GENETICALLY MODIFIED

FOODS
Before going Any Further

What is the first impression

you get when you hear
genetically modified
foods?
Are our foods natural?

Evolution meant that

natural foods were not
necessarily safe or
easily produced for us!
 10,000 BC
START OF
AGRICULTURE

CROPS
HAVE
EVOLVED

Teosinite
 Teosinte Maize
Slide courtesy of Wayne Parrott, University of Georgia
 The Distant Past (>10,000 years
ago to 1900)
Homo sapiens originated
400,000 250,000 years
ago
Major crops were
domesticated ~ 10,000
5000 years ago
The development of
human civilizations is
correlated with the
development of agriculture

Karol Schauer
Mendel and Darwin paved the way
for scientific plant breeding
 TRADITIONAL BREEDING
Humans have been manipulating genes for
thousands of years
Huge productivity gains have been made
Gene transfer via sexual reproduction
(i.e. male and female individuals)
Gene (trait) availability is limited within species
(i.e. wheat to wheat) or very closely related species
 GENETIC MODIFICATION
THROUGH SEXUAL BREEDING

desired gene

traditional donor (same species) commercial variety

cross
DNA is a strand of genes.
Traditional breeding combines
many genes at once.

new variety
Broccoflower: Cross between Broccoli and Cauliflower
 Hybrids

GENE POOL
OF BIOLOGICAL
SPECIES
 What are genetically modified
foods?
Also called genetically modified organisms (GMO).
Involves the insertion of DNA from one organism into
another OR modification of an organisms DNA in order
to achieve a desired trait.

4 5

Omega 3 fatty
+ = acids

Fish gene Canola

Unlimited Gene Pool

Hybrids

GENE POOL
OF BIOLOGICAL
SPECIES
 Plant Biotechnology -
new genes for old crops
1983 - methods
developed to transfer
genes into plants
Use genes from any
source to modify or
improve crop plants,
and develop new
crops
 GENETIC MODIFICATION
THROUGH BIOTECHNOLOGY

desired gene

donor
(may or may not
be same species!)
commercial variety

gene transfer
Using plant biotechnology, a
single gene may be added to
the strand.
Only desired gene is transferred.

new variety
Jelly Fish gfp Gene
 Genetic information in wheat genome
Made of chemical units represented by alphabetic letters

...CTGACCTAATGCCGTA...

1700 books 1700 books

1000 pages each (or 1.7 million pages)
 Hybridization or cross breeding of wheat

Random
retention of
information
from each
parent

1700 books 1700 books 1700 books

(or 1.7 million pages) (or 1.7 million pages) (or 1.7 million pages)
 Genetic Engineering Methods
Inserts
randomly in
genome

+ Inserted
gene(s)

One-half page equivalent

to a gene

1700 books 1700 books

(or 1.7 million pages) (or 1.7 million pages)
 WHY GMs?

Provides access to new genes/traits not

accessible with traditional breeding
e.g. can transfer genes from
bacteria to plants
Access the genes from unrelated
plants say from gum tree to wheat
 What is Genetic
Engineering?
directed alteration of the genetic
material of an organism

-for the purpose of altering

its phenotype and performance
 WHY GMs?

Provides access to new genes/traits

not accessible with traditional
breeding
e.g. can transfer genes from
bacteria/animals/from any source
to plants
Why should we be concerned about the
limits of agricultural productivity?

World population is estimated to reach

>8 billion by 2025, perhaps 11 billion by
2050
How are we going to feed this
population?
Goals of Agricultural and Food
Biotechnology
Herbicide tolerance (in use)
Pest resistance (in use)
Enhanced nutritional content (in use)
Drought tolerance (in pipeline)
Nitrogen fixing ability
Acidity and Salinity tolerance (in pipeline)
Vaccine delivery (in pipeline)
 The first generation of
biotechnology crops

Roundup Ready soybeans

resistant to the broad spectrum
herbicide glyphosate
Bt corn
protection against European
corn borer
Bt cotton
protection against budworm
and bollworm
Examples of crop improvement through
genetic engineering

