Bridges - Dynamic Loads

Dynamic loads can present special problems for the bridge designer. A bridge
has to be able to withstand not only the forces of normal, everyday traffic, but
also unusual forces of unexpected magnitude. In California, as an example,
bridges require special kinds of reinforcement to withstand possible
earthquakes. The fact that engineers have not completely solved the problems
presented by dynamic loads is reconfirmed from time to time. For example,
during the 1989 earthquake in the San Francisco Bay area, a section of the
San Francisco-Oak-land Bay Bridge collapsed, leaving a gaping hole. A
freeway overpass in Oakland also failed during the earthquake, taking the
lives of about two dozen motorists.

Wind gusts have been responsible for a number of bridge failures in the past.
Even if wind speeds are relatively low, dynamic loads may become too great
for a bridge to withstand. One reason for this phenomenon is that the bridge
may begin to vibrate so violently that it actually shakes itself apart. Such was
the case, for example, with the Tacoma Narrows Bridge in 1941. On November
7 of that year, with wind speeds registering only about 40 mph (25 kph), the
bridge vibrated so badly that it collapsed. The actual force experienced by the
bridge was considerably less than the dead and live forces for which it had
been designed. But the oscillations produced by wind gusts on the day in
question were sufficient to shake the bridge apart.

As a result of failures such as those in the Bay Bridge and the Tacoma Narrows
Bridge, engineers have developed methods for making bridges more
aerodynamically sound. For example, lighter materials arranged in geometric
structures that are aerodynamically more stable are now used in bridges
where earthquakes, wind gusts, or other unusually severe environmental
problems can be expected.
Bridges - Forces Acting On A Bridge
Three kinds of forces operate on any bridge: the dead load, the live load, and
the dynamic load. The first of these terms refers to the weight of the bridge
itself. Like any other structure, a bridge has a tendency to collapse simply
because of the gravitational forces acting on the materials of which the bridge
is constructed (i.e., the wood, concrete, steel, or aluminum). The second term
refers to traffic that moves across the bridge as well as normal environmental
factors such as changes in temperature, precipitation, and winds. The third
factor refers to environmental factors that go beyond normal weather
conditions, factors such as sudden gusts of wind and earthquakes. All three
factors must be taken into consideration in the design of a bridge.
For example, suppose that it is necessary to build a bridge across a span that is
325 ft (100 m) wide. It would not be possible to build a beam bridge, one that
consists of a single slab of steel 325 ft (100 m) long, of that length. The weight
of the material used to construct the bridge plus the weight of the traffic on the
bridge would be too great for the bridge to remain standing. An engineer
would have to design some other kind of bridge-an arch or suspension bridge,
for example-that would be able to hold up that amount of weight.

Bridges - Types Of Bridges

The simplest type of bridge corresponds to the felled tree mentioned above. It
consists of a single piece of material that stretches from one side of the gap to
be bridged to the other side. That piece of materialthe beam, or girderrests
directly on the ground on each side or is supported on heavy foundations
known as piers. The length of a beam bridge of this kind is limited by the
weight of the beam itself plus the weight of the traffic it has to bear. Longer
beam bridges can be constructed by joining a number of beams to each other
inparallel sections.
The concept of a beam bridge can be extended to make a stronger product, the
continuous bridge. A continuous bridge differs from a beam bridge in that the
latter has at least one additional point of support beyond the two found in a
beam bridge. The longest existing continuous bridges now in use are the
Astoria Bridge that crosses the Columbia River near Astoria, Oregon, and the
Oshima Bridge that connects Oshima Island to the mainland in Japan.

Causes of failure in a bridge:

STORM WATCH
WIND SPEED METER
WEATHER WARNINGS
WIND SPEEDSENSOR
WIND MAPS
DYNAMIC LOADING
WEATHER METERS

Main Types of Bridges in the World

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Below is the list of 5 main types of bridges:

1. Girder bridges

2. Arch bridges

3. Cable-stayed bridges

4. Rigid Frame Bridges

5. Truss bridges.

1. Girder bridges:

It is the most common and most basic bridge type. In its simplest form, a log across
a creek is an example of a girder bridge; the two most common girders are I-beam
girders and box-girders used in steel girder bridges. Examining the cross section of
the I-Beam speaks for its so name. The vertical plate in the middle is known as
 the web, and the top and bottom plates are referred to as flanges.

A box girder takes the shape of a box. The typical box girder has two webs and
two flanges. However, in some cases there are more than two webs, creating a
multiple chamber box girder. Other examples of simple girders include pi girders,
named for their likeness to the mathematical symbol for pi, and T shaped girders.
Since the majority of girder bridges these days are built with box or I-beam girders
we will skip the specifics of these rarer cases.

