Learning To Evolve A Review of Contemporary Lean - Hines Holweg Rich

International Journal of Operations & Production Management
Learning to evolve: A review of contemporary lean thinking

Peter Hines, Matthias Holweg, Nick Rich,
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IJOPM
24,10 Learning to evolve
A review of contemporary lean thinking
Peter Hines, Matthias Holweg and Nick Rich
994 Lean Enterprise Research Centre, Cardiff Business School, Cardiff, UK
Keywords Lean production, Learning organizations
Abstract The application of lean thinking has made a significant impact both in academic and
industrial circles over the last decade. Fostered by a rapid spread into many other industry sectors
beyond the automotive industry, there has been a significant development and localisation of the
lean concept. Despite successful lean applications in a range of settings however, the lean approach
has been criticised on many accounts, such as the lack of human integration or its limited
applicability outside high-volume repetitive manufacturing environments. The resulting lack of
definition has led to confusion and fuzzy boundaries with other management concepts. Summarising
the lean evolution, this paper comments on approaches that have sought to address some of the
earlier gaps in lean thinking. Linking the evolution of lean thinking to the contingency and learning
organisation schools of thought, the objective of this paper is to provide a framework for
understanding the evolution of lean not only as a concept, but also its implementation within an
organisation, and point out areas for future research.
Introduction
A brief history of lean
The origins of lean thinking can be found on the shop-floors of Japanese manufacturers
and, in particular, innovations at Toyota Motor Corporation (Shingo, 1981, 1988;
Monden, 1983; Ohno, 1988). These innovations, resulting from a scarcity of resources
and intense domestic competition in the Japanese market for automobiles, included the
just-in-time (JIT) production system, the kanban method of pull production, respect for
employees and high levels of employee problem-solving/automated mistake proofing.
This lean operations management design approach focused on the elimination of waste
and excess from the tactical product flows at Toyota (the Toyota seven wastes) and
represented an alternative model to that of capital-intense mass production (with its
large batch sizes, dedicated assets and hidden wastes). For a full account of these
systems, methods, processes and techniques see Monden (1983). Much of the early
work at Toyota was applied under the leadership of Taiichi Ohno to car engine
manufacturing during the 1950s, later to vehicle assembly (1960s), and the wider
supply chain (1970s). It was only at this latter point that supplier manuals were
produced and the secrets of this lean approach were shared with companies outside
Toyota for the first time. These manuals were written in Japanese, and it took almost
another decade before the first English literature was available (e.g. Shingo, 1981;
Schonberger, 1982; Hall, 1983; Monden, 1983; Sandras, 1989).
Still, the interest taken in lean by the western manufacturing community was limited
International Journal of Operations & until the performance gaps between Toyota and other carmakers were highlighted
Production Management by the book The Machine that Changed the World, which also coined the term
Vol. 24 No. 10, 2004
pp. 994-1011
q Emerald Group Publishing Limited
0144-3577
The authors would like to acknowledge and thank Niall Piercy and Sharon Williams for their
DOI 10.1108/01443570410558049 contributions towards this paper.
lean production (or lean manufacturing) (Womack et al., 1990). The exploration of the Learning to
enterprise model, the infrastructure and practices that support lean production, evolve
promoted explicitly a thesis of transference and the ability of non-automotive and
non-Japanese emulation based upon the premise that manufacturing problems and
technologies were universal problems facing management (Womack et al., 1990).
Sparked by the superior performance achieved by lean producers over the performance
of traditional mass production system designs, western manufacturers emulated the 995
shop-floor techniques, the structural parts of lean, but often found it difficult to introduce
the organisational culture and mindset. So many early lean efforts showed localised
impact only, and fell short of their intended impact on the overall systems performance
(Holweg and Pil, 2001). In this awareness period (up to 1990), the main weaknesses of
lean manufacturing were its automotive manufacturing-based view and limited
appreciation of how to handle variability in demand. The implementation was entirely

tool-focused, and generally neglected the human aspects of the high-performance work
system core to the lean manufacturing approach.
After 1990, there was a gradual widening of focus away from the shop-floor, a trend
often ignored by omission, error or design by many detractors. This process of
extension was also accelerated by the promotion of successful western case emulation
by businesses in diverse sectors that had adapted their production systems to include
a new design based upon lean principles (Womack and Jones, 1996). These principles
involved the identification of customer value, the management of the value stream,
developing the capability to flow production, the use of pull mechanisms to support
flow of materials at constrained operations and finally the pursuit of perfection through
reducing to zero all forms of waste in the production system (see Womack and
Jones, 1996). This evolution may be summarised as a focus on quality during the
literature of the early 1990s), through quality, cost and delivery (late 1990s), to customer
value from 2000 onwards, as shown in Table I.
Also during the mid-1990s, the value stream concept evolved and was seen to
extend beyond manufacturing or the single company, and stretch from customer needs
right back to raw material sources (Hines and Rich, 1997; Rother and Shook, 1998).
This provided the link between lean and the supply chain, as for the first time, the
production pull was extended beyond the boundary of the single factory to include
the up- and downstream partners.
The relationship between value and cost

A critical point in the lean thinking is the focus on value. Often however, value creation
is seen as equal to cost reduction. This represents a common yet critical shortcoming of
the understanding of lean. Therefore, let us examine the relationship between customer
value and cost in detail.
In 1996, Womack and Jones crystallised value as the first principle of lean thinking
(Womack and Jones, 1996). As such, lean had moved away from a merely
shop-floor-focus on waste and cost reduction, to an approach that contingently
sought to enhance value (or perceived value) to customers by adding product or service
features and/or removing wasteful activities.
This was a key development, as value was linked to customer requirements, and no
longer was simply define through its opposite, waste, on the shop-floor. Regardless of
whether an activity appeared to be wasteful from a shop-floor point of view or be
996
24,10
thinking
Table I.
IJOPM
The evolution of lean

