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Early Vedic texts describe the energies within plants and their use
as medicine. The Rig Veda describes plants and their actions. The
Atharva Veda mentions the therapeutic uses of plant medicines in
greater detail. Charaka Samhita and Sushruta Samhita, the two
classic Ayurvedic texts classified all medicinal substances into
three groups: vegetable, animal and mineral origin. Astanga
Hrdaya and Astanga Samgraha deal with Ayurveda material
medica.
According to the Atharva Veda, all of creation is a part of the
cosmic web. This web was created by the one Supreme Spirit and
is beyond all relative creation. The Supreme Spirit is within each
person, so humans have the capacity to remold the web into a
divine life on earth. Humans as well as devas/gods affect the web
through their actions. Humans, societies, animals, and nature are
all interdependent. When the energies are in balance, we have
health and when they fall out of balance, we experience disease.
This is true at both the individual and societal level.
Description
Ficus religiosa is a large dry season-deciduous or semi-evergreen tree up to 30
metres (98 ft) tall and with a trunk diameter of up to 3 metres (9.8 ft).
The leaves are cordate in shape with a distinctive extended drip tip; they are 10
17 cm long and 812 cm broad, with a 610 cm petiole. The fruits are small figs
11.5 cm in diameter, green ripening to purple. The leaves of this tree move
continuously even when the air around is still and no perceptible wind is blowing.
This phenomenon can be explained due to the long leaf stalk and the broad leaf
structure. However, religious minded people in Hindu/Buddhist religion attribute
this movement of the leaves to the fact that "devas" or "gods" reside on these
leaves and make it move continuously.
In religion
The Ficus religiosa tree is considered sacred by the followers
of Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism. In the Bhagavad Gita, Krishna says, "I am
the Peepal tree among the trees, Narada among the sages, Chitraaratha among
the Gandharvas, And sage Kapila among the Siddhas."[6]
Buddhism
In Theravada Buddhist Southeast Asia, the tree's massive trunk is often the site
of Buddhist or animist shrines. Not all Ficus religiosa can be called a Bodhi Tree.
A Bodhi Tree must be able to trace its parent to another Bodhi Tree and the line
goes on until the first Bodhi Tree under which Gautama is said to have gained
enlightenment.
Hinduism
Sadhus (Hindu ascetics) still meditate beneath sacred fig trees, and Hindus
do pradakshina (circumambulation, or meditative pacing) around the sacred fig
tree as a mark of worship. Usually seven pradakshinas are done around the tree
in the morning time chanting "vriksha rajaya namah", meaning "salutation to the
king of trees." It claimed that the 27 stars (constellations) constituting 12 houses
(rasis) and 9 planets are specifically represented precisely by 27 treesone for
each star. The Bodhi Tree is said to represent Pushya (Western star name ,
and Cancri in the Cancer constellation).
Vernacular names
The Ficus religiosa tree is known by a wide range of vernacular names,
including:
in Indic languages:
Hindi - Peepal -
Telugu
raavi chettu
Malayalam arayaal
Gujarati (pipdo)
Punjabi Pippal - /
Bhojpuri pippar
Maithili () (peepar)
Odia (ashwatth)
Sinhala esathu
Thai (pho)
Vietnamese b-
Urdu peepal
Tagalog - ballete
Cultivation
Ficus religiosa is grown by specialty tree plant nurseries for use as
an ornamental tree, in gardens and parks in tropical and subtropical climates.
Peepal trees are native to India and thrive in hot, humid weather. They prefer full
sunlight and can grow in most soil types, though loam is the best. When planting,
use soil with a pH of 7 or below. While it is possible for the plant to grow indoors
in a pot, it grows best outside. Young peepal needs proper nourishment. It
requires full sunlight and proper watering.
Uses
Ficus religiosa is used in traditional medicine for about 50 types of disorders
including asthma, diabetes, diarrhea, epilepsy, gastric problems, inflammatory
disorders, infectious and sexual disorders.[12][13]
Fig. Peepal
Neem(Azadirachta indica)
Azadirachta indica, also known as Neem,[2] Nimtree,[2] Ineem and Indian
Lilac[2]is a tree in the mahogany family Meliaceae. It is one of two species in the
genus Azadirachta, and is native to India and the Indian
subcontinent including Nepal, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka. It typically is
grown in tropical and semi-tropical regions. Neem trees now also grow in islands
located in the southern part of Iran. Its fruits and seeds are the source of neem
oil.
Description
Neem is a fast-growing tree that can reach a height of 1520 metres (4966 ft),
and rarely 3540 metres (115131 ft). It is evergreen, but in severe drought it
may shed most or nearly all of its leaves. The branches are wide and spreading.
The fairly dense crown is roundish and may reach a diameter of 1520 metres
(4966 ft) in old, free-standing specimens. The neem tree is very similar in
appearance to its relative, the Chinaberry (Melia azedarach).
The opposite, pinnate leaves are 2040 centimetres (7.915.7 in) long, with 20 to
31 medium to dark green leaflets about 38 centimetres (1.23.1 in) long. The
terminal leaflet often is missing. The petioles are short.
The fruit is a smooth (glabrous), olive-like drupe which varies in shape from
elongate oval to nearly roundish, and when ripe is 1.42.8 centimetres (0.55
1.10 in) by 1.01.5 centimetres (0.390.59 in). The fruit skin (exocarp) is thin and
the bitter-sweet pulp (mesocarp) is yellowish-white and very fibrous. The
mesocarp is 0.30.5 centimetres (0.120.20 in) thick. The white, hard inner shell
(endocarp) of the fruit encloses one, rarely two, or three,
elongated seeds (kernels) having a brown seed coat.
Etymology[edit]
Neem () is a Hindi noun derived from Sanskrit Nimba and Ineem (). in
Gujarati.[3][4][5]
Vernacular names[edit]
Assamese - Neem ()
Bengali - Nim ()
Hindi - Neem ()
Kannada - Bevu ()
Kiswahili - Muarubaini
Khmer - Sdau ()
Malay - Mambu ()
Malayalam - Aryaveppu ()
Manipuri - Neem ()
Marathi - Kadunimba ( )
Nepal - Neem ()
Nigerian - Dongoyaro
Odiya - Neem ()
Punjabi - Nimmh ()
Sinhala - Kohomba ()
Sindhi - Nimm ()
Telugu - Vepa ()
Thai - Sadao ()
tulu-besappu
Urdu - Ineem ()
Ecology[edit]
The neem tree is noted for its drought resistance. Normally it thrives in areas with
sub-arid to sub-humid conditions, with an annual rainfall of 4001,200 millimetres
(1647 in). It can grow in regions with an annual rainfall below 400 mm, but in
such cases it depends largely on ground water levels. Neem can grow in many
different types of soil, but it thrives best on well drained deep and sandy soils. It
is a typical tropical to subtropical tree and exists at annual mean temperatures of
2132 C (7090 F). It can tolerate high to very high temperatures and does not
tolerate temperature below 4 C (39 F). Neem is one of a very few shade-giving
trees that thrive in drought-prone areas e.g. the dry coastal, southern districts of
India, and Pakistan. The trees are not at all delicate about water quality and
thrive on the merest trickle of water, whatever the quality. In India and tropical
countries where the Indian diaspora has reached, it is very common to see neem
trees used for shade lining streets, around temples, schools and other such
public buildings or in most people's back yards. In very dry areas the trees are
planted on large tracts of land.
Weed status[edit]
Neem is considered a weed in many areas, including some parts of the Middle
East, most of Sub-Saharan Africa including West Africa and Indian Ocean states,
and some parts of Australia. Ecologically, it survives well in similar environments
to its own, but its weed potential has not been fully assessed.[7]
In April 2015, A. indica was declared a class B and C weed in the Northern
Territory, Australia, meaning its growth and spread must be controlled and plants
or propagules are not allowed to be brought into the NT. It is illegal to buy, sell, or
transport the plants or seeds. Its declaration as a weed came in response to its
invasion of waterways in the "Top End" of the territory.[8]
After being introduced into Australia, possibly in the 1940s, A. indica was
originally planted in the Northern Territory to provide shade for cattle. Trial
plantations were established between the 1960s and 1980s
in Darwin, Queensland, and Western Australia, but the Australian neem industry
did not prove viable. The tree has now spread into the savanna, particularly
around waterways, and naturalised populations exist in several areas.[9]
Uses
Neem leaves are dried in India and placed in cupboards to prevent insects eating
the clothes, and also in tins where rice is stored.[10] Neem leaves are dried and
burnt in the tropical regions to keep away mosquitoes.[citation needed] These flowers are
also used in many Indian festivals like Ugadi. See below: #Association with
Hindu festivals in India. As an ayurvedic herb, neem is also used in baths.
As a vegetable[edit]
The tender shoots and flowers of the neem tree are eaten as a vegetable in
India. A souplike dish called Veppampoo charu (Tamil) (translated as "neem
flower rasam") made of the flower of neem is prepared in Tamil Nadu. In West
Bengal, young neem leaves are fried in oil with tiny pieces of eggplant (brinjal).
The dish is called nim begun and is the first item during a Bengali meal that acts
as an appetizer. It is eaten with rice.[11]
Products made from neem trees have been used in India for over two millennia
for their medicinal properties.[10] Neem products are believed by Siddha
and Ayurvedic practitioners to
be Anthelmintic, antifungal, antidiabetic, antibacterial, antiviral, contraceptive,
and sedative.[13] It is considered a major component in siddha medicine and
Ayurvedic and Unani medicine and is particularly prescribed for skin diseases.
[14]
Neem oil is also used for healthy hair, to improve liver function, detoxify the
blood, and balance blood sugar levels.[15] Neem leaves have also been used to
treat skin diseases like eczema, psoriasis, etc.[10]
Insufficient research has been done to assess the purported benefits of neem,
however.[16] In adults, short-term use of neem is safe, while long-term use may
harm the kidneys or liver; in small children, neem oil is toxic and can lead to
death.[16] Neem may also cause miscarriages, infertility, and low blood sugar.[16]
Safety issues[edit]
Neem oil can cause some forms of toxic encephalopathy and ophthalmopathy if
consumed in large quantities.[17]
Neem oil has been shown to avert termite attack as an ecofriendly and
economical agent.[19]
The juice of this plant is a potent ingredent for a mixture of wall plaster, according
to the Samargana Stradhra, which is a Sanskrit treatise dealing with
ilpastra (Hindu science of art and construction).[22]
Other uses[edit]
Animal Treatment: Used to treat sweet itch and mud fever in horses
Tree: Besides its use in traditional Indian medicine, the neem tree is of
great importance for its anti-desertification properties and possibly as a
good carbon dioxide sink.[26][27][28]
Neem gum is used as a bulking agent and for the preparation of special
purpose foods.
Resin : An exudate can be tapped from the trunk by wounding the bark.
