Ask any person who is successful in whatever he or she is doing what

motivates him/her, and very likely the answer will be "goals". Goal
Setting is extremely important to motivation and success. So what
motivates you? Why are you in college? If you are in college because
that's what your parents want, you may find it difficult to motivate
yourself. Sure, it's possible to succeed with someone else providing
the motivation for you. ("If you graduate from college, I'll give you a
car!" or worse "If you don't graduate from college, you won't get a
car.") But motivation that comes from within really makes the
difference.

Certainly, you need some intelligence, knowledge base, study skills,

and time management skills, but if you don't have motivation, you
won't get far. Think about this analogy. You have a car with a full tank
of gas, a well-tuned engine, good set of tires, quadraphonic CD
system, and a sleek, polished exterior. There it sits. This car has
incredible potential. (Have you heard that before?) However, until a
driver sits behind the wheel, puts the key in the ignition, and cranks it
up, the car doesn't function. You guessed it; the KEY is MOTIVATION.

Interest is an important motivator for a student. So is a desire to

learn. When you link these two things together, you create success.
Often success in an endeavor leads to more interest and a greater
desire to learn, creating an upward spiral of motivation toward a goal
you have established.

So be honest with yourself. Are you genuinely interested in being in

college? Have you set realistic goals for yourself? How can you develop
the internal motivation that really counts? When it comes to
motivation, KNOWING is not as important as DOING.

Definition

The following definitions of motivation were gleaned from a variety of

psychology textbooks and reflect the general consensus that
motivation is an internal state or condition (sometimes described as a
need, desire, or want) that serves to activate or energize behavior and
give it direction (see Kleinginna and Kleinginna, 1981a).
 • internal state or condition that activates behavior
and gives it direction;
• desire or want that energizes and directs goal-
oriented behavior;
• influence of needs and desires on the intensity
and direction of behavior.
Franken (1994) provides an additional component in his definition:

• the arousal, direction, and persistence of behavior.

While still not widespread in terms of introductory psychology

textbooks, many researchers are now beginning to acknowledge that
the factors that energize behavior are likely different from the factors
that provide for its persistence.

Importance of motivation

Most motivation theorists assume that motivation is involved in the

performance of all learned responses; that is, a learned behavior will
not occur unless it is energized. The major question among
psychologists, in general, is whether motivation is a primary or
secondary influence on behavior. That is, are changes in behavior
better explained by principles of environmental/ecological influences,
perception, memory, cognitive development, emotion, explanatory
style, or personality or are concepts unique to motivation more
pertinent.

For example, we know that people respond to increasingly complex or

novel events (or stimuli) in the environment up to a point and then
responses decrease. This inverted-U-shaped curve of behavior is well-
known and widely acknowledged (e.g., Yerkes & Dodson, 1908).
However, the major issue is one of explaining this phenomenon. Is this
a conditioning (is the individual behaving because of past classical or
operant conditioning), a motivational process (from an internal state of
arousal), or is there some better explanation?

The relationship of motivation and emotion

Emotion (an indefinite subjective sensation experienced as a state of

arousal) is different from motivation in that there is not necessarily a
goal orientation affiliated with it. Emotions occur as a result of an
interaction between perception of environmental stimuli,
neural/hormonal responses to these perceptions (often labeled
feelings), and subjective cognitive labeling of these feelings
(Kleinginna and Kleinginna, 1981b). Evidence suggests there is a small
core of core emotions (perhaps 6 or 8) that are uniquely associated
with a specific facial expression (Izard, 1990). This implies that there
are a small number of unique biological responses that are genetically
hard-wired to specific facial expressions. A further implication is that
the process works in reverse: if you want to change your feelings (i.e.,
your physiological functioning), you can do so by changing your facial
expression. That is, if you are motivated to change how you feel and
your feeling is associated with a specific facial expression, you can
change that feeling by purposively changing your facial expression.
Since most of us would rather feel happy than otherwise, the most
appropriate facial expression would be a smile.

Explanations of influences/causes of arousal and direction may

be different from explanations of persistence

In general, explanations regarding the source(s) of motivation can be

categorized as either extrinsic (outside the person) or intrinsic
(internal to the person). Intrinsic sources and corresponding theories
can be further subcategorized as either body/physical, mind/mental
(i.e., cognitive, affective, conative) or transpersonal/spiritual.

Figure 1motivation
In current literature, needs are now viewed as dispositions toward
action (i.e., they create a condition that is predisposed towards taking
action or making a change and moving in a certain direction). Action
or overt behavior may be initiated by either positive or negative
incentives or a combination of both. The following chart provides a
brief overview of the different sources of motivation (internal state)
that have been studied. While initiation of action can be traced to each
of these domains, it appears likely that initiation of behavior may be
more related to emotions and/or the affective area (optimism vs.
pessimism; self- esteem; etc.) while persistence may be more related
to conation (volition) or goal-orientation.

Sources of Motivational Needs

• elicited by stimulus associated/connected to innately
connected stimulus
behavioral/external
• obtain desired, pleasant consequences (rewards) or
escape/avoid undesired, unpleasant consequences
• imitate positive models
social
• be a part of a group or a valued member
• increase/decrease stimulation (arousal)
• activate senses (taste, touch, smell, etc.
biological • decrease hunger, thirst, discomfort, etc.

• maintain homeostasis, balance

• maintain attention to something interesting or
threatening
• develop meaning or understanding
• increase/decrease cognitive disequilibrium;
cognitive uncertainty
• solve a problem or make a decision
• figure something out

• eliminate threat or risk

• increase/decrease affective dissonance
• increase feeling good
• decrease feeling bad
affective
• increase security of or decrease threats to self-esteem

• maintain levels of optimism and enthusiasm

conative • meet individually developed/selected goal
• obtain personal dream
 • develop or maintain self-efficacy
• take control of one's life
• eliminate threats to meeting goal, obtaining dream

• reduce others' control of one's life

• understand purpose of one's life
spiritual
• connect self to ultimate unknowns

Theories of motivation

Many of the theories of motivation address issues introduced

previously in these materials. The following provides a brief overview
to any terms or concepts that have not been previously discussed.

Behavioral

Each of the major theoretical approaches in behavioral learning theory

posits a primary factor in motivation. Classical conditioning states that
biological responses to associated stimuli energize and direct behavior.
Operant learning states the primary factor is consequences: the
application of reinforcers provides incentives to increase behavior; the
application of punishers provides disincentives that result in a decrease
in behavior.

Cognitive

There are several motivational theories that trace their roots to the
information processing approach to learning. These approaches focus
on the categories and labels people use help to identify thoughts,
emotions, dispositions, and behaviors.

The first is cognitive dissonance theory which is in some respects

similar to disequilibrium in Piaget's theory of cognitive development.
This theory was developed by Leon Festinger (1957) and states that
when there is a discrepancy between two beliefs, two actions, or
between a belief and an action, we will act to resolve conflict and
discrepancies. The implication is that if we can create the appropriate
amount of disequilibrium, this will in turn lead to the individual
changing his or her behavior which in turn will lead to a change in
thought patterns which in turn leads to more change in behavior.

A second cognitive approach is attribution theory (Heider, 1958;

Weiner, 1974). This theory proposes that every individual tries to
explain success or failure of self and others by offering certain
"attributions." These attributions are either internal or external and are
either under control or not under control. The following chart shows
the four attributions that result from a combination of internal or
external locus of control and whether or not control is possible.

Internal External
No Control Ability Luck
Control Effort Task Difficulty

In a teaching/learning environment, it is important to assist the

learner to develop a self-attribution explanation of effort (internal,
control). If the person has an attribution of ability (internal, no control)
as soon as the individual experiences some difficulties in the learning
process, he or she will decrease appropriate learning behavior (e.g.,
I'm not good at this). If the person has an external attribution, then
nothing the person can do will help that individual in a learning
situation (i.e., responsibility for demonstrating what has been learned
is completely outside the person). In this case, there is nothing to be
done by the individual when learning problems occur.

A third cognitive approach is expectancy theory (Vroom, 1964) which

proposes the following equation:

Motivation = Perceived Probability of Success (Expectancy) *

Connection of Success and Reward (Instrumentality) *
Value of Obtaining Goal (Valance, Value)

Since this formula states that the three factors of Expectancy,

Instrumentality, and Valance or Value are to be multiplied by
each other, a low value in one will result in a low value of
motivation. Therefore, all three must be present in order for
motivation to occur. That is, if an individual doesn't believe he or
she can be successful at a task OR the individual does not see a
connection between his or her activity and success OR the
individual does not value the results of success, then the
probability is lowered that the individual will engage in the
required learning activity. From the perspective of this theory, all
three variables must be high in order for motivation and the
resulting behavior to be high.

Summary
 To summarize the cognitive approaches, cognitive dissonance
theory suggests that we will seek balance or homeostasis in our
lives and will resist influences or expectations to change. How,
then, does change or growth occur. One source, according to
Piaget, is biological development. As we mature cognitively we
will rework our thinking and organizations of knowledge (e.g.,
schemas, paradigms, explanations) to more accurately reflect
our understanding of the world. One of those organizations
involves our explanations or attributions of success or failure.
After puberty, when biological change slows down considerably,
it is very difficult to change these attributions. It requires a long-
term program where constant feedback is given about how one's
behavior is responsible for one's success.

Notice the relationship between William James' formula for self-

esteem (Self-esteem = Success / Pretensions) and the
attribution and expectancy theories of motivation. If a person
has an external attribution of success, self-concept is not likely
to change as a result of success or failure because the person
will attribute it to external factors. Likewise, if the person has an
Internal/Ability explanation, his or her self-concept will be tied to
learning to do a new activity quickly and easily (I do well
because I'm naturally good at it). If failure or difficulty occurs,
the person must quickly lower expectations in order to maintain
self-esteem. However, if the person has a Internal/Effort
explanation and high expectations for success, the person will
persevere (i.e., stay motivated) in spite of temporary setbacks
because one's self-esteem is not tied to immediate success.

Psychoanalytic theories

The psychoanalytic theories of motivation propose a variety of

fundamental influences. Freud (1990) suggested that all action
or behavior is a result of internal, biological instincts that are
classified into two categories: life (sexual) and death
(aggression). Many of Freud's students broke with him over this
concept. For example, Erikson (1993) and Sullivan (1968)
proposed that interpersonal and social relationships are
fundamental, Adler (1989) proposed power, while Jung (1953,
1997) proposed temperament and search for soul or personal
meaningfulness.

Humanistic Theories
One of the most influential writers in the area of motivation is
Abraham Maslow (1954).

Abraham Maslow (1954) attempted to synthesize a large body of

research related to human motivation. Prior to Maslow,
researchers generally focused separately on such factors as
biology, achievement, or power to explain what energizes,
directs, and sustains human behavior. Maslow posited a
hierarchy of human needs based on two groupings: deficiency
needs and growth needs. Within the deficiency needs, each
lower need must be met before moving to the next higher level.
Once each of these needs has been satisfied, if at some future
time a deficiency is detected, the individual will act to remove
the deficiency. The first four levels are:

1) Physiological: hunger, thirst, bodily comforts, etc.;

2) Safety/security: out of danger;

3) Belonginess and Love: affiliate with others, be accepted; and

4) Esteem: to achieve, be competent, gain approval and

recognition.
According to Maslow, an individual is ready to act upon the
growth needs if and only if the deficiency needs are met.
Maslow's initial conceptualization included only one growth
need--self-actualization. Self-actualized people are characterized
by: 1) being problem-focused; 2) incorporating an ongoing
freshness of appreciation of life; 3) a concern about personal
growth; and 4) the ability to have peak experiences. Maslow
later differentiated the growth need of self-actualization,
specifically naming two lower-level growth needs prior to general
level of self-actualization (Maslow & Lowery, 1998) and one
beyond that level (Maslow, 1971). They are:

5) Cognitive: to know, to understand, and explore;

6) Aesthetic: symmetry, order, and beauty;

7) Self-actualization: to find self-fulfillment and realize one's

potential; and

8) Self-transcendence: to connect to something beyond the ego

or to help others find self-fulfillment and realize their potential.

Maslow's basic position is that as one becomes more self-

actualized and self-transcendent, one becomes more wise
(develops wisdom) and automatically knows what to do in a wide
variety of situations. Daniels (2001) suggests that Maslow's
ultimate conclusion that the highest levels of self-actualization
are transcendent in their nature may be one of his most
important contributions to the study of human behavior and
motivation.

Norwood (1999) proposes that Maslow's hierarchy can be used

to describe the kinds of information that individual's seek at
different levels. For example, individuals at the lowest level seek
coping information in order to meet their basic needs.
Information that is not directly connected to helping a person
meet his or her needs in a very short time span is simply left
unattended. Individuals at the safety level need helping
information. They seek to be assisted in seeing how they can
be safe and secure. Enlightening information is sought by
individuals seeking to meet their belongingness needs. Quite
often this can be found in books or other materials on
relationship development. Empowering information is sought
by people at the esteem level. They are looking for information
on how their ego can be developed. Finally, people in the growth
levels of cogntive, aesthetic, and self-actualization seek edifying
information. While Norwood does not specifically address the
level of transcendence, I believe it safe to say that individuals at
this stage would seek information on how to connect to
something beyond themselves or to how others could be edified.

Maslow published his first conceptualization of his theory over 50

years ago (Maslow, 1943) and it has since become one of the
most popular and often cited theories of human motivation. An
interesting phenomenon related to Maslow's work is that in spite
of a lack of evidence to support his hierarchy, it enjoys wide
acceptance (Wahba & Bridgewell, 1976; Soper, Milford &
Rosenthal, 1995).

The few major studies that have been completed on the

hierarchy seem to support the proposals of William James
(1892/1962) and Mathes (1981) that there are three levels of
human needs. James hypothesized the levels of material
(physiological, safety), social (belongingness, esteem), and
spiritual. Mathes proposed the three levels were physiological,
belonginess, and self-actualization; he considered security and
self-esteem as unwarranted. Alderfer (1972) developed a
comparable hierarchy with his ERG (existence, relatedness, and
growth) theory. His approach modified Maslow's theory based on
the work of Gordon Allport (1960, 1961) who incorporated
concepts from systems theory into his work on personality.

Alderfer's Hierarchy of Motivational Needs

Level of
Definition Properties
Need
Satisfied through using
Impel a person to make
capabilities in engaging
creative or productive
Growth problems; creates a greater
effects on himself and his
sense of wholeness and
environment
fullness as a human being
Satisfied by mutually
sharing thoughts and
Involve relationships with feelings; acceptance,
Relatedness
significant others confirmation, under-
standing, and influence are
elements
 When divided among
Includes all of the various
people one person's gain is
Existence forms of material and
another's loss if resources
psychological desires
are limited

Maslow recognized that not all personalities followed his

proposed hierarchy. While a variety of personality dimensions
might be considered as related to motivational needs, one of the
most often cited is that of introversion and extroversion.
Reorganizing Maslow's hierarchy based on the work of Alderfer
and considering the introversion/extraversion dimension of
personality results in three levels, each with an introverted and
extroverted component. This organization suggests there may be
two aspects of each level that differentiate how people relate to
each set of needs. Different personalities might relate more to
one dimension than the other. For example, an introvert at the
level of Other/Relatedness might be more concerned with his or
her own perceptions of being included in a group, whereas an
extrovert at that same level would pay more attention to how
others value that membership.

A Reorganization of Maslow's and Alderfer's Hierarchies

Level Introversion Extroversion

Self-Actualization Transcendence (assisting
(development of in the development of
competencies others' competencies and
Growth
[knowledge, attitudes, character; relationships
and skills] and to the unknown,
character) unknowable)
Personal identification
Other Value of person by
with group, significant
(Relatedness) group (Esteem)
others (Belongingness)
Physiological,
Self
biological (including Connectedness, security
(Existence)
basic emotional needs)

At this point there is little agreement about the identification of

basic human needs and how they are ordered. For example,
Ryan & Deci (2000) also suggest three needs, although they are
not necessarily arranged hierarchically: the need for autonomy,
the need for competence, and the need for relatedness.
Thompson, Grace and Cohen (2001) state the most important
needs for children are connection, recognition, and power.
Nohria, Lawrence, and Wilson (2001) provide evidence from a
sociobiology theory of motivation that humans have four basic
needs: (1) acquire objects and experiences; (2) bond with
others in long-term relationships of mutual care and
commitment; (3) learn and make sense of the world and of
ourselves; and (4) to defend ourselves, our loved ones, beliefs
and resources from harm. The Institute for Management
Excellence (2001) suggests there are nine basic human needs:
(1) security, (2) adventure, (3) freedom, (4) exchange, (5)
power, (6) expansion, (7) acceptance, (8) community, and (9)
expression.

Notice that bonding and relatedness are a component of every

theory. However, there do not seem to be any others that are
mentioned by all theorists. Franken (2001) suggests this lack of
accord may be a result of different philosophies of researchers
rather than differences among human beings. In addition, he
reviews research that shows a person's explanatory or
attributional style will modify the list of basic needs. Therefore, it
seems appropriate to ask people what they want and how their
needs could be met rather than relying on an unsupported
theory. For example, Waitley (1996) advises having a person
imagine what life would be like if time and money were not an
object in a person's life. That is, what would the person do this
week, this month, next month, if he or she had all the money
and time needed to engage in the activities and were secure that
both would be available again next year. With some follow-up
questions to identify what is keeping the person from happening
now, this open-ended approach is likely to identify the most
important needs of the individual.

There is much work still to be done in this area before we can

rely on a theory to be more informative than simply collecting
and analyzing data. However, this body of research can be very
important to parents, educators, administrators and others
concerned with developing and using human potential. It
provides an outline of some important issues that must be
addressed if human beings are to achieve the levels of character
and competencies necessary to be successful in the information
age.
 Maslow's work lead to additional attempts to develop a grand
theory of motivation, a theory that would put all of the factors
influencing motivation into one model. An example is provided
by Leonard, Beauvais, and Scholl (1995). These authors propose
5 factors as the sources of motivation: 1) Instrumental
Motivation (rewards and punishers), 2) Intrinsic Process
Motivation (enjoyment, fun), 3) Goal Internalization (self-
determined values and goals), 4) Internal Self Concept-based
Motivation (matching behavior with internally-developed ideal
self), 5) External Self Concept-based Motivation (matching
behavior with externally-developed ideal self). Individuals are
influenced by all five factors, though in varying degrees that can
change in specific situations.

Factors one and five are both externally-oriented. The main

difference is that individuals who are instrumentally motivated
are influenced more by immediate actions in the environment
(e.g. operant conditioning) whereas individuals who are self-
concept motivated are influenced more by their constructions of
external demands and ideals (e.g., social cognition).

Factors two, three, and four are more internally-oriented. In the

case of intrinsic process, the specific task is interesting and
provides immediate internal reinforcement (e.g., cognitive or
humanistic theory). The individual with a goal-internalization
orientation is more task-oriented (e.g., humanistic or social
cognition theory) whereas the person with an internal self-
concept orientation is more influenced by individual
constructions of the ideal self (humanistic or psychoanalytic
theory).

Social Learning

Social learning (or observational) theory suggests that modeling

(imitating others) and vicarious learning (watching others have
consequences applied to their behavior) are important motivators of
behavior.

Social Cognition

Social cognition theory proposes reciprocal determination as a primary

factor in both learning and motivation. In this view, the environment,
an individual's behavior, and the individual's characteristics (e.g.,
knowledge, emotions, cognitive development) both influence and are
influenced by each other two components. Bandura (1986, 1997)
highlights self-efficacy (the belief that a particular action is possible
and that the individual can accomplish it) and self-regulation (the
establishment of goals, the development of a plan to attain those
goals, the commitment to implement that plan, the actual
implementation of the plan, and subsequent actions of reflection and
modification or redirection. The work of Ames (1992) and Dweck
(1986) discussed below is a major component of social cognitive views
on motivation.

Transpersonal or Spiritual Theories

Most of the transpersonal or spiritual theories deal with the

meaningfulness of our lives or ultimate meanings. Abraham Maslow
(1954) has also been influential in this approach to motivation. Other
influential scholars included Gordon Allport (1955), Victor Frankl
(1998), William James (1997), Carl Jung (1953, 1997), Ken Wilber
(1998).

Achievement motivation

One classification of motivation differentiates among

achievement, power, and social factors (see McClelland, 1985;
Murray, 1938, 1943). In the area of achievement motivation, the
work on goal-theory has differentiated three separate types of
goals: mastery goals (also called learning goals) which focus
on gaining competence or mastering a new set of knowledge or
skills; performance goals (also called ego-involvement goals)
which focus on achieving normative-based standards, doing
better than others, or doing well without a lot of effort; and
social goals which focus on relationships among people (see
Ames, 1992; Dweck, 1986; Urdan & Maehr, 1995). In the
 context of school learning, which involves operating in a
relatively structured environment, students with mastery goals
outperform students with either performance or social goals.
However, in life success, it seems critical that individuals have all
three types of goals in order to be very successful.

One aspect of this theory is that individuals are motivated to

either avoid failure (more often associated with performance
goals) or achieve success (more often associated with mastery
goals). In the former situation, the individual is more likely to
select easy or difficult tasks, thereby either achieving success or
having a good excuse for why failure occurred. In the latter
situation, the individual is more likely to select moderately
difficult tasks which will provide an interesting challenge, but still
keep the high expectations for success.

Impacting motivation in the classroom

Stipek (1988) suggests there are a variety of reasons why

individuals may be lacking in motivation and provides a list of
specific behaviors associated with high academic achievement.
This is an excellent checklist to help students develop the
conative component of their lives. In addition, as stated
previously in these materials, teacher efficacy is a powerful input
variable related to student achievement (Proctor, 1984).

There are a variety of specific actions that teachers can take to

increase motivation on classroom tasks. In general, these fall
into the two categories discussed above: intrinsic motivation and
extrinsic motivation.

Intrinsic Extrinsic
o Explain or show why o Provide clear expectations
learning a particular content or skill o Give corrective feedback
is important o Provide valuable rewards
o Create and/or maintain
curiosity o Make rewards available
o Provide a variety of
activities and sensory stimulations
o Provide games and
simulations
o Set goals for learning
o Relate learning to student
needs
 o Help student develop plan of
action

As a general rule, teachers need to use as much of the intrinsic

suggestions as possible while recognizing that not all students
will be appropriately motivated by them. The extrinsic
suggestions will work, but it must be remembered that they do
so only as long as the student is under the control of the
teacher. When outside of that control, unless the desired goals
and behaviors have been internalized, the learner will cease the
desired behavior and operate according to his or her internal
standards or to other external factors.