Mid 1990-2000
Phases 1980-1990 Awareness 1990-mid 1990 Quality Quality, cost and delivery 2000+Value system
Literature Dissemination of Best practice movement, Value stream thinking, lean Capability at system level
theme shop-floor practices benchmarking leading to enterprise, collaboration in the
emulation supply chain
Focus JIT techniques, cost Cost, training and promotion, Cost, process-based to support flow Value and cost, tactical to strategic,
TQM, process reengineering integrated to supply chain
Key business Manufacturing, Manufacturing and materials Order fulfilment Integrated processes, such order
process shop-floor only management fulfilment and new product
development
Industry Automotive vehicle Automotive vehicle and Manufacturing in general often High and low volume
sector assembly component assembly focused on repetitive manufacturing, extension into
manufacturing service sectors
Shingo (1981, Shingo (1981, 1988) Womack et al. (1990) Lamming (1993) Bateman (2000)
1988) Schonberger (1982, 1986) Hammer (1990) MacBeth and Ferguson (1994) Hines and Taylor (2000)
Monden (1983) Stalk and Hout (1990) Womack and Jones (1994, 1996) Holweg and Pil (2001)
Ohno (1988) Harrison (1992) Rother and Shook (1998) Abbas et al. (2001)
Mather (1988) Andersen Consulting (1993, 1994) Hines et al. (2002)
costly, it is the customer that ultimately decides what constitutes muda[1], and what Learning to
does not. evolve
Figure 1 highlights the relationship between value and cost, and shows how
products or services can be plotted with regards to their relative cost-value proposition
to the customer. The further above the cost-value equilibrium a product/service can be
positioned, the more attractive proposition it is to the customers. The cost-value
equilibrium denotes the situation whereby the product provides exactly as much value, 997
which the customer is willing to pay for, as the product costs. This migration from a
mere waste reduction focus to a customer value focus opens essentially a second
avenue of value creation:
.
Value is created if internal waste is reduced, as the wasteful activities and the
associated costs are reduced, increasing the overall value proposition for the
customer.
.
Value is also increased, if additional features or services are offered, which are
valued by the customer. This could entail a shorter delivery cycle or smaller
delivery batches, which might not add additional cost, yet add customer value.
Objectives
Lean as a concept has evolved over time, and will continue to do so. As a result of
this development, significant confusion about what is lean, and what is not has
arisen a fact clearly observable at both academic and practitioner conferences in
logistics and operations management. The key objective of this paper is therefore to
provide a framework that explains the developments of the lean concept over time.
The questions we seek to answer are:
.
What are the key stages of the lean evolution?
.
Within these stages, what are the key criticisms? And subsequently;
.
Are these criticisms justified?
Overall, we seek to set a vision to help companies to see where they can evolve to in
their lean thinking, as well as developing a framework to understanding this using
organisational learning theoretical underpinning, in particular the framework
suggested by McGill and Slocum (1993).
Figure 1.
Relation of value, cost
and waste
IJOPM Criticism of lean
24,10 Introduction
In its development over time, critics either from within or outside the lean movement
have rightly pointed to various gaps in lean thinking. As lean thinking evolved
however, these gaps changed. Table II gives a summary of the gaps in lean thinking
and its main critics over time.
998 This evolution is largely driven because of the shortcomings of lean that surfaced as
organisations progressed on their learning curve, as well as the extension of lean
thinking into new sectors with different settings and constraints. Key aspects of this
criticism are the lack of contingency and ability to cope with variability, the lack of
consideration of human aspects, and the narrow operational focus on the shop-floor.
Let us examine these in more detail.
Lack of contingency
There is still a general misunderstanding of the contingent nature required to apply
lean thinking. Indeed, the otherwise excellent Learning to See publication from the
Lean Enterprise Institute (LEI) failed in its first incarnation to have an appropriate
focus on demand variability and quality issues (Rother and Shook, 1998). However, this
lesson had been learnt by the time that the extension Seeing the Whole was published
in 2002 (Jones and Womack, 2002).
This having been said, for many companies the major focus of lean implementation
is still the shop floor and their search for competitive advantage has yet to rely on the
more recent lean integrative approaches. Indeed, the car industry, the mother of lean
thinking, is still largely in this shop-floor dimension and has focused largely on
optimising the car assembler and first tier supplier tier (Holweg and Jones, 2001).
The paradoxical situation of piecemeal lean application is that the most productive car
plants in Europe produce into the highest level of finished stocks in Europe.
What is needed in the car industry is an aligned supply that provides strategic value
to the customer, by building cars to customer order (Holweg and Pil, 2001). Interestingly,
this is a conclusion reached by Monden, who codified the Toyota production system in
1983. However, even Toyota in Japan has so far failed to produce more than two-thirds of
their cars to real customer order[2]. The result of this build-to-forecast approach across
Europe is that there are currently $18bn of unsold vehicles held in European markets,
and 350,000 units in UK alone (see Fisher, 1997; Holweg and Jones, 2001; Holweg and Pil,
2001; Holweg, 2003 for more detail).
Human aspects
A further aspect that has attracted criticism is that lean production systems could be
viewed through a Marxist lens as being exploitative and high pressure to the shop floor
workers. Chief among the critics in this area are Garrahan and Stewart (1992) in their
studies of the UK Nissan facility, a site that repeatedly has achieved the highest output
of cars per worker in Europe[3]. In a similar vein, Williams et al. (1992) suggest that
lean production is de-humanising and exploitative. Although such left-wing authors
have failed to gain widespread support for their views, they have however raised an
important point for those academics and practitioners interested in applying lean
thinking, namely that lean should be regarded as more than a set of mechanistic
hard tools and techniques and the human dimensions of motivation, empowerment
1980-1990 1990-mid 1990 Mid 1990-1999 2000+
Key gaps Outside shop-floor Mainly auto Coping with variability Global aspects
Inter-company aspects Human resources, exploitation of workers Integration of processes Understanding customer value
Systemic thinking Supply chain aspects Inter-company relationships Low volume industries
Auto assembly only System dynamics aspects Still mainly auto Strategic integration
Integrating industries E-business
Main critics Carlisle and Parker (1989) Williams et al. (1992) Davidow and Malone (1992) Bateman (2000)
Fucini and Fucini (1990) Garrahan and Stewart (1992) Cusumano (1994) Christopher and Towill (2001)
Rineheart et al. (1993) Goldman et al. (1995) van Hoek et al. (2001)
Harrison et al. (1999)
Suri (1999)
Schonberger and Knod (1997)
thinking
evolve
The main gaps and

criticisms of lean
999
Table II.
Learning to
IJOPM and respect for people are very important. Indeed, the present authors would argue that
24,10 these elements are key to the long-term sustainability of any lean programme,
regardless of the industry sector.
Scope and lack of strategic perspective

Linked to this last criticism is the almost complete lack of discussion of strategic level
1000 thinking in lean programmes as opposed to discussions of how to apply a series of
different tools and techniques until quite recently. Again the current authors would
argue that this gap has led to a lack of sustainability of many lean transformation
programmes. In particular, the use of policy deployment and other strategy formation
and deployment tools is of central importance (see for instance, Hines and Taylor, 2000;
Hines et al., 2002). Earlier references to such strategic thinking are either consigned
to isolated academic papers (such as Tennant and Roberts, 2001) or Japanese texts
(such as Akao, 1991), neither of which reached a mainstream lean readership.
Coping with variability

Another focal point of the criticism was the ability of lean production systems and
supply chains to cope with variability, a key aspect of the lean approach. Indeed, in
order to add value to the customer the lean approach seeks to find ways to manage
variability and to create capacity by utilising assets more effectively than in traditional
systems.
Various lean approaches, such as mixed model scheduling and level scheduling
(also referred to as heijunka), had earlier been developed to do this. However, in the case of
demand variability, these approaches have sought to flatten or control demand, as the
original lean pioneers came from fairly stable demand environments industries, such
automotive sector supply chains (at least downstream of the assembler). This high-volume
and repetitive demand character suits the application of kanban pull-scheduling.
However, such kanban-style solutions can be inflexible and thus have attracted criticism
from authors such as Cusumano (1994) and Schonberger and Knod (1997).
As a result, many detractors confused pull and kanban, assuming that the latter tool
was the only way of achieving customer-driven scheduling. In many other sectors
though, demand variability was a main inhibitor to the implementation of lean in
general, and kanban in particular. As a result, various contributors proposed agile
solutions (inter alia: Goldman et al., 1995, van Hoek et al., 2001). The agile school
introduced a greater emphasis on dealing with customer demand variability, flexible
assemble-to-order systems, creating virtual supply chains and greater use of IT tools.
Some of the main differences are summarised by Christopher et al. (1999) in Table III.
Learning steps from prescription to contingency

Four stages of organisational learning
Lean has evolved considerably over time. The four stages of lean thinking defined here
are indeed closely related to the stages of development of organisational learning. This
will be demonstrated using McGill and Slocums (1993) four type classification of
organisational learning. The first type of organisation is what McGill and Slocum call
the knowing organisation. This type of organisation, as in the first lean awareness
stage, believes that there is a best way of doing things that is well established and is
closely associated with the scientific management of the likes of Max Weber (1964)
Lean Agile
Learning to
evolve
Satisfy the customer by adding value Satisfy the customer by configuring to
and eliminating waste order
Long-term relationships with supplier Fluid clusters of suppliers, virtual supply chains
Measure output-criteria, e.g. quality, cost and Measure customer satisfaction
delivery (QCD)
Smooth workflow Allow for unpredictability
1001
Plan ahead Face the unpredictable
Reduce stocks to a minimum throughout Supply chain stock reduction is not
the key Table III.
The main differences
Source: adapted from Christopher et al. (1999) between lean and agile
and Frederick W. Taylor (1911). Within this type of organisation efficiency is key and
firms tend to be bounded by an underlying philosophy of rationality. In the lean case,
this rationality would include the mindset that waste is bad and should be removed,
where waste is often defined with an introspective engineering definition of value. Such
companies may also be described as adaptive or single-loop, and can only be
successful if competing in a mature and static environment (Argyris and Schon, 1978).
The evolution of the lean concept can be likened to organisational learning, both for
the general lean movement and firms who progress along this four-stage lean maturity
matrix. Here, organisational learning may be defined as the process of improving
action through better knowledge and understanding (Fiol and Lyles, 1985, p. 803).
Dodgson (1993, p. 377) describes organisational learning as:
The ways firms build, supplement and organise knowledge and routines around their
activities and within their cultures and adapt and develop organisational efficiency by
improving the use of the broad skills of the workforce.
Such learning takes place through a phased process of information acquisition,
information distribution, information interpretation and use, knowledge transmission
and storage (Huber, 1991; Nevis et al., 1995). The evolution of lean thinking along such
a learning organisation spectrum is shown in Table IV.
Stage 1 Cells and assembly lines

