Feature Report
Engineering Practice
Immersion Heaters:
Selection & Implementation
Immersion heaters are widely
used in the chemical industry.
These basics outline
what is available, and
how to select and maintain
an immersion heater
Robert Klein,
Watlow Electric Manufacturing Co.
I
mmersion heaters are used in a
wide variety of applications in the
chemical process industries (CPI).
Knowing which heater to specify
for a particular application and how to
maintain it can make a manufactur-
ing process more cost-efficient. This
article describes the types of immer-
sion heaters available, explains how to
select them and provides guidance on
installing and using the heaters.
As the name implies, immersion
heaters are directly immersed in the
fluids they heat. These fluids may in-
clude water, oils, viscous materials,
solvents, process solutions, molten
materials and gases. By transmitting
all of their heat within the liquid or
gas, immersion heaters are virtually
100% energy efficient.
Heater designs include numer-
ous choices in size, kilowatt ratings
(power), voltages (electrical poten-
tial), termination connections, sheath
materials and accessories. Suppliers
carry many units as stock items. For
unusual applications, custom engi-
neering an immersion heater is also
an option.
44 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM JANUARY 2006
FIGURE 1. Circulation heaters are among the many varieties of immer-
sion heaters available. This selection includes rapid response, booster,
flanged and explosion-resistant heaters.
Heater types
The basic types of immersion heaters
are the screw plug, flange, pipe insert,
circulation and over-the-side. They
are usually available in either a round
tubular or flat tubular design. One
design may be chosen over the other
due to considerations such as coking
(see Selecting a heater, p. 45). Heaters
are often grouped into two categories,
pressurized (closed) systems and non-
pressurized (open tank) systems.
Pressurized systems. Common ap-
plications for the square-flange im-
mersion heater are industrial water
boilers and storage tanks that hold
degreasing solvents, fuel oils, heat-
transfer fluids and caustic solutions.
The assembly consists of either a
round or flat tubular heater that is
brazed or welded to a four- or six-
bolt flange. Screw lugs or threaded-
stud terminals are used for wiring
connections. Square-flange heaters
bolt directly to a mating, companion
flange that is welded to a tank wall
or nozzle. Easy assembly changes are
made by unbolting the flange and re-
placing it with another heater. This
can minimize equipment downtime.
Screw-plug heaters can be found in
applications such as de-ionized, de-
mineralized and process waters, hy-
draulic and crude oils, caustic cleaners,
chemical baths, antifreeze (glycol) so-
lutions, liquid paraffin and industrial
and clean-water rinse tanks. A screw-
plug heater is installed by inserting it
into a threaded opening of a tank wall,
or into a full or half coupling. Screw-
plug immersion heaters are available
in a variety of National Pipe Thread
(NPT) sizes and are typically used for
pressures less than 1,000 psi, with
maximum wattages around 36 kW.
For large tanks requiring a watt-
age of up to 3,000 kW or even higher,
ANSI-flange heaters are used (see Fig.
2, p. 45). These through-the-side im-
mersion heaters can handle high-pres-
sure applications up to 3,000 psi. They
are used in a wide variety of situations
such as in tanks of superheated steam
and compressed gases, and they are
also used in nonpressurized tanks.
Pipe insert, or bayonet heaters are
used for heating liquids in huge stor-
age tanks with volumes in the mil-
 glycol in an engine is heated to
ensure rapid and easy startup.
Booster heaters are typically
about 3-6 kW, but can be as high
as 12 kW. With copper and steel
sheaths, these heaters are widely
used for heating water and oils.
An innovative circulation
heater is available for applica-
tions that demand precise tem-
perature control for gases and
other fluids. The rapid-response
heat exchanger is a small-diam-
eter tube with a heater that runs
the entire length of the tubes cen-
ter. The assembly can be formed
into a coil shape or any number
of configurations to allow for
size constraints. These heat ex-
changers provide faster thermal
response and higher power in a
smaller footprint when compared
to most other conventional circu-
lation heaters.
Nonpressurized systems. Over-