This high protein material is not a substitute for polysaccharide gum, such
as gum arabic. It may, however, have a potential as a food additive, and it is
widely used in South Asia as "Neem glue".
Soap : 80% of India's supply of neem oil now is used by neem oil soap
manufacturers.[29] Although much of it goes to small-scale speciality soaps,
often using cold-pressed oil, large-scale producers also use it, mainly
because it is cheap. Additionally it is antibacterial and antifungal, soothing,
and moisturising. It can be made with up to 40% neem oil.[29]Generally, the
crude oil is used to produce coarse laundry soaps.
Against pox viruses : In India, people who are affected with pox
viruses are generally made to lie in bed made of neem leaves and branches.
[citation needed]
The belief is that it prevents the spreading of pox virus to others[citation
needed]
and has been in practice since early centuries.[citation needed]
Association with Hindu festivals in India[edit]
Neem leaf or bark is considered an effective pitta pacifier because of its bitter
taste. Hence, it is traditionally recommended during early summer in Ayurveda
(that is, the month of Chaitra as per the Hindu Calendar which usually falls in the
month of March April).
In the Indian states of Telangana, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka, Neem flowers
are very popular for their use in 'Ugadi Pachhadi' (soup-like pickle), which is
made on Ugadi day. In Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, and Karnataka, a small
amount of Neem and Jaggery (Bevu-Bella) is consumed on Ugadi day,
the Telugu and Kannada new year, indicating that one should take both bitter and
sweet things in life, joy and sorrow.
During Gudi Padva, which is the New Year in the state of Maharashtra, the
ancient practice of drinking a small quantity of neem juice or paste on that day,
before starting festivities, is found. As in many Hindu festivals and their
association with some food to avoid negative side-effects of the season or
change of seasons, neem juice is associated with Gudi Padva to remind people
to use it during that particular month or season to pacify summer pitta.
In Tamil Nadu during the summer months of April to June, the Mariamman temple
festival is a thousand-year-old tradition. The Neem leaves and flowers are the
most important part of the Mariamman festival. The statue of the goddess
Mariamman will be garlanded with Neem leaves and flowers. During most
occasions of celebrations and weddings the people of Tamil Nadu adorn their
surroundings with the Neem leaves and flowers as a form of decoration and also
to ward off evil spirits and infections.
In the eastern coastal state of Odisha the famous Jagannath temple deities are
made up of Neem heart wood along with some other essential oils and powders.
Native of Chhattisgarh with Neem branches and leaves for Hareli Festival
Chemical compounds[edit]
Neem genome and transcriptomes from various organs have been sequenced,
analyzed, and published by Ganit Labs in Bangalore, India.[34][35][36]
In Theravada Buddhism, the neem tree is said to have been used to achieve
enlightenment (bodhi) by Tissa, the twentieth Lord Buddha.[citation needed] Some
sources claim, however, that Terminalia tomentosa was the Bodhi tree used.[citation
needed]
Symbolism[edit]
Biotechnology[edit]
The biopesticide produced by extraction from the tree seeds contains limonoids.
Currently, the extraction process has disadvantages such as contamination with
fungi and heterogeneity in the content of limonoids due to genetic, climatic, and
geographical variations.[40][41] To overcome these problems, production of
limonoids from plant cell suspension and hairy root cultures in bioreactors has
been studied,[42][43] including the development of a two-stage bioreactor process
that enhances growth and production of limonoids with cell suspension cultures
of A. indica.[44]
Tulsi
Tulsi or Tulasi (Ocimum tenuiflorum) or Holy basil is a sacred plant
in Hindu belief. Hindus regard it as an earthly manifestation of the goddess Tulsi;
she is regarded as a great worshipper of the god Vishnu. The offering of its
leaves is mandatory in ritualistic worship of Vishnu and his forms
like Krishna and Vithoba.
Many Hindus have tulsi plants growing in front of or near their home, often in
special pots or a special masonry structure known as Tulsi Vrindavan.
Traditionally, Tulsi is planted in the center of the central courtyard of Hindu
houses.[1] The plant is cultivated for religious and medicinal purposes, and for its
essential oil.
Names[edit]
Legend[edit]
An altar with tulsi plant for daily worship in a courtyard in India
A person who waters and cares for the Tulsi daily is believed to
gain moksha (salvation) and the divine grace of Vishnu, even if he
does not worship it. Traditionally, the daily worship and care of the
plant is the responsibility of the women of the household. The plant is
regarded as a "women's deity" and a "symbol of ideal wifehood and
motherhood". Though daily worship is prescribed, Tuesdays and
Fridays are considered especially sacred for Tulsi worship. Rituals
involve watering the plant, cleaning the area near the plant with water
and cow dung (considered sacred) and making offerings of food,
flowers, incense, Ganges water etc. Rangoli (decorative designs) of
deities and saints are drawn near its foot. Devotees pray to Tulsi
and circumbulate it,chanting mantras. The Tulsi plant is often
worshipped twice in a day: in the morning and in the evening, when a
lamp or candle is lit near the plant.[13]
Festivals
Tulsi vivah
A ceremony known as Tulsi Vivah is performed by the Hindus
between Prabodhini Ekadashi (eleventh lunar day of the waxing moon
of Kartika) to Kartik Poornima (full moon in Kartika), usually on the
eleventh or the twelfth lunar day. It is the ceremonial wedding of the
Tulsi plant to Vishnu, in the form of his image, Shaligram or a Krishna
or Rama image. Both the bride and the groom are ritually worshipped
and then married as per traditional Hindu wedding rituals. It marks the
end of the four-month Chaturmas period, which corresponds to the
monsoon and is considered inauspicious for weddings and other
rituals, so the day inaugurates the annual marriage season in India.[14]
[15]
In Orissa, on the first day of the Hindu month Vaishakha (April - May),
a small vessel with hole at the bottom is filled with water and
suspended over the Tulsi plant with a steady stream of water, for the
entire month. In this period, when a hot summer reigns, one who
offers cool water to Tulsi or an umbrella to shelter it from the intense
heat is believed to be cleansed of all sin. The stream of water also
conveys wishes for a good monsoon.[16]
Set of Japa mala, made from Tulasi wood, with head bead in foreground.
There are conflicting accounts about Tulsi leaves being used in the
worship of the god Shiva, a rival sect (Shaiva) god to the Vaishnava
Vishnu. While Bael leaves are often offered to Shiva, some authors
note that Tulsi may also be offered to him. Tulsi worship is sometimes
regarded the worship of Shiva, conveying the deity's omnipresence.
Shiva's aniconic symbol - the linga - is sometimes prescribed to have
made from the black soil from the roots of the Tulsi plant. However,
Tulsi is taboo in worship of the Devi - the Hindu Divine Mother as the
pungent aroma of the Tulsi plant angers her.[11] It is also important for
the worship of Hanuman.[3] In Orissa, the Tulsi plant represents all
local deities and rituals to propitiate them are offered in front of the
plant. The Nayars of Malabar offer Tulsi plants to pacify evil spirits.[18]
Importance in Hinduism[edit]
Tulsi plant
Every part of the Tulsi plant is revered and considered sacred. Even
the soil around the plant is holy. The Padma Purana declares a person
who is cremated with Tulsi twigs in his funeral pyre gains moksha and
a place in Vishnu's abode Vaikuntha. If a Tulsi stick is used to burn a
lamp for Vishnu, it is like offering the gods lakhs of lamps. If one
makes a paste of dried Tulsi wood (from a plant that died naturally)
and smears it over his body and worships Vishnu, it is worth several
ordinary pujas and lakhs of Godan (donation of cows). [19] Water mixed
with the Tulsi leaves is given to the dying to raise their departing souls
to heaven.[5]
Musa species are native to tropical Indomalaya and Australia, and are likely to have been first
domesticated in Papua New Guinea.[4][5] They are grown in 135 countries,[6] primarily for their fruit,
and to a lesser extent to make fiber, banana wine and banana beer and as ornamental plants.
Worldwide, there is no sharp distinction between "bananas" and "plantains". Especially in the
Americas and Europe, "banana" usually refers to soft, sweet, dessert bananas, particularly those of
the Cavendish group, which are the main exports from banana-growing countries. By
contrast, Musa cultivars with firmer, starchier fruit are called "plantains". In other regions, such
as Southeast Asia, many more kinds of banana are grown and eaten, so the simple two-fold
distinction is not useful and is not made in local languages.
The term "banana" is also used as the common name for the plants which produce the fruit. [3] This
can extend to other members of the genus Musa like the scarlet banana (Musa coccinea), pink
banana (Musa velutina) and the Fe'i bananas. It can also refer to members of the genus Ensete, like
the snow banana (Ensete glaucum) and the economically important false banana (Ensete
ventricosum). Both genera are classified under the banana family, Musaceae.
Description
The banana plant is the largest herbaceous flowering plant.[7] All the above-ground parts of a banana
plant grow from a structure usually called a "corm".[8] Plants are normally tall and fairly sturdy, and
are often mistaken for trees, but what appears to be a trunk is actually a "false stem" or pseudostem.
Bananas grow in a wide variety of soils, as long as the soil is at least 60 cm deep, has good
drainage and is not compacted.[9] The leaves of banana plants are composed of a "stalk" (petiole)
and a blade (lamina). The base of the petiole widens to form a sheath; the tightly packed sheaths
make up the pseudostem, which is all that supports the plant. The edges of the sheath meet when it
is first produced, making it tubular. As new growth occurs in the centre of the pseudostem the edges
are forced apart.[10] Cultivated banana plants vary in height depending on the variety and growing
conditions. Most are around 5 m (16 ft) tall, with a range from 'Dwarf Cavendish' plants at around
3 m (10 ft) to 'Gros Michel' at 7 m (23 ft) or more.[11][12] Leaves are spirally arranged and may grow
2.7 metres (8.9 ft) long and 60 cm (2.0 ft) wide.[1] They are easily torn by the wind, resulting in the
familiar frond look.[13]
When a banana plant is mature, the corm stops producing new leaves and begins to form a flower
spike or inflorescence. A stem develops which grows up inside the pseudostem, carrying the
immature inflorescence until eventually it emerges at the top.[14] Each pseudostem normally
produces a single inflorescence, also known as the "banana heart". (More are sometimes produced;
an exceptional plant in the Philippines produced five.[15]) After fruiting, the pseudostem dies, but
offshoots will normally have developed from the base, so that the plant as a whole is perennial. In
the plantation system of cultivation, only one of the offshoots will be allowed to develop in order to
maintain spacing.[16] The inflorescence contains many bracts (sometimes incorrectly referred to as
petals) between rows of flowers. The female flowers (which can develop into fruit) appear in rows
further up the stem (closer to the leaves) from the rows of male flowers. The ovary is inferior,
meaning that the tiny petals and other flower parts appear at the tip of the ovary.[17]
The banana fruits develop from the banana heart, in a large hanging cluster, made up of tiers (called
"hands"), with up to 20 fruit to a tier. The hanging cluster is known as a bunch, comprising 320 tiers,
or commercially as a "banana stem", and can weigh 3050 kilograms (66110 lb). Individual banana
fruits (commonly known as a banana or "finger") average 125 grams (0.276 lb), of which
approximately 75% is water and 25% dry matter (nutrient table, lower right).