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• Norwood, G. (1999). Maslow's hierarchy of needs. The Truth Vectors (Part I).
Retrieved May 2002, from http://www.deepermind.com/20maslow.htm
• Proctor, C. (1984, March). Teacher expectations: A model for school
improvement. The Elementary School Journal, 469-481.
• Ryan, R., & Deci, E. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of
intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist,
55(1), 68-78. Retrieved February 2004, from
 http://www.psych.rochester.edu/SDT/publications/documents/2000RyanDeciSDT
.pdf
• Seligman, M. (1990). Learned optimism. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.
• Soper, B., Milford, G., & Rosenthal, G. (1995). Belief when evidence does not
support theory. Psychology & Marketing, 12(5), 415-422.
• Stipek, D. (1988). Motivation to learn: From theory to practice. Englewood
Cliffs, NJ:
Prentice Hall.
• Sullivan, H. S. (1968). The interpersonal theory of psychiatry. New York: W. W.
Norton & Company.
• Thompson, M., Grace, C., & Cohen, L. (2001). Best friends, worst enemies:
Understanding the social lives of children. New York: Ballantine Books.
• Urdan, T., & Maehr, M. (1995). Beyond a two-goal theory of motivation and
achievement: A case for social goals. Review of Educational Research, 65(3),
213-243.
• Vroom, V. (1964). Work and motivation. New York: Wiley.
• Wahba, A., & Bridgewell, L. (1976). Maslow reconsidered: A review of research
on the need hierarchy theory. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance,
15, 212-240.
• Waitley, D. (1996). The new dynamics of goal setting: Flextactics for a fast-
changing world. New York: William Morrow.
• Weiner, B. (1974). Achievement motivation and attribution theory. Morristown,
NJ: General Learning Press.
• Yerkes, R., & Dodson, J. (1908). The relation of strength of stimulus to rapidity
of habit-formation. Journal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology, 18, 459-
482. Retrieved December 1999, from
http://www.yorku.ca/dept/psych/classics/Yerkes/Law/

Seven Rules of Motivation

#1 Set a major goal, but follow a path. The path has mini
goals that go in many directions. When you learn to succeed at
mini goals, you will be motivated to challenge grand goals.

#2 Finish what you start. A half finished project is of no use

to anyone. Quitting is a habit. Develop the habit of finishing
self-motivated projects.

#3 Socialize with others of similar interest. Mutual support is

motivating. We will develop the attitudes of our five best friends.
If they are losers, we will be a loser. If they are winners, we will
be a winner. To be a cowboy we must associate with cowboys.
 #4 Learn how to learn. Dependency on others for knowledge
supports the habit of procrastination. Man has the ability to
learn without instructors. In fact, when we learn the art of self-
education we will find, if not create, opportunity to find success
beyond our wildest dreams.
#5 Harmonize natural talent with interest that motivates.
Natural talent creates motivation, motivation creates persistence
and persistence gets the job done.

#6 Increase knowledge of subjects that inspires. The more

we know about a subject, the more we want to learn about it.
A self-propelled upward spiral develops.

#7 Take risk. Failure and bouncing back are elements of

motivation. Failure is a learning tool. No one has ever
succeeded at anything worthwhile without a string of failures.
The Power of Self Motivation
You can achieve everything you have ever wanted to have, experience, or become. The
power has and always will be within you, but nothing will happen until you get and stay
motivated to make something happen, to change your life and achieve your desires.

Becoming a Motivational Leader

To become a motivational leader, you start with motivating yourself. You motivate yourself with a big
vision, and as you move progressively toward its realization, you motivate and enthuse others to work
with you to fulfill that vision... More

Your Intention
"Just as an archer requires a target before he can shoot his arrow, you need a target before you can get
motivated to achieve it."4
Your intention is a synergistic combination of three elements: desire, belief, and acceptance.
It determines your motivation and how successfully you attain your goals... More

Steve Jobs' 12 Rules of Success

1. Do what you love to do. Find your true passion. Do what you love to do a make a
difference! The only way to do great work is to love what you do... More

Emotional Intelligence (EI)

"Emotional Intelligence" refers to your capacity to recognize your own feelings and those of
others, for motivating yourself, and for managing emotions well in yourself and in your
relationships. "It describes abilities distinct from, but complementary to, academic
intelligence, the purely cognitive capabilities measured by IQ. Many people who are book
smart lack emotional intelligence but lack emotional intelligence end up working for people
who have lower IQs than they but who excel in emotional intelligence skills."1

Discontent as a Motivator
Discontent, anxiety, and anger, if you use and harness it in a positive way, are some of the
most powerful motivations you can have. Use them if you're not happy with where you are
right now. Find an area of discontent, think things through, and take action.
 Case in Point Jim Clark
When asked "What Traits Should Every Good Entrepreneur Possess?", Jim Clark who a billionaire
who was involved in starting Netscape, Silicon Graphics and many other start-up ventures,
answered, "Discontent and anxiety."

Creative Visualization
Creative visualization helps you use your natural creative imagination in a more conscious
way to create a clear image, idea or feeling sense of what you really want and to achieve
your goal by focusing constantly on it and giving it your positive energy until it becomes
objective reality... More

Fear as a Motivator
You have two ways to go with fear. You can weaken the negative ones or strengthen the
empowering ones.4
Take in mind a goal that you wish to achieve. Be specific about what you want and why you
want it. Once you have your chosen goal in mind, it's time to create some fear. Imagine that
you lived the rest of your life never having
achieved your goal, and you never realized
your potential or what you were capable
of. Create as horrible a picture as you can about this possible future. Think about how you'll
feel about yourself, how others will feel about you, and how much it will hurt to know that
you'll never do the things you wanted to do. And most effective of all, you never became the person
you always knew you could be.
You now have fear working for you. Human beings will do most anything to avoid an intensely painful
situation. By using this to your advantage you will be motivated to achieve your goal and avoid the pain of
regret.4

The key to successful self-motivation is in hiring the right type of inner-

coach.

In order to help you hire the right type of inner-coach; there are five inner-
coach qualities your should look for prior to hiring. If you hire an inner-
coach who does not have these five qualities, you are only likely to destroy
any self-motivation you presently have.

An inner-coach needs to incorporate the following qualities.

1.) Hire an inner-coach who can help you define your goals. If you do not
know what you want, you will not have any achievement or success in your
life. Also, look for an inner-coach who is interested in helping you define
your goals and not the goals of your parents, society, or any other person.

2.) Hire an inner-coach who can break down your goal(s) into small
components. If your goal is to start your own business, you will first need
to set a number of smaller goals until your main goal is achieved. The
general rule of thumb to follow is not to set any small goal that cannot be
achieved within two weeks.

Here is a good interview question to ask a candidate you are considering

hiring as your inner-coach. "Is it a good idea to set small goals that take a
month or longer to complete?" A good inner-coach will tell you that if your
small goal takes over a month to complete, it is not a small goal and it
therefore needs to be broke down into smaller components.

3.) Hire an inner-coach who can help you remove the following words from
your vocabulary: "should," "ought," "must," and "guilt." Why these words?
If the goal you set is something you really want to achieve, you will not
need to tell yourself you "should," "ought," or "must" do it. People who
have achieved self-motivation achieve their goals because they have
passion. Passion is the "emotional-gas" you have to help you achieve all
your smaller goals and eventually your main goal(s). No passion, no self-
motivation.

A good inner-coach also helps you to remove the word "guilt" from your
vocabulary. Why should you not feel guilty about achieving your passion?
Because your passion is your life. Achieving your true passion is on the
same level as breathing, and you don't feel guilt about using up oxygen do
you?

If you think that if you follow your passion you will take too much time
away from your family, it is time to prioritize your priorities. Let go of less
important priorities so you can spend more time with your family at the
same time you achieve your goal(s).

4.) Hire an inner-coach who can help you not listen to the "nay-sayers," but
encourages you to seek out the advice and wisdom form people who have
achieved the goal(s) you are interested in achieving.

5.) Hire an inner coach who does not criticize effort, blame you for failures,
or who encourages you to give up when the going gets tuff. A good inner-
coach will help you to turn failures into learning experiences. Remember
that failure is a perquisite before true success can be achieved.

Are you interested in hiring an inner-coach? Where can you find a qualified
inner-coach to interview and possibly hire? Is there a certification board or
inner-coach school that you can call to obtain a list? No, there is no inner-
coach university.

The best inner-coach to hire is YOU! You are the best inner-coach you can
hire because who else knows your dream goals better than you do.
Unfortunately, we all have a number of types of inner-coaches within us,
and not all are there to help meeting our dream goal(s). Therefore, you will
need to only listen to the advice of the inner-coach who can meet the five
qualities that I have outlined, and fire any inner-coach who can't cut-it.
Maslow's hierarchy of needs
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Hierarchy of needs)
Jump to: navigation, search

This diagram shows Maslow's hierarchy of needs, represented as a pyramid with the
more basic needs at the bottom.[1]

Maslow's hierarchy of needs is a theory in psychology, proposed by

Abraham Maslow in his 1943 paper A Theory of Human Motivation,[2]
which he subsequently extended to include his observations of
humans' innate curiosity.

Maslow studied what he called exemplary people such as Albert

Einstein, Jane Addams, Eleanor Roosevelt, and Frederick Douglass
rather than mentally ill or neurotic people, writing that "the study of
crippled, stunted, immature, and unhealthy specimens can yield only a
cripple psychology and a cripple philosophy."[3] Maslow also studied the
healthiest one percent of the college student population. In his book,
The Farther Reaches of Human Nature, Maslow writes, "By ordinary
standards of this kind of laboratory research... this simply was not
research at all. My generalizations grew out of my selection of certain
kinds of people. Obviously, other judges are needed."[4]

Contents
[hide]

• 1 Representations
• 2 Deficiency needs
 o 2.1 Physiological needs
o 2.2 Safety needs
o 2.3 Social needs
o 2.4 Esteem
• 3 Aesthetic needs
• 4 Self-transcendence
• 5 Success of offspring
• 6 Criticisms
• 7 See also
• 8 References

• 9 External links

[edit] Representations
Maslow's hierarchy of needs is predetermined in order of importance.[5]
It is often depicted as a pyramid consisting of five levels: the first
lower level is being associated with Physiological needs, while the top
levels are termed growth needs associated with psychological needs.
Deficiency needs must be met first. Once these are met, seeking to
satisfy growth needs drives personal growth. The higher needs in this
hierarchy only come into focus when the lower needs in the pyramid
are met. Once an individual has moved upwards to the next level,
needs in the lower level will no longer be prioritized. If a lower set of
needs is no longer being met, the individual will temporarily re-
prioritize those needs by focusing attention on the unfulfilled needs,
but will not permanently regress to the lower level. For instance, a
businessman at the esteem level who is diagnosed with cancer will
spend a great deal of time concentrating on his health (physiological
needs), but will continue to value his work performance (esteem
needs) and will likely return to work during periods of remission.

[edit] Deficiency needs

The lower four layers of the pyramid are what Maslow called
"deficiency needs" or "D-needs." With the exception of the lowest
needs, physiological ones, if the deficiency needs are not met, the
body gives no indication of it physically, but the individual feels
anxious and tense. These deficiency needs are: physiological, safety
and security, love and belonging, and esteem.
[edit] Physiological needs

For the most part, physiological needs are obvious - they are the literal
requirements for human survival. If these requirements are not met
(with the exception of sex), the human body simply cannot continue to
function.

Physiological needs include:

• Breathing
• Homeostasis
• Water
• Sleep
• Food
• Excretion
• Sex

[edit] Safety needs

With their physical needs relatively satisfied, the individual's safety

needs take over and dominate their behavior. These needs have to do
with people's yearning for a predictable, orderly world in which
injustice and inconsistency are under control, the familiar frequent and
the unfamiliar rare. In the world of work, these safety needs manifest
themselves in such things as a preference for job security, grievance
procedures for protecting the individual from unilateral authority,
savings accounts, insurance policies, and the like.

For the most part, physiological and safety needs are reasonably well
satisfied in the "First World." The obvious exceptions, of course, are
people outside the mainstream — the poor and the disadvantaged. If
frustration has not led to apathy and weakness, such people still
struggle to satisfy the basic physiological and safety needs. They are
primarily concerned with survival: obtaining adequate food, clothing,
shelter, and seeking justice from the dominant societal groups.

Safety and Security needs include:

• Personal security
• Financial security
• Health and well-being
• Safety net against accidents/illness and the adverse impacts
[edit] Social needs

After physiological and safety needs are fulfilled, the third layer of
human needs is social. This psychological aspect of Maslow's hierarchy
involves emotionally-based relationships in general, such as:

• Friendship
• Intimacy
• Having a supportive and communicative family

Humans need to feel a sense of belonging and acceptance, whether it

comes from a large social group, such as clubs, office culture, religious
groups, professional organizations, sports teams, gangs ("Safety in
numbers"), or small social connections (family members, intimate
partners, mentors, close colleagues, confidants). They need to love
and be loved (sexually and non-sexually) by others. In the absence of
these elements, many people become susceptible to loneliness, social
anxiety, and Clinical depression. This need for belonging can often
overcome the physiological and security needs, depending on the
strength of the peer pressure; an anorexic, for example, ignores the
need to eat and the security of health for a feeling of control and
belonging.

[edit] Esteem

All humans have a need to be respected, to have self-esteem, self-

respect, and to respect. Also known as the belonging need, esteem
presents the normal human desire to be accepted and valued by
others. People need to engage themselves to gain recognition and
have an activity or activities that give the person a sense of
contribution, to feel accepted and self-valued, be it in a profession or
hobby. Imbalances at this level can result in low self-esteem or an
inferiority complex. People with low self-esteem need respect from
others. They may seek fame or glory, which again depends on others.
It may be noted, however, that many people with low self-esteem will
not be able to improve their view of themselves simply by receiving
fame, respect, and glory externally, but must first accept themselves
internally. Psychological imbalances such as depression can also
prevent one from obtaining self-esteem on both levels.

[edit] Aesthetic needs

The motivation to realize one's own maximum potential and
possibilities is considered to be the master motive or the only real
motive, all other motives being its various forms. In Maslow's
hierarchy of needs, the need for self-actualization is the final need that
manifests when lower level needs have been satisfied.

[edit] Self-transcendence
Near the end of his life Maslow revealed that there was a level on the
hierarchy that was above self-actualization: self-transcendence[6].
"[Transcenders] may be said to be much more often aware of the
realm of Being (B-realm and B-cognition), to be living at the level of
Being… to have unitive consciousness and “plateau experience”
(serene and contemplative B-cognitions rather than climactic ones) …
and to have or to have had peak experience (mystic, sacral, ecstatic)
with illuminations or insights. Analysis of reality or cognitions which
changed their view of the world and of themselves, perhaps
occasionally, perhaps as a usual thing."[7]

[edit] Success of offspring

This section does not cite any references or sources. Please help improve this
article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unverifiable material may be
challenged and removed. (November 2008)

He stated that the achievements and success of his offspring were

more satisfying than the personal fulfillment and growth characterized
in self-actualization.

[edit] Criticisms
While Maslow's theory was regarded as an improvement over previous
theories of personality and motivation, it had its detractors. For
example, in their extensive review of research which is dependent on
Maslow's theory, Wahba and Bridgewell[8] found little evidence for the
ranking of needs Maslow described, or even for the existence of a
definite hierarchy at all. Conducted in 2002, a recent study forwards
this line of thought, claiming that "the hierarchy of needs is nothing
more than a fool's daydream; there is no possible way to classify ever-
changing needs as society changes."[9][unreliable source?]Chilean economist
and philosopher Manfred Max Neef has also argued fundamental
human needs are non-hierarchical, and are ontologically universal and
invariant in nature - part of the condition of being human; poverty, he
argues, is the result of any one of these needs being frustrated, denied
or unfulfilled.
[edit] See also
• ERG theory that further expands and explains this theory.
• John Curtis Gowan
• Self actualization
• Murray's Psychogenic Needs

[edit] References
1. ^ Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
2. ^ A.H. Maslow, A Theory of Human Motivation, Psychological Review 50(4)
(1943):370-96.
3. ^ Maslow, Abraham (1954). Motivation and Personality.New York:. Harper. p. 236.
4. ^ Maslow, A.H. (1971). The farther reaches of human nature. New York: Penguin
Compass. Chpt 3, "Self-actualizing and beyond", p. 41.
5. ^ Clark, Timothy J. Success Through Quality. Milwaukee: ASQ Quality Press, 1999.
6. ^ “Theory Z” The Farther Reaches of Human Nature, NY: Viking, 1972
7. ^ Abraham Maslow, Transpersonal Psychology, and self-Transcendence
8. ^ Wahba, A; Bridgewell, L (1976). "Maslow reconsidered: A review of research on the
need hierarchy theory". Organizational Behavior and Human Performance (15): 212–
240.
9. ^ Lim, Cwisfa; Khruschev, Vesh (2002). Maslow's Pyramid - a necessity?. pp. 15–17.

[edit] External links

• Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs, Teacher's Toolbox. A video overview of Maslow's
work by Geoff Petty.
• A Theory of Human Motivation.
• A Theory of Human Motivation: Annotated.
• Theory and biography including detailed description and examples of self-
actualizers.
• Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs, Valdosta.
• Abraham Maslow by C George Boeree
• Hierarchy of Needs Maslow's hierarchy integrated into Ken Wilber's AQAL
Theory

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maslow%27s_hierarchy_of_needs"

Categories: Human development | Interpersonal relationships | Organizational studies and
human resource management | Personal development | Personal life | Developmental
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14. Employee Motivation
What is the one mistake you can't afford to make when managing other people? The employee
motivation article, The #1 Motivation Mistake, will tell you all about it.
On the other hand, Employee Motivation 101 will teach you the one principle of motivating your
people that you can't do without.

Click Here to view the rest of this month's featured Employee Motivation Articles.

Featured Motivation123™ Employee

Motivation Articles
Welcome to our Employee Motivation Department! Below you'll find quick
overviews of our featured employee motivation articles. Be sure to check
back again next month for department updates.

Whether you're the boss or the employee, the more you understand about
the dynamics of motivation in the workplace, the more successful you'll be!

Employee Motivation 101 Employee Motivation QuickTips

Been looking for the most effective
employee motivation technique
available in the workplace? Your
search is over.
Within a few short minutes you'll be
using this technique to enjoy greater
productivity and results.
Employee Motivation Articles: #1
The great thing about mastering
employee motivation principles is
that it creates a win-win-win situation.
The company wins through greater
employee performance, you win
through greater team and
department results, and your
employees win through personal
success and professional recognition
and advancement.

So how do you ensure consistent

4 Steps to Driven Employees
employee motivation in the
It's not a bad thing when your
workplace? Three quick and easy
employees hit their stride halfway
tips. The first idea is common to most
through the workday, but what if you
organizations, but most often they
could motivate your employees from
drop the ball with the final two
the beginning until the end of their
motivation tips. Now is your chance
shift?
to master all three.
With four simple steps, you can
Employee Motivation Articles: #4
achieve the employee motivation
results every manager, boss, and
supervisor in the workplace craves.
Motivation won't be a mystery when The #1 Motivation Mistake
you put these simple steps to use. Even the greatest motivators in the
workplace make this mistake. You
Employee Motivation Articles: #2 can do everything right, but if you fail
to understand this employee
motivation principle, you'll never be
able to get the most from your
The Key to Workplace Success
people.
This motivation tip flies in the face of
conventional wisdom, but it is
Whenever dealing with motivation in
absolutely vital to the success of your
the workplace, you must always
team of employees. It will increase
begin with this simple principle in
your rate of innovation and keep the
mind. And if you think cooking ice
motivation to progress flowing as
cream like a hamburger sounds
strong as ever.

The motivation of your people can be
wiped out in seconds if you fail to use
this tool. In other words, you need to
read it now and use it from now on.
crazy, then you shouldn't have any
problem putting this motivation
technique to use.
Employee Motivation Articles: #5

Employee Motivation Articles: #3

There may be thousands of techniques, principles, and ideas about effective and efficient
management, but one method still stands above the rest. Every great manager, coach, and
parent knows the secret and puts it to use every moment of every day.

This method not only trains but also inspires others to achieve greater result. With today's
business world in dire need of quick and effective training methods, this is one technique you
don't want to be without.

Lead by example.

As Emerson once wrote, 'Who you are speaks so loudly I can't hear what you're saying.' It doesn't
matter what you want others to do if you are not willing to set the example first.

This presents a definite problem for managers and supervisors who would rather have people 'do
as they say and not as they do,' but if you're really interested in improving the performance and
experience of the people you rely on, the changes have to come from the head down.

NEW EXAMPLE, NEW RESULTS

When Douglas Freimark was named the new head of the sales department, he had his work cut
out for him. The results in that department had been slowly decreasing, and the drop in results
was crippling the company's ability to improve and expand.

Before he stepped into his new role, he was given a quick overview of the problem. In essence,
he was told the sales force was failing to meet expectations. If things didn't improve fast, he was
to remove the current employees and hire a new team.

Douglas understood motivation and the power of example enough to see through his supervisor's
words. Working within the company before his latest promotion, Douglas was aware of the
previous sales manager. He knew that the problem stemmed less from the sales force and more
from a lack of leadership.

By acting in a way that he wished others to act, Douglas quickly improved the moral of the team.
He let them know that he would never ask more of them than he did of himself. Douglas showed
up early, worked with focus and intent, and stayed late. He was the example and the employees
followed his lead.

In only a few weeks the sales force looked like a completely different group of people. They were
excited about their work, about their goals, and about their future. Results quickly improved and
were on their way to breaking company records.

While most would have replaced the 'problem' with a new set of faces, Douglas realized what the
sales department was missing wasn't talented employees but the right example to follow.

The employees hadn't changed - their example and expectations did. Examine not what you say
to your people but who you are and what you communicate with your own behavior. Be the
example of what you wish to see in others.

by Jason M. Gracia - Motivation123™

Get your free Motivation123™ Idea-Kit filled with dozens of quick and easy tips and ideas to help you
experience a richer, more rewarding life at the Motivation123™ Web Site. Visit www.motivation123.com
today!

(Editors and publishers are free to reprint this article in its entirety with the signature line intact.)

4 Steps to Driven Employees

The first few minutes of the workday can often be the most important minutes you'll have with
your people. It sets the tone for the rest of the day, inspiring others to achieve greater results or
leaving them without direction or energy - it's your choice.

Below are five quick and easy ideas that can help you give your people the jump start they need
every morning before work begins.

EARLY ARRIVAL
There is nothing quite as frustrating to an employee as seeing his or her boss waltz in hours after
the workday has begun. It's very difficult to respect and follow a leader who fails to give as much
as they expect in return.

Arrive to work before or with your employees and let your actions demonstrate your dedication to
the company and its objectives. If you expect the best from others you must expect the same
from yourself.

ENERGY
Moods and attitudes are contagious. The moment you walk through the door in the morning you
are sharing a message with your body language. Slump your shoulders and drag your way into
the office and you'll let everyone around you know that the day is going to be long and uneventful.

Walk in with a spring in your step and a smile on your face and you'll spread the enthusiasm
necessary for a productive workday. Everyone sends off vibes, and as a manager or leader, your
vibes can oftentimes overpower others. Use this power to enhance the quality of each day.

