Computers in Human Behavior 68 (2017) 8e16

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Self-schema and self-discrepancy mediate the inuence of Instagram

usage on body image satisfaction among youth
Ashraf Sadat Ahadzadeh a, *, Saeed Pahlevan Sharif b, Fon Sim Ong c
a
Faculty of Social Sciences and Liberal Arts, UCSI University, Malaysia
b
Taylor's Business School, Taylor's University, Malaysia
c
Nottingham University Business School, The University of Nottingham Malaysia Campus, Malaysia

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This study investigated the direct effect of Instagram usage on body satisfaction, whether this effect is
Received 2 August 2016 mediated by appearance self-schema and self-discrepancy, and whether self-esteem moderates this
Received in revised form effect. A total of 273 university students using Instagram were conveniently recruited to do the online
7 November 2016
survey on demographic characteristics, Instagram usage, self-schema, self-discrepancy, body satisfaction
Accepted 9 November 2016
and self-esteem. Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling was used to test the research hy-
potheses. As predicted, the results revealed that appearance self-schema and self-discrepancy mediated
the effect of Instagram usage on body satisfaction. Moreover, this mediation effect varied depending on
Keywords:
Body satisfaction
the Instagram users' self-esteem level, such that the negative effect of Instagram usage on body satis-
Self-schema faction through self-schema and self-discrepancy became stronger for those with a lower level of self-
Self-discrepancy esteem.
Self-esteem 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Instagram

1. Introduction
The proliferation and the popularity of Social Networking Sites
(SNS), in particular Instagram has changed people's social life.
Instagram is being used primarily for sharing of photos and images
and it has redened individuals' evaluation of what is aesthetic
which often results in social comparisons. While Instagram has
gained popularity among people, research in the link between the
use of Instagram and how it inuences people's perception of body
image is scarce even though some pioneering studies regarding the
association between other SNSs usage and body image have pro-
vided the initial understanding on the role of SNSs in body image.
To date, research results show the direct and negative inuence of
SNSs such as Facebook on body image (Bair, Kelly, Serdar, & Mazzeo,
2012; Smith, Hames, & Joiner, 2013; Tiggemann & Slater, 2013;
Vartanian & Dey, 2013). Among the studies, Bair et al. (2012) and
Kim and Chock (2015) scrutinized the underlying processes that
may explain the inuence of Facebook usage on negative body
image. Drawing upon social comparison theory, Kim and Chock
* Corresponding author. Faculty of Social Sciences and Liberal Arts, UCSI Uni-
versity, Malaysia; Jalan Menara Gading, Taman Connaught, 56000 Kuala Lumpur,
Wilayah Persekutuan Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
E-mail address: Ahadzadeh1980@gmail.com (A.S. Ahadzadeh).
(2015) found that social comparison shows the mechanism which
explains the inuence of Facebook usage for social grooming on
body image concern. Body dissatisfaction can be developed when
one frequently compares one's own physical appearance to the
physical appearance of others (Vartanian & Dey, 2013). Visiting,
checking other users' prole photos, liking, sharing or commenting
on their photos on SNSs cause individuals to frequently engage in
social comparisons related to physical appearance, thus leading to
negative feeling towards their body (Kim & Chock, 2015). In addi-
tion to social comparison, the extant literature reveals that thin-
ideal internalization also translates the image-focused Internet
use to negative body image (Bair et al., 2012). The ideal created can
lead to the intensication of body image evaluation. In situations
where the ideal image is felt unattainable, negative body image
may result.
Apart from social comparison theory and internalization, there
are two theories anchored on cognitive approach that could be used
to explain the behavior towards body satisfaction: self-schema
theory (Markus, 1977) and self-discrepancy theory (Higgins,
1987). We propose that these two theories provide the link be-
tween Instagram usage and body satisfaction such that individuals
who place importance on saliency of appearance may become
concerned about the discrepancy between their actual and ideal
image. Through the use of Instagram, appearance becomes an