Turning firstly to the evolution from prescription to contingency, the awareness and
quality stages of lean involved the highly prescriptive application of a set of tools and
methods. These tools are well documented to include kanban, 5S (housekeping), single
minute exchanges of dies (SMED changeover time reduction) and cellular
manufacturing (e.g. Monden, 1983; Schonberger, 1986; Harrison, 1992). However, even
at this pre-1995 point in time, arguably the dominant paradigm in the field of
organisational design and change had moved to a contingency approach (Child, 1977).
Such an approach would suggest that there was no one correct best practice
approach that is highly effective for all organisations (Donaldson, 1996, p. 51).
However, in order to understand what the lean movement was at this point it is
important to make reference back to the industries in which lean thinking was
primarily being deployed, namely the automotive industry and other discrete
product or engineering sectors with very similar organisational environments in
terms of volume produced, product variety and their nature of component assembly.
24,10
1002
approach
IJOPM
Table IV.
The development of a
contingent evolved lean
1980-1990 Cell and line 1990-mid 1990 Shop-floor Mid 1990-1999 Value stream 2000+ Value system
Prescription/contingency Highly prescriptive Highly prescriptive best Lean principles Contingency involving: customer
tool-based approach practice approach Value stream mapping value, policy deployment, size,
Prescriptive one best way; industry, technology
Toyota is best
Organisational learning Knowing organisation Understanding Thinking organisation Learning organisation
Single-loop learning organisation Single (and some often ineffective Double-loop (and some Deutero
Management by Single-loop learning double) loop learning learning)
objectives Management by objectives Management by fact Management by fact
As such, one might argue that as long as lean thinking was applied within these very Learning to
similar environments its lack of theoretical contingency was of little importance. evolve
However, this view would be contradicted by many, as even this limited but relatively
homogeneous range of firms would still face differences in environment (Burns and
Stalker, 1961), organisational size (Child, 1975), organisational strategy (Chandler,
1962) and technology (Woodward, 1965).
1003
Stage 2 Shop-floor
McGill and Slocums second type of organisation is the understanding organisation,
which may be likened to the second shop-floor lean stage. Such organisations are
governed by a set of core values and management practices that are designed to clarify,
communicate and reinforce the companys culture. In this case, the lean quality stage
has firms imbibed in a prescriptive best practice lean approach that is largely centred
on the manufacturing area. As such they are often not open to further change and
expanding their learning experiences. A typical response when discussing the
application of lean with such firms is that yes, we are doing lean, even if they are only
applying it in limited islands of excellence on the shop-floor.
Stage 3 Value stream

To counter this prescriptive one best way approach advocates of lean thinking in the
third quality, cost and delivery (QCD) stage started to re-position lean thinking as
based on a set of five key principles that it was claimed could be applied across a wide
range of industrial settings (Womack and Jones, 1996). Indeed, a series of cases of this
application were provided in this text. However, most of these cases are still drawn
from component based manufacturing industries and involved the common
application of kaikaku (i.e. improvement via breakthrough events, as opposed to
kaizen, continuous improvement) events deployed by Japanese consultants Shingjutsu
and their followers.
In spite of these shortcomings, there was the start of an awareness that individual
value streams (or specific supply chains) should be individually mapped and
contingent solutions found for their improvement (Hines and Rich, 1997; Rother and
Shook, 1998). This having been said there was still a significant focus on the one best
way which would typically be answered by the question what would Toyota do?
This still largely prescriptive picture of lean thinking is well summarised in Womack
and Joness framework for the lean leap (Table V) which defines a one best way
which, although containing a good deal of sensible advise, tends to ignore the various
contingent features discussed above.
This third type of organisation is best described as the thinking organisation,
which typically focuses on a set of problem-solving management practices, as in the
order fulfilment-focused QCD-stage lean firm. However, as in the thinking
organisation, these solutions may be criticised as being piecemeal and providing
discrete and identifiable solutions, but generally just within one business process.
Typical the use of value stream mapping within the order fulfilment[4] process would
be seen here. However, within this order fulfilment process, there would be a high
degree of questioning and challenging of existing practices characterised by
double-loop learning (Senge, 1990). Such a lean organisation typically ignores a range
of other key processes such as new product development (NPD) and the development of
IJOPM Phase Specific steps Time frame
24,10
Get started Find a change agent First six months
Get lean knowledge
Find a lever
Map value streams
Begin kaikaku
1004 Expand your scope
Create a new organization Reorganize by product family Six months through year two
Create a lean function
Devise a policy for excess people
Devise a growth strategy
Remove anchor-draggers
Instill a perfection mind-set

Install business systems Introduce lean accounting Years three and four
Relate pay to firm performance
Implement transparency
Initiate policy deployment
Introduce lean learning
Find right-sized tools
Complete the transformation Apply these steps to your By the end of year five
suppliers/customers
Develop global strategy
Transition from top-down to
Table V. bottom-up improvement
Time frame for the
lean leap Source: Womack and Jones, 1996
new business opportunities. Such a company would typical rely heavily on a single
process diagnostic tool such as Toyotas information and physical flow mapping tool
popularised by Rother and Shook (1998).
Such firms also tend to assume that improvements should be based solely on
improvements in quality, cost and delivery in the belief that in improving these areas it
will create customer value. In some parts of mature industries, such as the automotive
supplier sector, this may be a reasonable assumption but the current authors believe
this is a dangerous assumption in most other instances. Indeed, in many or most other
cases the customer values a wider and more complex range of tangible and intangible
attributes such as brand, image, environmental issues and local production. As such,
these types of organisation may be criticised for their limited scope and focus. Kiernan
(1993) suggests that the linear approach adopted by this type of organisation virtually
precludes the ability to step back and ask more fundamental, difficult and useful
questions. Such questions may include: should we be in the industry at all? The result
of this often poor strategic alignment is often a scatter blast approach of initiatives
with many acting in conflict. Such organisations are unlikely to achieve sustainable
improvement against customer desired value attributes.
Stage 4 Value systems

The fourth value system stage of lean thinking involves a much greater degree of
contingency, as it moves past the rhetoric of customer value to include approaches
to the active capture of customer needs such as the value attribute approach described
in Hines et al. (2002). In addition, this is linked to the active use of contingent Learning to
strategy deployment using policy deployment (Hines et al., 2000). The application of evolve
policy deployment takes into account the various contingent factors impinging on
an organisation such as their size, industrial sector, industrial dynamics and
technology employed. As such, using this fourth lean value system stage, a unique
contingent approach is created using a range of tools drawn from diverse management
approaches such as the earlier lean manufacturing, six sigma, marketing, agile 1005
manufacturing, system dynamics, theory of constraints, and revenue management.
The last phase of McGill and Slocums model is the learning organisation, here
likened to the lean value system stage. Such organisations seek to maximise the
learning opportunities of employees, suppliers, customers and even competitors.
However, here each change is viewed as a hypothesis to be tested and by checking
the results of the experiment, the learning organisation learns how to undertake the
experiment better the next time. Within this context tools such as four fields mapping
(see Dimancescu et al., 1997 for details) would be employed within the lean value
system firm within its contingently defined key core processes with bottom-up
implementation plans validated by the catch balling process with the firms policy
deployment approach (Hines et al., 2000; Hines et al., 2002). Such an approach facilitates
learning, and widespread double-loop learning could be expected.
Indeed, the various value stream maps from the different core business processes
may also be the basis for what Bateson (1972) calls deutero-learning involving the
ability to learn how to learn. The types of methods and approaches that one would
expect to see to illustrate this would include supplier associations (for inter-company or
network learning: see Hines and Rich, 1998), real-time strategy formation and policy
deployment (for strategic and operational people alignment), attention a range of key
business processes (Dimancescu et al., 1997) and strong evidence of learning by doing
activities rather than classroom training. The question that advocates of this level of
lean would ask is what should Toyota do?
Conclusions and outlook