MEET AND GREET

One of the key differences between those who inspire success and those who stifle improvement
is the direction they head after entering into the office. While some choose to walk straight to their
particular work area, others take a different path an in turn achieve better results.

Begin the day by greeting your people, letting them know through your actions that you care
about them and feel they are an important asset to the company. If you merely run to your office
and fail to acknowledge the others around you, it will only serve to create a rift between you and
ones you rely on for success.

EXPECTATIONS
While making your rounds you can accomplish another objective that is sure to motivate your
people to action. Carrying out this method requires that you have a clear plan of action each day -
something that will increase progress in and of itself.

People need direction. They need to know where they are heading and why. As you greet your
employees, let them know what results you expect to see at the end of the day. Relaying clear
objectives and expectations at the start of the day will help to set in motion a day of
accomplishment in place of small-talk, checking e-mail, and mindless paper filing.
Follow these simple tips and you'll have a workforce that is motivated to improve, inspired to
succeed, and ready to begin working toward a better tomorrow for themselves and their
company.

by Jason M. Gracia - Motivation123™

Get your free Motivation123™ Idea-Kit filled with dozens of quick and easy tips and ideas to help you
experience a richer, more rewarding life at the Motivation123™ Web Site. Visit www.motivation123.com
today!

(Editors and publishers are free to reprint this article in its entirety with the signature line intact.)

The Key to Workplace Success

Millions of brilliant, million-dollar ideas are being lost each year, and you may be helping the
problem. Two forces are battling in the minds of employees across the globe, and it's up to you to
make sure the positive force wins in the end.

The first force driving employees ahead is success. Each day presents them with a new
opportunity to grow, expand, and progress further than ever before. Success means something
different to each person, but the underlying idea of achieving dreams and goals excites and
inspires us all.

The drive of success, accomplishment, and happiness is powerful, but oftentimes the second
force can bring a standstill to progress. If left to its own devices, the second force wipe the thrill of
success clear away in an instant.

The second force that drives employees is the fear of failure. While it doesn't inspire them to offer
their ideas to the world and improve the performance of the company, it drives them to keep still,
keep quiet, and keep every great thought locked away forever.

Allowing the force of fear to play the dominant position within an employee's workday robs both
the employee and the company of an opportunity to improve and achieve new heights. It saps the
strength and energy from a potentially rewarding experience leaving both parties less than what
they could have been.

IT'S YOUR CHOICE

Which force takes control is up to you - it depends on the tone and atmosphere you create with
your company, department, or team. While many men and women in positions of power frown
upon failure, the smartest of leaders expects and welcomes it.

To learn, you must fail. A quick example will help to make the need for failure clear. If 100 happy
customers enter and leave a department store, there is nothing to build on. You have no clue as
to why their experience was satisfying, only that they left without a complaint. While they may be
happy with their experience (or unhappy and unwilling to tell you about it) you have nothing to
gain in the long-term.

However, a complaining customer is offering you success on a silver platter. He is telling you
exactly what you can do to improve your service. No guessing, no assuming. You are given
specific instructions on how not to do something which will lead you to the secret of doing it better
than ever before.

When an employee feels free to try new things, to offer their ideas, and to run with projects
regardless of the potential for failure (assuming the necessary steps have been taken to ensure
the idea is sound and relevant) you will have thousands of ideas coming your way from every
corner of the company.

GROWTH FROM THE INSIDE OUT

Some of the most successful advancements made within the world's largest companies have
come from lower-level employees who were given the chance to be heard. If you create an
atmosphere in which 100% success is demanded at every stage of the game, you will scare away
future success and achievement.

Recalling our example from above, you not only get more ideas when you allow for short- term
failure but also the specifics to success. When an employee fails, and takes steps to learn from
that failure, you are benefited with new and powerful information. When you know how something
doesn't work, you will eventually discover exactly how it does work.

Let it be known throughout your company, department, or team that failure is an option. Think of
the countless ideas that are sitting patiently in the minds of your people - now is the time to let
them out.

by Jason M. Gracia - Motivation123™

Get your free Motivation123™ Idea-Kit filled with dozens of quick and easy tips and ideas to help you
experience a richer, more rewarding life at the Motivation123™ Web Site. Visit www.motivation123.com
today!

Employee Motivation QuickTips

Imagine with me for a moment what it would be like to have your employees or team members
come into work each day bursting with excitement and enthusiasm about the workday ahead.

Imagine what it would be like to work in an electric environment with new thoughts and ideas
constantly jumping around the office.

Imagine, my friend, what it would be like to work within a group that has a vision, a dream about
the future of the company and is motivated to make it happen.

This doesn't have to be a daydream - you can take steps today to make it happen.

EDUCATION
The first step in the process is to create or maintain a program that constantly educates your
employees about the latest trends, techniques, and methods available in your industry.

This will satisfy one of the strongest needs a human being has - growth. If we don't feel that we
are growing - as employees, as fathers/mothers and husbands/wives, as people - we will feel that
we are dying. People need to grow in order to work at their peak levels.

There are countless resources out there to help you complete the first step. Purchasing books or
having other compile their books to create a work library is an excellent way to educate your
people.

You can also send your team members to live seminars or workshops. While these can be more
expensive, they can deliver a much higher return. Industry newsletters, magazines, etc. are an
quick and easy way to keep your people growing without spending a great deal.

Lastly, one of the most effective methods to educating your employees or team members is to
learn the information yourself and share it with power and passion. To be a great leader, you
have to be willing to know your industry inside and out before you can expect your people to do
the same.
LET THE IDEAS BE HEARD
This step is crucial. Millions of dollars are spent each year to further the education of employees,
but upon returning to their companies, the ideas are soon forgotten. The investment was a waste.

You have to create an atmosphere in which the new ideas your people learn are valued and
shared. You have to gather your people together and ask them about what they're learned and
how they feel their ideas could improve the company.

Don't let the information you or your company just spent a great deal of money on be lost. If you
don't make use of the ideas, you are simply wasting you and your employee's time. There is
success in new information, but you are the one who has to bring it to the surface.

PUT THE IDEAS INTO ACTION

The last stage is action. While not every new idea or gem of information will pan out, recognize
and test the ideas that you feel may improve the company. This is important for two reasons.

First, the company will profit through new ideas. This is the most obvious benefit of educated
employees, but it doesn't end here. While the company will improve in the short-term because of
the new information, it will succeed in the long-term because of the type of employees constant
education creates.

When an employee feels that he or she is needed, productivity will skyrocket. Think about how
you would feel if you went to a seminar on reducing employee turnover and returned to your
company without once being asked about what you learned. You were excited about the chance
to grow, learned some really useful ideas that would fit well with your company, and then poof -
everything you have done is wasted.

What a different situation it would be had the boss or supervisor eagerly awaited your return,
anxious to tap your mind and hang on your every word. You would feel needed, important, and
like an integral part of your company.

Feelings like these would drive every employee to do whatever they could to make the company
better.

If your employees already have the opportunity to grow on a consistent basis, keep it going
strong and follow the latter two steps. If not, get started today. The faster you satisfy the needs of
your employees, the faster they will work to satisfy yours.

by Jason M. Gracia - Motivation123™

Get your free Motivation123™ Idea-Kit filled with dozens of quick and easy tips and ideas to help you
experience a richer, more rewarding life at the Motivation123™ Web Site. Visit www.motivation123.com
today!

(Editors and publishers are free to reprint this article in its entirety with the signature line intact.)

The #1 Motivation Mistake

Managers around the world are committing a fatal error that is depriving their people and
companies of improvement, progress, and success. While very few know of the dilemma, its
solution is the most important and powerful principle that any coach or manager will ever learn.

Imagine stepping into an enormous kitchen overflowing with uncooked meals and desserts. All of
the necessary ingredients for a countless assortment of dinners are there - you simply have to
prepare them.
Now imagine preparing and cooking them in identically the same way. It doesn't matter what meal
you are dealing with - you follow one set of instructions without fail.

Perhaps your favorite meal is a thick and juicy hamburger. If you're actually preparing and
cooking a hamburger, you're right on track. But what if you're dealing with ice cream sandwiches.
How well do you think throwing some ice cream onto a grill would work? Trying to flip it so both
side get evenly cooked?

THE GREATEST MANAGEMENT MISTAKE

Preparing and cooking ice cream in the same manner as a hamburger would obviously result in
failure. You can't treat all ingredients and meals as the same thing - they are all different,
requiring different methods and techniques to achieve their particular result.

The greatest management mistake should becoming painfully clear: many managers treat all
employees as the same assortment of ingredients trying to motivate them toward greater success
using one cookie-cutter approach.

Just as failure results from throwing ice cream on a grill, so too will a manager fail in inspiring his
people if he attempts to do so using a single method.

The people on your team are as different as baked beans and apple pie. They each work from a
unique set of motivators, responding to some with excited action and others with boredom or
even anger.

It's up to you to discover what drives each one of your team members. What elements excite
them? What elements turn them off? It may take a little time and concerted effort on your part, but
uncovering the powerful motivators that drive your people will be the best thing you can do for
you and your team.

Remember, you may respond to financial rewards or incentives, but that doesn't mean everyone
on your team will share your sentiments. Listen to your people. Recognize and utilize their
motivators. You are dealing with a wide assortment of ingredients, and following this principle will
allow you to prepare each one with amazing success.

by Jason M. Gracia - Motivation123™

Get your free Motivation123™ Idea-Kit filled with dozens of quick and easy tips and ideas to help you
experience a richer, more rewarding life at the Motivation123™ Web Site. Visit www.motivation123.com
today!

Increase Motivation
August 23rd, 2007 by John Jorgensen Print This Post

If you want to make things happen the ability to motivate yourself and
others is a crucial skill. At work, home, and everywhere in between,
people use motivation to get results. Motivation requires a delicate
balance of communication, structure, and incentives. These 21 tactics
will help you maximize motivation in yourself and others.

Motivation
1. Consequences - Never use threats. They’ll turn people against
you. But making people aware of the negative consequences of not
getting results (for everyone involved) can have a big impact. This one
is also big for self motivation. If you don’t get your act together, will
you ever get what you want?

2. Pleasure - This is the old carrot on a stick technique. Providing

pleasurable rewards creates eager and productive people.

3. Performance incentives - Appeal to people’s selfish nature. Give

them the opportunity to earn more for themselves by earning more for
you.

4. Detailed instructions - If you want a specific result, give specific

instructions. People work better when they know exactly what’s
expected.

5. Short and long term goals - Use both short and long term goals
to guide the action process and create an overall philosophy.

6. Kindness - Get people on your side and they’ll want to help you.
Piss them off and they’ll do everything they can to screw you over.

7. Deadlines - Many people are most productive right before a big

deadline. They also have a hard time focusing until that deadline is
looming overhead. Use this to your advantage by setting up a series of
mini-deadlines building up to an end result.

8. Team Spirit - Create an environment of camaraderie. People work

more effectively when they feel like part of team — they don’t want to
let others down.

9. Recognize achievement - Make a point to recognize

achievements one-on-one and also in group settings. People like to
see that their work isn’t being ignored.

11. Personal stake - Think about the personal stake of others. What
do they need? By understanding this you’ll be able to keep people
happy and productive.

11. Concentrate on outcomes - No one likes to work with someone

standing over their shoulder. Focus on outcomes — make it clear what
you want and cut people loose to get it done on their own.
13. Trust and Respect - Give people the trust and respect they
deserve and they’ll respond to requests much more favorably.

14. Create challenges - People are happy when they’re progressing

towards a goal. Give them the opportunity to face new and difficult
problems and they’ll be more enthusiastic.

15. Let people be creative - Don’t expect everyone to do things

your way. Allowing people to be creative creates a more optimistic
environment and can lead to awesome new ideas.

16. Constructive criticism - Often people don’t realize what they’re

doing wrong. Let them know. Most people want to improve and will
make an effort once they know how to do it.

17. Demand improvement - Don’t let people stagnate. Each time

someone advances raise the bar a little higher (especially for yourself).

18. Make it fun - Work is most enjoyable when it doesn’t feel like
work at all. Let people have fun and the positive environment will lead
to better results.

19. Create opportunities - Give people the opportunity to advance.

Let them know that hard work will pay off.

20. Communication - Keep the communication channels open. By

being aware of potential problems you can fix them before a serious
dispute arises.

21. Make it stimulating - Mix it up. Don’t ask people to do the same
boring tasks all the time. A stimulating environment creates
enthusiasm and the opportunity for “big picture” thinking.

Master these key points and you’ll increase motivation with a bit of
hard work.

Related Articles:

• How To Motivate Yourself - Self Motivation

• Balancing the Future and the Present
• Overcoming a Loss of Motivation
 Motivation to Learn: An Overview

Citation: Huitt, W. (2001). Motivation to learn: An overview. Educational Psychology

Interactive. Valdosta, GA: Valdosta State University. Retrieved [date], from
http://chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/col/motivation/motivate.html

Return to: | EdPsyc Interactive: Courses | Home Page |

Definition

The following definitions of motivation were gleaned from a variety of

psychology textbooks and reflect the general consensus that
motivation is an internal state or condition (sometimes described as a
need, desire, or want) that serves to activate or energize behavior and
give it direction (see Kleinginna and Kleinginna, 1981a).

• internal state or condition that activates behavior and gives it direction;

• desire or want that energizes and directs goal-oriented behavior;
• influence of needs and desires on the intensity and direction of behavior.

Franken (1994) provides an additional component in his definition:

• the arousal, direction, and persistence of behavior.

While still not widespread in terms of introductory psychology

textbooks, many researchers are now beginning to acknowledge that
the factors that energize behavior are likely different from the factors
that provide for its persistence.

Importance of motivation

Most motivation theorists assume that motivation is involved in the

performance of all learned responses; that is, a learned behavior will
not occur unless it is energized. The major question among
psychologists, in general, is whether motivation is a primary or
secondary influence on behavior. That is, are changes in behavior
better explained by principles of environmental/ecological influences,
perception, memory, cognitive development, emotion, explanatory
style, or personality or are concepts unique to motivation more
pertinent.

For example, we know that people respond to increasingly complex or

novel events (or stimuli) in the environment up to a point and then
responses decrease. This inverted-U-shaped curve of behavior is well-
known and widely acknowledged (e.g., Yerkes & Dodson, 1908).
However, the major issue is one of explaining this phenomenon. Is this
a conditioning (is the individual behaving because of past classical or
operant conditioning), a motivational process (from an internal state of
arousal), or is there some better explanation?

The relationship of motivation and emotion

Emotion (an indefinite subjective sensation experienced as a state of

arousal) is different from motivation in that there is not necessarily a
goal orientation affiliated with it. Emotions occur as a result of an
interaction between perception of environmental stimuli,
neural/hormonal responses to these perceptions (often labeled
feelings), and subjective cognitive labeling of these feelings
(Kleinginna and Kleinginna, 1981b). Evidence suggests there is a small
core of core emotions (perhaps 6 or 8) that are uniquely associated
with a specific facial expression (Izard, 1990). This implies that there
are a small number of unique biological responses that are genetically
hard-wired to specific facial expressions. A further implication is that
the process works in reverse: if you want to change your feelings (i.e.,
your physiological functioning), you can do so by changing your facial
expression. That is, if you are motivated to change how you feel and
your feeling is associated with a specific facial expression, you can
change that feeling by purposively changing your facial expression.
Since most of us would rather feel happy than otherwise, the most
appropriate facial expression would be a smile.

Explanations of influences/causes of arousal and direction may

be different from explanations of persistence

In general, explanations regarding the source(s) of motivation can be

categorized as either extrinsic (outside the person) or intrinsic
(internal to the person). Intrinsic sources and corresponding theories
can be further subcategorized as either body/physical, mind/mental
(i.e., cognitive, affective, conative) or transpersonal/spiritual.
In current literature, needs are now viewed as dispositions toward
action (i.e., they create a condition that is predisposed towards taking
action or making a change and moving in a certain direction). Action
or overt behavior may be initiated by either positive or negative
incentives or a combination of both. The following chart provides a
brief overview of the different sources of motivation (internal state)
that have been studied. While initiation of action can be traced to each
of these domains, it appears likely that initiation of behavior may be
more related to emotions and/or the affective area (optimism vs.
pessimism; self- esteem; etc.) while persistence may be more related
to conation (volition) or goal-orientation.

Sources of Motivational Needs

• elicited by stimulus associated/connected to innately
connected stimulus
behavioral/external
• obtain desired, pleasant consequences (rewards) or
escape/avoid undesired, unpleasant consequences
• imitate positive models
social
• be a part of a group or a valued member
• increase/decrease stimulation (arousal)
• activate senses (taste, touch, smell, etc.
biological • decrease hunger, thirst, discomfort, etc.

• maintain homeostasis, balance

cognitive • maintain attention to something interesting or
 threatening
• develop meaning or understanding
• increase/decrease cognitive disequilibrium;
uncertainty
• solve a problem or make a decision
• figure something out

• eliminate threat or risk

• increase/decrease affective dissonance
• increase feeling good
• decrease feeling bad
affective
• increase security of or decrease threats to self-esteem

• maintain levels of optimism and enthusiasm

• meet individually developed/selected goal
• obtain personal dream
• develop or maintain self-efficacy
conative • take control of one's life
• eliminate threats to meeting goal, obtaining dream

• reduce others' control of one's life

• understand purpose of one's life
spiritual
• connect self to ultimate unknowns

Theories of motivation

Many of the theories of motivation address issues introduced

previously in these materials. The following provides a brief overview
to any terms or concepts that have not been previously discussed.

Behavioral

Each of the major theoretical approaches in behavioral learning theory

posits a primary factor in motivation. Classical conditioning states that
biological responses to associated stimuli energize and direct behavior.
Operant learning states the primary factor is consequences: the
application of reinforcers provides incentives to increase behavior; the
application of punishers provides disincentives that result in a decrease
in behavior.

Cognitive
There are several motivational theories that trace their roots to the
information processing approach to learning. These approaches focus
on the categories and labels people use help to identify thoughts,
emotions, dispositions, and behaviors.

The first is cognitive dissonance theory which is in some respects

similar to disequilibrium in Piaget's theory of cognitive development.
This theory was developed by Leon Festinger (1957) and states that
when there is a discrepancy between two beliefs, two actions, or
between a belief and an action, we will act to resolve conflict and
discrepancies. The implication is that if we can create the appropriate
amount of disequilibrium, this will in turn lead to the individual
changing his or her behavior which in turn will lead to a change in
thought patterns which in turn leads to more change in behavior.

A second cognitive approach is attribution theory (Heider, 1958;

Weiner, 1974). This theory proposes that every individual tries to
explain success or failure of self and others by offering certain
"attributions." These attributions are either internal or external and are
either under control or not under control. The following chart shows
the four attributions that result from a combination of internal or
external locus of control and whether or not control is possible.

Internal External
No Control Ability Luck
Control Effort Task Difficulty

In a teaching/learning environment, it is important to assist the

learner to develop a self-attribution explanation of effort (internal,
control). If the person has an attribution of ability (internal, no control)
as soon as the individual experiences some difficulties in the learning
process, he or she will decrease appropriate learning behavior (e.g.,
I'm not good at this). If the person has an external attribution, then
nothing the person can do will help that individual in a learning
situation (i.e., responsibility for demonstrating what has been learned
is completely outside the person). In this case, there is nothing to be
done by the individual when learning problems occur.

A third cognitive approach is expectancy theory (Vroom, 1964) which

proposes the following equation:
Motivation = Perceived Probability of Success (Expectancy) *
Connection of Success and Reward (Instrumentality) *
Value of Obtaining Goal (Valance, Value)

Since this formula states that the three factors of Expectancy,

Instrumentality, and Valance or Value are to be multiplied by
each other, a low value in one will result in a low value of
motivation. Therefore, all three must be present in order for
motivation to occur. That is, if an individual doesn't believe he or
she can be successful at a task OR the individual does not see a
connection between his or her activity and success OR the
individual does not value the results of success, then the
probability is lowered that the individual will engage in the
required learning activity. From the perspective of this theory, all
three variables must be high in order for motivation and the
resulting behavior to be high.

Summary

To summarize the cognitive approaches, cognitive dissonance

theory suggests that we will seek balance or homeostasis in our
lives and will resist influences or expectations to change. How,
then, does change or growth occur. One source, according to
Piaget, is biological development. As we mature cognitively we
will rework our thinking and organizations of knowledge (e.g.,
schemas, paradigms, explanations) to more accurately reflect
our understanding of the world. One of those organizations
involves our explanations or attributions of success or failure.
After puberty, when biological change slows down considerably,
it is very difficult to change these attributions. It requires a long-
term program where constant feedback is given about how one's
behavior is responsible for one's success.

Notice the relationship between William James' formula for self-

esteem (Self-esteem = Success / Pretensions) and the
attribution and expectancy theories of motivation. If a person
has an external attribution of success, self-concept is not likely
to change as a result of success or failure because the person
will attribute it to external factors. Likewise, if the person has an
Internal/Ability explanation, his or her self-concept will be tied to
learning to do a new activity quickly and easily (I do well
because I'm naturally good at it). If failure or difficulty occurs,
the person must quickly lower expectations in order to maintain
self-esteem. However, if the person has a Internal/Effort
 explanation and high expectations for success, the person will
persevere (i.e., stay motivated) in spite of temporary setbacks
because one's self-esteem is not tied to immediate success.

Psychoanalytic theories

The psychoanalytic theories of motivation propose a variety of

fundamental influences. Freud (1990) suggested that all action
or behavior is a result of internal, biological instincts that are
classified into two categories: life (sexual) and death
(aggression). Many of Freud's students broke with him over this
concept. For example, Erikson (1993) and Sullivan (1968)
proposed that interpersonal and social relationships are
fundamental, Adler (1989) proposed power, while Jung (1953,
1997) proposed temperament and search for soul or personal
meaningfulness.

Humanistic Theories

One of the most influential writers in the area of motivation is

Abraham Maslow (1954).

Abraham Maslow (1954) attempted to synthesize a large body of

research related to human motivation. Prior to Maslow,
researchers generally focused separately on such factors as
biology, achievement, or power to explain what energizes,
directs, and sustains human behavior. Maslow posited a
hierarchy of human needs based on two groupings: deficiency
needs and growth needs. Within the deficiency needs, each
lower need must be met before moving to the next higher level.
Once each of these needs has been satisfied, if at some future
time a deficiency is detected, the individual will act to remove
the deficiency. The first four levels are:

1) Physiological: hunger, thirst, bodily comforts, etc.;

2) Safety/security: out of danger;

3) Belonginess and Love: affiliate with others, be accepted; and

4) Esteem: to achieve, be competent, gain approval and

recognition.
According to Maslow, an individual is ready to act upon the
growth needs if and only if the deficiency needs are met.
Maslow's initial conceptualization included only one growth
need--self-actualization. Self-actualized people are characterized
by: 1) being problem-focused; 2) incorporating an ongoing
freshness of appreciation of life; 3) a concern about personal
growth; and 4) the ability to have peak experiences. Maslow
later differentiated the growth need of self-actualization,
specifically naming two lower-level growth needs prior to general
level of self-actualization (Maslow & Lowery, 1998) and one
beyond that level (Maslow, 1971). They are:

5) Cognitive: to know, to understand, and explore;

6) Aesthetic: symmetry, order, and beauty;

7) Self-actualization: to find self-fulfillment and realize one's

potential; and

8) Self-transcendence: to connect to something beyond the ego

or to help others find self-fulfillment and realize their potential.