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2016.11.011
0747-5632/ 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 A.S. Ahadzadeh et al. / Computers in Human Behavior 68 (2017) 8e16
important aspect of life. When differences between actual and ideal
self-image become apparent, cognitive incongruence results in
negative image and unhappiness with their body. This cognitive
incongruence that has not been studied previously could provide
the much needed reasons behind Instagram usage and body
satisfaction assessment.
In this study, we attempt to develop the link between Instagram
usage and body satisfaction by examining the mediating role of
self-schema and self-discrepancy. We further tested the inuence
of self-esteem as a moderator such that the mediated effect of self-
schema and self-discrepancy is a function of self-esteem. We hy-
pothesize that people who have high self-esteem would be less
likely to be inuenced by self-schema and would have reduced
level of appearance self-discrepancy. The aim of the current study is
ve-fold: 1) to test the inuence of Instagram usage on body
satisfaction; 2) to examine the inuence of self-schema on self-
discrepancy; 3) to test whether appearance self-discrepancy and
self-schema mediate the inuence of Instagram usage on body
satisfaction sequentially; 4) to test whether self-esteem moderates
the inuence of Instagram usage on self-schema and 5) to test
whether self-esteem moderates the inuence of Instagram usage
on body satisfaction which is mediated by appearance self-schema
and self-discrepancy.
2. Background of the study
2.1. Self-presentation on social networking sites
SNSs such as Instagram provides a platform for self-
presentation which is dened as any behavior to create, modify,
or maintain an impression of ourselves in the minds of others
(Brown, 2007, p.160). SNSs provide an interactive online environ-
ment facilitating real-self (aspects that are authentic), ideal-self
(who one wishes/desires to be) and false self (aspects that are not
fully truthful) presentations (Michikyan, Dennis, & Subrahmanyam,
2014). These presentations are commonly done through implicit
self-descriptions, such as showcasing oneself through photos pos-
ted (Hum et al., 2011; Manago, Graham, Greeneld, & Salimkhan,
2008; Zhao, Grasmuck, & Martin, 2008).
Users' photos on SNSs become a source of other users' impres-
sion (Ivcevic & Ambady, 2012). Additionally, prole photos have
practical implications since their appeal can raise the response rate
to the friendship requests (Tifferet, Gaziel, & Baram, 2012). Users
tend to show rather than tell their identities through the use of
photographs. SNSs such as Facebook is highly used for viewing,
posting and tagging photos (Junco, 2012). Individuals present
photographs that focus on their face as well as full body images
(Haferkamp & Kr amer, 2011). The majority of the prole pictures
are posed photos rather than candid photos (Hum et al., 2011).
Toma and Hancock (2010) found that Facebook users tend to post
their favorable photos and airbrush their undesirable images to
increase their appearance attractiveness. Meanwhile, they limit or
eliminate their unattering images to manage their self-
presentation (Lang & Barton, 2015).
These results imply that SNS users have a selective self-
presentation through which they display their best and most
attractive photos including idealized body. Indeed, SNSs have
provided an interactive environment through which not only users
are allowed to selectively present their own physical images, but
also experience an increased perceived social pressure to do so. This
leads to the likelihood that users portray idealized images of their
physical appearance on their proles, hoping that others are
impressed by their aesthetically display of photos (Manago et al.,
2008).
9
2.2. Body image
Body image is dened as one's attitudinal disposition toward the
physical self which includes evaluative, cognitive, and behavioral
components (Cash & Pruzinsky, 2002). The existing literature widely
documents the pervasive inuence that mass media exposure has
on individuals' negative body image (Ata, Thompson, & Small, 2013;
Boyce & Kuijer, 2014; Bruns & Carter, 2015; Halliwell, 2013; Myers &
Crowther, 2009; Tiggemann, Slater, & Smyth, 2014). Media content
mainly include images portraying the thinness for women and
muscular body for men as physical beauty, desirable and ideal traits
(Wasylkiw, Emms, Meuse, & Poirier, 2009). The proliferation of
these images in conventional media such as glossy magazines and
television programmes are portrayed as standard and attainable.
However, since it is practically tough to achieve the ideal body, the
internalization of its respective norms might lead to negative body
image (Harrison, 2009).
While the literature has an abundance of studies on the linkage
between mass media exposure such as magazine images and
negative body image (Bair et al., 2012; Clay, Vignoles, & Dittmar,
2005; Grabe, Ward, & Hyde, 2008; Groesz, Levine, & Murnen,
2002), empirical research that investigates the links between
web-based media usage and unfavourable body image is limited. A
few studies are found to investigate the exposure to various
Internet sites in general (Rodgers, Melioli, Laconi, Bui, & Chabrol,
2013; Tiggemann & Miller, 2010; Tiggemann & Slater, 2013). For
instance, surveying 8 and 9 year old girls and adolescent girls (aged
13e15 years) about the relationship between Internet consumption
and body image concerns, Tiggemann and Slater (2013) found that
Internet exposure was signicantly correlated distinctively with
internalization, body surveillance, and drive for thinness. Young