In this paper, we have reviewed lean thinking and its evolution over time, and after more
than a decade after the seminal work The Machine that Changed the World, we have
identified and outlined four key stages in its development. Lean as a concept has
undergone a significant evolution and expansion beyond its origins in the auto industry,
and its narrow definition around shop-floor improvement. Many critics thus were
rightfully attacking lean at their respective time, yet often neglected the fact that lean
has, and continues to develop. Such a process of evolution has maintained the adherence
to the lean principles developed by Womack and Jones (1996) but has explored different
applications and contingencies faced by organisations during the adaptation (the
change process at existing rather than new facility designs) process. As such, this
development is one of testing the boundaries of lean thinking and the contingent
modifications of the approach (within sectors, across businesses etc.) rather than any
fundamental change to the lean enterprise design logic. Many critics arguments still
concern the subsystem of lean production, as defined in the early 1990s, omitting the
developments that have happened after that juncture. We also acknowledge that the
development of lean has led to confusion with regards to what constitutes lean, and what
does not. We thus have come to the following main conclusions:
IJOPM .
Lean exists at two levels: strategic and operational. The customer-centred
24,10 strategic thinking applies everywhere, the shop-floor tools do not. This has led
frequently to confusion, or led to misunderstanding as to where to apply lean.
We therefore encourage the use of lean production for the shop-floor tools
following Toyotas example, and lean thinking for the strategic value chain
dimension[5].
1006 .
The second fact is that lean has evolved, which often is not acknowledged in the
criticism. The shop-floor tools have largely been imitation of Toyota,
nevertheless lean has evolved on the basis of its five principles, and long gone
beyond a mere factory shop-floor application.
.
Organisations that miss the strategic aspect (value creation, and understanding
customer value) and assume that quality, cost and delivery equal customer value
(a common mistake in shop-floor myopic implementations), only address the
cost axis (c.f. Figure 1). This has lead to point optimisation in the supply chain.
A particular example here is the island optimisation of vehicle assembly plant,
yet a sub-optimisation of their complete supply chain (Holweg and Pil, 2001;
Holweg, 2003).
Lean is one of the most influential new paradigms in manufacturing, and has
expanded beyond the original application on the shop floor of vehicle manufacturers
and component suppliers in the auto industry, ranging from heavy industries such
as primary metals (notably Alcoas production system see www.alcoa.com) to
aerospace businesses (Financial Post, 1999; Womack and Jones, 1996). In particular
when applied to sectors outside the high-volume repetitive manufacturing
environment, lean production has reached its limitations, and a range of other
approaches to counter variability, volatility and variety have been suggested. Here,
the often quoted lean-agile debate is applicable, discussing whether an agile or a lean
strategy, or even a hybrid approach is most suitable (Naylor et al., 1999; Christopher
and Towill, 2001).
From a strategic point of view however, you can integrate other approaches
(particularly the tools they offer) without contradicting the core objective of lean to
provide customer value. In other words, any concept that provides customer value can
be in line with a lean strategy, even if lean production tools on the shop-floor, such as
kanban, level scheduling, or take time, are not used. And in fact, there are a range of
complimentary approaches that can, and have been, used in conjunction with lean
(see Figure 2).
In particular, we refer to the concepts considering production capacity, quality,
responsiveness of the manufacturing system, demand variability, availability of
production resources, and production control approaches. These concepts are not part
of the lean production methodology, but can be used in support of a wider lean
strategy. For example, a focus within lean thinking is to create capacity by removing
waste with the application of improvements in overall equipment effectiveness (OEE),
and subsequently, the overall supply chain effectiveness (OSCE) (Rich and Francis,
1998), and overall vehicle effectiveness (OVE) (Mason et al., 2001). Added to these
existing approaches is the need to increase process capability and attack wasteful
bottlenecks. As such the contingent application of tools and methods from six sigma
and the theory of constraints (TOC) are useful additions (Goldratt, 1990). Six sigma
Learning to
evolve
1007
Figure 2.
Lean A framework
attacks sources of variation by applying a rigorous set of quality tools, which are
highly compatible with existing lean approaches (George, 2002). The thinking
derived from the theory of constraints is also useful as it helps focus on capacity
constraints particularly where two or more capacity constraints collide in a value
stream (Moore and Scheinkopf, 1999). These additional perspectives help to create
a more rounded and focused tool-set for applying lean in order to create capacity at
the constraint resources.
In conclusion, we found that the distinction of lean thinking at the strategic level,
and lean production at the operational level is crucial to understanding lean as a whole
in order to apply the right tools and strategies to provide customer value. Much of the
discussion in academic circles about lean thinking still centres around the shop-floor,
which exhibits a limited understanding of what contemporary lean approaches are
about. To counter this lack of knowledge, we have attempted to summarise how the
lean concept has evolved from production toolkit, through single supplier-customer
focus dyad, to a strategic value proposition. The resulting lean value system
encompasses a value-adding network of operations across companies, with the goal
of providing a series of contingent value proposition to individual final consumers.
This focus on the final customer is still missing in most lean supply chains, and least of
all it is found in the auto industry where lean originates. The optimisation of such
a networked system is determined by the value created to the customer, and not by
localised performance measures within subsystems, such as the factory or the
distribution channel.
In terms of moving this agenda forward, research is called for that looks at how lean
value systems can be created in a green-field environment rather than lean
approaches just seeking to rectify the errors of earlier generations. In addition, the
application of this approach will clearly require a contingent application, which very
likely will be unique both to a particular value system and industrial sector. Further
research is called for to see how this may be achieved in under-researched sectors, such
as low-volume manufacturing and service environments like health care, which are still
in early stages of their lean evolution.
IJOPM Notes
24,10 1. Muda is the Japanese word for waste, in the sense of wasted effort or time.
2. The remainder of cars is generally made for export to Europe, the United States or elsewhere,
and are used to buffer the build-to-order service to domestic customers.
3. Labor productivity in terms of hours per vehicle, or annual vehicle output per employee are
the standard measures used in the auto sector, and were also used by Womack et al. (1990).
1008 4. Order Fulfilment refers to the process covering all activities from the receipt of an order, its
production scheduling, raw material purchasing, parts delivery, production, storage and
distribution to the final customer.
5. An interesting corollary of this is that even though some observers staunchly hold the to do
lean you must apply kanbans line, Toyota are now using a version of theory of constraints
in Japan that they term tie-tie.
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15. Mansour Zarrin, Ali Azadeh. 2017. Simulation optimization of lean production strategy by considering
resilience engineering in a production system with maintenance policies. SIMULATION 93:1, 49-68.
[CrossRef]
16. Hilda C. Martnez Len, Javier Calvo-Amodio. 2017. Towards lean for sustainability: Understanding the
interrelationships between lean and sustainability from a systems thinking perspective. Journal of Cleaner
Production 142, 4384-4402. [CrossRef]
17. Anass Cherrafi, Said Elfezazi, Andrea Chiarini, Ahmed Mokhlis, Khalid BenhidaExploring Critical
Success Factors for Implementing Green Lean Six Sigma 183-195. [CrossRef]
18. Ivo Domingues, Jos Cunha MachadoLean Thinking in Non-profit Organizations 71-107. [CrossRef]
19. Beata Mrugalska, Tareq AhramManaging Variations in Process Control: An Overview of Sources and
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20. Peter Massingham, Moshary Al Holaibi. 2017. Embedding Knowledge Management into Business
Processes. Knowledge and Process Management 24:1, 53-71. [CrossRef]
21. Dag ivind Madsen, Maria Storsveen, Pl Klethagen, Tonny Stenheim. 2016. The diffusion and
popularity of Lean in Norway: An exploratory survey. Cogent Business & Management 3:1. . [CrossRef]
22. Yuanzhu Zhan, Kim Hua Tan, Guojun Ji, Ming-Lang Tseng. 2016. Sustainable Chinese manufacturing
competitiveness in the 21st century: green and lean practices, pressure and performance. International
Journal of Computer Integrated Manufacturing 1-14. [CrossRef]
23. Moacir Godinho Filho, Gilberto Miller Devs Ganga, Angappa Gunasekaran. 2016. Lean manufacturing
in Brazilian small and medium enterprises: implementation and effect on performance. International
Journal of Production Research 54:24, 7523-7545. [CrossRef]
24. Anass Cherrafi, Said Elfezazi, Andrea Chiarini, Ahmed Mokhlis, Khalid Benhida. 2016. The integration
of lean manufacturing, Six Sigma and sustainability: A literature review and future research directions for
developing a specific model. Journal of Cleaner Production 139, 828-846. [CrossRef]

