Volume 4 - Hydrology and Water Resources PDF

GOVERNMENT OF MALAYSIA
DEPARTMENT OF IRRIGATION
AND DRAINAGE
Volume 4 Hydrology and

Water Resources
Jabatan Pengairan dan Saliran Malaysia

Jalan Sultan Salahuddin
50626 KUALA LUMPUR
DID MANUAL Volume 4
Disclaimer
Every effort and care has been taken in selecting methods and recommendations that are
appropriate to Malaysian conditions. Notwithstanding these efforts, no warranty or guarantee,
express, implied or statutory is made as to the accuracy, reliability, suitability or results of the
methods or recommendations.
The use of this Manual requires professional interpretation and judgment. Appropriate design
procedures and assessment must be applied, to suit the particular circumstances under
consideration.
The government shall have no liability or responsibility to the user or any other person or entity with
respect to any liability, loss or damage caused or alleged to be caused, directly or indirectly, by the
adoption and use of the methods and recommendations of this Manual, including but not limited to,
any interruption of service, loss of business or anticipatory profits, or consequential damages
resulting from the use of this Manual.
March 2009 i
DID MANUAL Volume 4
Foreword
The first edition of the Manual was published in 1960 and was actually based on the experiences and
knowledge of DID engineers in planning, design, construction, operations and maintenance of large
volume water management systems for irrigation, drainage, floods and river conservancy. The
manual became invaluable references for both practising as well as officers newly posted to an
unfamiliar engineering environment.
Over these years the role and experience of the DID has expanded beyond an agriculture-based
environment to cover urbanisation needs but the principle role of being the countrys leading expert
in large volume water management remains. The challenges are also wider covering issues of
environment and its sustainability. Recognising this, the Department decided that it is timely for the
DID Manual be reviewed and updated. Continuing the spirit of our predecessors, this Manual is not
only about the fundamentals of related engineering knowledge but also based on the concept of
sharing experience and knowledge of practising engineers. This new version now includes the latest
standards and practices, technologies, best engineering practices that are applicable and useful for
the country.
This Manual consists of eleven separate volumes covering Flood Management; River Management;
Coastal Management; Hydrology and Water Resources; Irrigation and Agricultural Drainage;
Geotechnical, Site Investigation and Engineering Survey; Engineering Modelling; Mechanical and
Electrical Services; Dam Safety, Inspections and Monitoring; Contract Administration; and
Construction Management. Within each Volume is a wide range of related topics including topics on
future concerns that should put on record our care for the future generations.
This DID Manual is developed through contributions from nearly 200 professionals from the
Government as well as private sectors who are very experienced and experts in their respective
fields. It has not been an easy exercise and the success in publishing this is the results of hard work
and tenacity of all those involved. The Manual has been written to serve as a source of information
and to provide guidance and reference pertaining to the latest information, knowledge and best
practices for DID engineers and personnel. The Manual would enable new DID engineers and
personnel to have a jump-start in carrying out their duties. This is one of the many initiatives
undertaken by DID to improve its delivery system and to achieve the mission of the Department in
providing an efficient and effective service. This Manual will also be useful reference for non-DID
Engineers, other non-engineering professionals, Contractors, Consultants, the Academia, Developers
and students involved and interested in water-related development and management. Just as it was
before, this DID Manual is, in a way, a record of the history of engineering knowledge and
development in the water and water resources engineering applications in Malaysia.
There are just too many to name and congratulate individually, all those involved in preparing this
Manual. Most of them are my fellow professionals and well-respected within the profession. I wish
to record my sincere thanks and appreciation to all of them and I am confident that their
contributions will be truly appreciated by the readers for many years to come.
Dato Ir. Hj. Ahmad Husaini bin Sulaiman,

Director General,
Department of Irrigation and Drainage Malaysia
ii March 2009
DID MANUAL Volume 4
Acknowledgements
Steering Committee:
Dato Ir. Hj. Ahmad Husaini bin Sulaiman, Dato Nordin bin Hamdan, Dato Ir. K. J. Abraham, Dato
Ong Siew Heng, Dato Ir. Lim Chow Hock, Ir. Lee Loke Chong, Tuan Hj. Abu Bakar bin Mohd Yusof,
Ir. Zainor Rahim bin Ibrahim, En. Leong Tak Meng, En. Ziauddin bin Abdul Latiff, Pn. Hjh. Wardiah
bte Abd. Muttalib, En. Wahid Anuar bin Ahmad, Tn. Hj. Zulkefli bin Hassan, Ir. Dr. Hj. Mohd. Nor bin
Hj. Mohd. Desa, En. Low Koon Seng, En. Wan Marhafidz Shah bin Wan Mohd. Omar, Sr. Md Fauzi bin
Md Rejab, En. Khairuddin bin Mat Yunus, Cik Khairiah bt Ahmad
Coordination Committee:
Dato Nordin bin Hamdan, Dato Ir. Hj. Ahmad Fuad bin Embi, Dato Ong Siew Heng, Ir. Lee Loke
Chong, Tuan Hj. Abu Bakar bin Mohd Yusof, Ir. Zainor Rahim bin Ibrahim, Ir. Cho Weng Keong, En.
Leong Tak Meng, Dr. Mohamed Roseli Zainal Abidin, En. Zainal Akamar bin Harun, Pn. Norazia
Ibrahim, Ir. Mohd. Zaki, En. Sazali Osman, Pn. Rosnelawati Hj. Ismail, En. Ng Kim Hoy, Ir. Lim See
Tian, Sr. Mohd. Fauzi bin Rejab, Ir. Hj. Daud Mohd Lep, Tn. Hj. Muhamad Khosim Ikhsan, En. Roslan
Ahmad, En. Tan Teow Soon, Tn. Hj. Ahmad Darus, En. Adnan Othman, Ir. Hapida Ghazali, En.
Sukemi Hj. Sidek, Pn. Hjh. Fadzilah Abdul Samad, Pn. Hjh. Salmah Mohd. Som, Ir. Sahak Che
Abdullah, Pn. Sofiah Mat, En. Mohd. Shafawi Alwi, En. Ooi Soon Lee, En. Muhammad Khairudin
Khalil, , Tn. Hj. Azmi Md Jafri, Ir. Nor Hisham Ghazali, En. Gunasegaran M., En. Rajaselvam G., Cik
Nur Hareza Redzuan, Ir. Chia Chong Wing, Pn Norlida Mohd. Dom, , Ir. Lee Bea Leang, Dr. Hj. Md.
Nasir Md. Noh, Pn Paridah Anum Tahir, Pn. Nurazlina Mohd Zaid, PWM Associates Sdn. Bhd., Institut
Penyelidikan Hidraulik Kebangsaan Malaysia (NAHRIM), RPM Engineers Sdn. Bhd., J.U.B.M. Sdn. Bhd.
Working Group:
Ir Mohd Zaki bin Mat Amin, Tn. Haji Azmi bin Mat Jafri, En.Sazali bin Osman, Pn. Yuhaslin Binti
Yusof, Ir. Hapida binti Ghazali, En. Adnan bin Ab Latif, En. Asmadi bin Ahmad, Pn Noorhazilah binti
Baharin, En Ng Kim Hoy, Pn Haliana binti Hamid, Tn. Hj Faahkaruddin bin Hj Tahir, Ir Liam We Lin,
Ir. Mohd. Adnan Mohd Nor, Dr Heng Hock Hwee, En. Lee Yew Jin, En Jamal Abdullah, En. Ahmad
Ashrin Abdul Jalil, Cik Nurulziana binti Jaidin.
March 2009 iii