Maslow's basic position is that as one becomes more self-

actualized and self-transcendent, one becomes more wise
(develops wisdom) and automatically knows what to do in a wide
variety of situations. Daniels (2001) suggests that Maslow's
ultimate conclusion that the highest levels of self-actualization
are transcendent in their nature may be one of his most
important contributions to the study of human behavior and
motivation.

Norwood (1999) proposes that Maslow's hierarchy can be used

to describe the kinds of information that individual's seek at
different levels. For example, individuals at the lowest level seek
coping information in order to meet their basic needs.
Information that is not directly connected to helping a person
meet his or her needs in a very short time span is simply left
unattended. Individuals at the safety level need helping
information. They seek to be assisted in seeing how they can
be safe and secure. Enlightening information is sought by
individuals seeking to meet their belongingness needs. Quite
often this can be found in books or other materials on
relationship development. Empowering information is sought
by people at the esteem level. They are looking for information
on how their ego can be developed. Finally, people in the growth
levels of cogntive, aesthetic, and self-actualization seek edifying
information. While Norwood does not specifically address the
level of transcendence, I believe it safe to say that individuals at
this stage would seek information on how to connect to
something beyond themselves or to how others could be edified.

Maslow published his first conceptualization of his theory over 50

years ago (Maslow, 1943) and it has since become one of the
most popular and often cited theories of human motivation. An
interesting phenomenon related to Maslow's work is that in spite
of a lack of evidence to support his hierarchy, it enjoys wide
acceptance (Wahba & Bridgewell, 1976; Soper, Milford &
Rosenthal, 1995).

The few major studies that have been completed on the

hierarchy seem to support the proposals of William James
(1892/1962) and Mathes (1981) that there are three levels of
human needs. James hypothesized the levels of material
(physiological, safety), social (belongingness, esteem), and
spiritual. Mathes proposed the three levels were physiological,
belonginess, and self-actualization; he considered security and
self-esteem as unwarranted. Alderfer (1972) developed a
comparable hierarchy with his ERG (existence, relatedness, and
growth) theory. His approach modified Maslow's theory based on
the work of Gordon Allport (1960, 1961) who incorporated
concepts from systems theory into his work on personality.

Alderfer's Hierarchy of Motivational Needs

Level of
Definition Properties
Need
Satisfied through using
Impel a person to make
capabilities in engaging
creative or productive
Growth problems; creates a greater
effects on himself and his
sense of wholeness and
environment
fullness as a human being
Satisfied by mutually
sharing thoughts and
Involve relationships with feelings; acceptance,
Relatedness
significant others confirmation, under-
standing, and influence are
elements
When divided among
Includes all of the various
people one person's gain is
Existence forms of material and
another's loss if resources
psychological desires
are limited

Maslow recognized that not all personalities followed his

proposed hierarchy. While a variety of personality dimensions
might be considered as related to motivational needs, one of the
most often cited is that of introversion and extroversion.
Reorganizing Maslow's hierarchy based on the work of Alderfer
and considering the introversion/extraversion dimension of
personality results in three levels, each with an introverted and
extroverted component. This organization suggests there may be
two aspects of each level that differentiate how people relate to
each set of needs. Different personalities might relate more to
one dimension than the other. For example, an introvert at the
level of Other/Relatedness might be more concerned with his or
her own perceptions of being included in a group, whereas an
extrovert at that same level would pay more attention to how
others value that membership.

A Reorganization of Maslow's and Alderfer's Hierarchies

 Level Introversion Extroversion
Self-Actualization Transcendence (assisting
(development of in the development of
competencies others' competencies and
Growth
[knowledge, attitudes, character; relationships
and skills] and to the unknown,
character) unknowable)
Personal identification
Other Value of person by
with group, significant
(Relatedness) group (Esteem)
others (Belongingness)
Physiological,
Self
biological (including Connectedness, security
(Existence)
basic emotional needs)

At this point there is little agreement about the identification of

basic human needs and how they are ordered. For example,
Ryan & Deci (2000) also suggest three needs, although they are
not necessarily arranged hierarchically: the need for autonomy,
the need for competence, and the need for relatedness.
Thompson, Grace and Cohen (2001) state the most important
needs for children are connection, recognition, and power.
Nohria, Lawrence, and Wilson (2001) provide evidence from a
sociobiology theory of motivation that humans have four basic
needs: (1) acquire objects and experiences; (2) bond with
others in long-term relationships of mutual care and
commitment; (3) learn and make sense of the world and of
ourselves; and (4) to defend ourselves, our loved ones, beliefs
and resources from harm. The Institute for Management
Excellence (2001) suggests there are nine basic human needs:
(1) security, (2) adventure, (3) freedom, (4) exchange, (5)
power, (6) expansion, (7) acceptance, (8) community, and (9)
expression.

Notice that bonding and relatedness are a component of every

theory. However, there do not seem to be any others that are
mentioned by all theorists. Franken (2001) suggests this lack of
accord may be a result of different philosophies of researchers
rather than differences among human beings. In addition, he
reviews research that shows a person's explanatory or
attributional style will modify the list of basic needs. Therefore, it
seems appropriate to ask people what they want and how their
needs could be met rather than relying on an unsupported
theory. For example, Waitley (1996) advises having a person
imagine what life would be like if time and money were not an
object in a person's life. That is, what would the person do this
week, this month, next month, if he or she had all the money
and time needed to engage in the activities and were secure that
both would be available again next year. With some follow-up
questions to identify what is keeping the person from happening
now, this open-ended approach is likely to identify the most
important needs of the individual.

There is much work still to be done in this area before we can

rely on a theory to be more informative than simply collecting
and analyzing data. However, this body of research can be very
important to parents, educators, administrators and others
concerned with developing and using human potential. It
provides an outline of some important issues that must be
addressed if human beings are to achieve the levels of character
and competencies necessary to be successful in the information
age.

Maslow's work lead to additional attempts to develop a grand

theory of motivation, a theory that would put all of the factors
influencing motivation into one model. An example is provided
by Leonard, Beauvais, and Scholl (1995). These authors propose
5 factors as the sources of motivation: 1) Instrumental
Motivation (rewards and punishers), 2) Intrinsic Process
Motivation (enjoyment, fun), 3) Goal Internalization (self-
determined values and goals), 4) Internal Self Concept-based
Motivation (matching behavior with internally-developed ideal
self), 5) External Self Concept-based Motivation (matching
behavior with externally-developed ideal self). Individuals are
influenced by all five factors, though in varying degrees that can
change in specific situations.

Factors one and five are both externally-oriented. The main

difference is that individuals who are instrumentally motivated
are influenced more by immediate actions in the environment
(e.g. operant conditioning) whereas individuals who are self-
concept motivated are influenced more by their constructions of
external demands and ideals (e.g., social cognition).

Factors two, three, and four are more internally-oriented. In the

case of intrinsic process, the specific task is interesting and
provides immediate internal reinforcement (e.g., cognitive or
humanistic theory). The individual with a goal-internalization
 orientation is more task-oriented (e.g., humanistic or social
cognition theory) whereas the person with an internal self-
concept orientation is more influenced by individual
constructions of the ideal self (humanistic or psychoanalytic
theory).

Social Learning

Social learning (or observational) theory suggests that modeling

(imitating others) and vicarious learning (watching others have
consequences applied to their behavior) are important motivators of
behavior.

Social Cognition

Social cognition theory proposes reciprocal determination as a primary

factor in both learning and motivation. In this view, the environment,
an individual's behavior, and the individual's characteristics (e.g.,
knowledge, emotions, cognitive development) both influence and are
influenced by each other two components. Bandura (1986, 1997)
highlights self-efficacy (the belief that a particular action is possible
and that the individual can accomplish it) and self-regulation (the
establishment of goals, the development of a plan to attain those
goals, the commitment to implement that plan, the actual
implementation of the plan, and subsequent actions of reflection and
modification or redirection. The work of Ames (1992) and Dweck
(1986) discussed below is a major component of social cognitive views
on motivation.

Transpersonal or Spiritual Theories

Most of the transpersonal or spiritual theories deal with the
meaningfulness of our lives or ultimate meanings. Abraham Maslow
(1954) has also been influential in this approach to motivation. Other
influential scholars included Gordon Allport (1955), Victor Frankl
(1998), William James (1997), Carl Jung (1953, 1997), Ken Wilber
(1998).

Achievement motivation

One classification of motivation differentiates among

achievement, power, and social factors (see McClelland, 1985;
Murray, 1938, 1943). In the area of achievement motivation, the
work on goal-theory has differentiated three separate types of
goals: mastery goals (also called learning goals) which focus
on gaining competence or mastering a new set of knowledge or
skills; performance goals (also called ego-involvement goals)
which focus on achieving normative-based standards, doing
better than others, or doing well without a lot of effort; and
social goals which focus on relationships among people (see
Ames, 1992; Dweck, 1986; Urdan & Maehr, 1995). In the
context of school learning, which involves operating in a
relatively structured environment, students with mastery goals
outperform students with either performance or social goals.
However, in life success, it seems critical that individuals have all
three types of goals in order to be very successful.

One aspect of this theory is that individuals are motivated to

either avoid failure (more often associated with performance
goals) or achieve success (more often associated with mastery
goals). In the former situation, the individual is more likely to
select easy or difficult tasks, thereby either achieving success or
having a good excuse for why failure occurred. In the latter
situation, the individual is more likely to select moderately
difficult tasks which will provide an interesting challenge, but still
keep the high expectations for success.

Impacting motivation in the classroom

Stipek (1988) suggests there are a variety of reasons why

individuals may be lacking in motivation and provides a list of
specific behaviors associated with high academic achievement.
This is an excellent checklist to help students develop the
conative component of their lives. In addition, as stated
 previously in these materials, teacher efficacy is a powerful input
variable related to student achievement (Proctor, 1984).

There are a variety of specific actions that teachers can take to

increase motivation on classroom tasks. In general, these fall
into the two categories discussed above: intrinsic motivation and
extrinsic motivation.

Intrinsic Extrinsic
o Explain or show why o Provide clear expectations
learning a particular content or skill o Give corrective feedback
is important o Provide valuable rewards
o Create and/or maintain
curiosity o Make rewards available
o Provide a variety of
activities and sensory stimulations
o Provide games and
simulations
o Set goals for learning
o Relate learning to student
needs

o Help student develop plan of

action

As a general rule, teachers need to use as much of the intrinsic

suggestions as possible while recognizing that not all students
will be appropriately motivated by them. The extrinsic
suggestions will work, but it must be remembered that they do
so only as long as the student is under the control of the
teacher. When outside of that control, unless the desired goals
and behaviors have been internalized, the learner will cease the
desired behavior and operate according to his or her internal
standards or to other external factors.

References

• Adler, A. (1989). Individual psychology of Alfred Adler: A systematic

presentation in selections from his writings. New York: HarperCollins.
• Alderfer, C. (1972). Existence, relatedness, & growth. New York: Free Press.
• Allport, G. (1955). Becoming: Basic considerations for a psychology of
personality. New Haven, CT: Yale Univ Press.
• Allport, G. (1960). Personality and social encounter: Selected essays. New York:
Beacon Press.
• Allport, G. (1961). Pattern and growth in personality. New York: Holt, Rinehart
and Winston.
• Ames, C. (1992). Classroom goals, structures, and student motivation. Journal of
Educational Psychology, 84(3), 261-271.
• Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social-cognitive
theory. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
• Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: W. H.
Freeman.
• Daniels, M. (2001). Maslows's concept of self-actualization. Retrieved February
2004, from http://www.mdani.demon.co.uk/archive/MDMaslow.htm
• Dweck, C. (1986) Motivational processes affecting learning. American
Psychologist. 41(10), 1040-1048.
• Erikson, E. (1993). Childhood and society. New York: W. W. Norton &
Company.
• Festinger, L. (1957). A theory of cognitive dissonance. Evanston, IL: Row,
Peterson.
• Frankl, V. (1998). Man's search for meaning (Revised ed.). New York:
Washington Square Press.
• Franken, R. (1994). Human motivation. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole.
• Franken, R. (2001). Human motivation (5th ed.).. Pacific Grove, CA:
Brooks/Cole.
• Freud, S. (1990). Beyond the pleasure principle. New York: W. W. Norton &
Company.
• Heider, F. (1958). The psychology of interpersonal relations. New York: John
Wiley & Sons.
• Institute for Management Excellence. (2001). The nine basic human needs.
Online Newsletter. Retrieved February 2004, from
http://www.itstime.com/print/jun97p.htm
• Izard, C. (1990). Facial expressions and the regulation of emotions. Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, 58, 487-498.
• James, W. (1892/1962). Psychology: Briefer course. New York: Collier.
• James, W. (1997). The varieties of religious experience (Reprint ed.). New York:
Macmillan.
• Jung, C. (1953). Modern man in search of a soul. New York: Harcourt Brace.
• Jung, C. (1997). Man and his symbols (reissue). New York: Laurelleaf.
• Kleinginna, P., Jr., & Kleinginna A. (1981a). A categorized list of motivation
definitions, with suggestions for a consensual definition. Motivation and Emotion,
5, 263-291.
• Kleinginna, P., Jr., & Kleinginna A. (1981b). A categorized list of emotion
definitions, with suggestions for a consensual definition. Motivation and Emotion,
5, 345-379.
• Leonard, N., Beauvais, L., & Scholl, R. (1995). A self-concept-based model on
work motivation. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Academy of
Management, August. Retrieved: December 1999, from
http://www.cba.uri.edu/Scholl/Papers/Self_Concept_Motivation.HTM
• Maslow, A. (1943). A theory of human motivation. Psychological Review, 50,
370-396. Retrieved June 2001, from
http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Maslow/motivation.htm
• Maslow, A. (1954). Motivation and personality. New York: Harper.
• Maslow, A. (1971). The farther reaches of human nature. New York: The Viking
Press.
• Maslow, A., & Lowery, R. (Ed.). (1998). Toward a psychology of being (3rd ed.).
New York: Wiley & Sons.
• Mathes, E. (1981, Fall). Maslow's hierarchy of needs as a guide for living.
Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 21, 69-72.
• McClelland, D. (1985). Human motivation. New York: Scott, Foresman.
• Murray, H. (1938, 1943). Explorations in personality. New York: Oxford
University Press.
• Nohria, N., Lawrence, P., & Wilson, E. (2001). Driven: How human nature
shapes our choices. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
• Norwood, G. (1999). Maslow's hierarchy of needs. The Truth Vectors (Part I).
Retrieved May 2002, from http://www.deepermind.com/20maslow.htm
• Proctor, C. (1984, March). Teacher expectations: A model for school
improvement. The Elementary School Journal, 469-481.
• Ryan, R., & Deci, E. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of
intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist,
55(1), 68-78. Retrieved February 2004, from
http://www.psych.rochester.edu/SDT/publications/documents/2000RyanDeciSDT
.pdf
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Cliffs, NJ:
Prentice Hall.
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Norton & Company.
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213-243.
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motivational theory
employee
motivation
theory -
team
building
activities,
workshops
,
inspiration
al quotes,
and the
power of
positive
experienc
e
Alignment of aims,
purpose and
values between
staff, teams and
organization is the
most fundamental
aspect of
motivation. The
better the
alignment and
personal
association with
organizational
aims, the better
the platform for
motivation.

Where people find

it difficult to align
and associate with
the organizational
aims, then most
motivational ideas
and activities will
have a reduced
level of success.

Motivation is a
complex area. It's
motivational methods and theory -
assuming people and organization are
aligned
Motivational and inspirational quotes, poems, posters, motivational
speakers and stories, team building games and activities, all develop
employee motivation for sales and business staff in all kinds of
organizations. Motivational and inspirational experiences improve
employees' attitudes, confidence and performance. Good leadership
demands good people-motivation skills and the use of inspirational
techniques. Motivational methods are wide-ranging, from inspirational
quotes and poems, to team building games and activities, as ice-
breakers, warm-ups and exercises for conferences, workshops,
meetings and events, which in themselves can often be helpful for staff
motivation too. See the motivation principles and template for staff
motivation questionnaires and surveys. Motivation is an essential part
of life coaching processes and techniques too. Motivated people
perform better - see McGregor's XY Theory for example. People playing
games or competing in teams learn about each other, they
communicate better and see each other in a new light. Mutual respect
grows. See the Johari Window theory for example. People often enjoy
events which include new non-work activities, especially when bosses
and superiors take part in the same teams as their junior staff, which
also helps cohesiveness and 'can-do' culture. Inspirational quotes,
stories and poems all help motivation too. Powerful positive imagery
stimulates visualisation in the conscious and sub-conscious brain,
which encourages self-motivation, developmental behaviour,
confidence and belief. Playing games enables people to experience
winning and achieving in a way that their normal work might not.
People become motivated to achieve and do better when they have
experienced the feelings of success and achievement, regardless of
context. This is why fire-walking and outward-bound activities have
such powerful motivational effect. All of these ideas, and more
explained below, contribute to improving motivation, inspiration and
performance. Here is the theory of how team building games, activities
like juggling develop motivation, positive images in quotes and stories,
inspirational posters, quotations, motivational speakers, team
workshops and brainstorming, etc., all help to strengthen relationships,
build understanding, increase motivation and improve performance:
how games and other inspirational
references and activities help
motivation and motivational training
Work and business-based training commonly concentrates on
process, rules, theory, structure and logic, all of which tend to
develop and use the left-side of the brain. However, modern
successful organizations rely just as heavily on their people having
well-developed 'soft' skills and attributes, such as self-motivation,
confidence, initiative, empathy and creativity, which all tend to
use the right-side of the brain. For more information about brain
type and bias see the Benziger theory section, for example. Using
games and activities like juggling helps to unleash right-side brain
skills, because these activities necessarily draw on a person's intuitive,
spatial and 'feeling' capabilities - found in the the right-side of the
brain.

See the section on Experiential Learning and the guide to facilitating

experiential learning activities - it contains many of the principles
explained here.

Also, using activities and references that take people out of their
normal work environment creates new opportunities for them to
experience winning, achievement, team-working, learning and
personal development, in ways that are often not possible in their
usual work context. Experiencing these positive feelings is vital for the
conscious and sub-conscious visualisation of success and
achievement, essential for broadening people's horizons, raising their
sights, setting new personal standards and goals, and increasing
motivation. The use of role playing games and role play exercises is an
especially effective motivational and visualisation technique, despite
people's normal aversion to the practice (see the role playing games
and activities tips to see how to manage role-playing activities
successfully).

Inspirational references, stories, quotes and examples also help the life
coaching process.

ice-breakers and warm-ups for motivation

When a group or team of people assemble for a conference, or training
course, there is always a feeling of uncertainty and discomfort. Even if
people know each other, they feel uncomfortable in the new strange
situation, because it is different. Mankind has evolved partly because
of this awareness to potential threats and fear of the unknown. Games
and team building activities relax people, so that they can fully
concentrate on the main purpose of the day, whatever it is, rather than
spending the morning still wondering what everyone else is thinking.
See the stress theory section for examples. Activities and games are
great levellers - they break down the barriers, and therefore help
develop rapport and relationships.

building confidence for motivation

Learning something new and completely different liberates the mind.
Facing a challenge, meeting it and mastering it helps build confidence.

motivational team building

When you break down barriers, misunderstandings, prejudices,
insecurities, divisions, territories and hierarchies - you begin to build
teams. Get a group of people in a room having fun with juggling balls
or spinning plates and barriers are immediately removed. Teams unite
and work together when they identify a common purpose - whether the
aim is the tallest tower made out of newspapers, or a game of
rounders on the park. Competition in teams or groups creates teams
and ignites team effort.

motivational coaching and training

motivation
Learning to juggle or some other new activity demonstrates how we
learn, and how to coach others. Breaking new tasks down into stages,
providing clear instructions, demonstration, practice, time and space to
make mistakes, doing it one stage at a time..... all the essential
training and coaching techniques can be shown, whether juggling is
the vehicle or some other team-building idea, and the learning is
clearer and more memorable because it is taken out of the work
context, where previously people 'can't see the wood for the trees'.
Games and activities provide a perfect vehicle for explaining the
training and development process ('train the trainer' for example) to
managers, team leaders and trainers.

personal motivation styles and learning

motivation
Everyone is different. Taking part in new games and activities outside
of the work situation illustrates people's different strengths and
working style preferences. Mutual respect develops when people see
skills and attributes in others that they didn't know existed. Also,
people work and learn in different ways, see the Kolb learning style
model and Benziger thinking styles model for examples.

continual development and motivation

Learning and taking part in a completely new activity or game like
juggling demonstrates that earning is ongoing. The lessons never
finish, unless people decide to stop learning. Juggling the basic 'three
ball cascade' pattern doesn't end there - it's just a start - as with all
learning and development. Master juggler Enrico Rastelli practiced all
the daylight hours juggling ten balls. Introducing people, staff or
employees to new experiences opens their minds to new avenues of
personal development, and emphasises the opportunity for continuous
learning that is available to us all.

improving empathy and communications

for motivation
"Seek first to understand, and then to be understood." (Steven Covey).
See the Seven Habits Of Highly Effective People summary and review.

To communicate we must understand the other person. Empathy and

intuitive skills are right-side brain. Conventional classroom training or
distance learning do nothing to address this vital area. Juggling and
playing spontaneous or creative games definitely promote
development and awareness in the right-side of the brain, which we
use when we communicate and understand others. Team activities and
games promote communications and better mutual understanding -
essential for good organizational performance (see the Johari Window
model and theory).

motivation and creativity

Creativity and initiative are crucial capabilities for modern
organizational effectiveness. Juggling and other games activities dispel
the notion that actions must be according to convention, and that
response can only be to stimulus. Successful organizations have staff
that initiate, create, innovate, and find new ways to do things better,
without being told. Using mind and body together in a completely new
way encourages pro-active thought and lateral thinking, which opens
people's minds, and develops creative and initiative capabilities. See
the brainstorming process, which integrates well with team building
activities and workshops. See also the workshops process and ideas.

motivation for problem-solving and

decision-making
Problem-solving is integral to decision-making - see the problem-
solving and decision-making section. Learning to juggle or taking part
in new challenging stimulating activities uses the intuitive brain to
solve the problem, the same part that's vital for creatively solving work
problems. People who can solve problems creatively can make
decisions - and organizations need their staff and employees to have
these abilities.

physical activity is motivational

Team building activities like juggling, construction exercises, or
outdoor games, get the body moving, which is good for general health
and for an energetic approach to work. A minute of juggling three balls
is 200 throws, the equivalent of pumping over 20 kilos. Physical
activity also provides significant stress relief, and stress management
is part of every organisation's duty of care towards its employees.
People concentrate and work better when they have had some light
exercise and physical stimulus. Physical activity energises people and
reduces stress and tension. See details on the stress section.

team building workshops are empowering

and motivational
See the section on workshops. Workshops are good vehicles for team
building games and activities, and also great for achieving team
consensus, collective problem-solving, developing new direction and
strategy, and to support the delegation and team development process
(see the Tannenbaum and Schmidt Continuum for example).

team building games and activities are

motivational
Learning new things - even simple skills like plate-spinning - help to
build confidence, promote team-working and unleash creativity. Taking
part in workshops and brainstorming sessions are empowering
activities. Combine all three and it's even more effective for team
building, development and motivation. See particularly the 'Hellespont
Swim' case study and exercise.