adults who are heavy users of the Internet were also found to
exhibit Internet addiction symptoms. They showed symptoms of
body image avoidance and disordered eating (Bair et al., 2012;
Rodgers et al., 2013). Likewise, exposure to online fashion maga-
zine websites led to more weight and shape discrepancy in women
(Fardouly, Diedrichs, Vartanian, & Halliwell, 2015). Additionally, the
correlation between the usage of some forms of social media (such
as social networking sites) and negative body image has been
documented in the literature (Tiggemann & Miller, 2010;
Tiggemann & Slater, 2013). In Vartanian and Dey (2013)'s study,
individuals tended to compare their appearance (e.g., face, hair and
skin-related appearance) to those appearance they like after
visiting Facebook.
Furthermore, results of the longitudinal research about female
students also revealed that maladaptive usage of Facebook was
associated with increased body dissatisfaction four weeks later
(Smith et al., 2013). While most studies show a negative effect of
Facebook on body satisfaction, Fardouly et al. (2015) did not nd
any direct effect of Facebook exposure on dissatisfaction with body
and willingness to change weight and shape in an experimental
setting.
More recent studies focused on the nature of the inuence of
social media on body dissatisfaction (Kim & Chock, 2015; Meier &
Gray, 2014). For example, Kim and Chock (2015) found that Face-
book usage for social grooming behaviors such as browsing
around, visiting, checking other users' proles, liking, messaging, or
commenting on others' proles have a positive effect on concern
about body. Another study found that the time specically devoted
to the Facebook photo activities (i.e., posting and sharing photos of
oneself and friends) resulted in elevated self-objectication, inter-
nalization of the thin ideal, and drive for thinness, but lower level of
weight satisfaction after controlling for BMI (Meier & Gray, 2014).
In summary, most of the studies show strong support for the
negative impact of exposure to ideal photos (in both traditional and
10 A.S. Ahadzadeh et al. / Computers in Human Behavior 68 (2017) 8e16
new media such as SNSs) on undesirable affective feeling towards
body. To date, no study has focused on the association between
Instagram usage and body satisfaction in which Instagram has
become popular for posting of photos that could reveal the ideal
body image. Based on the literature reviewed above, the following
hypothesis is proposed:
H1. Instagram usage has a negative inuence on body satisfaction.
2.3. Self-schema and self-discrepancy as mediators
Apart from social comparison theory and internalization, self-
schema theory (Markus, 1977) and self-discrepancy theory
(Higgins, 1987) underpinned in psychology are adopted to explain
the inuence of exposure to images and the formation of negative
body image. Markus (1977) put forth the concept of appearance
schema which refers to a cognitive generalizations about the self,
derived from past experience, that organize and guide the pro-
cessing of self-related information contained in an individual's
social experience (p.64). This schema can happen in a number of
domains including physical appearance (Cash & Labarge, 1996;
Cash, Melnyk, & Hrabosky, 2004). Appearance schema represents
a cognitive component of body image and specically refer to
generalizations about the role of appearance, particularly the
importance and meaning placed on appearance, in an individual's
life (Sinton & Birch, 2006, p. 166). The sense of self-appearance is
sourced from observation of one's own behavior, others' reaction,
and social cues which suggest the most important appearance
(Markus, 1977).
Everyone has appearance schemas to some extent. However, the
strength, elaboration, and accessibility of these schemas vary in
individuals (Markus, Hamill, & Sentis, 1987). Individuals are
different in the degree to which appearance is important to them.
Those for whom appearance is an important aspect of their self are
considered schematic for body image, whereas those for whom
appearance is not important are considered aschematic (Markus
et al., 1987). Individuals with appearance schematicity believe that
their appearance is one of the factors people notice at rst glance.
Appearance-schematic people psychologically invest in their looks
as a self-worth index and self-evaluation standard. On top of that,
they would encode, process, and react to appearance-relevant
stimuli (Cash & Labarge, 1996) such as media content regarding
physical appearance.
Very few studies investigate how appearance self-schema is
changed by media content exposure. Hargreaves and Tiggemann
(2002) found that exposure to appearance in TV commercial
caused appearance schema to be activated in early adolescent girls.
Another study showed that women with high-appearance self-
schema do not exhibit the most negative mood and lowest body
image scores after exposure to the advertisements with attractive
female models (Jung & Lennon, 2003). However, the same study
showed that females who are aschematic on appearance had
signicantly lower positive mood, lower self-esteem, higher
negative mood, higher anxiety, higher depression, higher body
dissatisfaction, higher appearance orientation scores, and lower
appearance evaluation than those who were aschematic on
appearance in both pre-exposure and post-exposure conditions
(Jung & Lennon, 2003). In their experimental study on the inuence
of exposure to muscular and attractive singers in music video clips
on male youngers' social comparison, mood body image and
schema activation, Mulgrew, Volcevski-Kostas, and Rendell (2014)