DID MANUAL Volume 4
Registrations of Amendments
Amend Page Date of Amend Page Date of

No No Amendment No No Amendment
iv March 2009
DID MANUAL Volume 4
Table of Contents
Disclaimer....................................................................................................................................i
Foreword....................................................................................................................................ii
Acknowledgements.....................................................................................................................iii
Registration of Amendments........................................................................................................iv
Table of Contents........................................................................................................................v
List of Abbreviations....................................................................................................................vi
Glossary....................................................................................................................................vii
List of Volume
Chapter 1 Introduction
Chapter 2 Precipitation
Chapter 3 Water Losses
Chapter 4 River Discharge
Chapter 5 Statistical Hydrology
Chapter 6 Low Flows, Drought Analysis and Monitoring
Chapter 7 River Sedimentation
Chapter 8 River Water Quality
Chapter 9 Flood Forecasting and Warning Services
Chapter 10 Catchment Modelling
Chapter 11 Safety Considerations
Chapter 12 Emerging Technologies in Hydrological Observations and Instrumentation
March 2009 v
DID MANUAL Volume 4
List of Abbreviations
DAD Depth; Area; Duration Curves

ARF Areal Reduction Factor
IDF Intensity Duration Frequency
PMP Probable Maximum Precipitation
PMF Probable Maximum Flood
MOM Method of Moments
MLM Method of L-Moments
HP Hydrological Procedure
NAHRIM National Hydraulic Research Institute of Malaysia
FAO Food and Agriculture Organisation
AAF Annual Average Flood
FWB Flood Warning Board
SOP Standard Operating Procedure
FFC Flood Forecasting Centre
SCADA Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition
QPF Quantitative Precipitation Forecast
ANN Artificial Neural Network
MSE Mean Square Error
MA Moving Average
PAR Periodic Auto Regressive
OSHA Occupational Safety Health Act
DOSH Department of Occupational Safety Health
OSH Occupational Safety Health
FMA Factories and Machinery Act
TCP Traffic Control Plan
ADCP Acoustic Doppler Current Profilers
RTU Remote Terminal unit
GSM Global System for Mobile communication
UHF Ultra High Frequency
PSTN Public Switched Telephone Network
GPRS General Packet Radio Service
PFD Personal Flotation Device
CPR Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation
UH Unit Hydrograph
DRF Direct Runoff Hydrograph
MASMA Manual Saliran Mesra Alam
DRH Direct Runoff Hydrograph
DPT Dew Point Temperature
UH Unit Hydrograph
vi March 2009
DID MANUAL Volume 4
Glossary
Term Definition
A-Frame The portable steel contraption which allows for a

hand-operated winch to lower and raise a current
meter for gauging work. Usually deployed from
either a bridge or a boat.
ACM An acronym for acoustic current meter. It is a

sound-based submersible instrument designed to
measure velocity at a programmable trajectory
and point in the water column
Acoustic method A means to measure velocity (and flow) using

sound signals passed underwater. System usually
integrates a transmitter, receiver, temperature
sensor and data logger. Flow is then derived
using the velocity-area method. Also see ACM
and ADCP
An advanced generation of acoustic current

ADCP meters which uses Doppler principles to
simultaneously measure current velocities at
multiple points along the water column. Latest
model with bottom tracking feature can be
incorporated into the moving boat method in lieu
of the propeller type current meter and echo
sounder
Backwater A rise in stage produced by an obstruction in the

stream channel caused by ice, weeds, control
structure, etc. It may be caused by channel
storage for which the reservoir properties vary
with the depth of flow at the given location. The
difference between the observed stage for a
certain discharge and the stage as indicated by
the stage-discharge relation for the same
discharge is reported as the backwater at the
station.
Bank, right or left The margin of a channel as viewed facing

downstream. The expression "right" or "left"
applies similarly to right or left abutments,
cableway towers, etc.
Bench mark A permanent, fixed reference point for which the

elevation is known. It may when practicable, be
related to mean sea level, MSL datum
March 2009 vii

DID MANUAL Volume 4
Term Definition
Broad-crested weir A weir of such crest length in the direction of flow

that critical flow occurs on the crest of the weir.
Cableway Consist of a pair of suspension cables strung

across the river and used in conjunction with
gauging winch when deploying a current meter
Control The condition downstream from a gauging station

that determines the stage discharge relation. It
may be a stretch of rapids, a weir or other
artificial structure. In the absence of such
features, the control may be a less obvious
condition such as a convergence of the channel or
even simply the resistance to flow through a
downstream reach. A shifting control exists where
the stage-discharge relation tends to change
because of impermanent bed or banks.
Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation (CPR) Is an emergency medical procedure for a victim

of cardiac arrest or, in some circumstances,
respiratory arrest. This is associated with the
application of mouth-to-mouth ventilation,
combined with chest compressions based on the
assumption that active ventilation is necessary to
keep circulating oxygenated blood in the lung.
Crest gauge A gauge, usually vertical, used to indicate a peak

stage that has occurred since the previous
setting.
Critical flow The flow in which specific energy (depth of flow

