplaysabigrolewhenitcomestocommunicationbetweengenders.Therefore,it'simportantto
understandhowgenderstereotypesdevelopduringonlineinteractions.Researchinthe1990ssuggestedthat
differentgendersdisplaycertaintraitssuchasbeingactive,attractive,dependent,dominant,independent,
sentimental,sexy,andsubmissivewhenitcomestoonlineinteraction.[153]Eventhoughthesetraitscontinuetobe
displayedthroughgenderstereotypes,recentstudiesshowthatthisisn'tnecessarilythecaseanymore.[154]
Seealso
Androcentrism Genderpolarization
Androgyny Gendersensitization
Biologicaldeterminism Gendervariance
Epicene Gynocentrism
Genderbender Genderdifferences
Genderequality Misandry
Genderempowerment Misogyny
Genderinequality Postgenderism
Gendernarcissism Colonialityofgender
Genderparadox
Genderpolarization
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