identied that boys who were exposed to the clips depicting
attractive and muscular bodies reported lower happiness, lower
appearance satisfaction, lower body satisfaction, and higher level of
depressive feelings as compared to those who viewed the non-
muscular clips. Meanwhile, there was evidence on the increased
level of social comparison among those who viewed the clips of
singers with muscular and attractive body but there was no evi-
dence of inuence on appearance schema activation.
Appearance schemas were also found to affect negative feelings
towards body over time after controlling for the baseline negative
body image (Hargreaves & Tiggemann, 2002). Similarly, Sinton and
Birch (2006) explored that young girls with higher level of
appearance schemas reported lower level of positive body image,
suggesting that cognitive processes of how much appearance is
worth are associated with the negative body image. Meanwhile,
Jung, Lennon, and Rudd (2001) found that appearance self-schema
contributes to cognitive and behavioral investment in appearance,
negative or positive body image and self-appraisals of appearance.
In short, individuals who place importance on looks and appear-
ance inuence them to think about the self they have and the ideal
self they would like to have, which gives rise to discrepancy. The
appearance self-schema that is constructed may result in negative
self-image if the difference between actual self and ideal self is
considered large.
Individuals are motivated to decrease the magnitude of the self-
discrepancies between actual self and their ideal self by changing
the actual-self to the ideal-self or adjusting the ideal self (such that
it nearly approaches to the actual self) as discrepancies can lead to
dejection-related emotions such as body dissatisfaction because
one's hopes and wishes have been unfullled (Higgins, 1987).
Anton, Perri, and Riley (2000) found that the larger the disparity
between actual and ideal body, the higher drives for thinness,
higher levels of body dissatisfaction, the higher the levels of dietary
restraint and bulimic symptomatology.
Drawing upon self-discrepancy theory, Kim and Damhorst
(2010) investigated the inuence of consumers' perceived body-
related self-discrepancy on body dissatisfaction in the context of
online shopping and found that body-related self-discrepancy
perceived by online consumers positively contributes to their
dissatisfaction with body. Individuals who exhibit a greater
discrepancy between their ideal and actual appearance are more
engaged in social comparison behavior (Yu, Kozar, & Damhorst,
2013).
Exposure to friends or celebrities' idealized body images on
Instagram and engaging in activities related to those photos (such
as browsing, liking, leaving comment, re-sharing) may activate
individuals' appearance schemas to inuence the process of self-
relevant information regarding appearance, thus leading to sche-
maticity. This in turn brings about the magnitude of actual-ideal
appearance self-discrepancy perceived by an individual, making
self-discrepancy salient within the individual. Moreover, a critical
determinant of individuals' reaction to the idealized Instagram
photos is the degree to which those individuals have internalized
the social norms and standards of beauty and attractiveness. Hav-
ing adopted these as their own personal values may further inu-
ence their conviction on the traits of ideal-self.
From the review of extant literature, it can be seen that self-
schema and self-discrepancy theory suggest a consequential
mechanism by which body image is negatively affected by exposure
to ideal Instagram photos which creates schemacity leading to
comparison and self-discrepancy if the gap between the ideal-self
and actual-self is sufciently large. Therefore, the current study
suggests that appearance schema and actual-ideal self-discrepancy
might sequentially mediate the inuence of Instagram photos-
exposure on negative body image. Exposure to Instagram ideal
photos affects the importance people attach to their appearance
which in turn affects perception regarding the disparities between
the actual and ideal self-body image. The relationship between self-
discrepancy and self-schema has not been explored (Jung et al.,
 A.S. Ahadzadeh et al. / Computers in Human Behavior 68 (2017) 8e16
2001). Additionally, no studies have focused on the indirect inu-
ence of Instagram photos exposure on body satisfaction which is
mediated by self-schema and self-discrepancy. The current study
proposes the following hypotheses:
H2. Self-schema has a positive inuence on self-discrepancy.
H3. Self-schema and self-discrepancy sequentially mediate the
negative inuence of Instagram photo usage on body satisfaction.
2.4. Self-esteem as moderator
Self-esteem is dened as individual's beliefs towards their
abilities, competencies and standing (McConnell, 2010; Rosenberg,
1965). Low self-esteem is a lack of respect for oneself, with feelings
of unworthiness, inadequacies and deciencies (Rosenberg, 1965)
and has been associated with negative psychosocial outcomes such
as body image disturbance (Oney, Cole, & Sellers, 2011; Sousa
Fortesa, Ciprianib, Coelhob, Paesb, & Caputo Ferreirab, 2014). The
direct inunce of self-esteem on body image has received attention.
For example, Sousa Fortesa, Ciprianib, Coelhob, Paesb, , and
Ferreirab (2014) surveyed a female group of 397 adolescents aged
12e17 years to evaluate the inuence of self-esteem on levels of
their negative body image and found that negative self-esteem is a
determinant of unfavourable affective feeling among adolescent