+ velocity head) is a minimum for a given
discharge; under this condition a small surface
disturbance can not travel upstream. The ratio of
inertia to gravity forces (Froude Number) is equal
to unity.
Cross section of a stream A specified vertical plane through a stream

bounded by the wetted perimeter and the free
surface.
Current meter Instrument to measure discretely velocity of

water flow in the water column. Can be of
propeller, electromagnetic or acoustic type.
Data logger Is an electronic device that records data over
time and is usually integrated to either a built in
instrument or sensor or connected to external
instruments and sensors. A multi-parameter data
logger has many channels to accommodate a
repertoire of measurements e.g. temperature,
humidity, rainfall, water level etc.

viii March 2009

DID MANUAL Volume 4
Term Definition
Digital counter Is an electronic device that records data over time

and is usually integrated to either a built in
instrument or sensor or connected to external
instruments and sensors. A multi-parameter data
logger has many channels to accommodate a
repertoire of measurements e.g. temperature,
humidity, rainfall, water level etc.
Digital counter A counting device to record the number of

revolutions in a propeller-type current meter
during gauging
Discharge coefficient A coefficient in the discharge equation, in general

relating the actual discharge to a theoretical
discharge.
Discharge, Q The volume of liquid flowing through a cross

section per unit of time. It is not synonymous
with "flow".
Discharge measurement The determination of the rate of discharge at a

gauging station on a stream, including an
observation of `no flow', which is classed as a
discharge measurement
Double-drum winch A winch with two drums, one of which controls

and measures the vertical displacement of
hydrometric instruments and the other of which
controls and measures the horizontal
displacement of an unmanned cableway carriage.
Energy slope Refers to the slope between the upstream and

downstream cross sections of the high water
marks plus the velocity head. Used as part of the
slope-area method equation to calculate peak
discharge.
Float and stilling well gauge A manual gauge consisting of a float that rides on
the water surface, rising and falling with the
surface. The float's movements are transmitted to
a paper chart recorder or encoded further onto a
electronic data logger.
Flood mark A trace of any kind left by a flood on the banks,

obstacles or flood plain. It may be used to
determine the highest level attained by the water
surface during the flood
Flow The movement of water in a channel without

reference to rate, depth, etc
March 2009 ix
DID MANUAL Volume 4
Term Definition
Flume A specially shaped open channel flow section that

may be installed in a channel to measure
discharge. Depending on the shape of the section,
flumes may be termed Parshall, Montana H-
flumes, cut-throat, etc.
Fluorometer An optically-based instrument used in detecting

and measuring minute concentrations of
fluorescent substances or molecules e.g.
Fluoroscein, Rhodamine WT dye, chlorophyll a,
hydrocarbons etc.
Free flow; modular flow A flow which is not influenced by the level of
water downstream of the measuring device
Gas bubbler method A system which measures water depth i.e. level
by the amount of pressure required to force
nitrogen gas bubbles into the water column from
bubbler unit mounted at a fixed position from the
streambed.
Gauge correction Any correction that must be applied to the gauge

observation or gauge reading to obtain the
correct gauge height.
Gauge datum The elevation of the zero of the gauge

(referenced to bench marks, or MSL datum) to
which the level of the water surface is related.
Gauge height The height of the water surface above the "Gauge
datum"; it is used interchangeably with the terms
"stage" and "water level".
Gauge observation; Gauge reading An actual notation of the height of the water
surface as indicated by a gauge, it is the same as
a "gauge height" only when the 0.000 metre mark
of the gauge is set at the "gauge datum".
Gauging section; measuring section The cross section of an open channel in the plane
of which measurements of depth and velocity are
made.
Gauging station Also referred to as river discharge station.
Gauging winch Refers to specially designed winches mechanical

or motorized used to suspend current meters in
the water column for gauging purposes. See also
cableway.

x March 2009
DID MANUAL Volume 4
Term Definition
Head on (or over) the weir Elevation of the water above the lowest point of
the crest, measured at a point upstream. The
distance upstream for the point of measurement
depends on the type of weir used but is upstream
of the transition zone from sub- to supercritical
flow at full weir flow
Hydraulic jump The sudden passage of water in an open channel

from super-critical depth to sub-critical depth,
accompanied by energy dissipation.
Hydraulic mean depth; hydraulic radius The quotient of the wetted cross sectional area
and the wetted perimeter.
Inclined gauge; ramp gauge A gauge on a slope, generally graduated directly

to indicate vertical gauge height.
Inspection Inspectorial works carried out twice yearly on

river stage stations to document any physical
changes taking place at the site itself, both
upstream and downstream of the site as well as
within the catchment concerned. Equipment are
also checked and site personnel competency
evaluated.
Left [right] bank The bank to the left [right) of an observer looking
downstream.
Level check The procedure followed to determine the

movement of a gauge with respect to the gauge
datum.
Manual gauge A non-recording type of gauge from which

observations of stage are obtained.
Mean velocity at a cross section The velocity at a given cross section of a stream,
obtained by dividing the discharge by the cross
sectional area of the stream at that section.
Mean velocity depth The depth below the surface at which the mean
velocity on a vertical occurs.
Moving boat method Refers to a gauging technique where a boat

equipped with either a current meter or ADCP,
depth finder and positioning equipment e.g. GPS
transects across the river while collecting the
necessary information relating to the flow
calculation.
March 2009 xi
DID MANUAL Volume 4
Term Definition
Observations The practice to ensure that the entries are

properly documented and identified with river
name, station number, location, date and time.
Panel The area at a vertical defined by the depth at that

vertical multiplied by one-half of the distance
between the preceding and the succeeding
verticals.
Peak stage The maximum instantaneous stage during a given

period.
Personal Flotation Device (PFD) Device such as the life jacket worn to keep one
afloat when in water
Pless system An improved technique devised by Russians to the

moving boat method (Klein et al, 1993).
Point method (one-; two-; three-; five-; six-) Method of measuring the velocity in a vertical by
placing a current-meter at a number of
designated points in the vertical.
Propeller-type current meter
A device with vanes that spin in proportion with
the water flow velocity. The observed number of
revolution by an accompanying counting device
within a set time period is converted into velocity
using a specific calibration formula which comes
with instrument.
Open channel
The longitudinal boundary surface consisting of
the bed and banks or sides within which the liquid
flows with a free surface. The term "channel"
generally means the deep part of a river or other
waterway, and its meaning is normally made clear
by a descriptive term, either stated or implied,
such as "low water" channel, "main" channel,
"artificial" channel.
Rating curve
The relationship between stage and discharge
which is developed by pairing stage data with
individual point-in-time discharge measurements
Reach
A length of open channel between two defined
cross sections.
Reference point
A point of known elevation from which
measurements may be made to a water surface.
It is also known as a "measuring point"
xii March 2009