25. Hans De Steur, Joshua Wesana, Manoj K. Dora, Darian Pearce, Xavier Gellynck. 2016. Applying
Value Stream Mapping to reduce food losses and wastes in supply chains: A systematic review. Waste
Management 58, 359-368. [CrossRef]
26. Jose Arturo Garza-Reyes, Bernardo Villarreal, Vikas Kumar, Patricia Molina Ruiz. 2016. Lean and green
in the transport and logistics sector a case study of simultaneous deployment. Production Planning &
Control 27:15, 1221-1232. [CrossRef]
27. Rodney McAdam, Brendan Galbraith, Kristel Miller, Sandra Moffett, Maura McAdam. 2016. The
role of Lean at the interface with between operations management and applied services within a
large aerospace organisation: a boundary spanning perspective. Production Planning & Control 27:15,
1298-1311. [CrossRef]
28. GuptaShradha Shradha Gupta SharmaMonica Monica Sharma http://orcid.org/0000-0002-7095-7743
Sunder M.Vijaya Vijaya Sunder M. Department of Management Studies, Malaviya National Institute of
Technology, Jaipur, India Department of Management Studies, Indian Institute of Technology, IIT-
Madras, Chennai, India . 2016. Lean services: a systematic review. International Journal of Productivity
and Performance Management 65:8, 1025-1056. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
29. H. van DunDesire Desire H. van Dun Desire H. van Dun has obtained her PhD (cum laude) in
2015 in Operations Management and Organizational Behavior at the University of Twente. She has
been a Management Consultant since 2008 at House of Performance, primarily in the service industry.
Her (research) interests include lean management, leadership, industrial and organizational psychology,
organizational behavior, and change management. WilderomCeleste P.M. Celeste P.M. Wilderom Celeste
P.M. Wilderom holds the Chair in Change Management and Organizational Behavior at the University
of Twente, Enschede. In 1987, she obtained her PhD in Psychology from the State University of New
York, Buffalo (USA). She has been Associate Editor of the British Journal of Management, Academy of
Management Executive/Perspectives, and the Journal of Service Management. Her current research pivots
on effective leader- and followership. Faculty of Behavioural, Management and Social Sciences, University
of Twente, Enschede, The Netherlands House of Performance, Utrecht, The Netherlands . 2016. Lean-
team effectiveness through leader values and members informing. International Journal of Operations &
Production Management 36:11, 1530-1550. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
30. Marcelo Pereira da Silva, Guilherme Luz Tortorella, Fernando Gonalves Amaral. 2016. Psychophysical
Demands and Perceived Workload-An Ergonomics Standpoint for Lean Production in Assembly Cells.
Human Factors and Ergonomics in Manufacturing & Service Industries 26:6, 643-654. [CrossRef]
31. Paul Beynon-Davies, Reeva Lederman. 2016. Making sense of visual management through affordance
theory. Production Planning & Control 1-16. [CrossRef]
32. Fernando J. Gmez P., Moacir Godinho Filho. 2016. Complementing lean with quick response
manufacturing: case studies. The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology . [CrossRef]
33. ChiariniAndrea Andrea Chiarini BaccaraniClaudio Claudio Baccarani University of Ferrara, Ferrara, Italy
Department of Business Administration, University of Verona, Verona, Italy . 2016. TQM and lean
strategy deployment in Italian hospitals. Leadership in Health Services 29:4, 377-391. [Abstract] [Full
Text] [PDF]
34. NarayanamurthyGopalakrishnan Gopalakrishnan Narayanamurthy Gopalakrishnan Narayanamurthy is
pursuing his Fellow (Doctoral) Program in Management in the area of Quantitative Methods and
Operations Management (QM and OM) at the Indian Institute of Management Kozhikode (IIMK),
Kerala, India. He is a recipient of Fulbright-Nehru Doctoral Research Fellowship and has worked as
a Visiting Scholar at Carlson School of Management, University of Minnesota during his Fellowship.
His research focuses on assessment of process improvements in services. GurumurthyAnand Anand