The fruit has been described as a "leathery berry".[18] There is a protective outer layer (a peel or skin)
with numerous long, thin strings (the phloem bundles), which run lengthwise between the skin and
the edible inner portion. The inner part of the common yellow dessert variety can be split lengthwise
into three sections that correspond to the inner portions of the three carpels by manually deforming
the unopened fruit.[19] In cultivated varieties, the seeds are diminished nearly to non-existence; their
remnants are tiny black specks in the interior of the fruit. [20]
Bananas are naturally slightly radioactive,[21] more so than most other fruits, because of their
potassium content and the small amounts of the isotope potassium-40 found in naturally occurring
potassium.[22] The banana equivalent dose of radiation is sometimes used in nuclear communication
to compare radiation levels and exposures.[23]
Etymology
The word banana is thought to be of West African origin, possibly from the Wolof word banaana, and
passed into English via Spanish or Portuguese.[24]
Taxonomy
The genus Musa was created by Carl Linnaeus in 1753.[25] The name may be derived from Antonius
Musa, physician to the Emperor Augustus, or Linnaeus may have adapted the Arabic word for
banana, mauz.[26] The old biological name Musa sapientum = "Muse of the wise" arose because of
homophony in Latin with the classical Muses.
Musa is in the family Musaceae. The APG III system assigns Musaceae to the order Zingiberales,
part of the commelinid clade of the monocotyledonous flowering plants. Some 70 species
of Musa were recognized by the World Checklist of Selected Plant Families as of January 2013;
[25]
several produce edible fruit, while others are cultivated as ornamentals. [27]
The classification of cultivated bananas has long been a problematic issue for taxonomists. Linnaeus
originally placed bananas into two species based only on their uses as food: Musa sapientum for
dessert bananas and Musa paradisiaca for plantains. Subsequently, further species names were
added. However, this approach proved inadequate to address the sheer number of cultivars existing
in the primary center of diversity of the genus, Southeast Asia. Many of these cultivars were given
names which proved to be synonyms.[28]
In a series of papers published from 1947 onwards, Ernest Cheesman showed that Linnaeus' Musa
sapientum and Musa paradisiaca were actually cultivars and descendants of two wild seed-
producing species, Musa acuminata and Musa balbisiana, both first described by Luigi Aloysius
Colla.[29] He recommended the abolition of Linnaeus's species in favor of reclassifying bananas
according to three morphologically distinct groups of cultivars those primarily exhibiting the
botanical characteristics of Musa balbisiana, those primarily exhibiting the botanical characteristics
of Musa acuminata, and those with characteristics that are the combination of the two.
[28]
Researchers Norman Simmonds and Ken Shepherd proposed a genome-based nomenclature
system in 1955. This system eliminated almost all the difficulties and inconsistencies of the earlier
classification of bananas based on assigning scientific names to cultivated varieties. Despite this, the
original names are still recognized by some authorities today, leading to confusion. [29][30]
The currently accepted scientific names for most groups of cultivated bananas are Musa
acuminata Colla and Musa balbisiana Colla for the ancestral species,
and Musa paradisiaca L. for the hybrid M. acuminata M. balbisiana.[31]
Generally, modern classifications of banana cultivars follow Simmonds and Shepherd's system.
Cultivars are placed in groups based on the number of chromosomes they have and which species
they are derived from. Thus the Latundan banana is placed in the AAB Group, showing that it is a
triploid derived from both M. acuminata (A) and M. balbisiana (B). For a list of the cultivars classified
under this system see List of banana cultivars.
In 2012, a team of scientists announced they had achieved a draft sequence of the genome of Musa
acuminata.[32]
An alternative approach divides bananas into dessert bananas and cooking bananas, with plantains
being one of the subgroups of cooking bananas. [36] Triploid cultivars derived solely
from M. acuminata are examples of "dessert bananas", whereas triploid cultivars derived from the
hybrid between M. acuminata and M. balbinosa (in particular the plantain subgroup of the AAB
Group) are "plantains".[37][38] Small farmers in Colombia grow a much wider range of cultivars than
large commercial plantations. A study of these cultivars showed that they could be placed into at
least three groups based on their characteristics: dessert bananas, non-plantain cooking bananas,
and plantains, although there were overlaps between dessert and cooking bananas. [39]
In Southeast Asia the center of diversity for bananas, both wild and cultivated the distinction
between "bananas" and "plantains" does not work, according to Valmayor et al. Many bananas are
used both raw and cooked. There are starchy cooking bananas which are smaller than those eaten
raw. The range of colors, sizes and shapes is far wider than in those grown or sold in Africa, Europe
or the Americas.[34] Southeast Asian languages do not make the distinction between "bananas" and
"plantains" that is made in English (and Spanish). Thus both Cavendish cultivars, the classic yellow
dessert bananas, and Saba cultivars, used mainly for cooking, are
called pisang in Malaysia and Indonesia, kluai in Thailand and chuoi in Vietnam.[40] Fe'i bananas,
grown and eaten in the islands of the Pacific, are derived from entirely different wild species than
traditional bananas and plantains. Most Fe'i bananas are cooked, but Karat bananas, which are
short and squat with bright red skins, very different from the usual yellow dessert bananas, are eaten
raw.[41]
In summary, in commerce in Europe and the Americas (although not in small-scale cultivation), it is
possible to distinguish between "bananas", which are eaten raw, and "plantains", which are cooked.
In other regions of the world, particularly India, Southeast Asia and the islands of the Pacific, there
are many more kinds of banana and the two-fold distinction is not useful and not made in local
languages. Plantains are one of many kinds of cooking bananas, which are not always distinct from
dessert bananas.
Historical cultivation
Early cultivation
Farmers in Southeast Asia and Papua New Guinea first domesticated bananas.
Recent archaeological and palaeoenvironmental evidence at Kuk Swamp in the Western Highlands
Province of Papua New Guinea suggests that banana cultivation there goes back to at least
5000 BCE, and possibly to 8000 BCE.[4][43] It is likely that other species were later and independently
domesticated elsewhere in Southeast Asia. Southeast Asia is the region of primary diversity of the
banana. Areas of secondary diversity are found in Africa, indicating a long history of banana
cultivation in the region.[44]
Phytolith discoveries in Cameroon dating to the first millennium BCE[46] triggered an as yet
unresolved debate about the date of first cultivation in Africa. There is linguistic evidence that
bananas were known in Madagascar around that time.[47]The earliest prior evidence indicates that
cultivation dates to no earlier than late 6th century CE.[48] It is likely, however, that bananas were
brought at least to Madagascar if not to the East African coast during the phase
of Malagasy colonization of the island from South East Asia c. 400 CE. [49]
The banana may also have been present in isolated locations elsewhere in the Middle East on the
eve of Islam. The spread of Islam was followed by far-reaching diffusion. There are numerous
references to it in Islamic texts (such as poems and hadiths) beginning in the 9th century. By the
10th century the banana appears in texts from Palestine and Egypt. From there it diffused into North
Africa and Muslim Iberia. During the medieval ages, bananas from Granada were considered among
the best in the Arab world.[45] In 650, Islamic conquerors brought the banana to Palestine. Today,
banana consumption increases significantly in Islamic countries during Ramadan, the month of
daylight fasting.[50]
Bananas were certainly grown in the Christian Kingdom of Cyprus by the late medieval period.
Writing in 1458, the Italian traveller and writer Gabriele Capodilista wrote favourably of the extensive
farm produce of the estates at Episkopi, near modern-day Limassol, including the region's banana
plantations.[51]
Bananas were introduced to the Americas by Portuguese sailors who brought the fruits from West
Africa in the 16th century.[52]
Many wild banana species as well as cultivars exist in extraordinary diversity in India, China,
and Southeast Asia.
There are fuzzy bananas whose skins are bubblegum pink; green-and-white striped bananas with
pulp the color of orange sherbet; bananas that, when cooked, taste like strawberries. The Double
Mahoi plant can produce two bunches at once. The Chinese name of the aromatic Go San Heong
banana means 'You can smell it from the next mountain.' The fingers on one banana plant grow
fused; another produces bunches of a thousand fingers, each only an inch long.
In 1999 archaeologists in London discovered what they believed to be the oldest banana in the UK,
in a Tudor rubbish tip.[54]
In the 15th and 16th centuries, Portuguese colonists started banana plantations in the Atlantic
Islands, Brazil, and western Africa.[55] North Americans began consuming bananas on a small scale
at very high prices shortly after the Civil War, though it was only in the 1880s that it became more
widespread.[56] As late as the Victorian Era, bananas were not widely known in Europe, although
they were available.[55] Jules Verne introduces bananas to his readers with detailed descriptions
in Around the World in Eighty Days (1872).
The earliest modern plantations originated in Jamaica and the related Western Caribbean Zone,
including most of Central America. It involved the combination of modern transportation networks of
steamships and railroads with the development of refrigeration that allowed bananas to have more
time between harvesting and ripening. North America shippers like Lorenzo Dow Baker and Andrew
Preston, the founders of the Boston Fruit Company started this process in the 1870s, but railroad
builders like Minor C Keith also participated, eventually culminating in the multi-national giant
corporations like today's Chiquita Brands International and Dole.[56] These companies were
monopolistic, vertically integrated (meaning they controlled growing, processing, shipping and
marketing) and usually used political manipulation to build enclave economies (economies that were
internally self-sufficient, virtually tax exempt, and export oriented that contribute very little to the host
economy). Their political maneuvers, which gave rise to the term Banana republic for states like
Honduras and Guatemala, included working with local elites and their rivalries to influence politics or
playing the international interests of the United States, especially during the Cold War, to keep the
political climate favorable to their interests.[57]
The vast majority of the world's bananas today are cultivated for family consumption or for sale on
local markets. India is the world leader in this sort of production, but many other Asian and African
countries where climate and soil conditions allow cultivation also host large populations of banana
growers who sell at least some of their crop.[58]
There are peasant sector banana growers who produce for the world market in the Caribbean,
however. The Windward Islands are notable for the growing, largely of Cavendish bananas, for an
international market, generally in Europe but also in North America. In the Caribbean, and especially
in Dominica where this sort of cultivation is widespread, holdings are in the 12 acre range. In many
cases the farmer earns additional money from other crops, from engaging in labor outside the farm,
and from a share of the earnings of relatives living overseas. This style of cultivation often was
popular in the islands as bananas required little labor input and brought welcome extra income. [citation
needed]
Banana crops are vulnerable to destruction by high winds, such as tropical storms or cyclones.