female. Similarly, Paxton, Eisenberg, and Neumark-Sztainer (2006)
found that individuals with low self-esteem are more likely to be
vulnerable to pressures around body and to be dissatised with
their body over time. Oney et al. (2011) in their survey of 425 Af-
rican American men and women also found that body dissatisfac-
tion was associated with self-esteem.
In addition, self-esteem exerts an indirect inunce on depres-
sive symptoms and satisfaction with body. Murray, Rieger, and
Byrne (2013) studied how stress and body satisfaction are related
over time by examining the role of self-esteem as mediating vari-
able. Results of their study supported the indirect inuence of self-
esteem on the relationship between stress and unpleasant feeling
towards body. Similarly, self-esteem is found to be a mediator for
the effect of negative body image on disordered eating behavior
(Brechan & Kvalem, 2015). Depression may cause binge eating, but
compensatory behavior depends on self-esteem and body image
importance (Brechan & Kvalem, 2015).
Besides the mediating role, self-esteem can be a possible
moderator in the inuence of sociocultural pressures on negative
body image in adolescent boys ranging in age from 12 to 15 years,
and the relationship between negative feeling towards body and
bulimic symptomatology in undergraduate students (Ricciardelli &
McCabe, 2001). Ricciardelli and McCabe (2001) also found that the
inuence of internalization on body dissatisfaction was moderated
by self-esteem, indicating that for individuals with high self-esteem
internalized societal ideal is not likely to lead to body dissatisfac-
tion. Self-esteem also buffered the deleterious effects of negative
body image on bulimic symptomatology, so that when self-esteem
level was high, the relationship between body dissatisfaction and
bulimic symptomatology was the weakest (Brannan & Petrie, 2011).
When individuals are exposed to idealized photos on Instagram,
they are more likely to invest in their body as a self-worth index
and place importance on their appearance. People with high self-
esteem, though, may evaluate appearance as less important and
worthy. We assume that for individuals with high self-esteem,
Instagram usage is not likely to contribute to the appearance
importance as a self-evaluation standard. It can be, therefore, hy-
pothesized that high level self-esteem buffers the negative impact
of Instagram exposure on appearance self-schema. Based on the
assumption, the following hypothesis is proposed:
11
H4. Self-esteem moderates the inuence of Instagram usage on
self-schema.
By including self-esteem as a moderator buffering on the rela-
tionship between Instagram usage and self-schema appearance
into the mediating model discussed earlier, the mediation model
can be extended into a moderated mediation model with self-
esteem as the moderator. In other words, the mediation effect of
appearance self-discrepancy and self-schema are further hypoth-
esized to be moderated by self-esteem. Appearance self-
discrepancy and self-schema do not translate Instagram usage
into negative body image when self-esteem is high. Therefore, this
study also hypothesizes that the mediation role of appearance self-
discrepancy and self-schema on the negative effect of Instagram
photos on body satisfaction depends on the individuals' self-
esteem level. In other words, the mediating effect of appearance
self-discrepancy and self-schema will affect the negative inuence
of Instagram photo on body satisfaction only among those who
possess low level of self-esteem. To test this, the following hy-
pothesis is developed:
H5. Self-esteem moderates the negative inuence of Instagram
photo exposure on body satisfaction which is mediated by
appearance self-schema and appearance self-discrepancy.
3. Methodology
3.1. Procedure for data collection
Online survey was conducted in two private universities in
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia to collect the required data for the study.
Participants completed a set of questionnaire including de-
mographic characteristics, Instagram usage and activities related to
Instagram photos, and four validated measures: self-schema, self-
discrepancy, body satisfaction and self-esteem.
Table 1 shows the demographic prole of the respondents. In-
clusion criteria consisted mainly of respondents aged 18 years or
older and having an active Instagram account for more than 6
months. The sample consisted of 103 males (37.7%) and 170 females
(62.3%), aged between 18 and 26 years (Mean 20.09, SD 1.12).
Majority of the respondents were single (74.7%) and Buddhist
(64.1%).
Instagram activities of the respondents are reported in Table 2.
As high as 83.2% of the respondents were following celebrities and
23.1% of them spending more than 1 h a day on Instagram. The
respondents usually post pictures of their friends (73.26%) and
themselves (65.57%) on their Instagram page.
4. Measurement of variables
4.1. Self-discrepancy
The Body-Image Ideals Questionnaire (BIQ) was included in this
research instrument to measure appearance self-discrepancy (Cash
& Szymanski, 1995). The BIQ is a 20-item measure that assesses
self-perceived discrepancies and the importance of internalized
ideals on 10 physical characteristics. These were rated rst on a 4-
point scale to measure perceived imbalance/discrepancy/incon-
gruence of one's personal ideals for these characteristics and then
rated on the importance of these ideals.
4.2. Self-schema
To measure appearance self-schema, the Beliefs about Appear-
ance Questionnaire (ASI-R) was used for the current research (Cash
12 A.S. Ahadzadeh et al. / Computers in Human Behavior 68 (2017) 8e16

