Bacteria/Archaea (27.1-27.

6): Review
27.1: Structural and Functional Adaptations Contribute to Prokaryotic
Success
Prokaryotes
Most = unicellular; some form temporary of permanent colonies
Shapes (Name: Singular: Shape)
Cocci: Coccus: Spherical
Appear singularly, pairs (diplococci),
chains (streptococci), clusters (staphylococci)
Bacilli: Bacillus: Rod
Usually solitary; chains
(streptobacilli)
Spirilla: Spirillum: Range from comma like to long
coils
Spirochetes = corkscrew-shaped
Cell Surface Structures
Cell wall
Maintains shape, physical protection, prevent burst in hypotonic
environment
Plasmolyze: prokaryote lose water and shrink
away from walls
Severe water lose = no cell
reproduction
Contain peptidoglycan
Gram Stain
Classify bacteria into: Gram-Positive & Gram-
Negative
Gram-positive: have simpler walls
w/ a relatively large amount of peptidoglycan
violet/blue
Some infectious and
resistant to multiple antibiotics
Gram-negative: has less
peptidoglycan and are structurally more complex with an outer
membrane that contains lipopolysaccharides (carbohydrates
bonded to lipids)
pink/ red
More resistant to
antibiotics (outer membrane impedes drugs)
Effectiveness of Antibiotics = ability to inhibit
peptidoglycan cross-linking
Cell wall may not be functional
Doesnt affect human cells because
they dont contain peptidoglycan
Capsule: sticky layer of polysaccharide or protein

Enables prokaryote to adhere to substrates or others in a colony
Some protect against dehydration; some shield pathogenic
prokaryotes
Fimbriae: hair-like protein appendages (singular fimbria)
Aka attachment pili
Help stick to substrates; shorter and more numerous than sex pili
Sex pili: appendages that pull two cells together prior to DNA transfer from one
cell to another
Motility
Half of all prokaryotes capable of directional movement
Flagella: (singular flagellum)
Most common structure for movement
May be scattered over entire surface of cell or concentrated at one
or both ends
Not covered by extention of plasma membrane
Different from eukaryotes in molecular composition and how it
moves
Taxis: movement toward or away from a stimulus
Internal and Genomic Organization
Simpler
Less DNA
Circular chromosome; fewer proteins; no nucleus;
chromosome in nucleoid
Lack complex compartmentalization
Has plasmids
Reproduction and Adaptation
Binary fission
Divide into 2 cells about every 1-3 hours; short generations
Some develop endospores
Evolves in short times -> adapts quickly
27.2: Rapid reproduction, mutation, and genetic recombination
promote genetic diversity in prokaryotes
Reproduction and Adaptation
Mutations happen quickly = lots of adaptations & genetic variation = adaptive
evolution
Genetic Recombination
Can recombine DNA from 2 different cells w/ transformation, transduction, or
conjugation
Transfers good genes for antibiotic resistance; promotes adaptive evolution
27.3: Diverse nutritional and metabolic adaptations have evolved in
prokaryotes
Modes of nutrition
Photoautotrophs, chemoautotrophs, photoheterotrophs,
chemoheterotrophs
Role of Oxygen in Metabolism
Obligate aerobes, Obligate anaerobes, Anaerobic respiration, Facultative
anaerobes
Nitrogen Metabolism
Prokaryotes can metabolize variety of nitrogenous compounds
Some convert N2 -> ammonia (Nitrogen Fixation); usable by plants
Metabolic Cooperation
Some depend on metabolic activities of other prokaryotes
Ex. bacteria has photosynthetic cells and nitrogen fixing cells; both
exchange products it makes
Heterocytes
Some form surface coating biofilms
27.4: Molecular systematics is illuminating prokaryotic phylogeny
Lessons from Molecular Systematics
Allows systematists to identify major groups of organisms thought to descend
from a common ancestor
Archaea
Share traits with bacteria and eukaryotes
Some live in extreme environments (thermophiles/ halophiles)
Most methanogens (methane producers) in soils, lakes, and oceans live in
moderate environments
Bacteria
Diverse nutritional types
Largest groups = proteobacteria and gram-positive bacteria

27.5: Prokaryotes play crucial roles in the biosphere

Chemical Recycling
Decomposition by heterotrophic prokaryotes and synthetic activities of
autotrophic and nitrogen-fixing help recycle elements in ecosystem
Ecological Interactions
Most prokaryotes have symbiotic relationship w/ host
Mutualism, commensalism, parasitism

27.6: Prokaryotes have both harmful and beneficial impacts on

humans
Pathogenic bacteria
Cause disease by releasing exotoxins or endotoxins
Potential weapons of bioterrorism
Horizontal gene transfer can spread genes associated with virulence to harmless
strains
Prokaryotes in Research and Technology
Improve DNA technology
Used in biodegradable plastics, vitamins, antibiotics