[59]
After the signing of the NAFTA agreements in the 1990s, however, the tide turned against peasant
producers. Their costs of production were relatively high and the ending of favorable tariff and other
supports, especially in the European Economic Community, made it difficult for peasant producers to
compete with the bananas grown on large plantations by the well capitalized firms like Chiquita and
Dole. Not only did the large companies have access to cheap labor in the areas they worked, but
they were better able to afford modern agronomic advances such as fertilization. The "dollar banana"
produced by these concerns made the profit margins for peasant bananas unsustainable. [citation needed]
Caribbean countries have sought to redress this problem by providing government supported
agronomic services and helping to organize producers' cooperatives. They have also been
supporters of the Fair Trade movement which seeks to balance the inequities in the world trade in
commodities.[citation needed]
East Africa
Main article: East African Highland bananas
Most farms supply local consumption. Cooking bananas represent a major food source and a
major income source for smallhold farmers. In east Africa, highland bananas are of greatest
importance as a staple food crop. In countries such as Uganda, Burundi, and Rwanda per capita
consumption has been estimated at 45 kilograms (99 lb) per year, the highest in the world.[citation
needed]
Modern cultivation
All widely cultivated bananas today descend from the two wild bananas Musa acuminata and Musa
balbisiana. While the original wild bananas contained large seeds, diploid or polyploid cultivars
(some being hybrids) with tiny seeds are preferred for human raw fruit consumption. [60] These are
propagated asexually from offshoots. The plant is allowed to produce two shoots at a time; a larger
one for immediate fruiting and a smaller "sucker" or "follower" to produce fruit in 68 months. The life
of a banana plantation is 25 years or longer, during which time the individual stools or planting sites
may move slightly from their original positions as lateral rhizome formation dictates.[citation needed]
Cultivated bananas are parthenocarpic, i.e. the flesh of the fruit swells and ripens without its seeds
being fertilized and developing. Lacking viable seeds, propagation typically involves farmers
removing and transplanting part of the underground stem (called a corm). Usually this is done by
carefully removing a sucker (a vertical shoot that develops from the base of the banana
pseudostem) with some roots intact. However, small sympodial corms, representing not yet
elongated suckers, are easier to transplant and can be left out of the ground for up to two weeks;
they require minimal care and can be shipped in bulk. [citation needed]
It is not necessary to include the corm or root structure to propagate bananas; severed suckers
without root material can be propagated in damp sand, although this takes somewhat longer.[citation
needed]
In some countries, commercial propagation occurs by means of tissue culture. This method is
preferred since it ensures disease-free planting material. When using vegetative parts such as
suckers for propagation, there is a risk of transmitting diseases (especially the devastating Panama
disease).[citation needed]
Cavendish
Main article: Cavendish bananas
In global commerce in 2009, by far the most important cultivars belonged to the
triploid AAA group of Musa acuminata, commonly referred to as Cavendish group bananas. They
accounted for the majority of banana exports,[60] despite only coming into existence in 1836.[62] The
cultivars Dwarf Cavendish and Grand Nain (Chiquita Banana) gained popularity in the 1950s after
the previous mass-produced cultivar, Gros Michel (also an AAA group cultivar), became
commercially unviable due to Panama disease, caused by the fungus Fusarium oxysporum which
attacks the roots of the banana plant.[60] Cavendish cultivars are resistant to the Panama Disease
but in 2013 there were fears that the Black Sigatoka fungus would in turn make Cavendish bananas
unviable.[63]
Ease of transport and shelf life rather than superior taste make the Dwarf Cavendish the main export
banana.[citation needed]
Even though it is no longer viable for large scale cultivation, Gros Michel is not extinct and is still
grown in areas where Panama disease is not found.[64] Likewise, Dwarf Cavendish and Grand Nain
are in no danger of extinction, but they may leave supermarket shelves if disease makes it
impossible to supply the global market. It is unclear if any existing cultivar can replace Cavendish
bananas, so various hybridisation and genetic engineering programs are attempting to create a
disease-resistant, mass-market banana.[60]
Ripening
Export bananas are picked green, and ripen in special rooms upon arrival in the destination country.
These rooms are air-tight and filled with ethylene gas to induce ripening. The vivid yellow color
consumers normally associate with supermarket bananas is, in fact, caused by the artificial ripening
process.[65][66] Flavor and texture are also affected by ripening temperature. Bananas are refrigerated
to between 13.5 and 15 C (56.3 and 59.0 F) during transport. At lower temperatures, ripening
permanently stalls, and the bananas turn gray as cell walls break down. The skin of ripe bananas
quickly blackens in the 4 C (39 F) environment of a domestic refrigerator, although the fruit inside
remains unaffected.
Bananas can be ordered by the retailer "ungassed" (i.e. not treated with ethylene), and may show up
at the supermarket fully green. Guineos verdes (green bananas) that have not been gassed will
never fully ripen before becoming rotten. Instead of fresh eating, these bananas can be used for
cooking, as seen in Jamaican cuisine.[67]
A 2008 study reported that ripe bananas fluoresce when exposed to ultraviolet light. This property is
attributed to the degradation of chlorophyll leading to the accumulation of a fluorescent product in
the skin of the fruit. The chlorophyll breakdown product is stabilized by a propionate ester group.
Banana-plant leaves also fluoresce in the same way. Green bananas do not fluoresce. The study
suggested that this allows animals which can see light in the ultraviolet spectrum
(tetrachromats and pentachromats) to more easily detect ripened bananas.[68]
Bananas must be transported over long distances from the tropics to world markets. To obtain
maximum shelf life, harvest comes before the fruit is mature. The fruit requires careful handling,
rapid transport to ports, cooling, and refrigerated shipping. The goal is to prevent the bananas from
producing their natural ripening agent, ethylene. This technology allows storage and transport for 3
4 weeks at 13 C (55 F). On arrival, bananas are held at about 17 C (63 F) and treated with a low
concentration of ethylene. After a few days, the fruit begins to ripen and is distributed for final sale.
Unripe bananas can not be held in home refrigerators because they suffer from the cold. [citation
needed]
Ripe bananas can be held for a few days at home. If bananas are too green, they can be put
in a brown paper bag with an apple or tomato overnight to speed up the ripening process. [69]
Carbon dioxide (which bananas produce) and ethylene absorbents extend fruit life even at high
temperatures. This effect can be exploited by packing banana in a polyethylene bag and including an
ethylene absorbent, e.g., potassium permanganate, on an inert carrier. The bag is then sealed with a
band or string. This treatment has been shown to more than double lifespans up to 34 weeks
without the need for refrigeration.[70][71][72]
Panama disease
Panama disease is caused by a fusarium soil fungus (Race 1), which enters the plants through the
roots and travels with water into the trunk and leaves, producing gels and gums that cut off the flow
of water and nutrients, causing the plant to wilt, and exposing the rest of the plant to lethal amounts
of sunlight. Prior to 1960, almost all commercial banana production centered on "Gros Michel",
which was highly susceptible.[80] Cavendish was chosen as the replacement for Gros Michel
because, among resistant cultivars, it produces the highest quality fruit. However, more care is
required for shipping the Cavendish, and its quality compared to Gros Michel is debated. [by whom?]
[citation needed]
According to current sources, a deadly form of Panama disease is infecting Cavendish. All plants are
genetically identical, which prevents evolution of disease resistance. Researchers are examining
hundreds of wild varieties for resistance.[80]
Tropical race 4
Tropical race 4 (TR4) is a reinvigorated strain of Panama disease first discovered in 1993. This
virulent form of fusarium wilt has wiped out Cavendish in several southeast Asian countries. It has
yet to reach the Americas; however, soil fungi can easily be carried on boots, clothing, or tools. This
is how TR4 travels and is its most likely route into Latin America. Cavendish is highly susceptible to
TR4, and over time, Cavendish is almost certain to be eliminated from commercial production by this
disease. The only known defense to TR4 is genetic resistance.[81]
Black sigatoka
Black sigatoka is a fungal leaf spot disease first observed in Fiji in 1963 or 1964. Black Sigatoka
(also known as black leaf streak) has spread to banana plantations throughout the tropics from
infected banana leaves that were used as packing material. It affects all main cultivars of bananas
and plantains (including the Cavendish cultivars[63]), impeding photosynthesis by blackening parts of
the leaves, eventually killing the entire leaf. Starved for energy, fruit production falls by 50% or more,
and the bananas that do grow ripen prematurely, making them unsuitable for export. The fungus has
shown ever-increasing resistance to treatment, with the current expense for treating 1 hectare (2.5
acres) exceeding $1,000 per year. In addition to the expense, there is the question of how long
intensive spraying can be environmentally justified. Several resistant cultivars of banana have been
developed, but none has yet received commercial acceptance due to taste and texture issues. [citation
needed]
In East Africa
With the arrival of black sigatoka, banana production in eastern Africa fell by over 40%. For example,
during the 1970s, Uganda produced 15 to 20 tonnes (15 to 20 long tons; 17 to 22 short tons) of
bananas per hectare. Today, production has fallen to only 6 tonnes (5.9 long tons; 6.6 short tons) per
hectare.[citation needed]
The situation has started to improve as new disease-resistant cultivars have been developed by
the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture and the National Agricultural Research Organisation
of Uganda (NARO), such as FHIA-17 (known in Uganda as the Kabana 3). These new cultivars taste
different from the Cabana banana, which has slowed their acceptance by local farmers. However, by
adding mulch and manure to the soil around the base of the plant, these new cultivars have
substantially increased yields in the areas where they have been tried. [citation needed]
The International Institute of Tropical Agriculture and NARO, funded by the Rockefeller
Foundation and CGIAR have started trials for genetically modified bananas that are resistant to both
Black sigatoka and banana weevils. It is developing cultivars specifically for smallholder and
subsistence farmers.[citation needed]
Banana bunchy top virus (BBTV) jumps from plant to plant using aphids. It stunts leaves, resulting in
a "bunched" appearance. Generally, an infected plant does not produce fruit, although mild strains
exist which allow some production. These mild strains are often mistaken for malnourishment, or a
disease other than BBTV. There is no cure; however, its effect can be minimized by planting
only tissue-cultured plants (in vitro propagation), controlling aphids, and immediately removing and
destroying infected plants.[citation needed]
Nutrition
Bananas are a rich source of vitamin B6 and contain moderate amounts of vitamin
C, manganese and dietary fiber (right table).[85]
Although bananas are commonly thought to supply exceptional potassium content,[86] their actual
potassium content is relatively low per typical food serving at only 8% of the Daily Value (right table).