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An I-beam is very simple to design and build and works very well in most cases. However, if the
bridge contains any curves, the beams become subject to twisting forces, also known as torque. The
added second web in a box girder adds stability and increases resistance to twisting forces. This
makes the box girder the ideal choice for bridges with any significant curve in them. Box girders,
being more stable are also able to span greater distances and are often used for longer spans,
where I-beams would not be sufficiently strong or stable. However, the design and fabrication of box
girders is more difficult than that of I beam. For example, in order to weld the inside seams of a box
girder, a human or welding robot must be able to operate inside the box girder.

2. Arch bridges:

Arch bridges pose a classic architecture and the oldest after the girder bridges. Unlike simple girder
bridges, arches are well suited to the use of stone. Since the arch doesnt require piers in the center
so arches are good choices for crossing valleys and rivers. Arches can be one of the most beautiful
bridge types. Arches use a curved structure which provides a high resistance to bending forces.
Arches can only be used where the ground or foundation is solid and stable because unlike girder
and truss bridges, both ends of an arch are fixed in the horizontal direction (i.e. no horizontal
movement is allowed in the bearing). Thus when a load is placed on the bridge (e.g. a car passes
over it) horizontal forces occur in the bearings of the arch. Like the truss, the roadway may pass over
or through an arch or in some cases.

Structurally there are four basic arch types:

1. Hinge-less

2. Two-hinged

3. Three hinged

4. Tied arches
The hinge-less arch uses no hinges and allows no rotation at the foundations. As a result a great
deal of force is generated at the foundation (horizontal, vertical, and bending forces) and the hinge-
less arch can only be built where the ground is very stable. However, the hinge-less arch is a very
stiff structure and suffers less deflection than other arches. The two hinged arch uses hinged
bearings which allow rotation.

The only forces generated at the bearings are horizontal and vertical forces. This is perhaps the
most commonly used variation for steel arches and is generally a very economical design. The
three-hinged arch adds an additional hinge at the top or crown of the arch. The three-hinged arch
suffers very little if there is movement in either foundation (due to earthquakes, sinking, etc.)

However, the three-hinged arch experiences much more deflection and the hinges are complex and
can be difficult to fabricate. The three-hinged arch is rarely used anymore. The tied arch is a
variation on the arch which allows construction even if the ground is not solid enough to deal with the
horizontal forces. Rather than relying on the foundation to restrain the horizontal forces, the girder
itself "ties" both ends of the arch together, thus the name "tied arch."

3. Cable stayed bridges:

A typical cable stayed bridge is a continuous girder with one or more towers erected above piers in
the middle of the span. From these towers, cables stretch down diagonally (usually to both sides)
and support the girder. Steel cables are extremely strong but very flexible. Cables are very
economical as they allow a slender and lighter structure which is still able to span great distances.
Though only a few cables are strong enough to support the entire bridge, their flexibility makes them
weak to a force we rarely consider: the wind.

For longer span cable-stayed bridges, careful studies must be made to guarantee the stability of the
cables and the bridge in the wind. The lighter weight of the bridge, though a disadvantage in a heavy
wind, is an advantage during an earthquake. However, should uneven settling of the foundations
occur during an earthquake or over time, the cable-stayed bridge can suffer damage so care must
be taken in planning the foundations. The modern yet simple appearance of the cable-stayed bridge
makes it an attractive and distinct landmark.

The unique properties of cables, and the structure as a whole, make the design of the bridge a very
complex task. For longer spans where winds and temperatures must be considered, the calculations
are extremely complex and would be virtually impossible without the aid of computers and computer
analysis. The fabrication of cable stay bridges is also relatively difficult. The cable routing and
attachments for the girders and towers are complex structures requiring precision fabrication. There
are no distinct classifications for cable-stayed bridges.

However, they can distinguish by the number of spans, number of towers, girder type, number of
cables, etc. There are many variations in the number and type of towers, as well as the number and
arrangement of cables. Typical towers used are single, double, portal, or even A-shaped towers.
Cable arrangements also vary greatly. Some typical varieties are mono, harp, fan, and star
arrangements. In some cases, only the cables on one side of the tower are attached to the girder,
the other side being anchored to a foundation or other counterweight.

4. Rigid frame bridges:

Rigid frame bridges are sometimes also known as Rahmen bridges. In a standard girder bridge
type, the girder and the piers are separate structures. However, a rigid frame bridge is one in which
the piers and girder are one solid structure.