Gurumurthy Anand Gurumurthy is an Associate Professor in the area of Quantitative Methods and
Operations Management (QM&OM) at the Indian Institute of Management, Kozhikode (IIMK), Kerala,
India. Earlier, he was an Assistant Professor with the Mechanical Engineering Department of Birla
Institute of Technology & Science (BITS) Pilani, Pilani Campus, Rajasthan, India, where he also
completed his PhD in the area of Lean Manufacturing and ME in Manufacturing Systems Engineering.
He received his BE in Mechanical Engineering from the University of Madras, India. He has around
13 years of teaching/research experience. He started his career as a Production Engineer with one of
Indias leading industrial houses the TVS Group. He has published around 40 papers in peer-reviewed
national and international journals such as International Journal of Production Research, and Production
Planning & Control. He has also presented many papers in various national/international conferences. His
current research interests include lean thinking, application of lean thinking in other sectors, operations
management and world-class manufacturing. Quantitative Methods and Operations Management (QM
& OM) Area, Indian Institute of Management Kozhikode, Kozhikode, India . 2016. Leanness assessment:
a literature review. International Journal of Operations & Production Management 36:10, 1115-1160.
35. Jose Arturo Garza-Reyes, Mustafa Al-Balushi, Jiju Antony, Vikas Kumar. 2016. A Lean Six Sigma
framework for the reduction of ship loading commercial time in the iron ore pelletising industry.
Production Planning & Control 27:13, 1092-1111. [CrossRef]
36. David Hansen, Niels Mller. 2016. Conceptualizing Dynamic Capabilities in Lean Production: What are
They and How Do They Develop?. Engineering Management Journal 28:4, 194-208. [CrossRef]
37. SnyderKristen Kristen Snyder IngelssonPernilla Pernilla Ingelsson BckstrmIngela Ingela Bckstrm
Department of Quality Management, Mid Sweden University, stersund, Sweden Department of
Quality Technology and Management, Mechanical Engineering and Mathematics (KMM), Mid
Sweden University, stersund, Sweden Department of Quality Technology and Management, Mid
Sweden University, stersund, Sweden . 2016. Enhancing the study of Lean transformation through
organizational culture analysis. International Journal of Quality and Service Sciences 8:3, 395-411.
38. M. Razif Idris, Amran M. Nayan. 2016. A Study on Effective Production Model for Higher Productivity
in Manufacturing Plant. Journal of Artificial Intelligence 9:4, 82-92. [CrossRef]
39. RafiqueMuhammad Zeeshan Muhammad Zeeshan Rafique Ab RahmanMohd Nizam Mohd Nizam Ab
Rahman SaibaniNizaroyani Nizaroyani Saibani ArsadNorhana Norhana Arsad SaadatWaqar Waqar Saadat
Department of Mechanical and Materials Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Built Environment,
University Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Malaysia Department of Electrical, Electronic and System
Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Built Environment, University Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi,
Malaysia School of Electronic, Electrical Engineering and Computer Sciences, Faculty of Engineering and
Physical Sciences, Queens University Belfast, Belfast, UK . 2016. RFID impacts on barriers affecting lean
manufacturing. Industrial Management & Data Systems 116:8, 1585-1616. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
40. Dotun Adebanjo, Tritos Laosirihongthong, Premaratne Samaranayake. 2016. Prioritizing lean supply
chain management initiatives in healthcare service operations: a fuzzy AHP approach. Production Planning
& Control 27:12, 953-966. [CrossRef]
41. http://orcid.org/0000-0002-4660-3910 CremaMaria Maria Crema Maria Crema is a Postdoctoral
Research Fellow at the Department of Management and Engineering of University of Padova (School
of Engineering). Her main research areas are: innovation management and healthcare management.
VerbanoChiara Chiara Verbano Chiara Verbano is an Associate Professor of Business and Engineering
Economics at the School of Engineering of the University of Padova. Her major research interests are the
fields of risk management and innovation management. Department of Management and Engineering,
University of Padova, Vicenza, Italy . 2016. Safety improvements from health lean management
implementation. International Journal of Quality & Reliability Management 33:8, 1150-1178. [Abstract]
[Full Text] [PDF]
42. BancroftJohn John Bancroft SahaKrish Krish Saha University of Warwick, Warwick, UK Coventry
University, Coventry, UK . 2016. Observing the NHSs A&E performance objectives: is lean the cure?.
International Journal of Quality & Reliability Management 33:8, 1099-1123. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
43. SvejvigPer Per Svejvig GrexSara Sara Grex Department of Management, Aarhus University, Aarhus,
Denmark Department for Management Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Lyngby,
Denmark . 2016. The Danish agenda for rethinking project management. International Journal of
Managing Projects in Business 9:4, 822-844. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
44. Prof. Dr Vidosav D. Majstorovic and Prof. Dr Numan M. Durakbasa Vesna Spasojevic Brkic Faculty of
Mechanical Engineering, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia Branislav Tomic Bombardier Aerospace,
Toronto, Canada . 2016. Employees factors importance in Lean Six Sigma concept. The TQM Journal
45. Marina Papalexi, David Bamford, Benjamin Dehe. 2016. A case study of kanban implementation within
the pharmaceutical supply chain. International Journal of Logistics Research and Applications 19:4, 239-255.
[CrossRef]
46. G.L.D. Wickramasinghe. 2016. Effects of gender on work-related attitudes: study of lean implemented
textile and apparel manufacturing firms. The Journal of The Textile Institute 107:7, 854-863. [CrossRef]
47. MarodinGiuliano Almeida Giuliano Almeida Marodin Giuliano Almeida Marodin is a Clinical Assistant
Professor at the Moore School of Business at the University of South Carolina. He received his PhD, his
masters degree in industrial engineering and a BBA degree from the Federal University of Rio Grande do
Sul in Brazil, where he also worked as an Adjunct Professor for the Department of Industrial Engineering
(2013 and 2014) and the Business School (2007 and 2008). He was a Visiting Professor at the Department
of Management Sciences, The Ohio State University, for the academic year of 2014/2015. Since 2002, he
has worked as a consultant implementing lean production systems in firms from several sectors, also as a
partner of Lean Enterprise Institute in Brazil. He is also a referee of several major international journals.
Recently, he received the Emerging Economies Doctoral Student award 2013 from the Production and
Operations Management Society (POMS), and organized the IV Conference of Lean Systems in Porto
Alegre, Brazil, 2014. FrankAlejandro Germn Alejandro Germn Frank Alejandro Germn Frank is a
Professor at the Department of Industrial Engineering, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul
(UFRGS), Brazil. He received his PhD and MS degrees in Industrial Engineering from UFRGS and BS
degree in Industrial Engineering from the National University of Misiones, Argentina. He also worked as
a Visiting Researcher at the Department of Management Engineering Politecnico di Milano, Italy. In
2013, he received the ABEPRO award for the best doctoral thesis in industrial engineering, given by the
Brazilian Association of Industrial Engineers, and in 2012, he received the Latin American Management
Research Fund Award, given by the Latin American Council of Management Schools (CLADEA)
and the Emerald Publishing Group. His current research interests include industrial organization,
organizational management and new product development. TortorellaGuilherme Luz Guilherme Luz
Tortorella Guilherme Tortorella is an Associate Professor at the Department of Industrial Engineering
and Systems at the Federal University of Santa Catarina. He has a PhD and a masters degree in industrial
engineering from the Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul. He worked for 12 years in the industry and
has an extensive experience in consulting in operational excellence. SaurinTarcisio Abreu Tarcisio Abreu
Saurin Tarcisio Abreu Saurin is a Professor at the Industrial Engineering Graduate Program at the Federal
University of Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Brazil. He received his PhD in Industrial Engineering from
UFRGS in 2002. His main research interests are safety management and lean production and investigating
those issues from systemic perspectives, such as complex systems theory. He has been involved in a number
of research and consulting projects for major companies from several domains, such as construction,
manufacturing, electricity distribution and healthcare. He is also the author and co-author of several
journal papers. Department of Management Science, University of South Carolina, Columbia, South
Carolina, USA Department of Industrial Engineering, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Porto
Alegre, Brazil Department of Industrial Engineering and Systems, Federal University of Santa Catarina,
Florianpolis, Brazil Department of Industrial Engineering, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Porto
Alegre, Brazil . 2016. Contextual factors and lean production implementation in the Brazilian automotive
supply chain. Supply Chain Management: An International Journal 21:4, 417-432. [Abstract] [Full Text]
[PDF]
48. Malek Maalouf Department of Business and Management, Aalborg University,Copenhagen, Denmark
Britta Gammelgaard Department of Operations Management, Copenhagen Business School,
Copenhagen, Denmark . 2016. Managing paradoxical tensions during the implementation of lean
capabilities for improvement. International Journal of Operations & Production Management 36:6, 687-709.
49. Samah Elrhanimi, Laila El Abbadi, Abouabdellah BouabdellahWhat is the relationship between the tools
of Lean manufacturing and the global performance of the company? 1-6. [CrossRef]
50. Marte D.-Q. Holmemo, Monica Rolfsen, Jonas A. Ingvaldsen. 2016. Lean thinking: outside-in, bottom-
up? The paradox of contemporary soft lean and consultant-driven lean implementation. Total Quality
Management & Business Excellence 1-13. [CrossRef]
51. Sanjay Sharma National Institute of Industrial Engineering (NITIE), Mumbai, India Bhavin Shah
Department of Computer Engineering and Information Technology, Shi S'ad Vidya Mandal Institute of
Technology (SVMIT), Bharuch, India . 2016. Towards lean warehouse: transformation and assessment
using RTD and ANP. International Journal of Productivity and Performance Management 65:4, 571-599.
52. Lamia Ben Fredj-Ben Alaya. 2016. VSM a powerful diagnostic and planning tool for a successful Lean
implementation: a Tunisian case study of an auto parts manufacturing firm. Production Planning & Control
1-16. [CrossRef]
53. Peter Manfredsson. 2016. Textile management enabled by lean thinking: a case study of textile SMEs.
Production Planning & Control 1-9. [CrossRef]
54. Qing Hu, Sharon J. Williams, Robert Mason, Pauline Found. 2016. The change of production systems
through consultancy involved projects: a multiple case study in Chinese SMEs. Production Planning &
Control 1-13. [CrossRef]
55. A. J. Thomas, M. Francis, R. Fisher, P. Byard. 2016. Implementing Lean Six Sigma to overcome the
production challenges in an aerospace company. Production Planning & Control 1-13. [CrossRef]
56. Antnio Pedro Lacerda, Ana Raquel Xambre, Helena Maria Alvelos. 2016. Applying Value Stream
Mapping to eliminate waste: a case study of an original equipment manufacturer for the automotive
industry. International Journal of Production Research 54:6, 1708-1720. [CrossRef]
57. Seyoum Eshetu Birkie Department of Management, Economics and Industrial Engineering, Politecnico di
Milano, Milan, Italy . 2016. Operational resilience and lean: in search of synergies and trade-offs. Journal
of Manufacturing Technology Management 27:2, 185-207. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