DID MANUAL Volume 4
Term Definition
Remote sensing Is the science of deriving information about the

earth's land and water areas from images
acquired at a distance. It usually relies upon
measurement of electromagnetic energy
reflected or emitted from the features of interest.
Rhodamine WT dye A water soluble dye, red in color used as a tracer

in gauging studies. Detected and measured at
parts per billion level with aid of a fluorometer.
River Stage Station A location, temporary or otherwise where records

of gauge height are obtained from a series of
systematic readings (all reduced to mean sea
level) from stick gauges or from automatic water
level recorders.
River Discharge Station The complete installation at a measuring site

where systematic records of water level and
discharge are obtained.
SCADA or Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition

refers to the process by which real-time
information is gathered from remote locations for
processing and analysis; and the process by
which equipment is controlled.
Shift A change in the station control which alters the

stage-discharge relationship. This change can be
either temporary or permanent.
Slope-area method An indirect method of peak discharge estimation

in a reach based on the surface slope, the reach
roughness, the wetted perimeter and flow areas
of the various cross sections within the reach.
Sounding The operation of measuring the depth from the

free surface to the bed.
Staff gauge A manual gauge consisting of a graduated plate

or rod that is normally set vertically in streambed
or attached to a solid structure.
Stage; gauge height; water level The elevation of the free surface of a stream,
lake or reservoir relative to a gauge-datum.
Stage A general term used to describe the height of a

water surface and, in a particular application,
may be either a gauge height or a water
elevation.
March 2009 xiii

DID MANUAL Volume 4
Term Definition
Stage-discharge relation A curve, equation or table which expresses the

relation between the stage and the discharge in
an open channel at a given stream cross section.
Station control Refers to the physical features, natural or

otherwise found downstream which exerts
influence over the existing rating curve for the
gauging station.
Steady [unsteady] flow Condition in which the discharge does not change
[changes] in magnitude with respect to time.
Stick gauge Also known as staff gauge.
Stilling well A well [tube] connected with the stream in such a

way as to permit the measurement of the stage in
relatively still conditions (natural surging
dampened).
Stream The generic term for water flowing in an open

channel, e.g., including creeks and rivers.
Submersible pressure transducer a sensor which incorporates piezo-resistive strain

gauge technology to detect and measure the
subtle change in water depth hence level.
Sub-surface float A float with its greatest drag below the surface for
measuring sub-surface velocities.
Surface float A float with its greatest drag near the surface for
measuring surface velocities.
Telemetry Refers to the use of telecommunications for

automatically sending/receiving data at a distance
from the measuring instrument.
Tracer techniques Use of detectable and quantitative solutes such as

salt, dye, radio-isotopes etc. to determine
discharge. Flow is computed using either
velocity-area or dilution methods.
Triangular-profile weir A long-base weir having a triangular longitudinal

profile.
Ultrasonic Sensor Method Consists of a transducer mounted at a fixed

distance above the water surface which transmits
and receives acoustics signals which invariably
change with the stage thus giving the water level
reading.
xiv March 2009

DID MANUAL Volume 4
Term Definition
Velocity floats Usually used with a stopwatch within a straight

reach to roughly and quickly determine flow
velocities. Can be in the form of surface or sub-
surface float; usually the float material is made
of PVC.
Uniform flow Flow in which the depth and velocity remain

constant with respect to distance along the
channel. Uniform flow is possible only in a
channel of constant cross section
Velocity-area method Method of discharge determination deduced from

the area of the cross section, bounded by the
wetted perimeter and the free surface, and the
integration of the component velocities in the
cross section.
Vertical The vertical line in which velocity measurements

or depth measurements are made.
Vertical velocity coefficient The coefficient applied to a single, or an

equivalent single, velocity determination at any
depth in a vertical to infer the mean velocity on
that vertical.
Wading rod A light, hand-held, graduated, rigid rod, for

sounding the depth and positioning the current
meter in order to measure the velocity in shallow
streams suitable for wading. It may also be used
from boats at shallow depths.
Water level recorder An instrument that records water levels in an

analogue or digital form. The recorder may be
actuated by a float or by any one of several
other sensor types.
Water surface slope Refers to the gradient at the water surface

between two high water marks, one upstream
the other downstream of a gauging site. It is
used to derive the energy slope, which is
ultimately the slope that the slope-area method
relies on.
Weir
An overflow structure built across an open
channel to measure the discharge in the channel.
Depending on the shape of the opening, weirs
Wetted perimeter, P may be termed rectangular, trapezoidal,
triangular, etc.
The wetted boundary of an open channel at a

specified section.
March 2009 xv
DID MANUAL Volume 4
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xvi March 2009