Engineered herbicide
resistance
Glyphosate (RoundUp) and
EPSP synthase
Roundup Ready Soybeans
 TM
Bollgard Cotton TM

Engineered for insect resistance

using gene from naturally occurring
bacterium
Field Trial on Hawaii
Puna 1995-97
 Bt cotton
Also uses a Bt toxin
protein to protect
against bollworm and
budworm
World wide adopted
Reduced use of
insecticides
 Endosulfan Concentrations in the
Namoi River
0.18

0.16
Endosulfan Concentration (ug/L)

0.14

0.12

0.1

0.08

0.06

0.04

0.02

0
1991-92 1992-93 1993-94 1994-95 1995-96 1996-97 1997-98 1998-99 1999-00 2000-01

Year
 Bt toxin
Crystalline protein complex (Cry protein)
Occurs naturally in the common soil bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis
Some types of Bt toxins are effective insecticides
Used as agricultural spray

Bt toxin in its native crystalline form is inactive as an insecticide;

converted to insecticide active form in the digestive tract of certain
insects
Bt toxin activation procedure: highly selective insecticide
Activated Bt toxin: inserts into and causes lesions in the insects gut
epithelium; death either through a disrupted digestion or systemic
bacterial infection
Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) spores can be formulated as
dusts or sprays and have been used for years as
natural insecticides. About 100 different Cry proteins
have been identified and all have some specificity.

Spores of Bt are dusted on vegetables by

home gardeners and organic producers
or sprayed (1000 spores per sq meter) to kill
larvae of lepidoptera (e.g. corn ear worm)
 conventional

Bt Corn

Produces Bt toxin
protein
Kills European corn
borer larvae

Bt corn
 Fumonisin Reduction with Bt-maize

1989: High levels of fumonisin

cause large-scale outbreaks of
lethal lung edema in pigs, brain
tumors in horses

Fumonisin contamination caused

by insect infestation

20- to 30-fold fumonisin reduction

with Bt-maize

SOURCE; Hammond, B. et al., (Feb. 2004), Lower

Modified from Drew L. fumonisin mycotoxin levels in the grain of Bt-corn grown
Kershen in the United States in 2000-2002, J. Agric. Food Chem.
University of Oklahoma 52: 1390-1397
 More food

Bt corn 3.5 billion pound yield

increase and $125 million in
additional income
Bt cotton 185 million pound
yield increase and $102 million
in additional income
Biotech soybeans $1 billion 
in additional income through
production cost savings
Source: National Center for Food and Agricultural Policy
Food & Food Safety Issues
Can eating Bt protein cause food safety
issues for consumers?
No, for several reasons. Bt proteins broken
down quickly in acidic human gut.
Toxin broken down in alkaline insect gut,
binds to special receptors and kills insect larvae.
Lack of effect on nontarget organisms due to tight
binding to specialized receptors not found in other
organisms, including humans.
Topical application of Bt toxins have been used to
control pests on foods, including organic foods
since 1920's with no food safety issues
 DNA in My Food???

DNA is present in the cells of all

living organisms.
FACT:
Each cell contains 9 feet of DNA. In an
average meal, you eat approximately
55,000,000 cells or
about 93,205 miles of DNA.
Page Title / heading
goes here
Water is scarce in many regions and its value will
undoubtedly increase with global warming,

-even greater need for drought tolerant crop

plants, which maintain yield levels (or even have
higher yields) and yield quality under low water
availability.
A larger root system contributes
to drought tolerance
Drought Drought
Wild-type tolerant Wild-type tolerant

Breeding plants
for larger root
systems can
help them grow
in drought-prone
regions.