the-side heaters are formed into
L and O shapes and are in- can act as an insulator and cause the
FIGURE 2. Immersion heaters include these stalled in the top of a tank, with
tubular designs: an ANSI-flange heater, screw-
plug heater and circulation heater. the heated portion directly im-
mersed along the side or at the
lions of gallons. The heater is mounted bottom. They are portable, easily re-
inside a pressure-tight bayonet pipe, moved for cleaning and provide ample
which is a sealed pipe with an end- working area inside the tank. A vari-
cap. The unit goes into the tank and ety of optional sheath materials, kilo-
creates the pressure boundary with a watt ratings, terminal enclosures, and
mating flange. Alternatively, the pipe mounting methods are available.
is welded directly to the tank. The Over-the-side heaters evenly dis-
heater can be removed from the open tribute heat to liquids and viscous so-
end of the bayonet without draining lutions. They are often used for freeze
the tank. protection and are ideal for heating
Circulation or inline heaters are all- small quantities of water, oils, sol-
in-one units with the heater mounted vents, salts and acids.
inside its own insulated tank (see Fig. The thin-profile, vertical-loop heater
1, p. 44). The unit has inlet and outlet is available in a round tubular design
piping and the liquid or gas is heated and hangs over the side of an open
as it flows through the tank. Once tank. Another over-the-side type is
at the outlet, the material has been the drum heater which easily fits into
heated to the proper temperature. the bung hole of a 55-gallon drum. It
This design has a fast response and an typically melts heat-sensitive materi-
even heat distribution. Heaters can be als, such as paraffin wax, lard, grease
as small as an NPT screw-plug size of and coconut oil. A pre-wired thermo-
1.25 in. or have a diameter as large as stat protects against overheating the
14 in. Custom units have been made material.
up to a 44-in. nominal pipe size.
Booster heaters are a type of circu- Selecting a heater
lation heater. They are ideal for low- Many heater choices are limited by
wattage applications, including inline specific characteristics or require-
operations or engine preheating a ments of the application. Square
specific application where ethylene flanges and screw plugs are generally
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM JANUARY 2006
the most economical solution while
ANSI-flange heaters and circulation
heaters are usually more costly as
their size and power requirements are
much greater.
Most electrical heaters are chosen
by first determining the heat required
to do the job. The heat requirement is
converted to electrical power, and the
most practical heater for the job can
then be selected. Whether the problem
is heating solids, liquids or gases, the
method for determining the power re-
quirement is the same.
In selecting a heater, the following
factors should be considered:
Properties of the material to be
heated. It is very important to know
the type and quality of the fluid to be
heated. For example, if the fluid is
rinse water for parts, the water may
be clean or contaminated with traces
of acids or alkalis that are often left
behind from the rinsing process. Acids
cause corrosion and buildup on the
sheath of the heater. This buildup
heater coil to fail prematurely due to
overheating.
If the fluid is an oil, consider its
properties. For instance, a crude petro-
leum is in many cases very thick and
viscous and requires a very low-watt
density, whereas a very-light oil such
as vegetable oil, could use up to 30-40
W/in.2 The watt density depends on
the viscosity, specific heat, and ther-
mal conductivity of the oil. Choosing
the proper watt density brings protec-
tion against coking.
Coking potential. Coking is a de-
posit or buildup on the heater sheath
from the chemical breakdown of the
material being heated. The amount
of buildup that can occur varies
greatly, depending upon the maxi-
mum operating temperature of the
oil being heated. Often occurring in
petroleum or other viscous products,
coking increases as sheath tempera-
tures increase and it can lead to
early heater failure. Heater design
can help prevent or minimize coking.
A flat tubular elements sheath runs
cooler than that of a round tubular
element when operated at the same
watt density, so the flat element has
a lower potential for coking.
Startup and maximum operating
45

