Cell Reproduction

Dividing Nuclear Material

Cells must accurately separate genetic
material during cell reproduction
Methods
Mitosis
Meiosis
 Mitosis

Produces two cells identical to original cell

Each cell has full DNA complement

Used for growth and repair of somatic (body)

cells
 Meiosis

Produces 4 cells that are not identical to

parent cell
Daughter cells have half genetic complement

Produces gametes (sex cells)

 Animal Life Cycle
Egg = female gamete

Sperm = male gamete

Zygote
Fusion of egg & sperm
Full complement of
genetic material
 Diploid Cells (2N)
Full genetic complement
23 pair of chromosomes in humans
 Haploid Cells (N)
Produced during meiosis

Contain only one set of chromosomes

Reduction of chromosomes allows for

combination to form diploid zygote
 Fertilization
One sex cell from each parent joins
Creates diploid zygote
Process is called sexual reproduction
Animal Life Cycles
Diploid phase dominates
Gametes live hours to days
 Plant Life Cycles
Most have multicellular haploid phase

Phase names
Gametophyte = haploid
Sporophyte = diploid

Either phase can dominate, depending

on plant type
 Single Cell Eukaryote
Reproduction
Reproduce by mitosis
Called asexual reproduction
Produced two identical organisms
Asexual Reproduction
All single cell eukaryotes
Some plants
Some animals
Cell Cycle (Life Cycle)
 Interphase

Most of cell cycle

Cell grows
Organelles replicated
DNA replicated
Readies for mitosis
Condenses DNA
 G1 Interphase

Cell growth-doubles in
size

Carries out its normal

life functions
 S Interphase
DNA replicated
At the end of this
phase, the cell
will contain two
identical copies
of heredity info.
 G2 Interphase
DNA condenses into chromosomes
Strands = sister chromatids
Chromatids connected by centromere
 Stages of Mitosis
Prophase

Metaphase

Anaphase

Telophase
 Prophase
Chromosomes shorten & thicken
Nucleolus & nuclear envelope disappears
 Prophase
Spindle fibers formed from microtubules
Microtubules surround microtubule-
organizing center (centrosome)
Chromosomes attach to spindle fibers at
kinetochore
 Metaphase
Pairs of sister chromatids align at center
Forms metaphase plate
 Anaphase
Chromatids separate at centromere
Chromatids pulled in two directions
Chromosomes move toward poles
Equally divides hereditary material
 Telophase
Cell readied for division (cytokinesis)
Spindle fibers disassemble
Nuclear envelope reforms
Nucleolus reappears
 Cytokinesis
Cell division after mitosis
Cleavage furrow enlarges
 Animal Cytokinesis
Cell pinched in two (lack cell walls)
Pinching by microfilaments contracting
 Plant Cytokinesis
New cell wall must be laid down
Cell plate forms (Golgi Complex)
Mitosis
 Cancer
Deregulation of cell cycle
Loss of control of mitosis
Result of mutation
Over 200 types of cancer exists
Number of cancer cases will
double by 2050, as an increasing
proportion of U.S. population
reaches older ages
 United States
Cancer Death Rates
 Characteristics of Cancer
(no matter what type)
Uncontrolled cell growth- most significant
characteristic of all cancer cells
Loss of cell differentiation (specialization)
Invasion of normal tissues, occupying
space in which normal cells would
otherwise reside
Metastasis or spread to multiple sites
 Stages of Cancer

1. Initiation

2.Promotion

3.Progression
 Initiation of Cancer
(Transformation)
Series of gene mutations damages DNA
Proto-oncogenes become oncogenes (on
switches for tumors or masses)
Usually additional mutations are needed
Affect tumor suppressor genes, off switches
These genes are inactivated, allowing cancerous growth
Initiation does not directly result in cancer, it
results in a precancerous cell.
Heredity acts only as an initiator, not a promoter
 Promotion of Cancer
Cells are stimulated to grow & divide when they
normally would not.
It is a gradual process, unlike initiation
Carcinogens agents that both initiate & promote
cancer
Viruses
Chemicals
Radiation
Benign cells
Masses of partially transformed cells, confined &
encapsulated
Cells exhibit dysplasia-growth patterns char. of cancer
cells
 Normal Cells

Dysplastic Cells
Progression of Cancer
Cells become less differentiated

Cells invade other tissue

Move to other areas of the body

Called malignant cells

 Meiosis

Chromosome number halved

2N N

Required for sexual reproduction

Starts with diploid parents

 Homologues
Homologous chromosomes
2 chromosomes, same linear gene sequence
corresponding genes on the 2 chromosomes are
called alleles, alternative forms of same gene
 Process of Meiosis

Two stages:
Meiosis I
Meiosis II

Results in 4 haploid daughter cells

 Meiosis I
Pairs line up = synapsis
crossing over begins
Splitting homologous pairs, tetrads
 Meiosis I
Cross over non sister chromosomes
may cross over one another
Chromatids may exchange segments
Stages of Meiosis I
 Interkinesis

Interphase-like period

Between meiosis I and meiosis II

No DNA replication
Meiosis II Stages
Meiosis
 Importance of Meiotic
Recombination
Provides variability for offspring
Essential to process of evolution
End chapter 12