Seedlings Mature plants

Yu, H., et al. Plant Cell 2008;20:1134-1151
 Drought Tolerant Corn in Field

Without Gene With Gene Without Gene With Gene

Reduced Leaf Rolling Reduced Leaf Temperature

40 34 32oC

Biofortification by Biotechnology
 Humans require a minimum daily intake of essential
micronutrients, vitamins, and minerals to maintain
optimal health. Micronutrient malnutrition, the dietary
insufficiency of one or more micronutrients, has far-
reaching negative health consequences at all stages of
life and was a pervasive health issue for all countries at
the turn of the 20th century.
 The Known 51 Essential Nutrients for Sustaining Human Life*
Air, Water & Protein Lipids-Fat Macro- Trace Vitamins
Energy (amino acids) (fatty acids) Minerals Elements
(3) (9) (2) (7) (17) (13)

Oxygen Histidine Linoleic acid Na Fe A

Water Isoleucine Linolenic acid K Zn D
Carbohydrates Leucine Ca Cu E
Lysine Mg Mn K
Methionine S I C (Ascorbic acid)
Phenylalanine P F B1 (Thiamin)
Threonine Cl Se B2 (Riboflavin)
Tryptophan Mo B3 (Niacin)
Valine Co (in B12) B5 (Pantothenic acid)
B B6 (Pyroxidine)
Ni B7/H (Biotin)
Cr B9 (Folic acid, folacin)
V B12 (Cobalamin)
Si
As
Li
Sn

*Numerous other beneficial substances in foods are also known to contribute to good health.
Micronutrient malnutrition thus has
remained a widespread and persistent
global health problem in developing
countries where it continues to exact an
enormous toll on individuals, populations
and society
 Micronutrient malnutrition
Causes.
More severe illness
More infant and maternal deaths
Lower cognitive development
Stunted growth
Lower work productivity
And ultimately -
Lower GDP
Higher population growth rates
Global Micronutrient Deficiencies

> 3 billion people afflicted

(Map from USAID)

Vitamin A deficiency is a leading
cause of blindness
100 million children
are Vitamin A
deficient

Up to 500,000
children become
blind every year and
half of these die
within 12 months of
losing their sight

Improving dietary
intake of carotenes
can reduce child
Occurrence of mortality by 25 %
Vitamin A
deficiency (VAD)
WHO data

b.usuhs.mil/biochem/nutrition/NOTES/
Vitamin and Mineral Deficiency Prevention

Food fortification
Fresh produce

Supplements
 What is Biofor,ca,on?
Biofor,ca,on is the development of nutrient-dense
staple crops using the best conven,onal breeding
prac,ces and modern biotechnology, without
sacricing agronomic performance and important
consumer-preferred traits

Iron, zinc, calcium, pro-

vitamin A carotenoids,
folate, amino acids,
prebio,cs, etc.

clayuca.org
Modied from Nestel et al., 2006
 Why bio-fortification and not
just food fortification or vitamin
pills?
Bio-fortification is self-perpetuating. Once the plants have been
Created the farmers can keep on planting them.

Effective in remote rural areas. Seeds can be distributed to rural areas.

There is no dramatic change in food habit, or need to remember to take a pill.

Not dependent on political forces/budgets. Distribution of vitamin

pills has to be authorized/paid for by international organizations or governments. Many
Developing countries lack the infrastructure for distribution.

More cost effective by a factor of 10 (50 M versus 500 M)

Cost of supplementation is continuous and cost of creating the plants is one-time.
 Beta-carotene in so-called
Golden Rice converts to vitamin
A in humans

SOURCE: Tang, G., Qin, J., Dolnikowski, G.G., Russell, R.M. and Grusak, M.A. 2009. Golden Rice is an effective source of vitamin A. Am J
Clin Nutr 89: 18.
 -carotene in Golden Rice is as effective as pure -
carotene provided in oil and better than that in
spinach and delivering Vitamin A to children in 35
day trial.
100-150g of cooked Golden Rice provides ~60% of
Chinese RDA for a 6-8 year old child.