Engineering Practice
temperatures. This is the tempera-
ture change from startup to operating
conditions.
Maximum flowrate of the mate-
rial being heated. This is needed to
determine the wattage requirements.
The minimum flowrate may also be
required to help determine the watt-
density requirements. If the flowrate
is too low and the watt density too
high, excessive coking can occur in
oils or excessive sheath temperature
can occur in air and other gases. For
circulation or inline heaters, a too-
low flowrate can cause the heater to
overheat and fail prematurely. A flow
switch can be used to monitor or shut
off the heater if a blockage occurs in
the system. Alarms are often used in
conjunction with flow switches.
Required time for startup heating
and process-cycle times. The longer
the startup time allowed, the lower
the power (kilowatt) requirement.
Volume or weight of the heated ma-
terial. These are needed to determine
power requirements for startup.
Characteristics of the containing
vessel. The weight of the vessel is a
factor in determining the startup-
power requirement. The container
dimensions are required to determine
heat losses in the initial startup equa-
tions and to determine the power
required to maintain the operating
temperature. The vessels material of
construction, especially if it is a plas-
tic, can affect the heater choice and its
placement in the tank. Other factors
involved in material selection include
the threat of galvanic corrosion and
structural support.
Whether the vessel has an open or
closed top will greatly affect heat loss.
A closed top will significantly reduce
the kilowatt requirement for heating
and maintaining the process. For pres-
surized vessels, the requirements of a
pressure-vessel code, such as ASME,
may be applied to the manufacture of
the heater.
Vessel insulation. If any insulation
is present, its thickness and thermal
properties will affect the heat loss
from the vessel. Heat loss on connect-
ing piping is normally compensated
for by alternative heating, such as
mineral-insulated cable or heat-trac-
ing cable.
46 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM JANUARY 2006
SIZING THE HEATER
To size an immersion heater, the following basic information is needed:
1. Power required for initial heating of the fluid and the tank. Use the basic heat-transfer
equation to calculate the fluid heating requirement:
Q=WCpT (heat equals mass multiplied by heat capacity and temperature change )
2. Power required to heat the fluid during the operating cycle.
3. Heat required to melt or vaporize materials during the initial heating.
4. Heat required to melt or vaporize materials during the operating cycle.
5. Thermal system heat losses. The heat losses are calculated by multiplying the exposed
surface area, the startup time and a surface loss factor.
6. Total startup power requirements. The results of Steps 1 and 3 are added together
and an appropriate safety factor (typically 10 %) is applied.
7. Total operating power requirements. The results of Steps 2, 4 and 5 are added and
the safety factor applied.
8. Watt density. The total wattage is divided by the active heater surface area. The latter
is calculated based on the length of heater element immersed in the fluid, the surface
area per linear inch, and the total number of heater element lengths.
Temperature monitoring and con- diameter, typically does not exceed
trol. Sensing and control methods 600 V.
vary greatly depending upon the pre- Resistance limitations are encoun-
cision requirements for the process tered when there are voltage and watt-
and heater-sheath temperatures. For age extremes, either too low or too high.
example, a simple freeze-protection For example, if the voltage is high and
application may require only the use the wattage is low, the resistance on
of an economical mechanical bulb- the heater coil could be so high that the
and-capillary thermostat to monitor thin-gauge wire typically used would be
the process. For more precise mea- too fine. The reverse, high wattage and
surement and control, a thermocouple low voltage, creates a need for a wire of
or resistance-detector (RTD) sensor such heavy gauge that it is impractical
may be used in conjunction with a mi- to manufacture the heater. Suppliers
croprocessor-based controller. can assist with various manufacturing
A high-limit sensor located on the capabilities. Agency approvals should
sheath prevents overheating, which always be considered.
could lead to premature failure or ac- The electrical phase is not limited by
celerated buildup of contaminants. The anything other than possibly the type
temperature sensor should be located at of heater and the number of elements
the point where the process temperature making up the heater assembly.
is most critical. For instance, in a circu- Environmental conditions. Ambi-
lation application, the sensor should be ent temperature and wind conditions
located in or nearest to the outlet nozzle can affect heat loss and should be
of the vessel. In an open tank, the sen- taken into consideration when calcu-
sor should be positioned high enough to lating power requirements. Hazard-
avoid contamination from sludge, and ous environments, such as corrosive
low enough to receive maximum, natu- and explosive situations, are also im-
ral, fluid convection without obstructing portant considerations.
the operation of the system. A stainless-steel enclosure, for ex-
Electrical requirements and ample, may be chosen for its resistance
limitations. Voltage and phase are to corrosive processes. In explosive at-
governed primarily by independent mospheres, a NEMA 7 explosion-resis-
agencies, such as Underwriters Labo- tant, electrical enclosure must be used.
ratories (UL), National Electrical Code NEMA 4 ratings are for moisture re-
(NEC) and the Canadian Standards sistance and may be needed outdoors
Association (CSA). The heater manu- and for wash- and rinse-down clean-
facturer should be consulted regard- ing. Often, a combination NEMA 4
ing the agency approvals for heater- and 7 rating is required. General-pur-
voltage and diameter limitations. pose NEMA 1 enclosures are typically
Voltage is normally limited by the used when environmental conditions