Table 1 Table 2
Demographic proles of respondents. Summary of respondents' Instagram activities.

No. (%) No. (%)

Gender Instagram Usage

Male 103 (37.7%) 10 min  Time 67 (24.5%)
Female 170 (62.3%) 10 min < Time  30 min 85 (31.1%)
Ethnicity 30 min < Time  60 min 58 (21.2%)
Malay 19 (7.0%) 1 h < Time  2 h 30 (11.0%)
Chinese 229 (83.9%) 2 h < Time  3 h 12 (4.4%)
Indian 7 (2.6%) 3 h < Time 21 (7.7%)
Others 18 (6.6%) Following Celebrities
Marital Status Yes 46 (16.8%)
Single and not in any relationship 204 (74.7%) No 227 (83.2%)
Single but in a relationship 69 (25.3%) Posting pictures on Instagram
Religion My pets 55 (20.15%)
No religion preference 30 (11.0%) Scenery 126 (46.15%)
Christianity 34 (12.5%) Parties 90 (32.97%)
Islam 27 (9.9%) Arts 53 (19.41%)
Buddhism 175 (64.1%) My family 101 (37.00%)
Hinduism 4 (1.5%) Myself 179 (65.57%)
Others 3 (1.1%) Signicant other 69 (25.27%)
Sporting Events 63 (23.08%)
Mean (SD)
My friends 200 (73.26%)
Age 20.09 (1.12)
CGPA 3.23 (0.42)
Height 165.30 (9.04)
Weight 58.14 (13.25) schema and self-discrepancy as well as the moderating effect of
BMI 21.05 (3.53) self-esteem. Partial Least Squares algorithm was used to estimate
No. of Followings 304.56 (258.67) the path coefcients and their signicance was tested by per-
No. of Followers 533.81 (1237.55)
forming bootstrapping with 2000 samples to reduce the effects of
random sampling errors. The results are reported in Table 3.
Total Effect Model Assessment: As it is shown, the negative total
& Labarge, 1996). The questionnaire consists of 20 items asking the effect of Instagram usage on body image (b 0.111, t1999 1.973)
participants' beliefs on their physical appearance and its inuence was signicant providing support for H1. Conditional Mediation
on life. Responses were rated on a 5-point Likert-type scale (from Model Assessment: The results of testing the direct relationships in
1 strongly disagree, to 7 strongly agree). the conditional mediation model supported H2 and showed that
self-schema has a signicant positive inuence on self-discrepancy
4.3. Body image satisfaction (b 0.329, t1999 5.990). The indirect effect of Instagram usage on
body image through self-schema and self-discrepancy was negative
The 9-item Body Areas Satisfaction Scale (BASS) with 5-point and signicant at 95% condence level (b 0.034, t1999 2.816)
Likert scale developed by Cash, Fleming, Alindogan, Steadman, (Table 3). By controlling the mediators, the direct effect of Insta-
and Whitehead (2002) was employed to evaluate one's usual dis- gram usage on body image was not signicant (b 0.034,
satisfactionesatisfaction with aspects of one's body. t1999 0.601), indicating full mediation of self-schema and self-
For these three measures, permission from the owner of the discrepancy in the relationship between Instagram usage and
scales was obtained prior to data collection. body image. The results fully supported H3.
Moreover, the signicant negative interaction of self-esteem
4.4. Self-esteem and Instagram usage indicated that self-esteem weakens (nega-
tively moderates) the effect of Instagram usage on self-schema
Participants' self-esteem was assessed by Rosenberg (1965)'s (b 0.179, t1999 2.842). This showed support for H4 indi-
10-item scale measuring global self-worth with focus on both cating that the positive effect of Instagram usage on self-schema is
positive and negative feelings about the self. All items of these stronger for individuals with a lower level of self-esteem. The re-
constructs were rated on a 7-point Likert-type scale from sults also showed that self-esteem moderates the inuence of
1 strongly disagree to 7 strongly agree. Instagram photo exposure on body image which is mediated by
appearance self-schema and appearance self-discrepancy. This
4.5. Instagram usage supported H5. As depicted in Fig. 3, the mediation effect of Insta-
gram usage on body image through self-schema and self-
Instagram usage was measured by asking respondents to esti- discrepancy depends on the users' self-esteem. For the medium
mate the duration (in minutes) per day they spent on Instagram. level of self-esteem, the negative indirect effect of Instagram usage
on body image through self-schema and self-discrepancy was sig-
5. Results nicant at 95% condence level (b 0.034, t1999 2.816). If self-
esteem gets lower (i.e. self-esteem decreases by one standard de-
This study followed the bootstrapping procedures suggested by viation point), the negative indirect effect will be stronger
(Hayes, 2013) since bootstrapping provides higher statistical power (b 0.061, t1999 3.829) and Instagram usage becomes a stronger
and more accurate solutions for testing of indirect effects than predictor of body image. However, for higher self-esteem (i.e. self-
other methods such as Baron and Kenny (1986) and Sobel (1982) esteem increases by one standard deviation point) the indirect ef-
(Hayes, 2013; MacKinnon, Lockwood, & Williams, 2004). Fig. 1 fect will be weaker and non-signicant (b 0.008, t1999 0.520).
shows the total effect of Instagram usage on body image while The results showed support for all hypotheses developed in this
Fig. 2 introduces the mediators and moderator that allows for the research. Furthermore, the model explained 18.64% of the variance
testing of the hypotheses that concern the mediating effect of self- of body image satisfaction.
 A.S. Ahadzadeh et al. / Computers in Human Behavior 68 (2017) 8e16 13

Instagram -.111* Body image

usage satisfaction

Fig. 1. Total effect model.