A compilation of potassium content in common foods consumed in the United States shows that raw
bananas rank 1,611th, supplying 358 mg of potassium per 100 g; some foods with higher potassium
content (per serving) include beans, apricots, sweet green bell peppers and potatoes.[87]
Culture
Food and cooking
See also: Cooking plantain and List of banana dishes
Fruit
Bananas are a staple starch for many tropical populations. Depending upon cultivar and ripeness,
the flesh can vary in taste from starchy to sweet, and texture from firm to mushy. Both the skin and
inner part can be eaten raw or cooked. The primary component of the aroma of fresh bananas
is isoamyl acetate (also known as banana oil), which, along with several other compounds such
as butyl acetate and isobutyl acetate, is a significant contributor to banana flavor.[89][90][91]
During the ripening process, bananas produce the gas ethylene, which acts as a plant hormone and
indirectly affects the flavor. Among other things, ethylene stimulates the formation of amylase,
an enzyme that breaks down starch into sugar, influencing the taste of bananas. The greener, less
ripe bananas contain higher levels of starch and, consequently, have a "starchier" taste. On the other
hand, yellow bananas taste sweeter due to higher sugar concentrations. Furthermore, ethylene
signals the production of pectinase, an enzyme which breaks down the pectin between the cells of
the banana, causing the banana to soften as it ripens.[92][93]
Bananas are eaten deep fried, baked in their skin in a split bamboo, or steamed in glutinous
rice wrapped in a banana leaf. Bananas can be made into jam. Banana pancakes are popular
amongst backpackers and other travelers in South Asia and Southeast Asia. This has elicited the
expression Banana Pancake Trail for those places in Asia that cater to this group of
travelers. Banana chips are a snack produced from sliced dehydrated or fried banana or plantain,
which have a dark brown color and an intense banana taste. Dried bananas are also ground to
make banana flour. Extracting juice is difficult, because when a banana is compressed, it simply
turns to pulp. Bananas feature prominently in Philippine cuisine, being part of traditional dishes and
desserts like maruya, turn, and halo-halo or saba con yelo. Most of these dishes use the Saba or
Cardaba banana cultivar. Bananas are also commonly used in cuisine in the South-Indian state
of Kerala, where they are steamed (puzhungiyathu), made into curries,[94] fried into chips (upperi)
[95]
or fried in batter (pazhampori).[96]Pisang goreng, bananas fried with batter similar to the
Filipino maruya or Kerala pazhampori, is a popular dessert in Malaysia, Singapore, and Indonesia. A
similar dish is known in the United Kingdom and United States as banana fritters.
Plantains are used in various stews and curries or cooked, baked or mashed in much the same way
as potatoes, such as the Pazham Pachadi prepared in Kerala.[94]
Seeded bananas (Musa balbisiana), one of the forerunners of the common domesticated banana,
[97]
are sold in markets in Indonesia.[citation needed]
Flower
Banana hearts are used as a vegetable[98] in South Asian and Southeast Asian cuisine, either raw or
steamed with dips or cooked in soups, curries and fried foods.[99] The flavor resembles that
of artichoke. As with artichokes, both the fleshy part of the bracts and the heart are edible. [100]
Leaves
Main article: Banana leaf
Banana leaves are large, flexible, and waterproof. They are often used as ecologically friendly
disposable food containers or as "plates" in South Asia and several Southeast Asian countries.
In Indonesian cuisine, banana leaf is employed in cooking method called pepes and botok; the
banana leaf packages containing food ingredients and spices are cooked on steam, in boiled water
or grilled on charcoal. In the South Indian states of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra
Pradesh and Kerala in every occasion the food must be served in a banana leaf and as a part of the
food a banana is served. Steamed with dishes they impart a subtle sweet flavor. They often serve as
a wrapping for grilling food. The leaves contain the juices, protect food from burning and add a
subtle flavor.[101] In Tamil Nadu (India) leaves are fully dried and used as packing material for food
stuffs and also making cups to hold liquid foods. In Central American countries, banana leaves are
often used as wrappers for tamales.[citation needed]
Trunk
The tender core of the banana plant's trunk is also used in South Asian and Southeast Asian cuisine,
and notably in the Burmese dish mohinga.
Fiber
Textiles
The banana plant has long been a source of fiber for high quality textiles. In Japan, banana
cultivation for clothing and household use dates back to at least the 13th century. In the Japanese
system, leaves and shoots are cut from the plant periodically to ensure softness. Harvested shoots
are first boiled in lye to prepare fibers for yarn-making. These banana shoots produce fibers of
varying degrees of softness, yielding yarns and textiles with differing qualities for specific uses. For
example, the outermost fibers of the shoots are the coarsest, and are suitable for tablecloths, while
the softest innermost fibers are desirable for kimono and kamishimo. This traditional Japanese cloth-
making process requires many steps, all performed by hand.[102]
In a Nepalese system the trunk is harvested instead, and small pieces are subjected to a softening
process, mechanical fiber extraction, bleaching and drying. After that, the fibers are sent to
the Kathmandu Valley for use in rugs with a silk-like texture. These banana fiber rugs are woven by
traditional Nepalese hand-knotting methods, and are sold RugMark certified.[citation needed]
In South Indian state of Tamil Nadu after harvesting for fruit the trunk (outer layer of the shoot) is
made into fine thread used in making of flower garlands instead of thread.[citation needed]
Paper
Main article: Banana paper
Banana fiber is used in the production of banana paper. Banana paper is made from two different
parts: the bark of the banana plant, mainly used for artistic purposes, or from the fibers of the stem
and non-usable fruits. The paper is either hand-made or by industrial process.
Cultural roles
Banana flowers and leaves for sale in the Thanin market in Chiang
Mai, Thailand.
Arts
The song "Yes! We Have No Bananas" was written by Frank Silver and Irving Cohn and
originally released in 1923; for many decades, it was the best-selling sheet music in history.
Since then the song has been rerecorded several times and has been particularly popular during
banana shortages.[103][104]
A person slipping on a banana peel has been a staple of physical comedy for generations.
An American comedy recording from 1910 features a popular character of the time, "Uncle
Josh", claiming to describe his own such incident: [105]
Now I don't think much of the man that throws a banana peelin' on the sidewalk, and I don't
think much of the banana peel that throws a man on the sidewalk neither ... my foot hit the
bananer peelin' and I went up in the air, and I come down ker-plunk, jist as I was pickin'
myself up a little boy come runnin' across the street ... he says, "Oh mister, won't you please
do that agin? My little brother didn't see you do it."
The poet Bash is named after the Japanese word for a banana plant. The "bash" planted
in his garden by a grateful student became a source of inspiration to his poetry, as well as a
symbol of his life and home.[106]
The cover artwork for the debut album of The Velvet Underground features a banana made
by Andy Warhol. On the original vinyl LP version, the design allowed the listener to "peel"
this banana to find a pink, peeled phallic banana on the inside.[107]
Nang Tani, the female ghost of Thai folklore that haunts banana plants
In Burma, bunches of green bananas surrounding a green coconut in a tray form an important
part of traditional offerings to the Buddha and the Nats.[citation needed]
In all the important festivals and occasions of Hindus, the serving of bananas plays a prominent
part. Traditionally in Tamil marriages, banana plants are tied on both sides of the entrance of
houses to bless the newlyweds to be useful to each other.[citation needed] The banana is one of three
fruits with this significance, the others being mango and jack fruit.[citation needed]
In Thailand, it is believed that a certain type of banana plants may be inhabited by a spirit, Nang
Tani, a type of ghost related to trees and similar plants that manifests itself as a young woman.
[108]
Often people tie a length of colored satin cloth around the pseudostem of the banana plants.
[109]
In Malay folklore, the ghost known as Pontianak is associated with banana plants (pokok
pisang), and its spirit is said to reside in them during the day.[110]
Unicode
The Unicode standard includes the emoji character U+1F34C BANANA (HTML 🍌 ).
[111]
Other uses
Banana peel may have capability to extract heavy metal contamination from river water,
similar to other purification materials.[112][113] In 2007, banana peel powder was tested as a
means of filtration for heavy metals and radionuclides occurring in water produced by the
nuclear and fertilizer industries (cadmium contaminant is present in phosphates). When
added and thoroughly mixed for 40 minutes, the powder can remove roughly 65% of heavy
metals, and this can be repeated.
Mango
Mangoes are juicy stone fruit (drupe) from numerous species of
tropical trees belonging to the flowering plant genus Mangifera,
cultivated mostly for their edible fruit. The majority of these species
are found in nature as wild mangoes. The genus belongs to
the cashew family Anacardiaceae. Mangoes are native to South Asia,[2]
[3]
from where the "common mango" or "Indian mango", Mangifera
indica, has been distributed worldwide to become one of the most
widely cultivated fruits in the tropics. Other Mangifera species (e.g.
horse mango, Mangifera foetida) are also grown on a more localized
basis.
Description
Mango trees grow to 3540 m (115131 ft) tall, with a crown radius of
10 m (33 ft). The trees are long-lived, as some specimens still fruit
after 300 years.[5] In deep soil, the taproot descends to a depth of 6 m
(20 ft), with profuse, wide-spreading feeder roots; the tree also sends
down many anchor roots, which penetrate several feet of soil.
The leaves are evergreen, alternate, simple, 1535 cm (5.913.8 in)
long, and 616 cm (2.46.3 in) broad; when the leaves are young they
are orange-pink, rapidly changing to a dark, glossy red, then dark
green as they mature. The flowers are produced in
terminal panicles 1040 cm (3.915.7 in) long; each flower is small
and white with five petals 510 mm (0.200.39 in) long, with a mild,
sweet odor suggestive of lily of the valley. Over 400 varieties of
mangoes are known, many of which ripen in summer, while some give
double crop.[6] The fruit takes three to six months to ripen.
The ripe fruit varies in size and color. Cultivars are variously yellow,
orange, red, or green, and carry a single flat, oblong pit that can
be fibrous or hairy on the surface, and which does not separate easily
from the pulp. Ripe, unpeeled mangoes give off a distinctive resinous,
sweet smell. Inside the pit 12 mm (0.0390.079 in) thick is a thin
lining covering a single seed, 47 cm (1.62.8 in) long. The seed
contains the plant embryo. Mangoes have recalcitrant seeds; they do
not survive freezing and drying.[7]
Etymology[edit]
The mango illustrated by Michael Boym in the 1656 book Flora Sinensis.
Cultivation[edit]
Cultivars[edit]
Main article: List of mango cultivars
'Alphonso' mangoes named after Afonso de Albuquerque, who introduced the
fruit to Goa
Cultivars that excel in one climate may fail elsewhere. For example,
Indian cultivars such as 'Julie', a prolific cultivar in Jamaica, require
annual fungicide treatments to escape the lethal fungal
disease anthracnose in Florida. Asian mangoes are resistant to
anthracnose.
Production[edit]
Food[edit]
Mangoes are generally sweet, although the taste and texture of the
flesh varies across cultivars; some have a soft, pulpy texture similar to
an overripe plum, while others are firmer, like
a cantaloupe or avocado, and some may have a fibrous texture. The
skin of unripe, pickled, or cooked mango can be consumed, but has
the potential to cause contact dermatitis of the lips, gingiva, or tongue
in susceptible people.