58. Guilherme Luz Tortorella, Flvio Sanson Fogliatto, Michel Anzanello, Giuliano Almeida Marodin, Mayara
Garcia, Rafael Reis Esteves. 2016. Making the value flow: application of value stream mapping in a
Brazilian public healthcare organisation. Total Quality Management & Business Excellence 1-15. [CrossRef]
59. John Nicholas. 2016. Hoshin kanri and critical success factors in quality management and lean production.
Total Quality Management & Business Excellence 27:3-4, 250-264. [CrossRef]
60. Jostein Langstrand, Erik Drotz. 2016. The rhetoric and reality of Lean: a multiple case study. Total
Quality Management & Business Excellence 27:3-4, 398-412. [CrossRef]
61. Mohammad Ali Maasouman, Kudret Demirli. 2016. Development of a lean maturity model for
operational level planning. The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology 83:5-8,
1171-1188. [CrossRef]
62. Mohsen Zare, Michel Croq, Farhad Hossein-Arabi, Rene Brunet, Yves Roquelaure. 2016. Does
Ergonomics Improve Product Quality and Reduce Costs? A Review Article. Human Factors and
Ergonomics in Manufacturing & Service Industries 26:2, 205-223. [CrossRef]
63. Roberto Chavez, Wantao Yu, Mengying Feng, Frank Wiengarten. 2016. The Effect of Customer-Centric
Green Supply Chain Management on Operational Performance and Customer Satisfaction. Business
Strategy and the Environment 25:3, 205-220. [CrossRef]
64. Denise Rodrguez, Dirk Buyens, Hendrik Van Landeghem, Virginia Lasio. 2016. Impact of Lean
Production on Perceived Job Autonomy and Job Satisfaction: An Experimental Study. Human Factors
and Ergonomics in Manufacturing & Service Industries 26:2, 159-176. [CrossRef]
65. Amydee M. Fawcett, Yao Henry Jin, Christian Hofer, Matthew A. Waller, Vitaly Brazhkin. 2016. Sweating
the Assets: Asset Leanness and Financial Performance in the Motor Carrier Industry. Journal of Business
Logistics 37:1, 43-58. [CrossRef]
66. Goutam Kumar Kundu VIT Business School, VIT University, Vellore, India Murali Manohar VIT
Business School, VIT University, Vellore, India . 2016. Prioritizing lean practices for implementation
in IT support services. VINE Journal of Information and Knowledge Management Systems 46:1, 104-122.
67. Pramila Gamage, Nihal P. Jayamaha, Nigel P. Grigg. 2016. Acceptance of Taguchi's Quality Philosophy and
Practice by Lean practitioners in apparel manufacturing. Total Quality Management & Business Excellence
1-17. [CrossRef]
68. Daniel Prajogo Department of Management, Monash University, Caulfield East, Australia Adegoke Oke
Department of Supply Chain Management, W.P. Carey School of Business, Arizona State University,
AZ, U.S.A. Jan Olhager Department of Industrial Management and Logistics, Lund University, Lund,
Sweden . 2016. Supply chain processes. International Journal of Operations & Production Management
69. Dr Arijit Bhattacharya, Dr Walid Cheffi and Dr Prasanta Kumar Dey Peter Ayeni Lufthansa Technik
Landing Gear Services, UK Peter Ball Department of Manufacturing and Materials, Cranfield University,
Cranfield, UK Tim Baines Department of Operations and Information Management, Aston University,
Birmingham, UK . 2016. Towards the strategic adoption of Lean in aviation Maintenance Repair and
Overhaul (MRO) industry. Journal of Manufacturing Technology Management 27:1, 38-61. [Abstract]
[Full Text] [PDF]
70. Lina Stlberg School of Innovation, Design and Engineering, Mlardalen University, Eskilstuna, Sweden
Anders Fundin School of Innovation, Design and Engineering, Mlardalen University, Eskilstuna,
Sweden . 2016. Exploring a holistic perspective on production system improvement. International Journal
of Quality & Reliability Management 33:2, 267-283. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
71. Yuanzhu Zhan, Kim Hua Tan, Guojun Ji, Leanne Chung, Anthony S.F. Chiu. 2016. Green and lean
sustainable development path in China: Guanxi, practices and performance. Resources, Conservation and
Recycling . [CrossRef]
72. John Darlington, Mark Francis, Pauline Found, Andrew Thomas. 2016. Targeting lean process
improvement projects for maximum financial impact. Production Planning & Control 27:2, 114-132.
[CrossRef]
73. Raffaele Secchi Department of Management and Technology, Bocconi University CRIOS and Claudio
Dematt Research Division SDA Bocconi School of Management, Milan, Italy Arnaldo Camuffo
Department of Management and Technology, Bocconi University CRIOS and Claudio Dematt
Research Division SDA Bocconi School of Management, Milan, Italy . 2016. Rolling out lean production
systems: a knowledge-based perspective. International Journal of Operations & Production Management
74. Manoj Dora, Maneesh Kumar, Xavier Gellynck. 2016. Determinants and barriers to lean implementation
in food-processing SMEs a multiple case analysis. Production Planning & Control 27:1, 1-23. [CrossRef]
75. Begum Sertyesilisik. 2016. Embending Sustainability Dynamics in the Lean Construction Supply Chain
Management. YBL Journal of Built Environment 4:1. . [CrossRef]
76. Aleksandra Anelkovi, Marija Radosavljevi, Danijela Stoi. 2016. Effects of Lean Tools in Achieving
Lean Warehousing. Economic Themes 54:4. . [CrossRef]
77. Eirin Lodgaard, Jonas A. Ingvaldsen, Inger Gamme, Silje Aschehoug. 2016. Barriers to Lean
Implementation: Perceptions of Top Managers, Middle Managers and Workers. Procedia CIRP 57,
595-600. [CrossRef]
78. Barbara Resta, Stefano Dotti, Paolo Gaiardelli, Albachiara BoffelliLean Manufacturing and Sustainability:
An Integrated View 659-666. [CrossRef]
79. Huay Ling Tay. 2016. Lean Improvement Practices: Lessons from Healthcare Service Delivery Chains.
IFAC-PapersOnLine 49:12, 1158-1163. [CrossRef]
80. Nguyen Dang Minh, Nguyen Thi Van Ha. 2016. Made in Vietnam Lean Management Model for
Sustainable Development of Vietnamese Enterprises. Procedia CIRP 40, 602-607. [CrossRef]
81. Ronald Leandro Elizondo, Bernard Grabot, Raymond Houe Ngouna. 2016. Beyond Productivity and
Continuous Improvement: Fundamentals required for Lean Complex transformation Unpublished. IFAC-
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82. Erlend Alfnes, Maria Kollberg Thomassen, Erik GranA Framework for Lean Flow in Turbulent High-
Variety Low-Volume Manufacturing Environments 935-942. [CrossRef]
83. Jonathan Pinkney, Susanna Rance, Jonathan Benger, Heather Brant, Sian Joel-Edgar, Dawn Swancutt,
Debra Westlake, Mark Pearson, Daniel Thomas, Ingrid Holme, Ruth Endacott, Rob Anderson, Michael
Allen, Sarah Purdy, John Campbell, Rod Sheaff, Richard Byng. 2016. How can frontline expertise and
new models of care best contribute to safely reducing avoidable acute admissions? A mixed-methods study
of four acute hospitals. Health Services and Delivery Research 4:3, 1-202. [CrossRef]
84. A. Moeuf, S. Tamayo, S. Lamouri, R. Pellerin, A. Lelievre. 2016. Strengths and weaknesses of small
and medium sized enterprises regarding the implementation of lean manufacturing. IFAC-PapersOnLine
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85. Ilias Vlachos. 2015. Applying lean thinking in the food supply chains: a case study. Production Planning
86. Todd J. Wannemuehler, Alhasan N. Elghouche, Mimi S. Kokoska, Christopher R. Deig, Bruce H.
Matt. 2015. Impact of Lean on surgical instrument reduction: Less is more. The Laryngoscope 125:12,
2810-2815. [CrossRef]
87. Mantas Vilkas, Ivona Koreckaja, Egl Katilit, Diana Bagdonien. 2015. Adoption of Lean Production:
Preliminary Evidence from Lithuania. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 213, 884-889. [CrossRef]
88. Nicole Adler, Jonathan Kornbluth, Mali Sher, Shalom HakkertLean Management for Traffic Police
Enforcement Planning 39-62. [CrossRef]
89. Samuel Jebaraj Benjamin Faculty of Management, Multimedia University, Selangor, Malaysia M.
Srikamaladevi Marathamuthu Faculty of Management, Multimedia University, Selangor, Malaysia