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION
Table of Contents
Table of Contents .................................................................................................................... 1-i
List of Tables .................................................................................................................. 1-iii
List of Figures .................................................................................................................. 1-iii
1 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................... 1-1
1.1 DEFINITION AND IMPORTANCE OF HYDROLOGY .......................................................... 1-1
1.2 USER NEEDS FOR HYDROLOGICAL DATA AND INFORMATION ....................................... 1-2
1.3 HYDROLOGICAL ACTIVITIES IN MALAYSIA ................................................................... 1-3
1.4 OUTLINE OF ACTIVITIES............................................................................................. 1-3
1.5 FIELD COVERED BY DIVISION OF HYDROLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES ...................... 1-4
1.5.1 Operational Hydrology................................................................................. 1-6
1.5.1.1 Field Operation ........................................................................... 1-6
1.5.2 Hydrological Data Management .................................................................... 1-7
1.5.2.1 Collection of data ....................................................................... 1-7
1.5.2.2 Submission and Processing of Hydrological Data .......................... 1-7
1.5.2.3 Dissemination of Hydrological Data ............................................. 1-8
1.5.4 Drought Identification and Monitoring Services .............................................. 1-8
1.5.5 Hydrological Application .............................................................................. 1-9
1.5.6 Technical Advice and Consultancy ................................................................ 1-9
1.5.7 Water Resources Assessment....................................................................... 1-9
1.5.8 Applied Researches, Local, Regional and International Collaboration ............. 1-10
1.5.8.1 Experimental and Representative Basin Studies ........................... 1-10
1.5.8.2 IHP Participation in Collaborative Researches .............................. 1-10
1.6 EVALUATION AND DESIGN OF HYDROLOGICAL NETWORK .......................................... 1-11
1.6.1 General Considerations.............................................................................. 1-12
1.6.2 Hydrological Station Network Design .......................................................... 1-13
1.6.3 Selection and Training of Observers ........................................................... 1-14
1.6.4 Data Error Correction ................................................................................ 1-14
1.6.5 Minimum network ..................................................................................... 1-14
1.6.5.1 Network for Rainfall .................................................................. 1-14
1.6.5.2 Network for Stream flow stations ............................................... 1-15
1.7 DISSEMINATION OF DATA AND INFORMATION .......................................................... 1-16
REFERENCES ................................................................................................................. 1-26
March 2009 1-i

APPENDIX 1.A LIST OF DID HYDROLOGICAL PROCEDURES PUBLICATION ............................ 1A-1

APPENDIX 1.B LIST OF DID WATER RESOURCES PUBLICATION ........................................... 1A-2
APPENDIX 1.C OPERATING PROCEDURE OF THE MALAYSIAN NATIONAL COMMITTEE FOR
INTERNATIONAL HYDROLOGICAL PROGRAMME ............................................ 1A-3
1-ii March 2009

List of Tables
Table Description Page
1.1 National Hydrology Station 2005 1-12

1.2 Charges for Hydrological Data (Fees Order 1966) 1-22
List of Figures
Figure Description Page
1.1 The Hydrological Cycle 1-1

1.2 Flowchart of the hydrological data management system by DID Malaysia. 1-5
1.3 Daily Rainfall at Stn 5204048 in PDAY Format 1-17
1.4 Monthly Water Level Data at Stn 5505412 in PMONTH format 1-18
1.5 Annual Maximum and Minimum Water Levels atStn. 5506416 Retrieved Using
PEXTREME 1-19
1.6 Maximum Rainfall Over 3 Hours at Stn. 5105051 Retrieved Using PMOVE 1-19
1.7 DIDs Real-Time Flood Information System 1-21
1.8 Flow Chart for Processing Hydrological Data Applications 1-25

March 2009 1-iii
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1-iv March 2009

1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 DEFINITION AND IMPORTANCE OF HYDROLOGY
Hydrology deals with the study of the occurrence and processes of water. Processes in hydrology
would include precipitation, infiltration, surface runoff, percolation, ground water flow, evaporation,
transpiration. Water on earth occurs in many forms such as water vapour, rainfall, surface water
storage and ground water storage. The occurrence of water in its various forms and the processes
water undergoes as it move from on form to another is best illustrated by the hydrological cycle (see
Figure 1.1)
(cloud)
Precipitation
3
[976bilm /yr]
(cloud)
(vapour,dew)
Evapotranspiration Precipitation
3
Surfacerunoff [385bil.m /yr]
Streamflow
(river)
Infiltration
Evaporation
(pond) TotalRunoff
3
Interflow [527bilm /yr]
(estuary)
GroundwaterRecharge (ocean)
3
[64bilm /yr]
groundwaterflow
(groundwaterstorage)
*Figure in [] indicates average values for Malaysia (Source: NWRS 2000)
Figure 1.1 The Hydrological Cycle
As a general guide, the average annual rainfall for Malaysia is about 3000mm; evaporation,
1700mm; surface runoff 1000 mm.
Practical Applications of Hydrology
Knowledge and understanding of hydrology is important in many applications:
The flood mitigation engineer has to estimate the flood discharge and volume to size a flood
storage pond and to determine channel capacity.
The irrigation engineer needs to understand the rainfall pattern and its temporal variation,
the evaporation and infiltration losses peculiar to his project area to estimate irrigation
requirements.
March 2009 1-1

The water resources engineer needs to estimate the amount of flow available from the
catchment of his proposed dam site, losses due to evaporation and seepage so that he can
work out the dam storage capacity required to support a given flow abstraction rate.
The urban drainage engineer needs to estimate the intensity of rainstorm the proposed
urban drainage system needs to cope with.
Irrigation or hydropower engineers, (for run-of-the river diversion scheme) need to project
the dry weather flow in a river under extreme drought conditions to derive the dependable
supply.
The hydropower engineer uses the flow duration curve to determine hydropower generation
capacity.
Besides design applications mentioned above, there are other aspects such as flood forecasting,
water resources modelling, real-time monitoring and management of water resources systems and
flood risk mapping where hydrology is applied.
Developing a rainfall-runoff model for flood forecasting requires hydrological data and
expertise in configuring and calibrating the model.
In managing an irrigation project, model simulation of water resources systems are

increasingly being applied to aid decision making and setting up a simulation model requires
substantial hydrological input.
As technology becomes available and affordable, water resources systems can now be
managed based on remote and real-time monitoring of hydrological parameters such as
rainfall, water levels and flows at various critical locations in their systems. Input in terms of
hydrological data collection, processing and analyses is required.
Flood risk is now given greater emphasis in urban planning as it is now accepted that proper
planning with due consideration to flooding is more effective and economical compared to
solving flood problems due to poor planning when it occurs. Flood risk maps are prepared
based on hydrological data, hydrological modelling techniques and statistics.
1.2 USER NEEDS FOR HYDROLOGICAL DATA AND INFORMATION
To arrive at realistic estimates of the hydrological parameters, data and information is needed. DID
has set up a network of hydrological stations to collect such data and the data collected are
processed and stored in a hydrological database so that they can be easily located and retrieved
when needed.
Hydrological data are records of natural phenomena i.e. rainfall and streamflow. The building up of
sufficient data for the statistical analyses or the capture of extreme events of interest to flood studies
(high flow, high rainfall) or for drought analyses (low flow, consecutive days of zero rainfall) is slow
and it takes years to get a useful and reliable database. Hydrological data collection is expensive
and is a long term investment for the government as representative and reliable hydrological data is
important to water resources development and management.
1-2 March 2009