Cuisine[edit]
Mangoes are widely used in cuisine. Sour, unripe mangoes are used
in chutneys, athanu, pickles,[27] side dishes, or may be eaten raw
with salt, chili, or soy sauce. A summer drink called aam panna comes
from mangoes. Mango pulp made into jelly or cooked with red
gram dhal and green chillies may be served with cooked rice. Mango
lassi is popular throughout South Asia,[28] prepared by mixing ripe
mangoes or mango pulp with buttermilk and sugar. Ripe mangoes are
also used to make curries. Aamras is a popular thick juice made of
mangoes with sugar or milk, and is consumed with chapatis or pooris.
The pulp from ripe mangoes is also used to make jam
called mangada. Andhra aavakaaya is a pickle made from raw, unripe,
pulpy, and sour mango, mixed with chili
powder, fenugreek seeds, mustard powder, salt, and groundnut oil.
Mango is also used in Andhra to
make dahl preparations. Gujaratis use mango to make chunda (a
spicy, grated mango delicacy).
Food constituents
Nutrients[edit]
The energy value per 100 g (3.5 oz) serving of the common mango is
250 kJ (60 kcal), and that of the apple mango is slightly higher (330 kJ
(79 kcal) per 100 g). Fresh mango contains a variety of nutrients (right
table), but only vitamin C and folate are in significant amounts of
the Daily Value as 44% and 11%, respectively.[29][30]
Phytochemicals[edit]
Contact with oils in mango leaves, stems, sap, and skin can
cause dermatitis and anaphylaxis in susceptible individuals.[58] Those
with a history of contact dermatitis induced by urushiol (an allergen
found in poison ivy, poison oak, or poison sumac) may be most at risk
for mango contact dermatitis.[59] Cross-reactions may occur between
mango allergens and urushiol.[60] During the primary ripening season of
mangoes, contact with mango plant parts is the most common cause
of plant dermatitis in Hawaii.[61] However, sensitized individuals are still
able to safely eat peeled mangos or drink mango juice. [61]
Cultural significance
Dried mango skin and its seeds are also used in Ayurvedic medicines.
[27]
Mango leaves are used to decorate archways and doors in Indian
houses and during weddings and celebrations such as Ganesh
Chaturthi. Mango motifs and paisleys are widely used in different
Indian embroidery styles, and are found
in Kashmiri shawls, Kanchipuram silk sarees, etc. Paisleys are also
common to Iranian art, because of its pre-Islamic Zoroastrian past.
In Tamil Nadu, the mango is referred to as one of the three royal fruits,
along with banana and jackfruit, for their sweetness and flavor.[68] This
triad of fruits is referred to as ma-pala-vazhai.
Fruit drinks that include mango are popular in India, with brands such
as Frooti, Maaza, and Slice. These leading brands include sugar and
artificial flavors, so they do not qualify as "juice" under Food Safety
and Standards Authority of India regulations.[69]
In the West Indies, the expression "to go mango walk" means to steal
another person's mango fruits. This is celebrated in the famous song,
"The Mango Walk".
Like other fig species, including the common edible fig Ficus carica,
banyans bear multiple fruit in structures denominated "syncarps. The
syncarp of Ficus species supplies shelter and food for fig wasps and,
in turn, the trees are totally dependent on the fig wasps for pollination.
Frugivore birds disperse the seeds of banyans. The seeds are small,
and because most banyans grow in woodlands, a seedling that
germinates on the ground is unlikely to survive. However, many seeds
fall on the branches and stems of other trees or on human edifices,
and when they germinate they grow roots down toward the ground
and consequently may envelop part of the host tree or edifice. For this
reason banyans bear the colloquial name "strangler fig". A number of
tropical banyan species that compete for sunlight, especially of the
genus Ficus, exhibit this strangling habit.[5][6][page needed][7]
The leaves of the banyan tree are large, leathery, glossy, green, and
elliptical. Like most figs, the leaf bud is covered by two large scales.
As the leaf develops the scales abscise. Young leaves have an
attractive reddish tinge.[8]
Older banyan trees are characterized by aerial prop roots that mature
into thick, woody trunks, which can become indistinguishable from the
primary trunk with age. Old trees can spread laterally by using these
prop roots to grow over a wide area. In some species, the prop roots
develop over a considerable area that resembles a grove of trees, with
every trunk connected directly or indirectly to the primary trunk. The
topology of this massive root system inspired the name of
the hierarchical computer network operating system "Banyan VINES".
In a banyan that envelops its host tree, the mesh of roots growing
around the latter eventually applies considerable pressure to and
commonly kills it. Such an enveloped, dead tree eventually
decomposes, so that the banyan becomes a "columnar tree" with a
hollow, central core. In jungles, such hollows are very desirable
shelters to many animals.
Etymology[edit]
Early stages of a strangler fig on a host tree in the Western Ghats, India
Looking upward inside a strangler fig where the host tree has rotted away,
leaving a hollow, columnar tree
Due to the complex structure of the roots and extensive branching, the
banyan is used as a subject specimen in penjing and bonsai. The
oldest, living bonsai in Taiwan is a 240-year-old banyan tree housed
in Tainan.[10]
In culture[edit]
Religion and mythology[edit]
Thimmamma Marrimanu
Botanical information
Phylogeny and anatomy[edit]
Bark[edit]
Leaf[edit]
The leaf is trifoliate, alternate, each leaflet 5-14 x 26 cm, ovate with
tapering or pointed tip and rounded base, untoothed or with shallow
rounded teeth. Young leaves are pale green or pinkish, finely hairy
while mature leaves are dark green and completely smooth. Each leaf
has 4-12 pairs of side veins which are joined at margin. The end
leaflet features a long stalk, 0.53 cm while side stalks are typically
shorter than 0.2 cm.[citation needed]
Flower[edit]
The flowers are 1.5 to 2 cm, pale green or yellowish, sweetly scented,
bisexual, in short drooping unbranched clusters at the end of twigs
and leaf axils. They usually appear with young leaves. The calyx is flat
with 4(5) small teeth. The four or five petals of 68 mm overlap in the
bud. Many stamens have short filaments and pale brown, short style
anthers. The ovary is bright green with inconspicuous disc.
Fruit[edit]
Bael fruit
It takes about 11 months to ripen on the tree and can reach the size of
a large grapefruit or pomelo, and some are even larger. The shell is so
hard it must be cracked with a hammer or machete. The fibrous yellow
pulp is very aromatic. It has been described as tasting
of marmalade and smelling of roses. Boning (2006) indicates that the
flavor is "sweet, aromatic and pleasant, although tangy and slightly
astringent in some varieties. It resembles a marmalade made, in part,
with citrus and, in part, with tamarind."[8] Numerous hairy seeds are
encapsulated in a slimy mucilage.
Food uses
The fruits can be eaten either freshly from trees or after being dried. If
fresh, the juice is strained and sweetened to make a drink similar
to lemonade. It can be made into sharbat (Hindi/Urdu) or Bela
pana (Odia: ), a very popular summer drink in almost every
household. The Drink is especially significant on the Odiya New Year
(Pana Sankranti) which is in April. Bela Pana made in Odisha has
fresh cheese, milk, water, fruit pulp, sugar, crushed black pepper, and
Chemical compounds
Aeglemarmelosine[edit]
Religious significance
Hinduism
Besides medicinal use, the plant and its leaves and fruit are of
religious importance. For instance, in Hinduism, the leaves of the plant
are being offered to Gods as part of prayers.[19][20] The tree is in fact
regarded as one of the sacred trees of Indian heritage. [21] As such, the
fruit is used in religious rituals. For instance, in Hinduism the tree is
sacred,[citation needed] and many Hindus have bael trees in their gardens.[citation
needed]
It is used in the worship of Shiva, who is said to favour the leaves,
where the tri-foliate form of leaves symbolize the trident that Shiva
holds in his right hand.[citation needed] The fruits were used in place
of coconuts before large-scale rail transportation became available,
and is said to resemble a skull with a white, bone-like outer shell and a
soft inner part, so it is sometimes called "seer phael" (head-fruit). [according
to whom?][citation needed]
However, it is quite likely that this term was coined from
the Sanskrit term "ShreePhala",[according to whom?][speculation?] which is a common
name for this fruit.[citation needed] The Shree Suktam of the RigVeda refers to
it as being the tree associated with Lakshmi,[citation needed]which could also
be the reason why it is called 'ShreePhala'.[speculation?][citation
needed]
The RigVeda states:
Curative properties
Amla is one of the richest natural sources of vitamin C, its fresh
juice containing nearly twenty times as much vitamin C as
orange juice. A single tiny Amla is equivalent in vitamin C
content to two oranges. Clinical tests on patients suffering from
pulmonary tuberculosis have shown that this high concentrate
is more quickly assimilated then the synthetic vitamin. It is an
ingredient of many Ayurvedic medicines and tonics, as it
removes excessive salivation, nausea, vomiting, giddiness,
spermatorrhoea, internal body heat and menstrual disorders.
Because it is also cooling, it increases sattwa, and is an
excellent liver tonic.
Many years later, a boy who had been mute from birth was
brought to Shankaracharya by his father. Shankaracharya, who
had been able to penetrate and ascertain the depths of the boy,
asked him, Who are you? What is your name, and where do
you come from? Whereupon the boy opened his mouth and
out poured the magnificent verses on Adwaita Vedanta which
are now known as Hastamalaka Stotram. Shankaracharya then
initiated him into sannyasa and gave him the name
Hastamalaka. Hasta means hand and amalaka refers to the
fruit. He was given this name to signify that he could talk about
Brahman as clearly and simply as presenting an Amla fruit on
the palm of the hand. The fact that this fruit is used as a
symbol for spiritual truth shows in what high esteem it has
always been held in India. As Naveen Patnaik writes in his book
The Garden of Life, The great Indian philosophers conducted
their dialogues in the forest using plants again and again to
illustrate concepts of spiritual continuity to their students,
because the forest represented the endless self-regeneration of
life, or what we would call today an ecosystem, complete in
itself.
Datura wrightii
Datura wrightii or sacred datura is the name of
a poisonous perennial plant and ornamental flower of
southwestern North America. It is sometimes used as
a hallucinogen. D. wrightii is classified as a deliriant and
an anticholinergic.[1]
Toxicity[edit]
Main article: Datura (Toxicity)
Uses[edit]
Medicinal[edit]
Religious[edit]
Recreational[edit]
Fruit[edit]
Botanically, the coconut fruit is a drupe, not a true nut.[12] Like other
fruits, it has three layers: the exocarp, mesocarp, and endocarp. The
exocarp and mesocarp make up the "husk" of the coconuts. Coconuts
sold in the shops of nontropical countries often have had the exocarp
(outermost layer) removed. The mesocarp is composed of a fiber,
called coir, which has many traditional and commercial uses. The shell
has three germination pores (micropyles) or "eyes" that are clearly
visible on its outside surface once the husk is removed.