If you think about it, all manner of left-side-brain conventional

training and business skills can be integrated within an innovative,
participative right-side-brain activity-based approach, to increase
interest, participation, involvement, retention and motivation.

saying thanks is hugely motivational

Saying thanks and giving praise are the most commonly overlooked
and under-estimated ways of motivating people. And it's so easy.
Saying thanks is best said naturally and from the heart, so if your
intentions are right you will not go far wrong. When you look someone
in the eye and thank them sincerely it means a lot. In front of other
people even more so. The key words are the ones which say thanks
and well done for doing a great job, especially where the words
recognise each person's own special ability, quality, contribution,
effort, whatever. People always appreciate sincere thanks, and they
appreciate being valued as an individual even more. When you next
have the chance to thank your team or an individual team-member,
take the time to find out a special thing that each person has done and
make a point of mentioning these things. Doing this, the praise tends
to carry even greater meaning and motivational effect.

motivational quotes - using inspirational

quotations and sayings is motivational
Inspirational quotations, and amusing maxims and sayings are
motivational when used in team building sessions, conferences,
speeches and training courses. Inspirational quotes contribute to
motivation because they provide examples and role models, and
prompt visualization. Inspirational quotes stimulate images and
feelings in the brain - both consciously and unconsciously. Powerful
positive imagery found in motivational quotations and poems is
genuinely motivational for people, individually and in teams, and can
help to build confidence and belief. Inspirational examples motivate
people in the same way that the simple 'power of positive thinking',
and 'accentuate the positive' techniques do - people imagine and
visualise themselves behaving in the way described in the quotation,
saying, story or poem. Visualization is a powerful motivational tool -
quotes, stories and poems provide a very effective method for inspiring
and motivating people through visualization, imagination and
association. See the stories section, and 'If', Rudyard Kipling's famous
inspirational poem.

Here are a few motivational quotes, relating to different situations and

roles, for example; achievement, management, leadership, etc. When
using quote for motivation it's important to choose material that's
relevant and appropriate. Motivational posters showing inspirational
quotes or poems can be effective for staff and employee motivation,
and in establishing organizational values. There are more quotations
about inspiration and achievement on the quotes section. These
quotes all make effective motivational posters (see the free posters
page), and are excellent materials for motivational speakers:

motivational quotes
"We cannot solve our problems with the same level of thinking that
created them." (Albert Einstein)

"It is amazing what you can accomplish if you do not care who gets the
credit." (President Harry S Truman)

"In the midst of winter, I finally learned that within me there lay an
invincible summer." (Albert Camus, 1913 - 1960, French author &
philosopher)

"If you're not part of the solution you must be part of the problem."
(the commonly paraphrased version of the original quote: "What we're
saying today is that you're either part of the solution, or you're part of
the problem" by Eldridge Cleaver 1935-98, founder member and
information minister of the Black Panthers, American political activist
group, in a speech in 1968 - thanks RVP)

"A dream is just a dream. A goal is a dream with a plan and a

deadline." (Harvey Mackay - thanks Brad Hanson)

"I have learned that success is to be measured not so much by the

position that one has reached in life as by the obstacles overcome
while trying to succeed." (Booker T Washington, 1856-1915, American
Educator and African-American spokesman, thanks for quote M
Kincaid, and for biography correction M Yates and A Chatterjee)

"Most people never run far enough on their first wind to find out
they've got a second. Give your dreams all you've got and you'll be
amazed at the energy that comes out of you." (William James,
American Philosopher, 1842-1910 - thanks Jean Stevens)
"Whatever you can do - or dream you can, begin it. Boldness has
genius, power and magic in it." (Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, German
writer, 1749-1832 - thanks Yvonne Bent)

"A dwarf standing on the shoulders of a giant may see farther than the
giant himself." (Didacus Stella, circa AD60 - and, as a matter of
interest, abridged on the edge of an English £2 coin)

"If I have seen further it is by standing on the shoulders of giants." (Sir

Isaac Newton, 1676.)

"The most important thing in life is not to capitalise on your successes

- any fool can do that. The really important thing is to profit from your
mistakes." (William Bolitho, from 'Twelve against the Gods')

"Out of the night that covers me,

Black as the pit from pole to pole,
I thank whatever gods may be,
For my unconquerable soul.
In the fell clutch of circumstance,
I have not winced nor cried aloud:
Under the bludgeonings of chance my head is bloody but
unbowed . . . . .
It matters not how strait the gait, how charged with punishments the
scroll,
I am the master of my fate: I am the captain of my soul."
(WE Henley, 1849-1903, from 'Invictus')

"Management means helping people to get the best out of themselves,

not organising things." (Lauren Appley)

"It's not the critic who counts, not the one who points out how the
strong man stumbled or how the doer of deeds might have done them
better. The credit belongs to the man who is actually in the arena;
whose face is marred with the sweat and dust and blood; who strives
valiantly; who errs and comes up short again and again; who knows
the great enthusiasms, the great devotions and spends himself in a
worthy cause and who, at best knows the triumph of high achievement
and who at worst, if he fails, at least fails while daring greatly so that
his place shall never be with those cold and timid souls who know
neither victory nor defeat." (Theodore Roosevelt, 23 April 1923.)

"The world is divided into people who do things, and people who get
the credit. Try, if you can, to belong to the first class. There's far less
competition." (Dwight Morrow, 1935.)
"What does not kill us makes us stronger." (attributed to Friedrich
Nietzsche, probably based on his words: "Out of life's school of war:
What does not destroy me, makes me stronger." from The Twilight of
the Idols, 1899)

"A life spent in making mistakes is not only more honourable but more
useful than a life spent doing nothing." (George Bernard Shaw, 1856-
1950.)

"I praise loudly. I blame softly." (Catherine the Great, 1729-1796.)

More are on the inspirational quotes page, and a more varied selection
including funny sayings are on the sayings and maxims page.

motivational ideas for sales managers for

sales teams
(These principles are applicable to all job roles subject to the notes at
the end of this item.)

Motivation of sales people commonly focuses on sales results, but

nobody can actually 'do' a result. What matters in achieving results is
people's attitude and activity and the areas of opportunity on
which the attitude and activity is directed.

What sales people can do is to adopt a positive and creative

attitude, and carry out more productive and efficient activity,
directed on higher-yield strategic opportunities. By doing these
things sales people and sales teams will improve their results.

However the tendency remains for sales managers, sales supervisors

and team leaders (typically under pressure from above from
executives who should know better) to simply direct people to 'meet
the target', or to 'increase sales', or worse still, to pressurise customers
into accelerating decision-making, which might work in the short-term
but is extremely unhelpful in the medium-term (when business brought
forward leaves gaps in the next months' forecasts), and damages the
long-term (when as a result of supplier-driven sales pressure, the
customer relationship is undermined or ruined).

Instead think about what really motivates and excites people, and
focus on offering these opportunities to sales people and sales teams,
on an ongoing basis. Don't wait until you find yourself 25% behind
target with only half of the year remaining, and with targets set to
increase as well in the final quarter.

People will not generally and sustainably improve their performance, or

attitude when they are shouted at or given a kick up the backside.
People will on the other hand generally improve their performance if
empowered to develop their own strategic capability and responsibility
within the organisation. Herzberg, Adams, Handy, Maslow, McGregor,
and every other management and motivation expert confirmed all this
long ago.

Sales teams generally comprise people who seek greater

responsibility. They also seek recognition, achievement, self-
development and advancement.

So if we know these things does it not make good sense to offer these
opportunities to them, because we know that doing so will have a
motivational effect on them, and also encourage them to work on
opportunities that are likely to produce increasing returns on their
efforts? Of course. So do it.

If you are managing a sales team try (gently and progressively)

exploring with the team how they'd like to develop their experience,
responsibilities, roles, status, value, contribution, within the business.
Include yourself in this. Usually far more ideas and activity come from
focusing on how the people would like to develop their roles and value
(in terms of the scale and sophistication of the business that they are
responsible for), rather than confining sales people to a role that is
imposed on them and which is unlikely to offer sustainable interest and
stimulation.

All businesses have many opportunities for new strategic growth

available. Yours will be no different.

Most employees are capable of working at a far higher strategic level,

developing ever greater returns on their own efforts.

Performance improvement is generally found through enabling people

and teams to discover and refine more productive and strategic
opportunities, which will lead to more productive and motivating
activities.

For example: reactive sales people are generally able to be proactive

account mangers; account managers are generally able to be major
accounts developers; major accounts developers are generally able to
be national accounts managers; national accounts mangers are
generally able to be strategic partner and channel developers;
strategic partner and channel managers are generally able to be new
business sector/service developers, and so on...

Again include yourself in this.

If necessary (depending on your organisational culture and policies

seek approval from your own management/executives for you to
embark on this sort of exploration of strategic growth. (If you are
unable to gain approval there are many other organisations out there
who need people to manage sales teams in this way....)

Obviously part of the approach (and your agreement with your people -
the 'psychological contract') necessarily includes maintaining and
meeting existing basic business performance target levels. This is
especially so since strategic growth takes time, and your business still
needs the normal day-to-day business handled properly. But people
can generally do this, ie., maintain and grow day-to-day performance
while additionally developing new higher-level strategic areas,
because genuinely motivated people are capable of dramatic
achievements. The motivation and capacity to do will come quite
naturally from the new responsibility and empowerment to operate at
a higher level.

N.B. The principles described above generally apply to most other job
roles. People are motivated by growth and extra responsibility, while at
the same time the organisation benefits from having its people focus
on higher strategic aims and activities. Be aware however that people
in different roles will be motivated by different things, and particularly
will require different types of support and guidelines when
being encouraged to work at a higher strategic level. For
example, engineers require more detail and clarification of
expectations and process than sales people typically do;
administrators are likely to require more reassurance and support in
approaching change than sales people typically do.

For sure your should encourage and enable people to develop their
roles, but make sure you give appropriate explanation, management
and support for the types of people concerned.

other motivational references and

materials
Some other useful motivational references on this site for motivational
study and development. Some of these articles, models and theories
provide great materials for motivational posters, and provide good
references for coaching, training and motivational and inspirational
speaking:

experiential learning - and guide to facilitating experiential learning

activities

fantasticat

kipling's if

the guy in the glass

free motivational and funny posters

change management and alignment of people and organization

'hellspont swim' motivational case study and exercise

employee motivation questionnaires and motivation principles

life coaching

erikson's psychosocial theory of human development

elisabeth kübler-ross's five stages of grief model

adams' equity theory on job motivation

benziger personality assessment model

books about motivation and behaviour

brainstorming for team building and problem solving - how to

charles handy - motivation calculus

cherie carter-scott's rules of life

delegation - how to

delegating to a group - and developing your team

derivations puzzles for motivational team games and quizzes

ditloids puzzles for motivational team games and quizzes

emotional intelligence (EQ)

empathy

free resources for download - diagrams and tools

games, tricks, puzzles and warm ups for groups

herzberg's motivational theory

in search of excellence - summary

johari window model and free diagrams

juggle - how to

kolb learning styles

leadership tips

learning styles - kolb

mcgregor X-Y theory

mcclelland's achievement-motivation theory

maslow's hierarchy of needs

meanings of words and expressions - for team games and quizzes

meetings - how to plan and run meetings

murphy's plough - positive thinking story

personal change process

problem-solving and decision-making - how to

puzzles and conundrums - more complex

quotes - motivational, amusing, inspirational quotations

seven habits of highly effective people - overview and review

stories, research findings and analogies

stress and stress management

tannenbaum and schmidt continuum

team briefing process

team building games - free games online

team building games - ideas, theory and training

time management tips

time management techniques, free tools and templates

tom peters - in search of excellence summary

training and developing people - how to

transactional analysis - eric berne and early theory

transactional analysis - recent theory

tree swing picture - for inter-departmental development

tuckman's forming storming norming performing model

workshops - format and how to run

The use of this material is free provided copyright (see below) is acknowledged and
reference or link is made to the www.businessballs.com website. This material may
not be sold, or published in any form. Disclaimer: Reliance on information, material,
advice, or other linked or recommended resources, received from Alan Chapman,
shall be at your sole risk, and Alan Chapman assumes no responsibility for any errors,
omissions, or damages arising. Users of this website are encouraged to confirm
information received with other sources, and to seek local qualified advice if
embarking on any actions that could carry personal or organisational liabilities.
Managing people and relationships are sensitive activities; the free material and
advice available via this website do not provide all necessary safeguards and checks.
Please retain this notice on all copies.

Basic principles of motivation exist that are applicable to learning in any situation.
1. The environment can be used to focus the student's attention on what
needs to be learned.

Teachers who create warm and accepting yet business-like atmospheres will
promote persistent effort and favorable attitudes toward learning. This
strategy will be successful in children and in adults. Interesting visual aids,
such as booklets, posters, or practice equipment, motivate learners by
capturing their attention and curiosity.

2. Incentives motivate learning.

Incentives include privileges and receiving praise from the instructor. The
instructor determines an incentive that is likely to motivate an individual at a
particular time. In a general learning situation, self-motivation without
rewards will not succeed. Students must find satisfaction in learning based on
the understanding that the goals are useful to them or, less commonly, based
on the pure enjoyment of exploring new things.

3. Internal motivation is longer lasting and more self-directive than is

external motivation, which must be repeatedly reinforced by praise or
concrete rewards.

Some individuals -- particularly children of certain ages and some adults --

have little capacity for internal motivation and must be guided and reinforced
constantly. The use of incentives is based on the principle that learning occurs
more effectively when the student experiences feelings of satisfaction.
Caution should be exercised in using external rewards when they are not
absolutely necessary. Their use may be followed by a decline in internal
motivation.

4. Learning is most effective when an individual is ready to learn, that is,

when one wants to know something.

Sometimes the student's readiness to learn comes with time, and the
instructor's role is to encourage its development. If a desired change in
behavior is urgent, the instructor may need to supervised directly to ensure
that the desired behavior occurs. If a student is not ready to learn, he or she
may not be reliable in following instructions and therefore must be supervised
and have the instructions repeated again and again.

5. Motivation is enhanced by the way in which the instructional material is

organized.

In general, the best organized material makes the information meaningful to

the individual. One method of organization includes relating new tasks to
 those already known. Other ways to relay meaning are to determine whether
the persons being taught understand the final outcome desired and instruct
them to compare and contrast ideas.

None of the techniques will produce sustained motivation unless the goals are
realistic for the learner. The basic learning principle involved is that success is more
predictably motivating than is failure. Ordinarily, people will choose activities of
intermediate uncertainty rather than those that are difficult (little likelihood of
success) or easy (high probability of success). For goals of high value there is less
tendency to choose more difficult conditions. Having learners assist in defining goals
increases the probability that they will understand them and want to reach them.
However, students sometimes have unrealistic notions about what they can
accomplish. Possibly they do not understand the precision with which a skill must be
carried out or have the depth of knowledge to master some material. To identify
realistic goals, instructors must be skilled in assessing a student's readiness or a
student's progress toward goals.

1. Because learning requires changed in beliefs and behavior, it normally

produces a mild level of anxiety.

This is useful in motivating the individual. However, severe anxiety is

incapacitating. A high degree of stress is inherent in some educational
situations. If anxiety is severe, the individual's perception of what is going on
around him or her is limited. Instructors must be able to identify anxiety and
understand its effect on learning. They also have a responsibility to avoid
causing severe anxiety in learners by setting ambiguous of unrealistically high
goals for them.

2. It is important to help each student set goals and to provide informative

feedback regarding progress toward the goals.

Setting a goal demonstrates an intention to achieve and activates learning

from one day to the next. It also directs the student's activities toward the goal
and offers an opportunity to experience success.

3. Both affiliation and approval are strong motivators.

People seek others with whom to compare their abilities, opinions, and
emotions. Affiliation can also result in direct anxiety reduction by the social
acceptance and the mere presence of others. However, these motivators can
also lead to conformity, competition, and other behaviors that may seem as
negative.

4. Many behaviors result from a combination of motives.

 It is recognized that no grand theory of motivation exists. However,
motivation is so necessary for learning that strategies should be planned to
organize a continuous and interactive motivational dynamic for maximum
effectiveness. The general principles of motivation are interrelated. A single
teaching action can use many of them simultaneously.

Finally, it should be said that an enormous gap exists between knowing that learning
must be motivated and identifying the specific motivational components of any
particular act. Instructors must focus on learning patterns of motivation for an
individual or group, with the realization that errors will be common.

MOTIVATION FACTORS AND STRATEGIES, BY TIME PERIOD

BEGINNING, DURING, AND ENDING

TIME

BEGINNING: When learner enters and starts learning

MOTIVATIONAL FACTORS

ATTITUDES: Toward the environment, teacher, subject matter, and self

NEEDS: The basic need within the learner at the time of learning

MOTIVATIONAL STRATEGIES

-- Make the conditions that surround the subject positive.

-- Positively confront the possibly erroneous beliefs, expectations, and assumptions

that may underlie a negative learner attitude.

-- Reduce or remove components of the learning environment that lead to failure or

fear.

-- Plan activities to allow learners to meet esteem needs.

TIME

During: When learner is involved in the body or main content of the learning
process.

MOTIVATIONAL FACTORS
 STIMULATION: The stimulation processes affecting learner during the learning
experience.

AFFECT: The emotional experience of the learner while learning.

MOTIVATIONAL STRATEGIES

-- Change style and content of the learning activity.

-- Make learner reaction and involvement essential parts of the learning process, that
is, problem solving, role playing, stimulation.

-- Use learner concerns to organize content and to develop themes and teaching
procedures.

-- Use a group cooperation goal to maximize learner involvement and sharing.

TIME

ENDING: When learner is completing the learning process.

MOTIVATIONAL FACTORS

COMPETENCE: The competence value for the learner that is a result of the
learning behaviors.

REINFORCEMENT: The reinforcement value attached to the learning experience,

for the learner.

MOTIVATIONAL STRATEGIES

-- Provide consistent feedback regarding mastery of learning.

-- Acknowledge and affirm the learners' responsibility in completing the learning

task.

-- When learning has natural consequences, allow them to be congruently evident.

-- Provide artificial reinforcement when it contributes to successful learning, and

provide closure with a positive ending.

Employee Motivation, Recognition, Rewards,

Retention
Employee motivation, positive employee morale, rewards and recognition are explored in
these resources. What creates motivated, contributing people? How do you maintain high
employee morale when people work long hours? How does your reward and recognition
system contribute to or deflate employee motivation, positive morale and retention? Answers
are here.
Employee Recognition (18) Humor and Inspiration (60) Employee Retention (22) Employee
Surveys (10) Inspirational Quotations @ Managers and Motivation (12) Success (26)
Top Ten Ways to Be Happy at Work
Working at Google sounds very cool. I'd be the first to tout Google as a motivating employer:
free food, fun ... Google and other top 100 employers provide best workplaces. But, perks that
enable employees to spend all their time at work exploit people and destroy life balance. So,
even the best employer may not be best for everyone. These are the factors that will help you
find happiness at work.
About What Employees Want From Work: Employee Motivation
Every person has different reasons for working. The reasons for working are as individual as
the person. But, we all work because we obtain something that we need from work. The
something obtained from work impacts morale, employee motivation, and the quality of life.
To create positive employee motivation, treat employees as if they matter - because
employees matter. These ideas will help you fulfill what people want from work and create
employee motivation.
Motivation Job Interview Questions
The following sample job interview questions about motivation enable you to assess what
motivates the candidate you are interviewing. Feel free to use these job interview questions in
your own candidate interviews.
Motivation Center
Every person is motivated. The challenge at work is to create an environment in which people
are motivated about work priorities. Find out how at the Motivation Center.
Use Training and Development to Motivate Staff
Want to keep your staff motivated about learning new concepts? The quality and variety of the
training you provide is key for motivation. The structure of your training programs brings 'em
back for more. Learn more.
Managing Millennials
The millennials joining your workforce now were born between 1980 and 2000. Unlike the
Gen-Xers and the Boomers, the Millennials have developed work characteristics and
tendencies from doting parents, structured lives, and contact with diverse people. Learn more
about millennials.
Top Ten Ways to Retain Your Great Employees
Key employee retention is critical to the long term health and success of your business.
Managers readily agree that their role is key in retaining your best employees to ensure
business success. If managers can cite this fact so well, why do many behave in ways that so
frequently encourage great employees to quit their job? Here are ten more tips for employee
retention.
Inspirational Quotes for Business: Motivation
Looking for an inspirational quote or a business quotation for your newsletter, business
presentation, bulletin board or inspirational posters? These motivation quotes are useful to
help motivation and inspiration. These quotes about employee motivation will help you create
success in business, success in management and success in life.
Elan at Work
Are you capturing the ardor and the spirit of your work force? You want to maximize
contributions from people. You want to fuel excitement. You want people to fulfill dreams,
plans and needs. You want to be the chosen, valued employer. Find out how!
The Most Important Management Secrets
Your expectations of people and their expectations of themselves are the key factors in how
well people perform at work. Known as the Pygmalion Effect and the Galatea Effect,
respectively, the power of expectations cannot be overestimated. These are the fundamental
principles you can apply to performance expectations and performance improvement at work.
Learn more.
Celebrate Annual Holidays for Motivation and Team Building
Traditions are important in companies just as they are in families. And, nothing is more
important than the annual traditions work places establish around the celebration of seasonal
holidays. A holiday celebration builds positive morale which results in increased employee
motivation. Motivation contributes to team building and productivity. Productive teams are
responsible for your success.
Use Affirmations as Passwords
What do you type over and over on a daily basis if you use your computer to access email or
the web? Your password, of course. If you're a road warrior, you use this access code even
more frequently. Why not make the password user-friendly? Why not make the password an
affirmation?
What Brings You Joy?
What brings you great joy in the workplace? I know what brings me joy. Perhaps we share
meaning about joyful events and circumstances? I trust that in sharing mine, I remind you of
yours. It's easy to get so bogged down in the day-to-day busy that we forget to cherish the
best moments. What motivates the motivators? Here are some of mine.
Employee Motivation in a Time of Change
In today's turbulent, often chaotic, environment, commercial success depends on employees
using their full talents. Yet in spite of the myriad of available theories and practices, managers
often view employee motivation as something of a mystery. Learn more about employee
motivation and get a motivation checklist.
What People Want From Work: Employee Motivation
Some people work for love; others work for personal fulfillment. Others like to accomplish
goals or feel as if they contribute to something larger than themselves. Whatever your
personal motivation for working, the bottom line, however, is that almost everyone works for
money. Find out the latest thinking and research about what people want from their work -
employee motivation.
How to Gift the Boss or a Special Co-worker
It's an age-old dilemma and it comes up every year. What do you do for that valued boss or
co-worker on a special occasion? Gift-giving opportunities are endless - and endlessly
challenging. Help is here. These gifts are appreciated and cherished.
Top Picks: Posters That Reinforce and Sustain Your Culture
Your culture is a result of the values, experiences, and behaviors shared by your employees.
You can see your culture live in your language, symbols, stories, and work practices.
Emphasize the values and culture you desire with motivational prints.
Motivation and Morale Resources
These sites explore motivation and morale including philosophies, how to's, effective actions,
and more.
Promote Self-Discipline!
You can create a work environment in which people choose to practice self-discipline and thus,
minimize the need for supervisory disciplinary action. Intriguing? Find out more.
Help People Thrive at Work: Employee Motivation
How to recruit, retain, reward, and motivate staff currently tops your interest list. Doing these
well is the most important strategic role of a manager or business owner. Find out more.
Tips for Minimizing Workplace Negativity
Minimize workplace negativity by not allowing it to get started in the first place. Use these tips
from Susan Heathfield, the HR SiteGuide, to keep negativity from gaining a foothold in your
organization.
Cures for Negativity
Despite your best efforts, your workplace is a hotbed of negative feelings, comments, and
actions. What can you do to stop the negativity and keep it from spreading to all staff? Your
About HR Guide, Susan Heathfield, has ideas for you to implement!
Index to Articles About Motivation, Retention, Coaching, and Training
Looking for information about any aspect of human resources, motivation, coaching, training
or education for your business or organization? You've found the right resource. Here are all
the resources you'll need to effectively start, manage and develop your human resources
department and all aspects of your business. Find information motivation, coaching, training
or education.
About HR Site Recognition
Kudos to the About HR site from readers, raters, and other Web sites. Make my day! Thank
you!
Passion Pays!
"People who are passionate about their work do a better job." I believe it! Check out
Management Guide, John Reh's take on being happy at work.
Laughing Your Way to Organizational Health
Workplace wellness is a serious issue. With stress-related-illness and burnout becoming
household words, you are increasingly looking for ways to keep your workforce happy, healthy
and productive. David Granirer's humor insights tell you how.
Meaning at Work
The Meaningful Workplace site presents the 22 keys to helping people find meaning in their
work place. Author and consultant, Tom Terez, provides information you can use immediately
on at his Web site.
What's Most Important to Employees Today?
Employees want to like what they do and have fun. They want to feel they are fairly
compensated. Increasingly, they seek a balance between life and work and family. Take a look
at the article to find out the rest of the morale and motivation issues important to employees.