1.3 HYDROLOGICAL ACTIVITIES IN MALAYSIA
The government agency most active in hydrology is the Department of Irrigation and Drainage and
the hydrological activities carried out can be classified into three major areas:
Operational hydrology which covers
o data collection and management,

o maintenance of a flood forecasting/warning service and
o maintenance of a drought monitoring service.
Applied hydrology, covering
o development of hydrological procedures (HPs) which are guidelines on how to

estimate hydrological parameters required in design of water projects,
o processes hydrological data into useful information in the area of water resources
which the public can refer to and use and publish the information in water resources
publications (WRPs)
o providing in-house(within DID) consultancy and advise on matters related to
hydrology
Hydrological research which covers
o Experimental and representative river basin studies

o IHP (International Hydrological Programme) participation in collaborative research
DID is the agency most active in area of hydrology. Most of the hydrological stations under the
principal hydrological network in the country are maintained by DID. The principal network also
contains some rainfall stations maintained by Malaysian Meteorological Department (MMD) and some
by Department of Forestry (DOF).
Department of Environment (DOE) contracts out regular river water quality samplings at DOEs
network of water quality sampling points. But DID also maintain river stations where water quality
parameters are sampled regularly.
DID maintains a hydrological database where data can be retrieved in various formats by users. The
public can also purchase the data (Fees Order 1966) and most purchasers are contractors using the
rainfall data as prove of bad weather and basis for extension of time (EOT). Data is given free to
those working on government projects.
1.4 OUTLINE OF ACTIVITIES
The main activities of the Division of Hydrology and Water Resources are:
Hydrological data collection, processing, storage and retrieval

Periodic publication of hydrological data and dissemination of information via the internet
Regional and country-wide water resources assessment and water resources research
Development of procedures and guidelines for hydrologic design
Operation of flood warning and forecasting services
Operation of drought monitoring services
Hydrological instrument support and maintenance
Participation and collaboration in international hydrological programmes
March 2009 1-3

1.5 FIELD COVERED BY DIVISION OF HYDROLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES
The Department of Irrigation and Drainage through the Hydrological Division as a whole is
responsible for the setting up and maintaining the hydrological stations throughout Malaysia,
collecting, processing, archiving and dissemination of the hydrological data such as rainfall, river
stage and discharge (streamflow), evaporation, river suspended sediment, river water quality and
agro-hydrological data. As for the ground water data, this is carried out in conjunction with the
Geological Survey Department as the latter is responsible for the long term groundwater resources
survey and exploratory in the country.
In the case of rainfall, the data collection is supplemented by the Malaysian Meteorological Service
which operates a network of climatological stations, mainly to facilitate aircraft movement and
weather forecast.
The Division of Hydrology and Water Resources in collaboration with the Malaysian Meteorological
Services (MMD) Department are also responsible in providing flood forecasting and warning services
on the main rivers and also to monitor the flood and drought events. MMD provide the daily weather
forecast to State DID engineers during monsoon season and particularly special warning of heavy
rain exceeding 125 mm and their duration. The data are then used as inputs to the various flood
forecasting models available in DID for predicting the future lag time flood levels.
The Hydrological Department is also active in providing consultancy services on matters pertaining to
hydrological requirements and in updating the various hydrological procedures, manuals and in
carrying out water resources studies where necessary.
DID is also actively participating in the international arena such as undertaking international
collaborative research under the UNESCOs International Hydrological Program (IHP) and actively
participating in activities pertaining to flood disaster management under the Typhoon Committee
which in turn is under the auspices of the ESCAP and WMO.
To fulfil the activities in an orderly and standardised manner, a quality manual based on the MSISO
9001:2000 had been formed by the Hydrological Division. Figure 1.2 shows the flowchart of the
hydrological data management system by DID Malaysia.
1-4 March 2009

Management
Responsible
Resources
Management
Analysis &
Improvement
Figure 1.2 Flowchart of the hydrological data management system by DID Malaysia.
March 2009 1-5

1.5.1 Operational Hydrology
The operational hydrology conducted under the DID Hydrological Division are as follows:
1.5.1.1 Field Operation
The field operation constitutes of the setting up, maintain and collecting the various hydrological
data. In order that the quality of the hydrological data collected is acceptable, the following criteria
with standard types of equipment are adopted for use in the Department:-
(a) Rainfall: -
(i) Manual measurements taken at fixed time of 8.00 a.m. daily from 203 mm (8")
diameter daily raingauge or taken once monthly from storage raingauge by
observers for Secondary Stations.
(ii) Self-recording from either Hattori type weekly or long-term graphical rainfall
recorders for Principal Stations.
(iii) Telemetric real-time recording at .any intervals by teleprinter (in addition to self-
recording by rainfall recorder) for flood forecasting purpose only.
(b) Evaporation:-
(i) Manual measurements taken at fixed time of 8.00 a.m. daily from modified US
Class A Aluminum pan by observers for Secondary Stations.
(ii) Self-recording (will be locally developed and manufactured) for Principal stations.
(c) River Stage:-
(i) Manual stick gauges read at fixed time of 6.00 a.m. and 6.00 p.m. daily by
observers for Secondary Stations.
(ii) Self-recording from Ott float-type week1y or Ott or SEBA long-term graphical
water level recorder. This is for permanent (Principal) stations. In special case, if
the construction of a float-type water level recorder well is prohibited, an Ott type
pneumatic or Sher1ock DP 30 pressure sensing unit is used in conjunction with the
recorder.
(iii) Self-recording from Negretti and Zambra type weekly pressure-bulb water level
recorder for temporary stations (e.g. investigation for tide level).
(iv) Telemetric real-time recording at any interval (in additiol1 to self-recording) for
food forecasting purpose only.
(d) River Discharge:-
(i) Regular measurements at least once or preferably twice a month (in order to
define the rating curve for the station at all times) by Ott type current meters.
(ii) Measurements by weir or flume (for small basin)
1-6 March 2009