dielectric properties of the heater. pose no problem.
Typically the limiting factor is the Contingencies. Even with careful
amount of magnesium oxide between
1. Heaters are typically a metal tube (usually a
the resistance wire and the outer stainless or nickel alloy, copper, steel or titanium)
metal sheath1. The maximum voltage with a nichrome wire embedded in magnesium
oxide inside the tube. Solid pins or terminals exit
for most heaters, depending upon the out of the ends.
 TABLE 1. WATTAGE RATINGS
FOR HEATING WATER
Engineering Practice
Amount Temperature rise (T), F
of 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
water,
planning, the design of the heating gal ing into the heater has the
system may not take into account all 5 0.3 0.5 0.8 1.1 1.3 1.6 1.9 proper temperature rating.
of the possible or unforeseen heat- 10 0.5 1.1 1.6 2.1 2.7 3.2 3.7 A minimum of 200C wire
ing requirements. Therefore, a safety 13 0.8 1.6 2.4 3.2 4.0 4.8 5.6 for process heaters is recom-
or contingency factor that increases 20 1.1 2.2 3.2 4.3 5.3 6.4 7.5 mended, although higher-
heater capacity beyond calculated 25 1.3 2.7 4.0 5.3 6.7 8.0 9.3 rated wire may be required
requirements is applied. A factor of 30 1.6 3.2 4.8 6.4 8.0 9.6 12.0 for some applications. All
10% is typically used. However, when 40 2.1 4.0 6.4 8.5 11.0 13.0 15.0 wiring, such as power feed-
there are many variables and some 50 2.7 5.4 8.0 10.7 13.0 16.0 19.0 lines, should be installed in
unknowns, safety factors of up to 20% 60 3.3 6.4 9.6 12.8 16.0 19.0 22.0accordance with the NEC
may be considered. 70 3.7 7.5 11.2 15.0 19.0 22.0 26.0 and other state and local
Physical factors and wattage re- 80 4.3 8.5 13.0 17.0 21.0 26.0 30.0 codes and must be compat-
quirements. A 10-kW heater can be a 90 5.0 10.0 14.5 19.0 24.0 29.0 34.0 ible with the heater.
screw plug, square flange, ANSI flange 100 5.5 11.0 16.0 21.0 27.0 32.0 37.0 Immersion heaters used
or even an over-the-side heater. Some- 125 7.0 13.0 20.0 27.0 33.0 40.0 47.0 in tanks should be mounted
times the choice is based simply on the 150 8.0 16.0 24.0 32.0 40.0 48.0 56.0 horizontally near the tank
tank configuration. A larger flange size 175 9.0 18.0 28.0 37.0 47.0 56.0 65.0 bottom to allow convec-
may be needed with a short heater, or if 200 11.0 21.0 32.0 43.0 53.0 64.0 75.0 tive circulation. They must
there is a lot of length, a plug or square 250 13.0 27.0 40.0 53.0 67.0 80.0 93.0 be located high enough to
flange may be sufficient. 300 16.0 32.0 47.0 64.0 80.0 96.0 112.0be above scale or sludge
Make sure the sheath material and 400 21.0 43.0 64.0 85.0 107.0 128.0 149.0buildup.
watt-density ratings are compatible 500 27.0 53.0 80.0 107.0 133.0 160.0 187.0 The entire heated length
with the liquid being heated. Applica- of the heater should be im-
tion and specification guides supplied QG = flowrate in gal/min, mersed at all times. Heaters should
by manufacturers provide a complete Tf = temperature rise in F, not be located in a restricted space
listing of materials along with maxi- QL = flowrate in L/min, where free boiling or a steam buildup
mum temperatures and watt-density Tc = temperature rise in C, and could occur. Low-level shutoff switches
recommendations. Commonly used Th = the heating time in hours. can be installed to avoid heater failure
sheath materials include Incoloys, should the liquid level drop.
copper and steels. Installation tips
The following guidelines are generally Maintenance guidelines
A shortcut for heater sizing applicable; but in all cases, the heater Proper maintenance can maximize
The basic information needed to size a manufacturer should be consulted for the lifespan and performance of an
heater is outlined in the box on p. 46. details about the specific heater. immersion heater. Before doing any
For many specific applications, some Moisture absorbed by the heaters in- maintenance procedures, be sure to
relatively simple formulas are avail- sulation during shipping and storage make sure the power is turned off.
able for quick power-requirement esti- can affect its performance. To prevent Here are a few tips.
mates. As an example, Table 1 can be this, each heaters current should be Corrosion of the heater can lead to
used for applications where water is checked before installation. The same problems ranging from equipment
heated. problem may occur if the heater has downtime to serious safety hazards.
To use the chart, find the amount of been idle for a week or more. Because sheath temperature plays
water to be heated in gallons on the Each heater circuit should be such an important role in the corro-
left and the desired temperature rise checked using a 500-V d.c. megohm sion process, it is important to ac-
at the top. The wattage needed to heat meter, and the electrical resistance curately monitor the heater during
the water in one hour can be read from should read at least 10 M. Lower operation. Place temperature sensors
the table. values may be acceptable as recom- on the areas of the sheath where the
Alternatively, one of the following mended by the supplier. highest temperatures are expected
equations can be used for heating A low-resistance reading does not on the top of the heater bundle
flowing water: mean that the heater is bad and must in an open tank with a horizontally
be returned. There are several ways mounted heater, or nearest the vessel
kW = QG (0.16 Tf) or
to increase the megohm level. One is outlet in a circulation heater.
kW = QL (0.076 Tc) to put the heater in an oven at 200 Make sure the interior of the termi-
An equation for heating water in 300F and leave it overnight or until nal enclosure is clean and dry, and free
tanks is: the readings are acceptable. The sec- of dirt, dust, oil and rust. The inside
ond way is to energize the heater at no of the housing should be inspected
kW = QGTf / 375 Th or greater than 50% of the rated voltage for corrosion. This can occur due to
kW = QLTc / 790 Th until the resistance reaches its proper ambient conditions or loose line con-
specification. nections. If oxidation is present on the
In these four equations, It is important that the wire com- line connections, clean and retighten
48 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM JANUARY 2006
 Engineering Practice