Understanding Employee Drives and Motivations - The First Step

Towards Motivation at Work

Copyright © 1997 Claire Belilos

CHIC Hospitality Consulting Services
http://www.easytraining.com/motivation.htm
Terms: For reading only. Not to be sold, reprinted,re-written, distributed, re-broadcast,
uploaded, or used to conduct training by others without written agreement

However large or small a company or business is, it is employees at all levels that can make or
break it. This holds true not only for the people we hire on a regular basis, but also for temporary
and contracted workers. It is as important to research and study the needs, drives, and
expectations of people we hire or employ, and aim at responding to and satisfying those, as it is
with regard to customers.

In actual fact, considering the role each "employee" plays in a company's success, analyzing and
planning an adequate response to employees' motivations deserves first place in the order of
business.

Before going any further, let us shift our approach from grouping people under the generic
category of "employee" to individual human beings and term them as "hired workers" or "working
partners". This is what they are. We must acknowledge them as human beings with individual
needs, drives, characteristics, personalities, and acknowledge their contribution to the business
success.

Though each person has specific needs, drives, aspirations, and capabilities, at varying degrees
of intensity, people's basic needs are the same, as illustrated by Abraham Maslow in the
following model:

Self-
Actualization
Ego
Social Needs
 Safety Needs
Physiological Needs

MASLOW'S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS

Maslow explains the Hierarchy of Needs as applied to workers roughly as follows:

Physiological Needs

basic physical needs: the ability to acquire food, shelter, clothing and other basics to survive

Safety Needs

a safe and non-threatening work environment, job security, safe equipment and installations

Social Needs

contact and friendship with fellow-workers, social activities and opportunities

Ego

recognition, acknowledgment, rewards

Self-Actualization

realizing one's dreams and potential, reaching the heights of one's gifts and talents.

It is only when these needs are met that workers are morally, emotionally, and even physically
ready to satisfy the needs of the employer and the customers.

Worker motivation must also be viewed from two perspectives:

1. Inner drives
2. Outer (external) motivators.

A person's inner drives push and propel him/her towards an employer, a particular job, career,
line of study, or other activity (such as travel or recreation). It is these drives that Maslow
delineates in his hierarchy of needs, and which we must understand and internalize, use as
guidelines in our efforts to help employees feel motivated.

The outer (external) motivators are the mirror image the employer or outside world offers in
response to the inner drives. In order to attract the "cream of the crop" of available workers, same
as in his/her dealings with customers, the employer not only tries to satisfy these basic needs, but
to exceed them - taking into consideration additional extraordinary needs individual workers have.

Most workers need to:

 1. Earn wages that will enable them to pay for basic necessities and additional luxuries such
as the purchase of a home, or travel
2. Save for and enjoy old age security benefits
3. Have medical and other insurance coverage
4. Acquire friends at work
5. Win recognition
6. Be acknowledged and rewarded for special efforts and contributions
7. Be able to advance in life and career-wise
8. Have opportunities for self-development
9. Improve their skills, knowledge, and know-how
10. Demonstrate and use special gifts and abilities
11. Realize their ideal(s).

The employer responds to those needs by offering and providing:

1. Employment
2. Adequate pay
3. Assistance to workers for their special needs (such as child care arrangements,
transportation, flexible work schedules)
4. Job security (to the degree possible)
5. Clear company policies
6. Clear and organized work procedures
7. A stable, just and fair work environment
8. A safe work environment
9. Medical coverage and other benefits
10. An atmosphere of teamwork and cooperation
11. Social activities
12. Reward and recognition programs
13. Incentive programs
14. Open lines of communication (formal and informal)
15. Systematic feedback
16. Training and development programs
17. Opportunities for promotion
18. Company/ business information
19. Information on customer feedback
20. Sharing of company goals and objectives
21. Information on the market situation and industry
22. Future expectations
23. Plans for the future
24. Guidance and mentoring.

It is important that the employer discover other extraordinary needs applicants have before hiring
them and know beforehand whether he/she can satisfy those needs or not. An employee may
have:

• Family responsibilities and be unable to work shifts, overtime, or weekends

• Heavy financial responsibilities which he/she can meet only by working at two jobs,
leading to exhaustion, "sick leave", and deficient work performance
• A desperate financial need for additional overtime and weekend remuneration
• Premature expectations of swift promotions.

Some other needs the employer can expect, for which company policies should be planned
accordingly:
 • If the company is in a remote location, all employees will have a need for more social
activities
• Many single people look for dates and spouses at work
• Some women may not be ready to work late shifts unless the employer provides
transportation back home
• Some workers may have a problem with drug or alcohol abuse.

In addition to needs and drives, adult workers have expectations from their employer - they
expect:

• A knowledgeable, experienced, expert employer

• Clear and fair policies, procedures, and employment practices
• Business integrity
• Clear job descriptions
• Two-way communications
• Effective management and supervision
• Positive discipline
• Good company repute
• Good customer relations
• Company survival
• Opportunities for personal growth
• Company growth
• A share in the company's success.

Business owners and managers are under constant scrutiny by the people they hire. Adult
workers care beyond the salary - they care to know to whom they entrust their fate, reputation,
and security. They consider their work as a major factor that shapes their lives and the lives of
those dear to them. Hence the scrutiny. Once they feel confident that the employer and their
place of work is what they wished for and expected, they are ready to contribute above and
beyond "the call of duty".

Most of these needs, expectations and aspirations are unexpressed - it is up to the employer to
develop a good system of company communications, employee relations, training and
development that will lead to an environment of openness, cooperation, teamwork, and
motivation that will benefit all the parties involved.

Thank you for visiting. We hope you will find value in the free online information provided in our
"how to" articles.

Copyright © 1997 Claire Belilos - All Rights Reserved

This article is not to be sold or distributed in any form or manner without the author's written
permission

Further articles on employee motivation at http://www.easytraining.com:

How Can I Motivate My Employees? - The Eternal Question

Beyond Training: Focusing on the Human Factor
Cross-Training as a Motivational and Problem-Solving Technique
Conducting Effective Employee Orientations
Managers and Supervisors Expected to Create a Motivated Team
and the famous article by the late Mr. James Lavenson, Hotelier,
Think Strawberries
List yourself at http://www.easytraining.com/motivationbooklist.htm
to be advised when our book on employee motivation will be ready. We welcome
expressions of interest from organizations and publishers wishing to sponsor the writing
of this book.

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Claire Belilos, CHIC Hospitality Consulting Services, Home page:

http://www.easytraining.com specializes in Hospitality, human resources strategies,
organizational training and development, Customer Service and problem-solving.
Workshops offered: "Quality Service" and "The Design and Delivery of Training".
Evaluations, policies, manuals, job, and training tools are customized to fit the
specific needs of an organization. Why Your Employees Are
Losing Motivation
4/10/2006
Business literature is packed with advice about worker motivation—but sometimes
managers are the problem, not the inspiration. Here are seven practices to fire up the
troops. From Harvard Management Update.

by David Sirota, Louis A. Mischkind, and Michael Irwin Meltzer

Most companies have it all wrong. They don't have to motivate their
employees. They have to stop demotivating them.

The great majority of employees are quite enthusiastic when they start
a new job. But in about 85 percent of companies, our research finds,
employees' morale sharply declines after their first six months—and
continues to deteriorate for years afterward. That finding is based on
surveys of about 1.2 million employees at 52 primarily Fortune 1000
companies from 2001 through 2004, conducted by Sirota Survey
Intelligence (Purchase, New York).

The fault lies squarely at the feet of management—both the policies

and procedures companies employ in managing their workforces and
in the relationships that individual managers establish with their direct
reports.

Our research shows how individual managers' behaviors and styles are
contributing to the problem (see sidebar "How Management
Demotivates")—and what they can do to turn this around.
Three key goals of people at work
To maintain the enthusiasm employees bring to their jobs initially,
management must understand the three sets of goals that the great
majority of workers seek from their work—and then satisfy those
goals:

• Equity: To be respected and to be treated fairly in areas such as pay, benefits, and
job security.
• Achievement: To be proud of one's job, accomplishments, and employer.
• Camaraderie: To have good, productive relationships with fellow employees.

To maintain an enthusiastic workforce, management must meet all

three goals. Indeed, employees who work for companies where just
one of these factors is missing are three times less enthusiastic than
workers at companies where all elements are present.

One goal cannot be substituted for another. Improved recognition

cannot replace better pay, money cannot substitute for taking pride in
a job well done, and pride alone will not pay the mortgage.

What individual managers can do

Satisfying the three goals depends both on organizational policies and
on the everyday practices of individual managers. If the company has
a solid approach to talent management, a bad manager can undermine
it in his unit. On the flip side, smart and empathetic managers can
overcome a great deal of corporate mismanagement while creating
enthusiasm and commitment within their units. While individual
managers can't control all leadership decisions, they can still have a
profound influence on employee motivation.

The most important thing is to provide employees with a sense of

security, one in which they do not fear that their jobs will be in
jeopardy if their performance is not perfect and one in which layoffs
are considered an extreme last resort, not just another option for
dealing with hard times.

But security is just the beginning. When handled properly, each of the
following eight practices will play a key role in supporting your
employees' goals for achievement, equity, and camaraderie, and will
enable them to retain the enthusiasm they brought to their roles in the
first place.

Achievement related
1. Instill an inspiring purpose. A critical condition for employee
 enthusiasm is a clear, credible, and inspiring organizational purpose:
in effect, a "reason for being" that translates for workers into a
"reason for being there" that goes above and beyond money.

Every manager should be able to expressly state a strong purpose for

his unit. What follows is one purpose statement we especially admire.
It was developed by a three-person benefits group in a midsize firm.

Benefits are about people. It's not whether you have the forms filled in or whether the
checks are written. It's whether the people are cared for when they're sick, helped when
they're in trouble.

This statement is particularly impressive because it was composed in a

small company devoid of high-powered executive attention and
professional wordsmiths. It was created in the type of department
normally known for its fixation on bureaucratic rules and procedures.
It is a statement truly from the heart, with the focus in the right place:
on the ends—people—rather than the means—completing forms.

To maintain an enthusiastic Stating a mission is a powerful tool. But equally

workforce, management must important is the manager's ability to explain
meet all three goals. and communicate to subordinates the reason
behind the mission. Can the manager of stockroom workers do better
than telling her staff that their mission is to keep the room stocked?
Can she communicate the importance of the job, the people who are
relying on the stockroom being properly maintained, both inside and
outside the company? The importance for even goods that might be
considered prosaic to be where they need to be when they need to be
there? That manager will go a long way toward providing a sense of
purpose.

2. Provide recognition. Managers should be certain that all

employee contributions, both large and small, are recognized. The
motto of many managers seems to be, "Why would I need to thank
someone for doing something he's paid to do?" Workers repeatedly tell
us, and with great feeling, how much they appreciate a compliment.
They also report how distressed they are when managers don't take
the time to thank them for a job well done yet are quick to criticize
them for making mistakes.

Receiving recognition for achievements is one of the most fundamental

human needs. Rather than making employees complacent, recognition
reinforces their accomplishments, helping ensure there will be more of
them.
A pat on the back, simply saying "good going," a dinner for two, a note
about their good work to senior executives, some schedule flexibility, a
paid day off, or even a flower on a desk with a thank-you note are a
few of the hundreds of ways managers can show their appreciation for
good work. It works wonders if this is sincere, sensitively done, and
undergirded by fair and competitive pay—and not considered a
substitute for it.

3. Be an expediter for your employees. Incorporating a command-

and-control style is a sure-fire path to demotivation. Instead, redefine
your primary role as serving as your employees' expediter: It is your
job to facilitate getting their jobs done. Your reports are, in this sense,
your "customers." Your role as an expediter involves a range of
activities, including serving as a linchpin to other business units and
managerial levels to represent their best interests and ensure your
people get what they need to succeed.

How do you know, beyond what's obvious, what is most important to

your employees for getting their jobs done? Ask them! "Lunch and
schmooze" sessions with employees are particularly helpful for doing
this. And if, for whatever reason, you can't immediately address a
particular need or request, be open about it and then let your workers
know how you're progressing at resolving their problems. This is a
great way to build trust.

4. Coach your employees for improvement. A major reason so

many managers do not assist subordinates in improving their
performance is, simply, that they don't know how to do this without
irritating or discouraging them. A few basic principles will improve this
substantially.

First and foremost, employees whose overall performance is

satisfactory should be made aware of that. It is easier for employees
to accept, and welcome, feedback for improvement if they know
management is basically pleased with what they do and is helping
them do it even better.

Space limitations prevent a full treatment of the subject of giving

meaningful feedback, of which recognition is a central part, but these
key points should be the basis of any feedback plan:

• Performance feedback is not the same as an annual appraisal. Give actual

performance feedback as close in time to the occurrence as possible. Use the
 formal annual appraisal to summarize the year, not surprise the worker with past
wrongs.
• Recognize that workers want to know when they have done poorly. Don't
succumb to the fear of giving appropriate criticism; your workers need to know
when they are not performing well. At the same time, don't forget to give positive
feedback. It is, after all, your goal to create a team that warrants praise.
• Comments concerning desired improvements should be specific, factual,
unemotional, and directed at performance rather than at employees personally.
Avoid making overall evaluative remarks (such as, "That work was shoddy") or
comments about employees' personalities or motives (such as, "You've been
careless"). Instead, provide specific, concrete details about what you feel needs to
be improved and how.

• Keep the feedback relevant to the employee's role. Don't let your comments
wander to anything not directly tied to the tasks at hand.
• Listen to employees for their views of problems. Employees' experience and
observations often are helpful in determining how performance issues can be best
dealt with, including how you can be most helpful.
• Remember the reason you're giving feedback—you want to improve performance,
not prove your superiority. So keep it real, and focus on what is actually doable
without demanding the impossible.
• Follow up and reinforce. Praise improvement or engage in course correction—
while praising the effort—as quickly as possible.
• Don't offer feedback about something you know nothing about. Get someone who
knows the situation to look at it.

Equity related
5. Communicate fully. One of the most counterproductive rules in
business is to distribute information on the basis of "need to know." It
is usually a way of severely, unnecessarily, and destructively
restricting the flow of information in an organization.

A command-and-control style Workers' frustration with an absence of

is a sure-fire path to adequate communication is one of the most
demotivation. negative findings we see expressed on
employee attitude surveys. What employees need to do their jobs and
what makes them feel respected and included dictate that very few
restrictions be placed by managers on the flow of information. Hold
nothing back of interest to employees except those very few items that
are absolutely confidential.

Good communication requires managers to be attuned to what

employees want and need to know; the best way to do this is to ask
them! Most managers must discipline themselves to communicate
regularly. Often it's not a natural instinct. Schedule regular employee
meetings that have no purpose other than two-way communication.
Meetings among management should conclude with a specific plan for
communicating the results of the meetings to employees. And tell it
like it is. Many employees are quite skeptical about management's
motives and can quickly see through "spin." Get continual feedback on
how well you and the company are communicating. One of the biggest
communication problems is the assumption that a message has been
understood. Follow-up often finds that messages are unclear or
misunderstood.

Companies and managers that communicate in the ways we describe

reap large gains in employee morale. Full and open communication not
only helps employees do their jobs but also is a powerful sign of
respect.

6. Face up to poor performance. Identify and deal decisively with

the 5 percent of your employees who don't want to work. Most people
want to work and be proud of what they do (the achievement need).
But there are employees who are, in effect, "allergic" to work—they'll
do just about anything to avoid it. They are unmotivated, and a
disciplinary approach—including dismissal—is about the only way they
can be managed. It will raise the morale and performance of other
team members to see an obstacle to their performance removed.

Camaraderie related
7. Promote teamwork. Most work requires a team effort in order to
be done effectively. Research shows repeatedly that the quality of a
group's efforts in areas such as problem solving is usually superior to
that of individuals working on their own. In addition, most workers get
a motivation boost from working in teams.

Whenever possible, managers should organize employees into self-

managed teams, with the teams having authority over matters such as
quality control, scheduling, and many work methods. Such teams
require less management and normally result in a healthy reduction in
management layers and costs.

Creating teams has as much to do with camaraderie as core

competences. A manager needs to carefully assess who works best
with whom. At the same time, it is important to create the opportunity
for cross-learning and diversity of ideas, methods, and approaches. Be
clear with the new team about its role, how it will operate, and your
expectations for its output.
Related to all three factors
8. Listen and involve. Employees are a rich source of information
about how to do a job and how to do it better. This principle has been
demonstrated time and again with all kinds of employees—from hourly
workers doing the most routine tasks to high-ranking professionals.
Managers who operate with a participative style reap enormous
rewards in efficiency and work quality.

Participative managers continually announce their interest in

employees' ideas. They do not wait for these suggestions to
materialize through formal upward communication or suggestion
programs. They find opportunities to have direct conversations with
individuals and groups about what can be done to improve
effectiveness. They create an atmosphere where "the past is not good
enough" and recognize employees for their innovativeness.

Participative managers, once they have defined task boundaries, give

employees freedom to operate and make changes on their own
commensurate with their knowledge and experience. Indeed, there
may be no single motivational tactic more powerful than freeing
competent people to do their jobs as they see fit.

Reprinted with permission from "Stop Demotivating Your Employees!"

Harvard Management Update, Vol. 11, No. 1, January 2006.

See the latest issue of Harvard Management Update.

David Sirota is chairman emeritus, Louis A. Mischkind is senior vice

president, and Michael Irwin Meltzer is chief operating officer of
Sirota Survey Intelligence. They are the authors of The Enthusiastic
Employee: How Companies Profit by Giving Workers What They Want
(Wharton School Publishing, 2005). They can be reached at
MUOpinion@hbsp.harvard.edu.

How Management Demotivates

by David Sirota, Louis A. Mischkind, and Michael Irwin Meltzer

There are several ways that management unwittingly demotivates

employees and diminishes, if not outright destroys, their enthusiasm.

Many companies treat employees as disposable. At the first sign of

business difficulty, employees—who are usually routinely referred to as
"our greatest asset"—become expendable.
 Employees generally receive inadequate recognition and reward: About
half of the workers in our surveys report receiving little or no credit,
and almost two-thirds say management is much more likely to criticize
them for poor performance than praise them for good work.

Management inadvertently makes it difficult for employees to do their

jobs. Excessive levels of required approvals, endless paperwork,
insufficient training, failure to communicate, infrequent delegation of
authority, and a lack of a credible vision contribute to employees'
frustration.

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Employee Self-Motivation?

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50% of your
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their job.(1) Privacy Information

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output, and more
enthusiasm for their
work than all your
other employees
combined. Perhaps
it is you! Have you
ever wondered why
everyone else does
not feel as
motivated as you
do? After all, you
are not asking them
to come in 2 hours
early or stay 2 hours
late, all you want is
for them to give that
little extra customer
service, smile
instead of frown,
and not complain so
much. How do you
get your employees
to give that little
extra that goes so
far in making your
customers satisfied?

Does your company

offer a great health
plan, a 401k
retirement plan, and
four weeks of
vacation each year
and you are still
obtaining less than
stellar performance
from your
employees? Well,
you have just
discovered that a
great benefits
package, vacation,
and even a salary
increase are not
human motivators.
Benefits, vacation,
and salary are
employee retainers
and do not provide
employee
motivation. A
company offers
these benefits in
order to attract and
retain talented
workers. Take a
look at any
company and you
will find that the
more valuable the
employee is to the
company, the more
valuable their
benefits packages
will become.