The cross sections of the beams in a rigid frame bridge are usually I shaped or box shaped. Design
calculations for rigid frame bridges are more difficult than those of simple girder bridges. The junction
of the pier and the girder can be difficult to fabricate and requires accuracy and attention to detail.

Though there are many possible shapes, the styles used almost exclusively these days are the pi-
shaped frame, the batter post frame, and the V shaped frame. The batter post rigid frame bridge is
particularly well suited for river and valley crossings because piers tilted at an angle can straddle the
crossing more effectively without requiring the construction of foundations in the middle of the river
or piers in deep parts of a valley. V shaped frames make effective use of foundations. Each V-
shaped pier provides two supports to the girder, reducing the number of foundations and creating a
less cluttered profile. Pi shaped rigid frame structures are used frequently as the piers and supports
for inner city highways. The frame supports the raised highway and at the same time allows traffic to
run directly under the bridge.
5. Truss bridges:

Thus, for the most part, all beams in a truss bridge are straight. Trusses are comprised of many
small beams that together can support a large amount of weight and span great distances. In most
cases the design, fabrication, and erection of trusses is relatively simple. However, once assembled
trusses take up a greater amount of space and, in more complex structures, can serve as a
distraction to drivers. Like the girder bridges, there are both simple and continuous trusses.

The small size of individual parts of a truss make it the ideal bridge for places where large parts or
sections cannot be shipped or where large cranes and heavy equipment cannot be used during
erection. Because the truss is a hollow skeletal structure, the roadway may pass over or even
through the structure allowing for clearance below the bridge often not possible with other bridge
types. Trusses are also classified by the basic design used. The most representative trusses are the
Warren truss, the Pratt truss, and the Howe truss. The Warren truss is perhaps the most common
truss for both simple and continuous trusses. For smaller spans, no vertical members are used
lending the structure a simple look.

For longer spans vertical members are added providing extra strength. Warren trusses are typically
used in spans of between 50-100m. The Pratt truss is identified by its diagonal members which,
except for the very end ones, all slant down and in toward the center of the span. Except for those
diagonal members near the center, all the diagonal members are subject to tension forces only while
the shorter vertical members handle the compressive forces. This allows for thinner diagonal
members resulting in a more economic design. The Howe truss is the opposite of the Pratt truss.
The diagonal members face in the opposite direction and handle compressive forces. This makes it
very uneconomic design for steel bridges and its use is rarely seen.

List of bridge types

Arch Bridge Arch

bridge (concrete)
Through arch bridge Bowstring arch

Box girder bridge Continuous

span girder bridge

Our roads, highways and bridges can be a source of a significant amount of pollution to our
nation's water. Pollution is generated during road construction, maintenance, and use. Nonpoint
source pollution, or runoff pollution, is created when chemicals, debris, fertilizers, automotive oils,
debris from wearing parts, and litter are washed off roadways and bridges during rainstorms and
carried as runoff to streams, rivers, lakes and bays.

There are many opportunities available to prevent and control runoff pollution by applying
management measures and best management practices during the planning, construction, and
operation and maintenance of highway systems. Management measures are achieved by
applying best management practices appropriate to the source of runoff, climate, and average
daily traffic volume. Planning considerations to help control runoff pollution from roads, highways,
and bridges are discussed in this fact sheet.

Road, Highway and Bridge Planning

Poor planning can contribute to pollution problems. Wetlands and vegetated areas near
waterbodies can be damaged by construction, decreasing the water quality benefits that they
normally provide. Areas susceptible to erosion, such as steep slopes or land with loose soil, can
be disturbed, causing increased sedimentation flows into receiving streams.

As plans are developed for new roads, highways and bridges, or for reconstructing existing
facilities, best management practices to help reduce the volume and concentration of erosion
and sedimentation produced by the project should be incorporated into project design.

The following are some pollution prevention techniques that can be incorporated into highway
planning and design:

Evaluate alternatives for incorporating a road system or bridge into the

natural characteristics of the site.Analyze environmental features, such as
topography, drainage patterns, soils, climate, and existing land use. Natural drainage
systems can be taken advantage of, clearing and grading can be minimized, natural
vegetation and buffer areas can be preserved, and sensitive land and water areas that
provide water quality benefits (e.g., wetlands, spawning waters, etc.) and areas
susceptible to erosion and sedimentation can be avoided.
Preserve corridors for highways well in advance of construction to be
certain that roads are built where they are most suitably located in terms of
environmental and economic considerations. Lack of advance planning can lead
to locating roads wherever space is available, or not being able to build a road at all.
Avoid building roads and bridges where they will impact riparian areas
adjacent to surface waters and wetland areas. These vegetated areas provide
enormous water quality benefits through their ability to filter pollutants out of water
passing through them.
Road, Highway and Bridge Construction
Road, highway, and bridge construction and reconstruction generate runoff pollution by virtue of
the sheer volume of earth that must be disturbed and topsoil that is removed during these
activities. For example, roads built perpendicular to slopes rather than parallel to them cut across
natural drainage lines and create excessive earth disturbance.