(e) River Suspended Sediment:-
(i) Regular measurements at least once a month by US DR4-8, DH59 Or D49

suspended sediment samplers.
(ii) Laboratory analysis of samples by Research Station, DJ.D. Ampang.
(f) River Chemical Water Quality:-
(i) Regular measurements at fortnightly intervals by automatic depth sampler

(Kahlsico type but modified locally to 2-litre capacity).
(ii) Laboratory analysis of standard 4-litre capacity samples by Chemistry Department.
(g) Agro-hydrological Data:-
Agro-hydrological stations network is recently established by the Department to collect

the required data for the planning and monitoring of major agricultural projects. The
data required are rainfall, evaporation, air temperature, relative humidity, wind run,
sunshine duration, soil temperature and soil moisture. The measurements are taken by
observers one to three times daily depending on the types of parameters.
The data under items (d), (e) and (f) are being observed at the same site for data under item (iii) so
that relationships between stage and discharge, suspended sediment and, discharge, quality and
discharge can be established.
As for standardization on observation and instrumentation, technical regulations and guides on

hydrological practices, the World Meteorological Organisation (WMO) is to be closely followed.
1.5.2 Hydrological Data Management
1.5.2.1 Collection of data
The collection of the hydrological data is in accordance with the standards specified in 'Technical
Regulations - Hydrology and International Hydrological Codes" published by the World Meteorological
Organization in 1980. The accuracies of the measurements for some of the hydrological data are as
follows:-
(a) River stage, 1.0 cm.
(b) River discharge and suspended sediment 5%
(c) Rainfall, 0.5 _ for tropical condition.
(d) Evaporation, 0.1 mm.
1.5.2.2 Submission and Processing of Hydrological Data
In the States, the hydrological data are collected by the field parties or local observers under the
supervision of the State Hydrological Officer. The data are scrutinised for any errors or discrepancies
before submission to the hydrology Branch of the Department at monthly intervals for centralised
processing.
March 2009 1-7

On receipt of the data, they are checked, recorded in the registers and then processed using the
Electronic Data Processing (E.D.P.) System which includes a computer. for the States of Sarawak and
Sabah in the eastern part of. Malaysia, the data are partly processed by using an electronic digitizer
with one stationed at Kuching and another at Kota Kinabalu, before being submitted to the
Hydrology Branch for further processing.
After the data are processed by the EDP System, the 'clean' processed data are temporarily stored on
magnetic disk and then merged into the Hydrological Databank (comprising of magnetic tapes) set
up in the computer section. The Databank was implemented in 1974 using the Time Dependent Data
Processing System (TIDEDA) originally developed by the Ministry of Works, New Zealand.
1.5.2.3 Dissemination of Hydrological Data
To fulfil one of the functions of the Hydrology Branch in the Department, the hydrological data from
the Databank have to be analysed and published. This is done with the aid of a computer. Computer
printouts containing daily readings of the hydrological e1ements such as rainfall, river discharger,
river suspended sediment, evaporation, river water qua1ity, etc., for all the hydrological stations in
the States are distributed to the States concerned information. Due to the large amount of
hydrological data, the publication is based on the summaries of the data for each two to five-year
periods. The publications are sold at nominal costs to the users.
On special request, the hydrological data for any period can also be retrieved in any desired format
directly from the computer. However, the use of the computer time involved is borne by the users
themselves. In general, the Department is authorized to charge the users for the supply of
hydrological data unless proved to be used for Government purposes. A data bulletin containing the
availability and contents of the Hydrological Databank is normally issued to the users for information.
1.5.3 Flood Forecasting and Warning Services
Structural flood mitigation alone only provides protection levels of normally 10 to 100 years average
recurrence intervals (ARI). One of the economically effective non-structural solution in flood
mitigating and flood management is to carry out the flood forecasting and warning services to the
flood prone areas.
Early warnings of the incoming flood events will enable the flood victims to prepare themselves
before the flooding occurs. Properties and lives could be saved by keeping their movable properties
above the flood levels and if necessary, early evacuation from the area. With respect to flood
fighting, early warning to the approaching flood should alert the organization in charge of the flood
fighting actions, the authority for making the necessary decisions, and the general public to be aware
of the pending danger.
Detailed discussion on this topic will be covered in chapter 9.
1.5.4 Drought Identification and Monitoring Services
Unlike flood, drought is more difficult to forecast. When rainfall pattern shows an abnormally lower
record than usual caused by prolong dry periods over a long period of time (more than 14 days), it
will cause adverse depletion in water supply reserve. Drought causes inadequate water supply to
irrigate crops which will result in withering and eventually kills the crop.
1-8 March 2009

Prolong drought can result in extensive bush and forest fires which could engulf life and property if
unchecked. Fires especially in peat areas, causes the air quality to deteriorate because of the smoke
generated. Such a situation can persist for months and poses a serious threat to the health of the
people. In some places, schools had to be closed down temporarily, poor vision due to the thick haze
causes problems in traffic drivability including problems to the pilots in landing their aircrafts.
Hence droughts can cause extensive impact to the environment, economic and social activities of the
whole nation. The Hydrological Division is responsible to monitor drought occurrences and if it
happens, they will monitor the situation more closely and to inform the relevant agencies involved in
preparation for the disaster such as water rationing by the water authority and stringent control of
irrigation water in irrigation schemes like the MUDA Irrigation Project.
Drought monitoring is being done continuously throughout the year in the Department of Irrigation
and Drainage to keep track of rainfall deficits happening in the country. This would enable
appropriate drought management options to be undertaken in a timely manner to reduce the impact
of droughts. In addition to rainfall deficits, the trend of river low flow water levels and dam
impoundment water surface levels are also being monitored in real time measurements to enhance
the effectiveness of drought monitoring and decision support system.
From the DID hydrological data, Malaysia has experienced some degree of drought starting from the
month of January until August each year. During this time, dams will be carefully regulated so that
the water will be made available throughout the dry months.
1.5.5 Hydrological Application
The Hydrology Branch of the Department also analyses the available hydrological records and
reduces them into a simple format such, as chart or map and presents it in the publication series on
"Hydrological Procedure" or "Water Resources Publication". This is for the convenience or handy use
of practicing engineers and planners in solving water problems. The publications are also sold at
nominal costs to the users. Some of these publications will be updated or reviewed from time to time
when additional hydrological data at 5 or 10 years intervals are analysed. A list of publications
prepared by the Department to date is shown in Appendix 1.A List of HP and 1.B List of WP
1.5.6 Technical Advice and Consultancy
The Division is responsible in providing technical advice, consultancy services for in house projects
and being part of technical examiners on outsourced consultative works pertaining to the
hydrological components. This includes in explaining and assisting users on the methodologies and
procedures in utilizing the various hydrological data. The Division is also responsible in providing the
necessary trainings and seminars for the DID staff on utilizing the various hydrological procedures
and water resources publications and to receive feedbacks on its inadequacies for further
improvement works.
1.5.7 Water Resources Assessment
In the urge to understand the hydrological scenarios, its impact and effects to our localized
catchment areas, DID is responsible in carrying out the necessary Water Resources Studies (WRS).
Results of the findings are then published as the DID Water Resources Publication for the
Departmental and public user to refer. Lists of the publication are shown in Appendix 1.B. They
could also be accessed through the internet at DID Portal: http://www.water.gov.my under Water
resources information of the Resource Centre.
March 2009 1-9