Okay, you have convinced me! I will not try to motivate employees by
giving them extra vacation or benefits. My company does offer
employees free use of the company car on weekends, a bimonthly
drawing for a designated parking spot, and even a free pizza every Friday
afternoon. Will these activities provide the company with highly
motivated employees? Unfortunately no, the above activities are called
employee morale boosters. They are designed to raise the morale of
employees so that they feel good about the company they work for. 1001 Ways to Reward
Morale boosters do not increase motivation because they are not directly Employees
tied to an increase in performance. An employee with good morale is not (20% Off)
necessary a motivated employee. For example, an employee that comes to
work and spends one or two hours each day socializing may have great Hot Software
morale, but will also have the worst production levels of any employee in
the department.

If a great benefit package will not motivate an employee, and a designated

parking spot with their name stencilled in gold will not motivate an
employee, what will? Okay, let me provide you with some good news, but
before I do so, answer this question. In order to motivate your employees
do you change the employee or the organization in which the employee
works?
 Change the Employee or Change the Organization

(1)
Statistics are from the book Super Motivation by Dean Spitzer, 1995.

Home Page

Search
Employer-
Employee.com

ISSUES
A series of papers highlighting recent developments
in research and practice in educational management

&

TRENDS
ERIC CLEARINGHOUSE ON EDUCATIONAL MANAGEMENT
University of Oregon, 1787 Agate Street, Eugene, Oregon 97403. (503) 346-5043
®
February 1992

Student Motivation, School Culture,

and Academic Achievement
What School Leaders Can Do
Ron Renchler
The Educational Resources Information Center (ERIC) is a national information system operated by the Office of
Educational
Research and Improvement, U.S. Department of Education. ERIC serves educators by disseminating research results
and
other resource information that can be used in developing more effective educational programs.
The ERIC Clearinghouse on Educational Management, one of several such units in the system, was established at the
University of Oregon in 1966. The Clearinghouse’s subject area is educational management, policy, governance, law, and
facilities at the elementary and secondary levels.
Prior to publication, this manuscript was submitted for critical review and determination of professional competence.
The publication has met such standards.
This publication was prepared with funding from the Office of Educational Research and Improvement, U.S. Department
of
Education under contract no. OERI-R 188062004. The opinions expressed in this report do not necessarily reflect the
positions
or policies of the Department of Education. No federal funds were used in the printing of this publication.
International Standard Book Number 0-86552-116-6
ERIC/CEM Trends and Issues Series, Number 7
Clearinghouse Accession Number: EA 023 593
Printed in the United States of America, February 1992
ERIC Clearinghouse on Educational Management
University of Oregon
1787 Agate Street
Eugene OR 97403-5207
(541) 346-5043
Design: University Publications, University of Oregon.
The University of Oregon is an equal opportunity, affirmative action institution committed to cultural diversity.
Jim Bencivenga, Education Editor, The Christian Science
Monitor
Gordon Cawelti, Executive Director, Association for
Supervision and Curriculum Development
Timothy J. Dyer, Executive Director, National Association
of Secondary School Principals
Patrick Forsyth, Executive Director, University Council for
Educational Administration
Joyce G. McCray, Executive Director, Council for
American Private Education
Richard D. Miller, Executive Director, American
Association of School Administrators
Samuel Sava, Executive Director, National Association of
Elementary School Principals
Thomas Shannon, Executive Director, National School
Boards Association
Don I. Tharpe, Executive Director, Association of School
Business Officials International
Gene Wilhoit,Executive Director, National Association of
State Boards of Education
ADMINISTRATIVE STAFF
Philip K. Piele, Professor and Director
Keith A. Acheson, Associate Director
Stuart C. Smith, Director of Publications

Clearinghouse National Advisory Board

ii
iii

Foreword
Every educator needs to be concerned about
motivation. It is a quality that students, teachers,
parents, school administrators, and other members
of the community must have if our educational
system is to prepare young people adequately
for the challenges and demands of the
coming century.
Of course, the way these various groups of
individuals generate and use motivation differs
greatly. Students need motivation to learn, parents
need it to track the educational progress of
their sons and daughters, teachers need it to
become better teachers, and school administrators
need it to ensure that every facet of the schools
they manage continues to improve.
Despite much excellent research during the
last two decades, there is still a great deal we do
not know about motivation. It remains a mystery,
because we all have it, but we all exhibit it at
different times, in different degrees, in different
ways, and in different contexts. One aspect of
the school administrator’s job is to discover and
nurture motivation among all the different individuals
involved in the educational process.
Motivation must be rewarded, increased, and
sustained at all levels. However, administrators
must not forget about their own motivation. Like
those around them, they must find ways to remain
motivated in the face of obstacles, distractions,
and what may sometimes seem like universal
indifference.
This sixth issue of the Trends & Issues
series offers an overview of some recent studies
of motivation as it operates at both the organizational
and individual levels, especially in an
educational context. Students in public schools
obviously cannot be given the immediate financial
and professional rewards given to individuals
who display high levels of motivation in the
workplace. However, there is a variety of other
methods educators can use to awaken and sustain
young people’s motivation to learn. The greatest
challenge educators face is to discover what
those methods are and to make them an integral
part of our educational system.
Ron Renchler received his doctoral degree
from the University of Oregon in 1987. Since
then, he has written and edited publications on a
variety of topics, including educational administration,
the urban superintendency, computers in
education, and educational software.
Philip K. Piele
Professor and Director

Contents
Foreword
Introduction
A Look Ahead
Are Principals Themselves Motivated to Excel?
Motivation and School Culture
Corporate Cultures and School Culture
The Effect of School Leadership on Motivation and Achievement
Motivation and School Restructuring
Motivation and Age-Related Changes in Levels of Motivation
The Challenge of School Restructuring
Some Recent Theories of Motivation
Motivation as a Personal Trait
Motivation in Response to Situations
Motivation and the Concept of Self
The Complexity of Motivation
Conclusion
Bibliography
v
iii
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1
1
3
3
4
9
9
11
13
13
13
15
15
19
21

Student Motivation, School Culture,

and Academic Achievement
What School Leaders Can Do
Ron Renchler
1

Introduction
Literature is filled with images of schoolchildren
joyfully hurrying away from school. A
long line of writers, including such notables as
Blake and Shakespeare, have frequently described
unhappy students at their desks and
vividly portrayed their delight at escaping the
boredom of the classroom. Fiction, poetry, and
other forms of art provide us with literally hundreds
of other similar images that, taken together,
establish a long cultural tradition: learning is a
profoundly boring activity.
Fortunately, our received opinion about
education as reflected in our cultural tradition can
differ greatly from our actual experience of
classroom learning. Anyone who has participated
in or closely observed the educational
process has doubtlessly experienced and witnessed
firsthand the excitement and joy that can
be derived from learning or discovering something
new. While we cannot expect these experiences
to occur every day, they are nevertheless
meaningful and powerful experiences, and they
provide us with a basis for our conviction that
education can, on the whole, be a valuable,
interesting, and pleasurable activity. Ultimately,
because we know from experience that such
moments exist, we can acquire a strong motivation
to learn, a trait that offers lifelong rewards.
Perhaps the primary job of principals,
teachers, parents, and other educational stakeholders
is to help students experience these
moments as frequently as possible in an atmosphere
where they can discover for themselves
the pleasure of acquiring new knowledge. The
goal of helping students acquire the self-motivation
that leads to a perpetual desire to learn
should be foremost in every educator’s mind.
A Look Ahead
This publication focuses on motivation at
the school level and reviews some recent developments
in this area. It begins with a discussion
in chapter 1 of the influence of school culture on
student motivation. Recent work in this area
indicates that a school’s culture has a powerful
effect on students’ attitudes and levels of academic
achievement. If educational leaders can
find ways to create an environment that motivates
students to learn, it is logical to assume that
improved academic performance will soon
follow.
Chapter 2 looks at the relationships among
student motivation, current educational practices,
and school restructuring. Research on motivation
in educational settings indicates that many of our
present pedagogical practices effectively crush
most students’ desire to learn. A number of
individuals working in the field of educational
motivation have called for radical change in the
way we teach students, and with the restructuring
movement gaining momentum, theirs are among
the most persuasive voices arguing for new
educational policies and practices.
Chapter 3 provides a brief overview of some
current theories of motivation and the way it
functions in various individuals. If superintendents
and principals are to be successful in
achieving their goals of strengthening student
motivation and improving academic performance,
they need at least a general understanding
of the theories that help explain how motivation
works.
Are Principals Themselves
Motivated to Excel?
Faced with the complexity of the subject and
the difficulty of knowing how to generate higher
levels of motivation among students in their
schools, principals and other educational administrators
might be forgiven if they feel daunted at
the prospect of tackling this particular educational
problem. In fact, it is perhaps fittingly
ironic that principals should feel discouraged,
which is precisely the way students might feel
when their teachers ask them to summon up their
2
motivation and improve their academic performance.
Perhaps the most obvious place for principals
to begin addressing the problem of inadequate
student motivation is to examine the role
of motivation in their own lives. What is it that
motivates an educational leader to desire better
academic performance on the part of his or her
students? Does it spring from an altruistic desire
to improve students’ lives? Is it a result of
having a strong work ethic? Does it stem from
the sense of self-esteem gained from knowing
that one is doing one’s job well? Does it originate
in a desire to be successful professionally, to
win greater respect from one’s colleagues, to
command a higher salary, to establish a reputation
in the community as a first-rate educational
administrator?
All of these are possible explanations for
wanting to see improved educational performance,
and all of them are acceptable, legitimate
reasons for desiring greater motivation and better
academic achievement at one’s school. However,
the most important lesson to be learned from a
self-analysis of the role of motivation in one’s
life is in the discovery that the reasons for the
presence or absence of motivation among students
may be as infinitely varied and complex as
the reasons for its presence or absence among
school leaders.
One other point should be kept in mind
when considering student motivation. It may be
just as difficult for students to sustain motivation
in their educational lives as it is for principals to
sustain motivation in their professional careers.
Students face many of the same difficulties, real
or perceived, that principals face. If school
leaders are equipped with the wisdom that comes
from humility, sensitivity, and a constant reflection
on the way that motivation functions in their
own lives, it will probably be much easier for
them to find ways to motivate their students.
3
An atmosphere or environment that nurtures
the motivation to learn can be cultivated in the
home, in the classroom, or, at a broader level,
throughout an entire school. Much of the recent
research on educational motivation has rightly
centered on the classroom, where the majority of
learning takes place and where students are most
likely to acquire a strong motivation to gain new
knowledge (Ames 1987, Brophy 1987,
Grossnickle 1989, Wlodkowski and Jaynes
1990).
But achieving the goal of making the individual
classroom a place that naturally motivates
students to learn is much easier if students and
teachers function in a school culture where
academic success and the motivation to learn is
expected, respected, and rewarded. An atmosphere
where students learn to love learning for
learning’s sake, especially insofar as it evolves
into academic achievement, is a chief characteristic
of an effective school.
This chapter reviews some of the recent
work on school culture and its relationship to
student motivation.
Corporate Cultures and
School Cultures
Much of the literature on school culture
draws on and extends several descriptive studies
of organizational culture in the corporate workplace
(Deal and Kennedy 1982; Hickman and
Silva 1984; Jelinek, Smircich, and Hirsch 1983;
Maehr 1990; Peters and Waterman 1982; Schein
1984, 1985; and Wilkins 1983). Educational
researchers such as Davis (1989), Deal (1987),
Deal and Peterson (1990), and Sergiovanni
(1987) have found very close parallels between
the ways effectively managed businesses operate
and the ways effectively managed schools function.
Although no single, universally accepted
definition of school culture has been established,
there is general agreement that school culture
involves, in the words of Deal and Peterson
(1990), “deep patterns of values, beliefs, and
traditions that have formed over the course of
[the school’s] history.” Over time, a school
leader can, in conjunction with other stakeholders
in the school, change its culture by discarding old
values and beliefs, establishing new ones, or
modifying elements that need to be changed.
Maehr and Fyans (1989), describing culturebuilding
in organizations in general, characterize
it as a fluid process:
Groups tend to work out ways of getting along
among themselves. They arrive at certain shared
understandings regarding how, when, and where
activities are to occur. Above all, they specify
the meaning, the value, and the purpose of these
activities. In particular, thoughts and perceptions
about what is worth striving for are a
critical feature of any culture. (p. 218)
Thus, a principal interested in establishing
the motivation to learn and academic achievement
as central features of a school’s culture
must first persuade everyone—students, teachers,
parents, staff, and school board—that goals
related to those areas are desirable, achievable,
and sustainable.
The goals can ultimately become important
enough to take on a life of their own, to become
invested with meaning that reflects the basic
purpose of the school and its reason for being.
They can become part of the value system in
which each participant in the school willingly and
enthusiastically participates.
Shaping a School’s Culture
School leaders have a number of channels
through which they can shape a school’s culture
or climate. Good communication is, of course,
central to successfully achieving goals. But
actions must demonstrate what the words convey.
Deal (1987) prescribes a few simple guidelines to
bring about a reshaping of the school’s culture:

Motivation and School

Culture
4
Old practices and other losses need to be buried
and commemorated. Meaningless practices and
symbols need to be analyzed and revitalized.
Emerging visions, dreams, and hopes need to be
articulated and celebrated.
The culture can be embodied and transformed,
Deal says, through such channels as the
school’s shared values, heroes, rituals, ceremonies,
stories, and cultural networks. If motivation
and academic achievement are to be a definitive
part of a school’s culture, they must be communicated
and celebrated in as many forums as possible.
There are a variety of practical ways that
goals related to motivation and academic
achievement can be communicated. In his review
of studies focusing on organizational culture in
effective schools, John Davis (1989) cites several
studies that indicate that school leaders can
communicate their goals by using a wide variety
of concrete and symbolic tools:
An extremely important component of the
climate of the effective school is the presence of
visible symbols which illustrate and confirm
what is considered to be important in the school.
Put another way, visible symbols manifest the
school’s underlying values and assumptions. . . .
School newsletters, statements of goals, behavior
codes, rituals, symbols, and legends are all
part of the culture of the organization and
convey messages of what the school really
values.
Johnston (1987) echoes this point when he
says, “Values are the bedrock of any institution.
They articulate the essence of the organization’s
philosophy about how it goes about achieving
success.” He, too, points out that a school’s
values are communicated and disseminated
through familiar means: leaders and heroes, the
cultural network (the “grapevine”), and rituals
and ceremonies.
The dynamics and logistics of most schools
are such that the principal cannot possibly oversee
the motivational needs of each and every
student. But groups of people can be affected by
the culture in which they participate, and this
domain is under the control and stewardship of
the principal.
Culture and Climate in Academically
Effective Schools
The literature on school culture makes it
clear that effective schools, that is, schools that
demonstrate high standards of achievement in
academics, have a culture characterized by a
well-defined set of goals that all members of the
school—administration, faculty, and students—
value and promote. If a principal can establish
and clearly communicate goals that define the
expectations of the school with regard to academic
achievement, and if the principal can rally
a constituency of teachers and students to support
those goals, then the motivation to achieve the
goals is likely to follow.
Most reviews of the effective school literature
point to the consensus that school culture and
climate are central to academic success
(Mackenzie 1983). Typical of the findings is the
summary of Purkey and Smith (1983), who in
their review of the literature on effective schools
found a close correlation between positive school
culture and academic quality:
The literature indicates that a student’s chance
for success in learning cognitive skills is heavily
influenced by the climate of the school. . . . A
school-level culture press in the direction of
academic achievement helps shape the environment
(and climate) in which the student learns.
An academically effective school would be
likely to have clear goals related to student
achievement, teachers and parents with high
expectations, and a structure designed to maximize
opportunities for students to learn. A press
for academic success is more likely to realize
that goal than would a climate that emphasizes
affective growth or social development. (p. 440)
The Effect of School
Leadership on Motivation
and Achievement
The work of Leithwood and Montgomery
(1984) is especially helpful in understanding the
relationship of motivation to effective leadership
5
and school goals because it addresses the
principal’s motivation to become a more effective
leader as well as the student’s motivation to
learn. They describe four stages that principals
go through in the process of becoming more and
more effective as school leaders.
The first, and least effective, stage, administrator,
is characterized by the principal’s desire
simply to run “a smooth ship.” At the second
stage, humanitarian, principals focus primarily
on goals that cultivate good interpersonal relations,
especially among school staff. Principals
at the third stage, program manager, perceive
interpersonal relations as an avenue for achieving
school-level goals that stress educational achievement.
At the fourth and highest stage, systematic
problem solver, principals become devoted to “a
legitimate, comprehensive set of goals for students,
and seek out the most effective means for
their achievement” (p. 51).
One of the chief characteristics of highly
effective principals at the systematic problemsolver
stage is the ability to transfer their own
desire and motivation to achieve valued goals to
the other participants in the educational process.
As Leithwood and Montgomery comment:
Highly effective principals . . . seek out opportunities
to clarify goals with staff, students, parents
and other relevant members of the school
community. They strive toward consensus about
these goals and actively encourage the use of
such goals in departmental and divisional
planning. Such behaviour can be explained by
the principal’s knowledge of human functioning
and the actions consistent with such knowledge.
Highly effective principals appear to understand
that school improvement goals will only direct
the actions of staff, students and others to the
extent that these people also adopt them as their
own. Increases in principal effectiveness can be
explained as increases in opportunities, provided
by the principal, for all relevant others to agree
upon and internalize approximately the same set
of school improvement goals. (p. 31)
According to Leithwood and Montgomery,
as principals become more and more effective,
they come to understand that people will not be
motivated unless they believe in the value of
acting to achieve a particular goal:
People are normally motivated to engage in
behaviours which they believe will contribute to
goal achievement. The strength of one’s motivation
to act depends on the importance attached
to the goal in question and one’s judgement
about its achievability; motivational strength
also depends on one’s judgement about how
successful a particular behavior will be in
moving toward goal achievement. (p. 31)
Motivation on the part of the principal
translates into motivation among students and
staff through the functioning of goals, according
to Leithwood and Montgomery. “Personally
valued goals,” they say, “are a central element in
the principal’s motivational structure—a stimulus
for action” (p. 24).
In a related study, Klug (1989) describes a
measurement-based approach for analyzing the
effectiveness of instructional leaders and provides
a convenient model for understanding the
principal’s influence on student achievement and
motivation. The model is shown in figure 1.
Klug notes that school leaders can have both
direct and indirect impact on the level of motivation
and achievement within two of the three
areas shown in figure 1. Although the personal
factors—differences in ability levels and personalities
of individual students—usually fall outside
a school leader’s domain of influence, the other
two categories, situational factors and motivational
factors, are to some degree within a school
leader’s power to control. Klug’s summary of
the model describes how these two areas can be a
source of influence:
School leaders enter the achievement equation
both directly and indirectly. By exercising
certain behaviors that facilitate learning, they
directly control situational (S) factors in which
learning occurs. By shaping the school’s
instructional climate, thereby influencing the
attitudes of teachers, students, parents, and the
community at large toward education, they
increase both student and teacher motivation and
indirectly impact learning gains. (p. 253)
There are many strategies school leaders can
use to reward motivation and promote academic
achievement. For example, Huddle (1984), in a
review of literature on effective leadership, cites
a study in which principals in effective schools
used a variety of methods to publicize the school
goals and achievements in the area of academics.
6
These included:
• Bringing in outstanding speakers for the
National Honor Society meetings
• Placing names of special education students
on the honor roll
• Publishing an annual report of academic
achievement and mailing it to parents
• Displaying academic awards and trophies in
the school trophy case
Maehr’s Psychological
Environment
In their book The Motivation Factor: A
Theory of Personal Investment, Maehr and
Braskamp (1986) focus extensively on motivation,
or personal investment, as they term it, in
organizational settings, especially as it functions
among adults in the workplace. They conclude
“that there is a relationship between organizational
culture and personal investment—that
knowing something about the cultural facets of
an organization allows us to predict employee’s
job satisfaction and organizational commitment”
(p. 153).
Recently, Maehr (1990) has turned his
attention to the relationship between motivation
and the organizational culture of schools. His
work centers on what he terms the “psychological
environment” of the school. School administrators,
he asserts, are in the best position to shape a
school’s psychological environment. Drawing
parallels between the school environment and the
classroom environment, Maehr points to the
similarities between teachers’ and principals’
leadership roles, as shown in figure 2 on page 7.
The dimensions Maehr includes in his model
of the psychological environment of the school
include:
Accomplishment—Emphasis on excellence and
pursuit of academic challenges
Power—Emphasis on interpersonal competition,
social comparison, achievement
Recognition—Emphasis on social recognition
for achievement and the importance of school
for attaining future goals and rewards
Affiliation—Perceived sense of community,
good interpersonal relations among teachers and
students
Strength/Saliency—The perception that the
school knows what it is about and that students
know what is expected.
Maehr describes how the school’s psychological
environment shapes a student’s motivation:
Motivation can be characterized by a student’s
personal investment in a given task. The
magnitude of motivation is influenced by the
psychological environment of a school, that is,
by the meaning given to the overall education
experiences. (p. 2)
To test the effectiveness of his model,
Maehr conducted an analysis of a data set collected
from more than 16,000 students in the
Figure 1: A Conceptual Model for Understanding Classroom
Learning and Achievement
CLASSROOM LEARNING
and
ACHIEVEMENT
MOTIVATIONAL
FACTORS
PERSONAL
FACTORS
SITUATIONAL
FACTORS
Source: Klug (1989)
7
Figure 2: Parallel Leadership Roles Extant in Schools
TEACHER
(Goals—>Behavior)—>Classroom Context—>Student Motivation & Personal
Investment
Source: Maehr (1990)
PRINCIPAL
(Goals—>Behavior)—>School Context—>Student/Staff Motivation & Personal
Investment
fourth, sixth, eighth, and tenth grades in 800
public schools in Illinois. He attempted to
determine whether several variables, including
psychological environment and school leadership,
had an impact on student motivation. His
findings indicated that goals that stressed motivation
and achievement did have an impact, and
that school leadership qualities did have an
influence on a school’s psychological environment.
Maehr concluded that “goal stresses associated
with the school environment seem to relate
systematically to student motivation and
achievement” (p. 46), and he reported that “the
psychological environment of the school is a
measurable variable, a variable of some importance
in predicting motivation and achievement
of students” (p. 52).
The influence of school culture as a conduit
for motivating students toward academic excellence
has perhaps been underestimated. Teachers
have traditionally shouldered most of the burden
of motivating students toward academic achievement.
However, because research continues to
demonstrate the powerful effect of school culture
and climate on students’ attitudes toward education,
principals now must share that responsibility.
They must give increased attention to the
fact that they, too, are key players in the complex
formula that shapes student motivation.
By formulating and clearly communicating
relevant goals, by developing and instituting
workable programs to sustain those goals, and by
monitoring and rewarding success, a principal
can shape a school’s culture so that it reflects the
importance of motivation directed toward academic
success.
8
9
The findings reported in the literature on
educational motivation have placed many school
leaders in a difficult position. Much of the
research indicates that our present instructional
practices tend to diminish motivation for academic
achievement rather than increase it. According
to many of the researchers who conduct
motivation studies in educational settings, teachers
and school leaders are being asked to place
their faith in educational policies and instructional
practices that have already been shown to
be detrimental to developing motivation. Simply
put, they claim that our educational system is as
much to blame for student apathy as the students
themselves.
This chapter reviews some of the relevant
literature and reports on the recommendations
these researchers have made for improving
student motivation. The chapter concludes with
some discussion of the need for change as it
relates to the school restructuring movement.
Grade-Related and Age-
Related Changes in
Levels of Motivation
It is generally recognized that motivation
and academic achievement among younger
children are contingent to some degree on gradeand
age-related factors. Research on the relationship
between a student’s age and his or her
achievement beliefs and motivational orientation
indicates that children’s confidence in their
achievement generally declines as they grow
older (Stipek 1984). This decline is most pronounced
at the age of about 6 and again at age 12
or 13.
Eccles, Midgeley, and Adler (1984) have
sought to measure the impact of school environment
on these changes. Although the results of
their studies were confounded by age-related
changes among their student subjects, they
reported “a causal link between grade-related
changes in educational environments and agerelated
student attitudes” (p. 321). Their suggestions
for managing these changes include some
criticism of current school environment practices
and some suggestions for school restructuring to
eliminate these weaknesses:
As children mature they become more skillful,
knowledgeable, and competent; they become
better able to take responsibility, make decisions,
control their lives. They also feel more
able to take responsibility and to make academic
decisions. . . . One would hope that with increasing
grade level, students would assume
greater autonomy and control over their lives
and learning. In addition, one would hope that
schools would provide an environment that
would facilitate task involvement rather than ego
involvement, particularly as children enter early
adolescence.
Unfortunately there is evidence that just the
opposite is true. As students proceed through
the grades, the classroom is characterized by a
decrease in student autonomy and an increase in
processes which enhance ego involvement at the
expense of task involvement. (pp. 322-23)
Eccles and her colleagues are not alone in
their criticism of current educational practices
that have a negative influence on student motivation.
Another proponent of school reform for the
purpose of revitalizing student motivation is
Raffini (1988). Basing his arguments on
Covington’s (1983, 1984) construct of the selfworth
motive, Raffini argues that students caught
up in a system that dooms them to failure channel
their motivation into behaviors that cover up that
failure and thus protect their sense of self-worth:
Apathy is a way for many students to avoid a
sense of failure. Those behaving from this
motive approach each new learning experience
with apprehension and fear—often masked with