Planning for pollution prevention and control measures in advance of and during construction can
help avoid these and other future problems.

Erosion and Sediment Control

Develop a site-specific erosion and sediment control plan to minimize the impacts of runoff
waters on construction activities.

A number of provisions to lessen the environmental impacts of road construction are specified in
an erosion and sediment control plan, including measures to ensure that exposed working
surfaces are kept to a minimum, silt fences and sediment traps are optimally placed to prevent
sediment from reaching drainage systems, vehicles are washed when leaving a construction site
to remove excess mud, and temporary exit/entry roads to construction sites are provided with a
coarse rock surface to prevent the transfer of soil offsite where it will be washed into nearby
drainage channels.

Chemical Use and Control

Store, handle and dispose of construction site chemicals such as herbicides, insecticides, oils,
gasoline, degreasers, antifreeze, concrete and asphalt products, sealers, paints, and wash water
associated with these products to minimize their entry into runoff. One way to do this is to
provide specific areas where these products are frequently used, such as fueling areas and
equipment washing areas. This can help prevent dangerous chemicals from entering surface
waters. This measure also applies to proper storage of road deicing materials.

Nutrient Use and Control

Fertilizers used to promote the growth of vegetation on disturbed earth can contribute excessive
nitrates and phosphates to surface waters if overused. To ensure safety, a person knowledgeable
of and certified for soil testing and nutrient application should be involved to determine the
proper amount of fertilizer to apply in a given situation and the proper timing of applications to
maximize their delivery to growing plants and minimize their entry into runoff.
Road, Highway and Bridge Operation and
Maintenance
Road, highway, and bridge operation and maintenance involve inspection, routine and season-
specific maintenance, and repair of not only highways and bridges but also the rights-of-way
where drainage control facilities are located. The following are examples of some maintenance
activities that provide opportunities to prevent and control runoff pollution:

Inspection and General Maintenance

Develop an inspection program and schedule to ensure that general maintenance is

performed. Inspect erosion and sediment control devices regularly.
Maintain retaining walls and pavements to minimize cracks and leakage.
Repair potholes.
Maintain energy dissipaters and velocity controls to minimize runoff velocity and
erosion.
Properly dispose of accumulated sediment collected from detention ponds, drainage
systems, and pollution control structures, and any wastes generated during
maintenance operations, in accordance with appropriate local, state and federal
regulations.
Use techniques such as suspended tarps, vacuums or booms to prevent paint,
solvents and scrapings from becoming pollutants during bridge maintenance.
When blading gravel roads, take care to maintain a structurally sound surface while
providing an adequate crown and drainage so that erosion or scattering of gravel are
avoided.
Develop an infrastructure safety inspection program in conjunction with general
maintenance.
Keep drainage ditches free of debris.
Snow and Ice Control

Cover salt storage piles and other deicing materials to reduce contamination of
surface waters. Locate them outside the 100-year floodplain.
Regulate the application of deicing salts to prevent oversalting the pavement.
Use trucks equipped with salt spreading calibration devices.
Use alternative deicing materials, such as sand or salt substitutes, where sensitive
ecosystems should be protected.
 Prevent dumping of accumulated snow into surface waters or onto frozen water
bodies.
Right-of-Way Maintenance

Seed and fertilize, seed and mulch, and/or sod damaged vegetated areas and slopes.
Establish pesticide/herbicide use and nutrient management programs.
Restrict herbicide and pesticide use in highway rights-of-way to applicators certified
under the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) to ensure safe and
effective application.
Limit the use of chemicals such as soil stabilizers, dust palliatives, sterilants, and
growth inhibitors to the best estimate of optimum application rates. Try to avoid excess
application and consequent intrusion of such chemicals into surface runoff.
Regularly clean, reshape, and revegetate drainage ditches to ensure they perform as
desired. Keep ditch slopes covered with vegetation or other material.
Maintain shoulders, slopes and swales to assure their function and operation.
Road Cleaning and Debris Removal

Sweep, vacuum and wash residential streets and parking lots.

Collect and remove road debris.
Encourage litter and debris co
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