Self-esteem

Instagram usage .047ns

-.179**
* Self-esteem Self-schema .329*** Self-
discrepancy
-.445***
.236**

.129* .071ns

Instagram -.034ns Body image

usage satisfaction

Fig. 2. Conditional mediation effect model.

6. Discussion
Results of this study show that Instagram usage impinges upon
young adults' body image satisfaction (H1). Indeed, exposure to
photos in Instagram has an adverse impact on body image that
leads to body dissatisfaction. This nding is consistent with the
results of previous studies which showed that Internet usage was
correlated with body surveillance, drive for thinness (Tiggemann &
Slater, 2013) and culminates to body image avoidance, disordered
eating and eating pathology (Bair et al., 2012; Rodgers et al., 2013).
Our ndings also support Tiggemann and Slater (2013)'s study
which showed more time spent on SNS had a positive relationship
with higher levels of internalization of the thin ideal, body sur-
veillance, and drive for thinness. The possible reason for the con-
sistency in the results is that Internet and social networking sites
users such as Instagram selectively display the ideal images of their
appearance to impress others and receive approval from friends
and peers. Therefore, Instagram provides an environment in which
users are most likely to be exposed to a wide variety of other users'
ideal photos which might contribute to the negative feeling and
unhappiness with their own body. In fact, the idealized images
cause young adults to evaluate their appearance by comparing
themselves to others to learn how to dene themselves. One the
other hand, such results do not lend support to Fardouly et al.
(2015) experimental research which did not report the direct in-
uence of Facebook exposure on body dissatisfaction or tendency
to change shape and weight.
One of our main contributions of this study lies in identifying
the positive inuence of self-schema on self-discrepancy (H2). To
the best of our knowledge no study has investigated this inuence.

Table 3
The results of total effect model and conditional mediation effect model.

Path Standardized path coefcient, b (95% CI) t1999 (bootstrap)

a. Total effect model

Instagram usage / Body image 0.111* (0.222,0.001) 1.973
b. Conditional mediation effect model
**
Instagram usage / Self-schema 0.236 (0.097,.374) 3.339
Self-schema / Self-discrepancy 0.329*** (0.221,.436) 5.990
Self-discrepancy / Body image 0.445*** (0.568,0.322) 7.104
Instagram usage / Self-discrepancy 0.129* (0.009,.249) 2.101
Self-schema / Body image 0.071ns (0.048,.191) 1.171
Instagram usage / Body image 0.034ns (0.146,.077) 0.601
Self-esteem / Self-schema 0.047ns (0.089,.184) 0.679
Instagram usage  Self-esteem / Self-schema 0.179** (0.302,0.056) 2.842
Instagram usage / Self-schema / Self-discrepancy / Body image 0.034** (0.034,0.010) 2.816
Instagram usage / Self-schema j Self-esteem 1 SD 0.415*** (0.415,.568) 5.301
Instagram usage / Self-schema j Self-esteem 0 SD 0.236** (0.236,.374) 3.338
Instagram usage / Self-schema j Self-esteem 1 SD 0.057ns (0.057,.270) 0.524
Instagram usage / Self-schema / Self-discrepancy / Body image j Self-esteem 1 SD 0.061*** (0.061,0.030) 3.829
Instagram usage / Self-schema / Self-discrepancy / Body image j Self-esteem 0 SD 0.034** (0.034,0.010) 2.816
Instagram usage / Self-schema / Self-discrepancy / Body image j Self-esteem 1 SD 0.008ns (0.008,.023) 0.520

R2: body image 18.64%, Self-schema 10.22%, Self-discrepancy 14.71%.