SOURCE: Tang, G., Hu, Y., Yin, S., Wang, Y., Dallal, G.E., Grusak, M.A. and Russell, R.M. 2012. -Carotene in Golden Rice is as good as -carotene in
oil at providing vitamin A to children1-4. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 96: 658-64.
 More About Folate
Staples maize, rice, and
wheat contain extremely
low levels
Intake is suboptimal in
both developing and
developed countries
Many developed
countries, successfully
reduced prevalence of
neural tube defects by
mandating fortification of
wheat flour with folic acid.
Neural Tube Defects
Anencephaly: head end of neural tube
fails to close, absence of forebrain

Also, Spina bifida: incompletely formed

spinal cord

Maternal consumption of folic acid

before conception can decrease
incidence of both: eat leafy greens
like spinach, lettuce, dried peasand
enriched flour
Advantages of Folate-enriched Crops
Biofortification offers sustainability
Improve folate intake by malnourished rural
populations

http://www.Corbis.com
http://www.vitamin.com
 Omega-3 fatty acid enriched soy oil
Primary Type of Plant-derived omega-3 fatty acids (e.g.
dietary Omega-3
source
ALA) are converted to long-chain PUFAs
PUFAs
(e.g. EPA and DHA), but with low
Vegetable oils
(canola, soybean ALA (18:3n-3) efficiency. Soybeans have been
and flaxseed); nuts engineered to produce elevated levels of
6 desaturase
(slow step) SDA, which is more effectively converted
SOYMEGATM SDA (18:4n-3)
into long chain PUFAs

EPA (20:5n-3)
Fish and fish oil,
terrestrial meats,
eggs
DHA (22:6n-3)

Lemke, S.L., Vicini, J.L., Su, H., Goldstein, D.A., Nemeth, M.A., Krul, E.S. and Harris, W.S. (2010). Dietary intake of stearidonic acidenriched soybean oil increases the omega-3 index: randomized, double-blind clinical
study of efficacy and safety. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 92: 766-775. Harris, W., Lemke, S., Hansen, S., Goldstein, D., DiRienzo, M., Su, H., Nemeth, M., Taylor, M., Ahmed, G. and George, C. (2008).
Stearidonic Acid-Enriched Soybean Oil Increased the Omega-3 Index, an Emerging Cardiovascular Risk Marker. Lipids. 43: 805-811.
 -carotene
makes the rice
look golden Staple foods like
rice, cassava and
corn can become
good sources of
vitamin A

-carotene Vitamin A

Similar
approaches can
increase lutein
and zeaxanthin
levels in foods

Photo credit: Golden rice humanitarian board

 Why are GM crops not
grown in all countries?
Some people don't see this new
technology as a step in the right direction!
Areas of ongoing debate

Environment
Human Health
Food security
Socio-economic concerns
 Environment
Anti-GM Pro-GM
Loss of biodiversity Need to increase
Cross-pollination yields to feed growing
Emergence of population
superweeds and Possibility of reducing
superbugs need for pesticides,
Potential increase in fertilizers
use of herbicides Grow more food on
same amount of land
*Opinions are generalized, and not all opponents or
proponents may hold all of these views.
 Food Security
Anti-GM Pro-GM
Need redistribution, not Modified seeds will
just more allow farmers to grow
Farmers will not be able more to feed their
to afford expensive seed
family and to sell,
Developing countries
reducing the need for
should not have to eat
the food others reject food aid
Public-private
cooperation can
transfer technology
 Are there reasons to be
concerned about transgenic
crops?
Are they safe to eat?
Do they damage the environment?
What are the economic or social effects
of these crops?
Are there ethical concerns?
 Human Health
Anti-GM Pro-GM
Fear of unknown Greater regulations
allergens than other foods
Spread of anti-biotic Potential benefits to
resistance nutrition
Inadequate regulation golden rice
of new products enhanced protein
content in corn
soybean oil with less
saturated fat
Methods exist to assess the potential
allergenicity of the novel proteins
introduced into GM foods
These tests are applied to GM foods
and/or the novel proteins
The risk of allergenicity to the current
GM foods is extraordinarily low/nil

68
 Socio-economic concerns
Corporations benefit, Patents needed
not those in need because new strains
Products needed in are intellectual
developing countries property
are not being
developed because Publicly funded
the market is not research can benefit
profitable the public good
It is wrong to patent
life
 Consumer Acceptance

Acceptance of GM
crops increases as their
benefits become clear
to consumers
Perspective: Scientists
vs. consumers

http://www.corbis.com