them. If moisture or fumes are pres-
ent, a different terminal housing may
be required. Once the maintenance is
complete, thoroughly blow the hous-
ing clean with dry, oil-free air.
Extreme caution should be taken
to not get silicone lubricant on the
heated section of the unit. Silicone will
prevent wetting of the sheath by the
liquid and act as an insulator, possibly
causing the heater to fail.
Scale buildup on the sheath and
sludge on the bottom of the tank must
be minimized. If not controlled, they
will inhibit heat transfer to the liquid
and possibly cause overheating and
failure.
Use of the flat, tubular-heater design
prevents the buildup of scale in water
applications. Because of its unique ge-
ometry, the flat surface breathes by
expanding and contracting, thereby
breaking scale and deposits away from
its sheath. If scale buildup is discovered
on other tubular elements, it is impor-
tant to clean the units as required.
A wire brush can be used to remove
the scale or the heater element can be
cleaned in a mildly caustic, chemical
solution. Select a brush and chemical
that will not harm the heater sheath.
A gentle sandblasting of virtually any
type of heater sheath is often very ef-
fective as long as great care is taken to
prevent damage to the sheath. There
are also various brands of clean-
ing chemicals that can remove scale
buildup. Water treatment companies
are a good source for this information.
In addition to coking and scaling,
poor wiring connections account for
a large percentage of problems in the
field. Process temperature and the
amperage going through the termi-
nal area create heat in the terminal
enclosure. When the process heats up
and cools down, the connections can
loosen and eventually cause heater
failure. Electrical connections need to
be checked for tightness on a regular
basis. A torque of 20 lbf-in. on each
heater stud is recommended. In addi-
tion, the connections should be free of
oxide, dust and dirt buildup.
Thermal cycling may also cause
sealed joints, such as flange mount-
ing bolts, to relax and develop leaks.
Tighten threads and flange bolts.
Periodically check the sensing probes
(thermostat or thermocouple) to make
sure that they are operating properly
and that the connections are all good.
Check proper grounding for safety.
Edited by Dorothy Lozowski
Author
Robert C. Klein is a key
account manager, support-
ing major global customers
for Watlow Electric Manu-
facturing Co. in Hannibal,
Mo.(Phone: 573-406-6888;
fax: 573-221-3723; email:
BKlein@watlow.com) He has
worked for Watlow in design,
application and technical
support for nearly 30 years.
Bob graduated from Truman
State University in 1975 with a B.S. in Indus-
trial Occupations.

Tired of promoting
your company
with the usual
gimmicks?
Then check out article reprints from
Chemical Engineering!
Impressive and unique, Chemical Engineering Article reprints are an

effective marketing tool for positioning your company or products. Perfect for

tradeshows, media kits and conferences.Personalize your reprint by using an

array of options such as add-ing your company logo, advertisements or contact information.

For more information, please contact Darla Curtis at

800-211-6356 or via email, dcurtis@accessintel.com.

50 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM JANUARY 2006