Roots[edit]
Unlike some other plants, the palm tree has neither a tap root nor root
hairs, but has a fibrous root system.[14]
Coconut palms continue to produce roots from the base of the stem
throughout their lives. The number of roots produced depends on the
age of the tree and the environment, with more than 3,600 roots
possible on a tree that is 60 to 70 years old.
Roots are usually less than about 3 inches in diameter and uniformly
thick from the tree trunk to the root tip.
Inflorescence[edit]
The palm produces both the female and male flowers on the
same inflorescence; thus, the palm is monoecious.[14] Other sources
use the term polygamomonoecious.[16] The female flower is much
larger than the male flower. Flowering occurs continuously. Coconut
palms are believed to be largely cross-pollinated, although
some[which?] dwarf varieties are self-pollinating.
Etymology[edit]
Dehusked coconut shells from Ivory Coast showing the face-like markings.
Cocoanuts are the fruit of the palmtree. Just as we have bread, wine,
oil, and milk, so those people get everything from that tree. They get
wine in the following manner. They bore a hole into the heart of the
said palm at the top called palmito [i.e., stalk], from which distils a
liquor which resembles white must. That liquor is sweet but somewhat
tart, and [is gathered] in canes [of bamboo] as thick as the leg and
thicker. They fasten the bamboo to the tree at evening for the morning,
and in the morning for the evening. That palm bears a fruit, namely,
the cocoanut, which is as large as the head or thereabouts. Its outside
husk is green and thicker than two fingers. Certain filaments are found
in that husk, whence is made cord for binding together their boats.
Under that husk there is a hard shell, much thicker than the shell of
the walnut, which they burn and make therefrom a powder that is
useful to them. Under that shell there is a white marrowy substance
one finger in thickness, which they eat fresh with meat and fish as we
do bread; and it has a taste resembling the almond. It could be dried
and made into bread. There is a clear, sweet water in the middle of
that marrowy substance which is very refreshing. When that water
stands for a while after having been collected, it congeals and
becomes like an apple. When the natives wish to make oil, they take
that cocoanut, and allow the marrowy substance and the water to
putrefy. Then they boil it and it becomes oil like butter. When they wish
to make vinegar, they allow only the water to putrefy, and then place it
in the sun, and a vinegar results like [that made from] white wine. [21]
It is evident that the name 'coco' and 'coconut' came from these 1521
encounters with Pacific islanders, and not from the other regions
where it was found as no name is similar in any of the languages of
India, where the Portuguese first found the fruit; and indeed Barbosa,
Barros, and Garcia, in mentioning the Tamil/Malayalam name tenga,
and Canarese narle, expressly say, "we call these fruits quoquos",
"our people have given it the name of coco", and "that which we call
coco, and the Malabars temga".
Other stories to explain the origin of the word have been published.
The OED states: "Portuguese and Spanish authors of the 16th c.
agree in identifying the word with Portuguese and
Spanish coco "grinning face, grin, grimace", also "bugbear,
scarecrow", cognate with cocar "to grin, make a grimace"; the name
being said to refer to the face-like appearance of the base of the shell,
with its three holes. According to Losada, the name came
from Portuguese explorers, the sailors of Vasco da Gama in India,
who first brought them to Europe. The coconut shell reminded them of
a ghost or witch in Portuguese folklore called coco (also cca).[22][23]
The range of the natural habitat of the coconut palm tree delineated by the red
line (based on information in Werth 1933,[24] slightly modified by Niklas
Jonsson)
Fossil Cocos zeylanica from the Miocene of New Zealand, 4 cm long.
The origin of the plant is, after many decades, still the subject of
debate.[25][26] It has generally been accepted that the coconut originated
in the Indian-Indonesia region and float-distributed itself around the
world by riding ocean currents.[26][15] The similarities of the local names
in the Malay-Indonesian region is also cited as evidence that the plant
originated in the region. For example, the Polynesian and Melanesian
term niu and the Philippine and Guamanian term niyog is said to be
based on the Malay word nyiur or nyior.[27][28]
Domestication[edit]
It is often stated that coconuts can travel 110 days, or 3,000 miles
(4,800 km), by sea and still be able to germinate.[41] This figure has
been questioned based on the extremely small sample size that forms
the basis of the paper that makes this claim.[42] Thor
Heyerdahl provides an alternative, and much shorter, estimate based
on his first-hand experience crossing the Pacific Ocean on the
raft Kon-Tiki:
Drift models based on wind and ocean currents have shown that
coconuts could not have drifted across the Pacific unaided. [42] If they
were naturally distributed and had been in the Pacific for a thousand
years or so, then we would expect the eastern shore of Australia, with
its own islands sheltered by the Great Barrier Reef, to have been thick
with coconut palms: the currents were directly into, and down along
this coast. However, both James Cook and William Bligh[43] (put adrift
after the Bounty Mutiny) found no sign of the nuts along this 2000 km
stretch when he needed water for his crew. Nor were there coconuts
on the east side of the African coast until Vasco de Gama, nor in the
Caribbean when first visited by Christopher Columbus. We know from
early Spanish documents that they deliberately planted coconuts
shortly after first contact,[citation needed] and some nuts would certainly have
self-seeded when they floated ashore following ship-wrecks. They
were commonly carried by Spanish ships as a source of sweet water.
Given that coconuts are ideally suited for inter-island group ocean
dispersal, obviously some natural distribution did take place. However,
this should not be extrapolated to claims that one ocean's sub-genera
possibly could have floated to interbreed with the other.[citation
needed]
However, the locations of the admixture events are limited
to Madagascar and coastal east Africa, and exclude the Seychelles.
This pattern coincides with the known trade routes of Austronesian
sailors. Additionally, a genetically distinct subpopulation of coconut on
the Pacific coast of Latin America has undergone a genetic bottleneck
resulting from a founder effect;[citation needed] however, its ancestral
population is the Pacific coconut. This, together with their use of the
South American sweet potato, suggests that Austronesian peoples
may have sailed as far east as the Americas.[44]
Distribution[edit]
The coconut has spread across much of the tropics, probably aided in
many cases by seafaring people. Coconut fruit in the wild are light,
buoyant, and highly water resistant. It is claimed that they evolved to
disperse significant distances via marine currents.[45] However, it can
also be argued that the placement of the vulnerable eye of the nut
(down when floating), and the site of the coir 'cushion' are better
positioned to ensure that the water-filled nut doesn't fracture when
dropping on rocky ground, rather than for flotation.
Specimens have been collected from the sea as far north as Norway
(but it is not known where they entered the water). [46]In the Hawaiian
Islands, the coconut is regarded as a Polynesian introduction, first
brought to the islands by early Polynesian voyagers from their
homelands in Oceania.[19] They have been found in the Caribbean and
the Atlantic coasts of Africa and South America for less than 500 years
(the Caribbean native inhabitants don't have a dialect term for them,
but use the Portuguese name), but evidence of their presence on the
Pacific coast of South America antedates Christopher Columbus's
arrival in the Americas.[26] They are now almost ubiquitous between
26N and 26S except for the interiors of Africa and South America.
Natural habitat[edit]
Coconut palms require warm conditions for successful growth, and are
intolerant of cold weather. Some seasonal variation is tolerated, with
good growth where mean summer temperatures are between 28 and
37 C (82 and 99 F), and survival as long as winter temperatures are
above 412 C (3954 F); they will survive brief drops to 0 C (32 F).
Severe frost is usually fatal, although they have been known to
recover from temperatures of 4 C (25 F).[47] They may grow but not
fruit properly in areas with insufficient warmth, such as Bermuda.
The conditions required for coconut trees to grow without any care
are:
The main limiting factor for most locations which satisfy the rainfall
and temperature requirements is canopy growth, except those
locations near coastlines, where the sandy soil and salt spray limit the
growth of most other trees.
Diseases[edit]
Pests[edit]
In Kerala (India), the main coconut pests are the coconut mite,
the rhinoceros beetle, the red palm weevil, and the coconut leaf
caterpillar. Research into countermeasures to these pests has as of
2009 yielded no results; researchers from the Kerala Agricultural
University and the Central Plantation Crop Research Institute,
Kasaragode, continue to work on countermeasures. The Krishi Vigyan
Kendra, Kannur under Kerala Agricultural University has developed an
innovative extension approach called the compact area group
approach to combat coconut mites.
(millions of tonnes)
Country Production
Indonesia 19.1
Philippines 14.7
India 11.1
Brazil 2.9
World 61.4
Coconut palms are grown in more than 90 countries of the world, with
a total production of 61 million tonnes per year (table).[50] Most of the
world production is in tropical Asia, with Indonesia, the Philippines,
and India accounting collectively for 73% of the world total (table).
Cultivation[edit]
Coconut trees are hard to establish in dry climates, and cannot grow
there without frequent irrigation; in drought conditions, the new leaves
do not open well, and older leaves may become desiccated; fruit also
tends to be shed.[47]
Harvesting[edit]
Green coconut fruit strands on the tree are featured on each Maldivian
rufiyaa banknote
Coconut trees are among the most common sights throughout Kerala
Maldives[edit]
The coconut is the national tree of the Maldives and is considered the
most important plant in the country. A coconut tree is also included in
the country's national emblem and coat of arms. Coconut trees are
grown on all the islands. Before modern construction methods were
introduced, coconut leaves were used as roofing material for many
houses in the islands, while coconut timber was used to build houses
and boats.
Middle East[edit]
Sri Lanka[edit]
Paintings on coconut shells for Day of the Dead in the United States
Bermuda[edit]
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Most of the tall mature coconut trees found in Bermuda were shipped
to the island as seedlings on the decks of ships. In more recent years,
the importation of coconuts was prohibited; therefore, a large
proportion of the younger trees have been propagated from locally
grown coconuts.
In the winter, the growth rate of coconut trees declines due to cooler
temperatures and people have commonly attributed this to the
reduced yield of coconuts in comparison to tropical regions. However,
whilst cooler winter temperatures may be a factor in reducing fruit
production, the primary reason for the reduced yield is a lack of water.
Bermuda's soil is generally very shallow (1.5 to 3.0 feet) and much of
a coconut tree's root mass is found in the porous limestone
underneath the soil. Due to the porosity of the limestone, Bermuda's
coconut trees do not generally have a sufficient supply of water with
which they are able to support a large number of fruit as rain water
quickly drains down through the limestone layer to the water table
which is far too deep for a coconut's roots to reach. This typically
leads to a reduction in fruit yield (sometimes as few as one or two
mature fruits), as well as a reduced milk content inside the coconut
that often causes the fruit to be infertile.
