Seismic methods: Refraction I

Refraction reading: Sharma p158 - 186

Applied Geophysics Refraction I

Pre-Critical incidence
Reflection and refraction

Snells Law:
sin iP sin RP sin rP
= = =p
VP1 VP1 VP 2
where p is the ray parameter and is
constant along each ray.

Reflection and transmission

coefficients for a specific
impedance contrast

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Critical incidence
When rP = 90 iP = iC the critical angle
VP1
sin iC =
VP 2
The critically refracted energy travels
along the velocity interface at V2
continually refracting energy back into
the upper medium at an angle iC
a head wave

Reflection and transmission

coefficients for a specific
impedance contrast

Applied Geophysics Refraction I

Post-Critical incidence

The angle of incidence > iC

No transmission, just reflection

Reflection and transmission

coefficients for a specific
impedance contrast

Applied Geophysics Refraction I

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Horizontal interface
Head
Traveltime equations wave

Direct wave:
x
T=
V1
Head wave:

T = TSB + TDD ' + TBD

2h1 x 2h1 tan ic
T= +
V1 cos ic V2
x 2h1 V2 V1
2 2
T= +
V2 V2V1
T = ax + b
slope: 1/V2
intercept: gives h1

Applied Geophysics Refraction I

Horizontal interface
Crossover distance, xco
Where the direct and head
wave cross. Their travel
times are equal:

xco xco 2h1 V2 V1

2 2
= +
V1 V2 V2V1
V2 + V1
xco = 2h1
V2 V1

Another approach to
obtaining layer thickness

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Horizontal interface
Reflections
The critical reflection is the
closest head wave arrival.
At shorter offsets there are
low amplitude reflections
(used in reflection
seismology).
At greater offsets there are
wide-angle reflections.

Applied Geophysics Refraction I

Three-layer model
Traveltime
SA AB BC CD DG
TSG = + + + +
V1 V2 V3 V2 V1

2 z1 2 z2 x 2 z1 tan 1 2 z 2 tan c
TSG = + +
V1 cos1 V2 cos c V3

With some manipulation

x 2 z1 V3 V1
2 2
TSG = +
V3 V3V1
2 z 2 V32 V22
+
V3V2
1. Determine V1, V2, V3 from slopes
2. Determine z1 from 1st intercept
3. Determine z2 from 2nd intercept
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Multiple-layered models
For multiple layered models we
can apply the same process to
determine layer thickness and
velocity sequentially from the top
layer to the bottom

Head wave from top of layer 2:

x 2h1 V2 V1
2 2
T= +
V2 V2V1
Head wave from top of layer 3:

x 2h1 V3 V1 2h V 2 V22
2 2
T= + + 2 3
V3 V3V1 V3V2

n 1 2h x
j Vn V j
2 2
Head wave from
top of layer n: T = +
j =1
VnV j V
n
Applied Geophysics Refraction I

Horizontal vs. vertical velocity contrasts

1/V3 1/V2b
A three-horizontal
layer model can
produce the same 1/V2 1/V2a
traveltime curve as a
single horizontal 1/V1 1/V1
layer over a vertical
velocity contact

Head wave
continues into 2b

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Horizontal vs. vertical velocity contrasts

Use a long-offset shot

Leave the geophones
fixed and move shot to
greater offset

In horizontal layers case

the shape of the traveltime
curve is unchanged, just
shifted in space.
In vertical velocity contrast
case the crossover distance
remains fixed but is time
shifted.

Applied Geophysics Refraction I

Mapping vertical contacts

Small offsets

A vertical step causes an offset

on the traveltime curve
The relation of velocity to the
slope remains unchanged
The offset can be calculated from
the time offset, T
TV2V1
zt =
V22 V12 1

Diffractions link the two head

wave curves
Depth, z1, is calculated from the
intercept in the usual way

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Mapping vertical contacts
Infinite/large offsets

For infinite/large vertical offsets

there is no secondary head wave
Three segments
Direct wave
Head wave
Diffracted wave
Will have the velocity
close to the direct wave

Reverse the line

Shooting to the same string of
geophones from the other end
Two traveltime segments:
direct and head wave
Head wave generated from energy entering the
high velocity layer at the vertical interface

Applied Geophysics Refraction I

Dipping layers

Dipping layers still produce head

waves but the traveltimes are
affected by the dip

Shooting up-dip: the velocity

appears greater
Shooting down-dip: the
velocity is reduced

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Reversing lines shooting to a line of geophones from both ends

For dipping layers layer velocities appear

For horizontal layers the traveltime different for each end the dip and true
curves are symmetrical velocity can be determined from the up-
dip and down-dip velocities

Applied Geophysics Refraction I

Dipping layer traveltime

Down-dip
SC CD DS '
Td = + +
V1 V2 V1

hu + hd x [(hu + hd ) tan ic ]
Td = +
V1 cos ic V2

With trigonometric transformations,

an exercise for the class:
Down-dip traveltime Down-dip apparent velocity
x sin(ic + ) 2hd cos ic V1
Td = + Vd =
V1 V1 sin(ic + )
Up-dip traveltime Up-dip apparent velocity
x sin(ic ) 2hu cos ic V1
Tu = + Vu = where is V2
V1 V1 sin(ic ) dependence?
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Dipping layer traveltime
Given
V1 V1
Vd = Vu =
sin(ic + ) sin(ic )

We can solve for:

= 12 sin 1 V1 V sin 1 V1 V
d u

ic = 12 sin 1 V1 + sin 1 V1
Vd Vu

V1
V2 then obtained from: sin ic =
V2
Finally, the intercept times can be used to determine the perpendicular
distance to the reflector:
2hd cos ic 2hu cos ic
Tid = Tiu =
V1 V1

Applied Geophysics Refraction I

Dipping layer
Example

Direct arrivals
Velocities from slopes: 1780 m/s and 2250 m/s
average: 2015 m/s

Head waves
Up-dip velocity, Vu = 3200 m/s
Down-dip velocity, Vd = 2870 m/s
Using
= 12 sin 1 V1 V sin 1 V1 V
d u

ic = 12 sin 1 V1 + sin 1 V1
Vd Vu
we obtain:
= 2.8
ic = 42

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Dipping layer
Example

Now obtain V2 from

V1
sin ic =
V2
V2 = 3000 m/s

To determine the perpendicular depths,

hu and hd, use
2hd cos ic 2hu cos ic
Tid = Tiu =
V1 V1
hu = 155 m and hd = 95 m

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