ns
non-signicant.
*
p-value < 0.05.
**
p-value < 0.01.
***
p-value < 0.001.
14 A.S. Ahadzadeh et al. / Computers in Human Behavior 68 (2017) 8e16
Fig. 3. Interaction of self-esteem and Instagram usage. High and low levels of the self-esteem were created using plus or minus one standard deviation from the mean, respectively.
Therefore, this study was a response to previous scholars' recom-
mendation to test whether self-schema is a prerequisite for self-
discrepancy (Jung et al., 2001). In this study, results show that
appearance self-schema positively inuences appearance self-
discrepancy, suggesting that self-schema was able to drive young
adults to be involved with information relevant to appearance (i.e.
ideal photos in Instagram). In other words, for those who pay more
attention to their look, appearance becomes such a salient and
important issue. The importance placed on appearance creates
disparities between attributes individuals possess in their actual
appearance and attributes individuals would like to possess. The
extent individuals care about their appearance and look perpetu-
ates the magnitude of discrepancy between their actual and ideal
features.
The positive inuence of self-schema on self-discrepancy sup-
ported our assertion that the negative inuence of Instagram usage
on body satisfaction is mediated by self-schema and self-
discrepancy sequentially (H3). We illustrated that the effect of
self-schema on self-discrepancy is an underlying mechanism that
could explain the impact of Instagram usage on body image satis-
faction, which would establish the second main theoretical
contribution of this study in furtherance to the existing literature.
Exposure to ideal photos in Instagram affects investment in phys-
ical attractiveness and appearance centrality and importance
placed on appearance, which in turn leads to cognitive discrepancy
between actual and ideal self. The incompatible beliefs about self
which results will ultimately cause negative emotional state or
dissatisfaction with body. In a nutshell, appearance self-schema
and self-discrepancy are able to serve as a sequential mechanism
that links Instagram usage to body image satisfaction, such that this
cognitive process begins with the Instagram usage, continues with
self-schema and self-discrepancy as a psychological state and ends
with negative emotions towards body.
In addition, results of this study show that the intensity of
positive inuence of Instagram usage on self-schema is dependent
on self-esteem (H4), such that Instagram usage has a stronger
positive inuence on self-schema among those with low level self-
esteem. Indeed, self-esteem buffers the impact of Instagram usage
on self-schema. These ndings suggest that young adults with low
level of self-esteem are vulnerable to experience psychological
states leading to discomfort with their body and appearance.
Moreover, our results showed that the mediated model holds
among individuals with low level of self-esteem (H5), indicating the
moderating role of high level of self-esteem in mitigating the
negative effect of Instagram usage on body satisfaction. By testing
self-esteem as a moderator in the investigation on body image
satisfaction, this study contributes to existing literature on self-
esteem in that self-esteem acts as a defense mechanism to
ameliorate the impact of self-schema and self-discrepancy on body
image satisfaction. This research accentuates the value of incor-
porating potential moderator and mediators into a single theoret-
ical framework to provide a better understanding of the
psychological and cognitive process behind body image. In such
psychological and cognitive process, young Instagram users tend to
invest in their look and appearance and evaluate their actual and
ideal-self discrepant and display dissatisfaction with their appear-
ance and body if self-esteem is low.
Findings of the study provide several practical implications.
Results would be benecial to focus on providing young adults with
functional tools to deconstruct the negative inuences of what they
encounter on SNSs like Instagram. Psycho-educational in-
terventions for young adults could focus on reinforcing a critical
stance toward beauty standards, in order to prevent or at least
reduce the extreme importance placed on beauty and magnitude of
the discrepancy between actual and ideal-self. Media literacy pro-
gram when successfully implemented, will be effective in changing
youngsters' perceptions of the realism of Instagram images. In
addition, helping young people to build their condence thereby
improving their self-esteem should be a good strategy. The media
has a role to play by de-emphasizing the value of thinness or
attractiveness and creating positive messaging around the impor-
tance of having skills and capabilities. Another additional inter-
vention which may have tangible payoffs is to encourage young
people to have a more realistic self-appraisal and to focus on the
inner beauty. Self-esteem could create a shield to protect young
adults from being negatively affected by SNSs content like Insta-
gram photos.
Negative feeling towards body is a potential risk factor in the
development of eating disorder symptomatology and clinical
eating disorders and predicts a wide range of disordered eating
outcomes (Boyce & Kuijer, 2014; Brannan & Petrie, 2011; Brechan &
Kvalem, 2015). Therefore, the ndings of this study would also
benet health professionals to understand the possible causes of
eating disorders. In addition, the ndings of this study would also
benet those who are concerned about young adults' increasing
tendency towards cosmetic surgery from having a better under-
standing about factors that contribute to negative body image as
the growing body of literature shows that dissatisfaction with body
 A.S. Ahadzadeh et al. / Computers in Human Behavior 68 (2017) 8e16
is a major determinant of cosmetic surgery (Slevec & Tiggemann,
2010).
This study is not without limitations. The sample of the current
study was sourced from only two private universities, which might
unfavorably affect the external validity of the ndings and chal-
lenge the generalizability of the results. In order to overcome this
limitation, the use of samples with different socio-demographic
characteristics will be a preferable alternative for future studies.
Possible third inuence for the deleterious effect of Instagram on
body image and dissatisfaction with life should be explored. For
example, the moderating effect of religiosity should be investigated
in future studies. In addition, this study has assumed that self-
discrepancy directly leads to negative body image. It is suggested
that future studies should incorporate social comparison between
self-discrepancy and body image to elucidate the possible intricate
relationship between self-discrepancy and body image.
Acknowledgement
This work was supported by the UCSI University Research Grant
[Proj-In-FOSSLA-003, UCSI].
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