Conversely, trees growing in close proximity to the sea almost
universally yield much more fruit, as they are able to tap directly into
the sea water which permeates the limestone in such areas. Not only
do these trees produce a significantly higher yield, but also the fruit
itself tends to be far more fertile due to the higher milk content. Trees
found growing in Bermuda's marshy inland areas enjoy a similar
degree of success, as they are also able to tap directly into a constant
supply of water.
In cooler climates (but not less than USDA Zone 9), a similar palm,
the queen palm (Syagrus romanzoffiana), is used in landscaping. Its
fruits are similar to the coconut, but smaller. The queen palm was
originally classified in the genus Cocos along with the coconut, but
was later reclassified in Syagrus. A recently discovered
palm, Beccariophoenix alfredii from Madagascar, is nearly identical to
the coconut, more so than the queen palm and can also be grown in
slightly cooler climates than the coconut palm. Coconuts can only be
grown in temperatures above 18 C (64 F) and need a daily
temperature above 22 C (72 F) to produce fruit.
Uses[edit]
Coconut trees are used for landscaping along a coastal road in Kota
Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia.
Cooking[edit]
Green coconuts
The various parts of the coconut have a number of culinary uses. The
seed provides oil for frying, cooking, and making margarine. The
white, fleshy part of the seed, the coconut meat, is used fresh or dried
in cooking, especially in confections and desserts such as macaroons.
Desiccated coconut or coconut milk made from it is frequently added
to curries and other savory dishes. Coconut flour has also been
developed for use in baking, to combat malnutrition. [64] Coconut chips
have been sold in the tourist regions of Hawaii and the Caribbean.
Coconut butter is often used to describe solidified coconut oil, but has
also been adopted as a name by certain specialty products made of
coconut milk solids or pured coconut meat and oil. Dried coconut is
also used as the filling for many chocolate bars. Some dried coconut
is purely coconut, but others are manufactured with other ingredients,
such as sugar, propylene glycol, salt, and sodium metabisulfite. Some
countries in Southeast Asia use special coconut mutant called Kopyor
coconut (Kopyor in Indonesia) or macapuno (in the Philippines) as
dessert drinks.
Carbohydrates 15.23 g
Sugars 6.23 g
Fat 33.49 g
Saturated 29.698 g
Monounsaturated 1.425 g
Polyunsaturated 0.366 g
Protein 3.33 g
Tryptophan 0.039 g
Threonine 0.121 g
Isoleucine 0.131 g
Leucine 0.247 g
Lysine 0.147 g
Methionine 0.062 g
Cystine 0.066 g
Phenylalanine 0.169 g
Tyrosine 0.103 g
Valine 0.202 g
Arginine 0.546 g
Histidine 0.077 g
Alanine 0.170 g
Glycine 0.158 g
Proline 0.138 g
Serine 0.172 g
Vitamins
Vitamin B6 (4%)
0.054 mg
Vitamin C (4%)
3.3 mg
Vitamin E (2%)
0.24 mg
Vitamin K (0%)
0.2 g
Minerals
Calcium (1%)
14 mg
Iron (19%)
2.43 mg
Magnesium (9%)
32 mg
Manganese (71%)
1.500 mg
Phosphorus (16%)
113 mg
Potassium (8%)
356 mg
Sodium (1%)
20 mg
Zinc (12%)
1.10 mg
Other constituents
Water 46.99 g
Units
g = micrograms mg = milligrams
IU = International units
Nutrition[edit]
Per 100-gram serving with 354 calories, raw coconut meat supplies a
high amount of total fat (33 grams), especially saturated fat (89% of
total fat) and carbohydrates (24 g) (table). Micronutrients in significant
content include the dietary minerals manganese, iron, phosphorus,
and zinc.
Coconut water[edit]
Main article: Coconut water
Coconut milk[edit]
Coconut oil[edit]
The sap derived from incising the flower clusters of the coconut is
drunk as neera, also known as toddy
or tuba (Philippines), tuak (Indonesia and Malaysia) or karewe (fresh
and not fermented, collected twice a day, for breakfast and dinner)
in Kiribati. When left to ferment on its own, it becomes palm wine.
Palm wine is distilled to produce arrack. In the Philippines, this
alcoholic drink is called lambanog or "coconut vodka".[67]
Indonesia[edit]
Harvesting coconuts in the Philippines is done by workers who climb the trees
using notches cut into the trunk.
From left to right: grated, fresh, mature coconut meat; seed interior; oil, rare
two-eyed coconut shell; and more grated meat (Philippines)
Vietnam[edit]
India[edit]
Cultivars[edit]
Coir[edit]
Coir (the fiber from the husk of the coconut) is used in ropes, mats,
door mats, brushes, and sacks, as caulking for boats, and as stuffing
fiber for mattresses.[70] It is used in horticulture in potting compost,
especially in orchid mix.
Coconut fronds[edit]
The stiff mid-ribs of coconut leaves are used for making brooms in
India, Indonesia (sapu lidi), Malaysia, the Maldives, and the
Philippines (walis tingting). The green of the leaves (lamina) are
stripped away, leaving the veins (wood-like, thin, long strips) which are
tied together to form a broom or brush. A long handle made from some
other wood may be inserted into the base of the bundle and used as a
two-handed broom. The leaves also provide material for baskets that
can draw well water and for roofing thatch; they can be woven into
mats, cooking skewers, and kindling arrows, as well. Two leaves
(especially the younger, yellowish shoots) woven into a tight shell the
size of the palm are filled with rice and cooked to make ketupat.
[71]
Dried coconut leaves can be burned to ash, which can be harvested
for lime. In India, the woven coconut leaves are used
as pandals (temporary sheds) for marriage functions especially in the
states of Kerala, Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu.
Copra[edit]
Copra is the dried meat of the seed and after processing produces
coconut oil and coconut meal. Coconut oil, aside from being used in
cooking as an ingredient and for frying, is used in soaps, cosmetics,
hair-oil, and massage oil. Coconut oil is also a main ingredient
in Ayurvedic oils. In Vanuatu, coconut palms for copra production are
generally spaced 9 m apart, allowing a tree density of 100160 trees
per hectare.
The husk and shells can be used for fuel and are a source of charcoal.
[72]
Activated carbon manufactured from coconut shell is considered
extremely effective for the removal of impurities. The coconut's
obscure origin in foreign lands led to the notion of using cups made
from the shell to neutralise poisoned drinks. The cups were frequently
engraved and decorated with precious metals. [73]
A dried half coconut shell with husk can be used to buff floors. It is
known as a bunot in the Philippines and simply a "coconut brush"
in Jamaica. The fresh husk of a brown coconut may serve as a dish
sponge or body sponge. A coco chocolatero was a cup used to serve
small quantities of beverages (such as chocolate drinks) between the
17th and 19th centuries in countries such as Mexico, Guatemala, and
Venezuela.
In Asia, coconut shells are also used as bowls and in the manufacture
of various handicrafts, including buttons carved from dried shell.
Coconut buttons are often used for Hawaiian aloha shirts. Tempurung,
as the shell is called in the Malay language, can be used as a soup
bowl andif fixed with a handlea ladle. In Thailand, the coconut
husk is used as a potting medium to produce healthy forest tree
saplings. The process of husk extraction from the coir bypasses the
retting process, using a custom-built coconut husk extractor designed
by ASEANCanada Forest Tree Seed Centre in 1986. Fresh husks
contains more tannin than old husks. Tannin produces negative effects
on sapling growth.[74] In parts of South India, the shell and husk are
burned for smoke to repel mosquitoes.
Half coconut shells are used in theatre Foley sound effects work,
banged together to create the sound effect of a horse's hoofbeats.
Dried half shells are used as the bodies of musical instruments,
including the Chinese yehu and banhu, along with the
Vietnamese n go and Arabo-Turkic rebab. In the Philippines, dried
half shells are also used as a music instrument in a folk dance
called maglalatik.
In World War II, coastwatcher scout Biuki Gasa was the first of two
from the Solomon Islands to reach the shipwrecked and wounded
crew of Motor Torpedo Boat PT-109 commanded by future U.S.
president John F. Kennedy. Gasa suggested, for lack of paper,
delivering by dugout canoe a message inscribed on a husked coconut
shell, reading Nauru Isl commander / native knows posit / he can pilot
/ 11 alive need small boat / Kennedy.[75] This coconut was later kept on
the president's desk, and is now in the John F. Kennedy Library.[76]
Coconut trunk[edit]
Coconut Palace, Manila, Philippines, built entirely out of coconut and local
materials
Coconut trunks are used for building small bridges and huts; they are
preferred for their straightness, strength, and salt resistance. In
Kerala, coconut trunks are used for house construction. Coconut
timber comes from the trunk, and is increasingly being used as an
ecologically sound substitute for endangered hardwoods. It has
applications in furniture and specialized construction, as notably
demonstrated in Manila's Coconut Palace.
Roots[edit]
Beauty products[edit]
Religion[edit]
See also: Coconut Religion
In the Ilocos region of northern Philippines, the Ilocano people fill two
halved coconut shells with diket (cooked sweet rice), and
place liningta nga itlog (halved boiled egg) on top of it. This ritual,
known as niniyogan, is an offering made to the deceased and one's
ancestors. This accompanies the palagip (prayer to the dead).
The Zulu Social Aid and Pleasure Club of New Orleans traditionally
throws hand-decorated coconuts, the most valuable of Mardi Gras
souvenirs, to parade revelers. The "Tramps" began the
tradition circa 1901. In 1987, a "coconut law" was signed by Gov.
Edwards exempting from insurance liability any decorated coconut
"handed" from a Zulu float.
The coconut is also used as a target and prize in the traditional British
fairground game "coconut shy". The player buys some small balls
which he throws as hard as he can at coconuts balanced on sticks.
The aim is to knock a coconut off the stand and win it.
The leftover fiber from coconut oil and coconut milk production,
coconut meal, is used as livestock feed. The dried calyx is used as
fuel in wood-fired stoves. Coconut water is traditionally used as a
growth supplement in plant tissue culture/micropropagation. [83] The
smell of coconuts comes from the 6-pentyloxan-2-one molecule,
known as -decalactone in the food and fragrance industries. [84]
In the United States, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration declared
that coconut must be disclosed as an ingredient on package labels as
a "tree nut" with potential allergenicity.[90]
Topical allergies[edit]
Coconut varieties[edit]
King coconut
Makapuno coconut
Maypan coconut
Nawassi coconut
Yellow Coconut
Red Coconut
Many cultivated coconut varieties are found in Sri Lanka. Most of them
were introduced by the National Coconut Research Institute; they
identified these varieties during a coconut germplasm exploration
mission in the Southern Province of Sri Lanka.
Intermediate stature,
autogamous, homogeneous,
fruits in 67 years, seasonal
King (Aurantiaca/King
flower production, medium-sized
Coconut coconut)
nuts with orange epicarp and
sweet nut water, 25-50 nuts per
bunch