Motivation and School

Restructuring
10
apathy, aloofness, or indifference. Their philosophy
toward schools becomes “Nothing
ventured, nothing failed.” Teachers and parents
worry that they are unmotivated. In reality, they
are highly motivated to protect their sense of
self-worth. As they get older they begin to
reject education completely. If they state
publicly that school is a valueless, boring waste
of time, then their self-worth is protected when
they receive a failing grade. These students
have discovered that it is less painful to reject
school than to reject themselves. (p. 12)
Raffini proposes a four-fold approach that
would remove motivational barriers and help
students redirect their behaviors away from
failure-avoiding activities toward academic
applications. He describes how these four strategies
can aid in promoting the rediscovery of an
interest in learning:
1. Individual goal-setting structures allow
students to define their own criteria for
success.
2. Outcome-based instruction and evaluation
make it possible for slower students to
experience success without having to compete
with faster students.
3. Attribution retraining can help apathetic
students view failure as a lack of effort rather
than a lack of ability.
4. Cooperative learning activities help students
realize that personal effort can contribute to
group as well as individual goals. (p. 27)
The Importance of Implicit
Motivation
Stipek (1988) makes a strong case for
strengthening the degree of intrinsic motivation
students feel for learning. While she does not
argue for the complete elimination of extrinsic
reward systems, she believes that “there are many
benefits to maximizing intrinsic motivation and
many ways to foster it” (p. 72). She identifies
four perspectives from which intrinsic motivation
can be viewed: competency motivation, curiosity,
autonomy, and internalized motivation.
Competency motivation assumes “that
individuals engage in tasks, in part, for the
purpose of developing competence and experiencing
the positive feeling of efficacy associated
with successful mastery attempts” (p. 43). The
second perspective, curiosity, assumes “that
individuals are innately curious about novel
events and activities that are somewhat discrepant
with their expectations” (p. 39). Autonomy
involves the idea that humans have “a natural
need to feel self-determining. They want to
believe that they are engaging in activities by
their own volition—because they want to—rather
than to achieve some external reward or to avoid
punishment” (p. 44). Internalized motivation
“assumes that some children engage in tasks in
the absence of external reinforcement because
they learn to value academic work” (p. 39).
Stipek describes some techniques that
promote intrinsic motivation but suggests that
they are rarely found in today’s classrooms or
schools:
Students are intrinsically motivated to work
when the threat of negative external evaluation
is not salient and when their attention is not
focused on extrinsic reasons for completing
tasks. They will also feel more competent and
proud, and thus more intrinsically interested in
tasks, when they can take responsibility for their
success.
Allowing some student choice enhances intrinsic
interest in school tasks, and it teaches selfmanagement
skills that are essential for success
in higher grades and the workplace. It is impossible
for children to develop autonomy and a
sense of responsibility if they are always told
what to do, and how, and when to do it. (p. 73)
She recommends challenging but fair task
assignments, the use of positive classroom language,
mastery-based evaluation systems, and
cooperative learning structures to foster intrinsic
motivation toward academic learning.
Another voice in matters related to student
motivation belongs to Glasser (1990), who
theorizes that all motivation springs from an
individual’s desire to fulfill one of five basic
needs: survival, love, power, fun, and freedom.
Glasser condemns what he calls “boss management”
in educational systems, which are behaviors
that assume that students can be coerced into
becoming motivated:
Boss-managers firmly believe that people can be
motivated from the outside: They fail to understand
that all of our motivation comes from
within ourselves.
11
Boss-teachers and administrators constantly
lament that students are not motivated, but what
they are actually saying is that they do not know
how to persuade students to work. And as long
as they continue to believe in coercion, they
never will. (p. 39)
Glasser argues in favor of “lead management,”
which involves empowering students to
be responsible for their own needs and accomplishments,
teaching them in cooperative groups,
and eliminating grades below a B.
The Challenge of School
Restructuring
Maehr (1991) has argued persuasively that
school administrators should seize the opportunity
offered by the school restructuring movement
to effect changes in the entire school environment
as well as in the individual classroom
environment. His argument goes hand in hand
with the findings of motivation research. “Few
have seriously considered motivation vis-a-vis
the current restructuring movement,” he says,
and few have considered that the school as an
entity in its own right, may have effects that
supersede those of individual classrooms and the
acts of individual teachers. And so it is that we
wish to make the argument that now is the time
to consider school, as well as instructional,
curricular, and classroom change. (p. 2)
He notes that because school leaders can
establish, promote, or ignore policies, they may
have more effect on education than that generated
at the classroom level.
Maehr provides an outline that identifies
areas where schoolwide policies and procedures
might well have an impact on the psychological
environment of the school and thus lead to
increased motivation. He identifies six target
areas and provides examples of goals and strategies
for bringing about change in a restructured
environment.
Tasks
Tasks refer to the nature of the work undertaken
by students in the school. Such tasks
should help students focus on the intrinsic value
of learning. Goals in this area should reduce
reliance on extrinsic incentives, emphasize the
fun of learning, and be challenging to all students.
Strategies for accomplishing these goals
include initiating programs that take advantage of
the students’ background, that stress goal setting
and self-regulation/management, and that take
students to nonschool settings for learning experiences.
Authority
Schools should delegate responsibility by
focusing on student participation in learning/
school decisions. Goals include providing opportunities
for developing independence and leadership
skills among students. Strategies include
offering students choices in their instructional
settings and supporting their participation in
cocurricular and extracurricular activities.
Recognition
There should be extensive use of recognition
and rewards in the school setting. Goals should
be established that will provide opportunities for
all students to be recognized, recognize progress
in goal attainment, and emphasize a broad array
of learning activities. Strategies include “personal
best” awards and recognition of a wide
range of school-related achievements.
Grouping
Grouping refers to student interaction, social
skills, and values. There should be goals that
bring about an environment of acceptance and
appreciation of all students, that broaden the
range of social interaction among students,
including at-risk groups, and that enhance social
skills and humane values. Strategies should
include programs that provide occasions for
group learning and problem solving and that
foster development of subgroups (teams, schools
within schools, and so forth).
Evaluation
Goals regarding the nature and use of evaluation
and assessment procedures include increasing
students’ sense of competence and selfefficacy,
increasing their awareness of their
unique sets of talents, and encouraging them to
understand failure as a natural part of learning
and life.
12
Strategies to accomplish these goals include
a reduction in the emphasis on social comparisons
of achievement by minimizing public
reference to normative evaluation standards such
as grades and test scores. It is also important to
create opportunities for students to assess
progress toward goals they have set.
Time
Time must be effectively managed to carry
out plans and reach goals. Goals include improving
the rate of work completion, improving skills
in planning and organization, and improving selfmanagement
ability. Strategies include developing
programs that teach time management skills
and offering students the opportunity to progress
at their own rate when possible.
Maehr acknowledges that the successful
implementation of new educational policies and
practices depends upon school leaders who have
the courage and motivation to seize the opportunity
that restructuring offers. As Maehr puts it,
“The time is right for restructuring, and that
restructuring will indeed take place. The question
is will it take place in such a way that motivation
and the investment in learning of students
will be enhanced” (p. 8).
With the current trend toward restructuring
gaining momentum (Conley 1991), educators at
all levels inevitably face some changes in the
ways schools function. Principals will be asked
to demonstrate even higher levels of effective
leadership as changes occur. The time has come
for them to analyze their own level of motivation
as it relates to their role in a restructuring process
that will affect the motivation students feel
toward learning for many years to come.
13
Despite the fact that motivation has historically
been a much discussed topic in education,
research into the theory of motivation and the
practice of producing it is of fairly recent vintage.
Although one of the most prominent figures in
motivation research, David McClelland, began
his work on the subject as early as the 1940s, it
was not until the last decade or two that motivation
theory began to be fully developed.
This chapter provides an overview of several
different approaches to the concept of motivation
and the way it functions in individuals. By
familiarizing themselves with some of the theories
of motivation, school administrators can
perhaps better understand the role motivation
plays in their own and their students’ lives.
Motivation as a Personal
Trait
According to Maehr and Braskamp (1986),
McClelland and his colleagues set out to systematize
the study of motivation by designing assessment
procedures that would help identify the
characteristics associated with highly motivated
personalities. One stream of McClelland’s research
sought to identify the motives related to
achievement behavior. Certain individuals, he
found, could be characterized by their desire to
be successful. These individuals demonstrated
specific behaviors that identified them as
“achievers” (McClelland 1961, 1985).
The source of this trait was the subject of a
second, broader area of McClelland’s research,
one that is of special importance to educators.
McClelland investigated the possibility that
differences in child-rearing practices in various
societies and cultures accounted for differences in
the development of motivation in individuals. He
found that “child-rearing practices that emphasize
independence training and mastery produce
people who are high in achievement motivation”
(Maehr and Braskamp 1986, p. 21).
McClelland also studied the strength of
power motivation and affiliation motivation that
individuals exhibit within groups or organizations.
Power motivation might be displayed in
educational settings by students who are extremely
competitive, who gain a sense of power
by being recognized as the brightest student or as
the student most likely to succeed. Affiliation
motivation is exhibited in response to a desire for
approval in social contexts, for example, in
situations where a student receives praise for
doing well from family or friends.
Motivation in Response to
Situations
In a review of research on motivation as it is
exhibited in specific contexts or situations, Maehr
and Braskamp (1986) offer a “counterbalancing
perspective” to McClelland’s “focus on personality
as a cause of motivation.” Maehr and
Braskamp conclude that “perhaps more than we
realize, we are what we are expected to be and
we do what the task and our significant others
allow and demand” (p. 35).
A useful taxonomy for the study of situations
that affect motivation is shown in figure 3.
Several of the sectors in the taxonomy are
especially important in school settings. Normative
expectations apply to all group members;
each member is expected to adhere to the established
norms of the group. Such expectations can
exist in very basic social units, including the
family, clubs, and schools. Because individuals
are influenced by these social groups quite early
in life, they can acquire at young ages basic
attitudes about what is worth achieving and how
it can be achieved.
Another important category is individualized

Some Recent Theories

of Motivation
14
expectations, that is, what significant people,
such as teachers and principals, believe about a
specific student. Some research in this area as it
relates to the workplace indicates that an
employer’s belief about the effectiveness of an
employee influences the productivity of that
worker (Steers 1981).
Inherent task characteristics are especially
important in the educational arena. Maehr and
Braskamp (1986) describe the characteristics of
this category:
Research on intrinsic motivation . . . has suggested
that a task that possesses a certain optimum
level of uncertainty and unpredictability
tends to be generally attractive. Although social
experiences can reduce the search for novelty,
new information, and challenge, it appears that
from the start, human beings have a built-in
attraction to these features in tasks. (p. 32)
Thus, it is likely that schools where the
students feel appropriately challenged to be
academically successful and where the rewards of
learning take the form of problem solving or
successfully meeting challenges will have a
higher level of motivation among its students.
Sociocultural definition involves the degree
to which an individual’s social or cultural group
supports a particular task or goal. In this context,
schools where academic achievement is emphasized
and rewarded might logically be expected
to have more highly motivated students.
The category of interpersonal demands in
the taxonomy is also important. Research on
cooperative learning has frequently demonstrated
that individuals react differently to different
educational settings. Some students thrive in
group learning situations where cooperation and
personal interaction are operative, while others
seem to do best working alone. Schools in which
opportunities exist for all students to participate
in ways that are best suited to their personal
needs and preferences are probably more likely to
have a larger number of motivated students.
One other category, incentives, is central to
the study of motivation in schools. Grades are
obviously an incentive of great importance to
most students, but the use of grades as an incentive
or as a form of punishment can have longterm
impact on student motivation. As Maehr
and Braskamp point out, “Different incentives are
likely to be associated with different tasks, and
the manner in which these incentives are designed,
presented, or made available is important”
(p. 33).
Figure 3: Model of Situational/Contextual Factors That
Influence Motivation
Sociocultural
Context
Sociocultural
Context
Interpersonal
Demands
Role-Related
Expectations
Persistence, Direction (Choice),
Performance Variation, etc.
t
The Person
Sociocultural Task Expectations
Definition
Incentives
Inherent
Task
Characteristics
Individualized
Expectations
Social Expectations Normative
Expectations
Source: Maehr and Braskamp (1986)
15
Motivation and the Concept
of Self
One final area of study that has influenced
recent theory on motivation is its relationship to
cognition, or the thought processes an individual
goes through when placed in situations where
motivation comes into play (Ames 1986,
Salancik and Pfeffer 1978). The way a person
responds to a task and his or her decision to
invest the time and energy necessary to succeed
in accomplishing it is dependent upon a complex
blend of present thoughts and previous experiences.
This line of study involves two areas of
focus: thoughts about self and thoughts about
situations. In reviewing the research literature on
the topic of self as it relates to motivation, Maehr
and Braskamp (1986) have identified three areas
in which self-concept plays an important role.
The three areas are self-consistency, self-confidence,
and self-determination.
Self-Consistency
This concept involves an individual’s proclivity
to behave in a manner consistent with his
or her self-image. Once a self-image has been
formed, an individual begins to perceive circumstances
and respond to them in a way that reinforces
that self-image.
Because the opinions of significant others
are especially powerful at various critical stages
in a person’s life, self-image is often formed
during the early stages of an individual’s development
and can be very difficult to overcome.
This plays an obvious role in educational settings,
where a student might well appear to be unmotivated
in order to maintain a sense of consistency
with a self-image shaped by the experience of
having been labeled as a “failure.” As Maehr and
Braskamp conclude,
People do try to square their thoughts with what
they see happening to them. Inconsistencies in
thought are motivating. We can tolerate some
inconsistency some of the time, but apparently
we can tolerate only so much. (p. 37)
Self-Confidence
Researchers have often confirmed the notion
that a person’s sense of self-confidence is a
critical variable in achieving success and in
becoming motivated to attempt certain tasks
(Atkinson and Feather 1966, Vroom 1964). Like
the “little train that could,” individuals develop
preconceived notions about their chances for
success or failure based upon their level of selfconfidence.
Experiments by Weiner (1979, 1983, 1984)
demonstrated that when individuals with a low
sense of self-confidence succeeded in carrying
out a task, they often attributed their achievement
to luck or to the lack of difficulty of the task
rather than to their own skill. On the other hand,
individuals with a high level of self-confidence
usually took full credit for accomplishing the task
successfully.
As an extension of self-image, levels of selfconfidence
are often established in the early
stages of a person’s development. Studies have
shown that significant others also play an extremely
important role in shaping an individual’s
self-confidence (Haas and Maehr 1965; Maehr,
Mensing, and Nafzinger 1962).
Self-Determination
Recent work on self-determination has
pointed to the importance of cultivating a sense
of ownership or of control over a situation before
individuals will become motivated to act
(deCharms 1984, Deci 1980, Hackman and
Oldham 1980). In a school setting, a sense of
self-determination could well be a critical element
in engendering motivation among students.
The Complexity of
Motivation
The various theories that have sprung from
research on motivation indicate the complexity of
the problem of determining the possible interactions
among the many components—individual
differences, situational differences, social and
cultural factors, and cognition. In concluding
their review of motivation theory, Maehr and
Braskamp (1986) suggest how an individual’s
level of motivation can be derived from one or
more of these sources:
When we boil down the antecedents of motivation
and personal investment to their simplest
16
form, we are inclined to suggest that people do
what they believe they can do and what they
believe is worth doing. Judgments of opportunity
to perform and the value to the person in
performing sum up most of what we need to
consider in discussing motivation. The former
involves not only the personal sense of competence
but also perceptions of options. The latter
involves not only the norms people live by as the
result of sociocultural groups in which they
participate but the individualized goal they hold
for themselves—what they are and what they
hope to become.
Maehr and Braskamp go on to explore the
components of motivation from a perspective that
is reflected in their use of the term personal
investment. They outline the following five
points that define their approach to the problem
of theorizing about motivation:
1. The study of motivation begins and ends with
the study of behavior. The behavioral patterns
associated with motivation are collectively
referred to as personal investment.
2. The direction of behavior is of primary
significance; thus, the focus is on the apparent
choices and decisions made by people.
3. It is the meaning of the situation to the
person that determines personal investment.
4. The meaning of a situation can be assessed,
and its origins can be determined.
5. Motivation is a process that is embedded in
the ongoing stream of behavior.
Maehr and Braskamp’s graphic representation
of the antecedents of motivation and meaning
is shown in figure 4.
The theory of personal investment centers
on two basic ideas:
Figure 4: Antecedents of Meaning and Personal Investment
Age/Stage
Perceived
Options
Personal
Incentives
Sense of
Self
Information Sociocultural Context
Performance
Situation
Personal
Experiences
Source: Maehr and Braskamp (1986)
Personal Investment
17
1. People invest themselves in certain activities
depending on the meaning these activities
have for them.
2. Meaning involves three interrelated categories
of cognition: personal incentives, sense of
self, and perceived options.
Although the focus of Maehr and
Braskamp’s theory as it is developed in The
Motivation Factor is on how motivation functions
in the workplace, it has direct applications
to the concept of motivation in educational
settings. Students, like individual workers, must
derive some sense of personal reward from
specific tasks before they can be expected to
generate any significant motivation to carry out
the task. In their role as educational managers,
principals bear some of the responsibility for
helping students to generate a feeling of value
and reward when they engage in and complete
academic work. This feeling can occur at both
the individual level and at the school level.
The various theories that have been proposed
to explain how motivation operates in
people’s lives can perhaps help principals understand
not only the different levels of motivation
that exist among students in a school but also the
different levels of motivation that exist across
schools. And hopefully such theories can also
help principals understand the importance of
analyzing the role that motivation plays in their
own lives as they seek a happy fit between their
own set of values and the values being shaped at
the schools where they serve as educational
leaders.
18
19

Conclusion
A recent survey of 1,879 students listed in
Who’s Who Among American High School
Students, three-fourths of whom had A averages,
indicated that their level of motivation was not
particularly high. More than half of them reported
that they studied no more than seven hours
each week, and three-fourths of them indicated
that they would not increase their study time even
if a proposed national achievement test became a
reality. The lack of enthusiasm for learning
among the student respondents lead Paul Krouse,
publisher of Who’s Who, to ask, “What is wrong
with our educational system that our best and
brightest students are so unmotivated?” (“Column
One” 1991).
There are no easy answers to Mr. Krouse’s
question, but that does not mean that we should
give up trying to answer it. Just as we want our
students to remain motivated to learn, we must
remain motivated to find a solution to an admittedly
difficult problem. Like most problems, the
lack of motivation among students today is
probably the result of several causes, some within
our immediate control, some not.
Each of the preceding chapters has suggested
a different approach to improving motivation
in educational settings: cultivating a school
culture that establishes and celebrates the value
of academic achievement and the motivation that
leads to it, restructuring our schools so that new
methods of instruction that might be more effective
can be tested, and understanding the various
factors that shape an individual’s proclivity to be
motivated or unmotivated in a particular set of
circumstances.
It is not likely that school leaders can devise
a single programmatic approach that will be a
panacea for the many problems that contribute to
a lack of student motivation. Given this situation,
perhaps it is best to try many different things.
Here are some steps to consider:
• Analyze the ways that motivation operates in
your own life and develop a clear way of
communicating your understanding of it to
teachers and students.
• Demonstrate to students how motivation
plays an important role in your own life, both
professionally and personally.
• Work with students, teachers, parents, and
others to establish challenging but achievable
school goals that promote academic achievement
and the motivation that goes with it.
• Seek ways to demonstrate how motivation
plays an important role in noneducational
settings.
• Encourage instructional programs that offer
alternatives to traditional educational practices
with the idea that they might be more
effective in motivating students.
• Make motivation a frequent topic of discussion
among students, teachers, and other staff.
• Show students that success is important.
Recognize the variety of ways that students
can succeed. Reward success in all its forms.
• Develop or schedule teacher inservice programs
that focus on motivation.
• Participate in administrator inservice programs
that focus on motivation.
• Demonstrate through your own actions that
learning is a lifelong process that can be
pleasurable for its own sake.
• Understand and promote the value of intrinsic
motivation.
• Use extrinsic reward systems judiciously.
• Invite motivational speakers to your school.
• Ensure that restructuring programs address
the issues related to student motivation.
• Get parents involved in disucssing the issue
of motivation.
If school leaders expect students to become
motivated to learn, they must first sustain their
own motivation to create schools where students
discover that learning is an exciting and rewarding
activity.
20
21
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Most items with an ED number are available from ERIC Document Reproduction Service (EDRS), 7420
Fullerton
Square, Suite 110, Newington, VA 22153-2836.
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copy (PC), and
number of copies. Add postage to the cost of all orders and include check or money order payable to
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