Uthiyakumar Murugaiah OpEx Engineering Consultancy, Selangor, Malaysia . 2015. The use of 5-WHYs
technique to eliminate OEEs speed loss in a manufacturing firm. Journal of Quality in Maintenance
Engineering 21:4, 419-435. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
90. Associate Professor Alessandro Brun and Dr Cecilia Maria Castelli Gionata Carmignani Department
of Energy, Systems, Territory and Constructions, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy Francesco Zammori
Department of Industrial Engineering University of Parma, Parma, Italy . 2015. Lean thinking in the
luxury-fashion market. International Journal of Retail & Distribution Management 43:10/11, 988-1012.
91. Professor Jiju Antony Theresa Waterbury Leadership Education, Winona State University, Winona,
Minnesota, USA . 2015. Learning from the pioneers. International Journal of Quality & Reliability
Management 32:9, 934-950. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
92. Donna Samuel Lean Academy, SA Partners LLP, Caerphilly, UK Pauline Found Buckingham Business
School, The University of Buckingham, Buckingham, UK Sharon J. Williams Cardiff Business School,
Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK . 2015. How did the publication of the book The Machine That Changed
The World change management thinking? Exploring 25 years of lean literature. International Journal of
Operations & Production Management 35:10, 1386-1407. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
93. Dinesh Seth, Arpit Panigrahi. 2015. Application and evaluation of packaging postponement strategy
to boost supply chain responsiveness: a case study. Production Planning & Control 26:13, 1069-1089.
[CrossRef]
94. Naga Vamshi Krishna Jasti, Rambabu Kodali. 2015. A critical review of lean supply chain management
frameworks: proposed framework. Production Planning & Control 26:13, 1051-1068. [CrossRef]
95. Roy Andersson, Peter Manfredsson, Bjrn Lantz. 2015. Total productive maintenance in support
processes: an enabler for operation excellence. Total Quality Management & Business Excellence 26:9-10,
1042-1055. [CrossRef]
96. Ramun iarnien, Milita Vienaindien. 2015. An Empirical Study of Lean Concept Manifestation.
Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 207, 225-233. [CrossRef]
97. Qing Hu Logistics and Operations Management, Cardiff Business School, Cardiff University, Cardiff ,
UK Robert Mason Logistics and Operations Management Section, Cardiff Business School, Cardiff
University, Cardiff,United Kingdom. Sharon J. Williams Cardiff Business School, Cardiff University,
Cardiff, UK Pauline Found Buckingham Business School, The University of Buckingham, Buckingham,
UK . 2015. Lean implementation within SMEs: a literature review. Journal of Manufacturing Technology
98. TickFei Chay Faculty of Engineering and Built Environment, Mechanical Engineering Division,
Tunku Abdul Rahman University College, Setapak, Kuala Lumpur AND Manufacturing and Materials
Department, School of Applied Sciences Cranfield University, Cranfield, UK YuChun Xu Manufacturing
and Materials Department, Cranfield University, Cranfield, UK Ashutosh Tiwari Manufacturing and
Materials Department, Cranfield University, Cranfield, UK FooSoon Chay Faculty of Applied Sciences
and Computing, Tunku Abdul Rahman University College, Johor, Malaysia . 2015. Towards lean
transformation: the analysis of lean implementation frameworks. Journal of Manufacturing Technology
99. Vctor G. Aguilar-Escobar, Sarah Bourque, Nicols Godino-Gallego. 2015. Hospital kanban system
implementation: Evaluating satisfaction of nursing personnel. Investigaciones Europeas de Direccin y
Economa de la Empresa 21:3, 101-110. [CrossRef]
100. Jose Arturo Garza-Reyes. 2015. Lean and green a systematic review of the state of the art literature.
Journal of Cleaner Production 102, 18-29. [CrossRef]
101. Protik Basu, Shovan Chowdhury, Parveen Ahmed Alam. 2015. A model-based approach of flexibility
and its impact on organization and employee welfare in lean environment. DECISION 42:3, 269-277.
[CrossRef]
102. Kurt Hozak Department of Management and Decision Sciences, Wall College of Business, Coastal
Carolina University, Conway, SC, USA Eric O. Olsen Department of Industrial Technology, Orfalea
College of Business, California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo, CA, USA . 2015. Lean
psychology and the theories of Thinking, Fast and Slow. International Journal of Lean Six Sigma 6:3,
206-225. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
103. Jose Arturo Garza-Reyes Centre for Supply Chain Improvement, University of Derby, Derby, UK . 2015.
Green lean and the need for Six Sigma. International Journal of Lean Six Sigma 6:3, 226-248. [Abstract]
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104. Maurizio Bevilacqua, Filippo Emanuele Ciarapica, Claudia Paciarotti. 2015. Implementing lean
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214. Shaofeng Liu, Mike Leat, Jonathan Moizer, Phil Megicks, Dulekha Kasturiratne. 2013. A decision-
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245. Kyle B. StoneCollege of Business and Leadership, Fort Hays State University, Hays, Kansas, USA. 2012.
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250. Jos MoyanoFuentesDepartment of Business Organization, Marketing and Sociology, University of
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251. Goran D. PutnikUniversity of Minho, PortugalAnabela C. AlvesDepartment of Production and Systems,
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261. Jose Arturo GarzaReyesSchool of Technology, The University of Derby, Derby, UK Ilias OraifigeSchool
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262. Zoe J. Radnor, Matthias Holweg, Justin Waring. 2012. Lean in healthcare: The unfilled promise?. Social
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271. Vathsala WickramasingheDepartment of Management of Technology, Faculty of Engineering, University
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286. Christine Pasquire and Glenn BallardLouise BildstenIndustrial Marketing, Department of Management
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289. Thanos PapadopoulosSchool of Management, University of Southampton, Southampton, UK Zoe
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Learning To Evolve A Review of Contemporary Lean - Hines Holweg Rich

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International Journal of Operations & Production Management

Learning to evolve: A review of contemporary lean thinking

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appreciation of how to handle variability in demand. The implementation was entirely

The relationship between value and cost

The evolution of lean

1980-1990 1990-mid 1990 Mid 1990-1999 2000+

The main gaps and

Scope and lack of strategic perspective

Coping with variability

Learning steps from prescription to contingency

Stage 1 Cells and assembly lines

Stage 3 Value stream

Instill a perfection mind-set

Stage 4 Value systems

Conclusions and outlook

Vol. 22 No. 2, pp. 67-79.

developing a specific model. Journal of Cleaner Production 139, 828-846. [CrossRef]

His research focuses on assessment of process improvements in services. GurumurthyAnand Anand

of Manufacturing Technology Management 27:2, 185-207. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

in Food Science & Technology 31:2, 156-164. [CrossRef]

less. Government Information Quarterly 30, S1-S8. [CrossRef]

School of Engineering, University of Minho, Guimares, Portugal Jos DinisCarvalhoDepartment of

Development System Design. Engineering Management Journal 23:1, 69-85. [CrossRef]

Management 27:2, 138-155. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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