1.5.8 Applied Researches, Local, Regional and International Collaboration
Hydrological research works are to be carried out on the Malaysian Soil to obtain hydrological
parameters that are more representative to our local and regional consumptions. Some of these
parameters are inputs to many of the empirical formulas in which their related parametric
coefficients are to be derived and verified from observation or experiment. As an example, the run-
off coefficient used in the rational method to calculate flood design discharge and the areal reduction
factors in reducing rainfall amount due to area distribution.
In this perspective, DID Hydrology, undertakes research works from time to time which includes
Experimental and Representative Basin Studies as part of the Water Resource Studies. These studies
can also be part of the local, regional and international Collaborative works under the auspices of the
United Nations such as WMO and UNESCOs International Hydrological Programme (IHP)
Collaborative Researches.
1.5.8.1 Experimental and Representative Basin Studies
DID Hydrology conducts research works to gain the understanding of specific hydrological processes
and characteristic through experimental and representative basin studies. It also includes the basic
and continuous water resources assessment studies, representative to our local conditions. Examples
are the Sg. Lui and Sg. Tekam experimental Representative Basin. The works are published in the
DID Water Resources Publication. (Refer Appendix 1.B)
1.5.8.2 IHP Participation in Collaborative Researches
The aim for DID involvement in the IHP is to play a leading role in promoting and advancing the field
of hydrological science in Malaysia and the region. Its primary objectives are:
To represent Malaysia on all issues related to the programmes of IHP UNESCO and
participate actively in those programmes.
To promote and coordinate research programmes on hydrology and water resources in

the country and region.
To promote and coordinate practices on hydrology and water resources.
To promote and coordinate programmes on education, training and public information

on hydrology and water resources.
The UNESCO Regional Offices are responsible for the implementation of IHP at the regional level.
Regional Hydrologists are posted in the field and serve as IHP focal points for all issues relating to
the Programme, both at regional and national levels. Two Regional Hydrologist posts have been set
up to cover the Asia and Pacific region, one for Central and South Asia, based at the UNESCO New
Delhi Office, and another for Southeast Asia and the Pacific, based at the UNESCO Jakarta Office.
As a programme with scientific and educational goals, IHP is a cooperative effort, relying on the
worldwide efforts of Member States and their designated IHP National Committees to function
efficiently. For Malaysia, the national IHP Committee is called the Malaysian National Committee for
IHP or MIHP and the operating procedures of MIHP is presented in Appendix 1.C. The National
Committees present reports on their activities in the framework of the Programme. These national
reports are submitted to the IHP Intergovernmental Council and cover the activities for the inter-
seasonal period between Council sessions.
1-10 March 2009

1.6 EVALUATION AND DESIGN OF HYDROLOGICAL NETWORK
Hydrological data are the most important overlooked element in water resources planning and design
of projects. So many times dams, irrigation projects, embankments, and other water related
programs are design and built using scanty poor quality data.
In view of the need for more adequate and good quality hydrological data for planning and operation
of the various water resources development projects, hydrological data collection had to be carried
out in an organized and integrated manner, nationwide. Hydrological data collections in Malaysia
have been undertaken by four government agencies namely: - the Department of Irrigation and
Drainage (DID), Malaysian Meteorological Service (MMD), Public Works Department (PWD) and the
National Electric Board (NEB).
DID undertake to maintain and operate a network of hydrological stations on a long-term basis,
whilst the other agencies restrict their hydrological investigations to meet their specific requirements,
mainly on a short term programme. Table 1.1 Shows the Distribution of the National Hydrological
Stations for each States until the year 2005, operated and maintained by DID.
Hydrological data collection in DID is carried out by the state personnel in accordance with a national
hydrological observation program co-ordinated at Federal Level. The establishment of the national
network of hydrological stations is financed by the Federal Government, whilst the State Government
provide for the operation and maintenance costs.
DID as a whole, is responsible for the collection, processing and publication of the long-term
hydrological data such as rainfall, river stage and discharge (stream flow), evaporation, river
suspended sediment, river water quality and agro-hydrological data. As for groundwater data, the
geological survey department is responsible for the long term groundwater resources survey and
exploration in the country.
The hydrological network in Malaysia consists of principal and secondary stations. Principal stations
are permanent or fixed stations and are equipped with self-recording gauge. Secondary stations are
short-term or project station which is subjected to review after continuous operation for 5 to 10
years. They are equipped with either manual gauges or self-recording gauges but may have the
equal priority to principal stations for data processing and analysis.
March 2009 1-11

Table 1.1 National Hydrology Station 2005

STATE STATION
RIVER STAGE SUSPENDED WATER
RAINFALL EVAPORATION & DISCHARGE SDIMENT QUALITY
PERLIS 14 1 3 2 0
KEDAH 46 1 3 1 1
PULAU
PINANG 21 0 2 0 0
PERAK 90 1 14 11 16
SELANGOR 70 2 8 8 7
WILAYAH
12 0 3 3 5
PERSEKUTUAN
NEGERI
SEMBILAN 47 1 9 3 3
MELAKA 19 0 3 2 2
JOHOR 89 5 9 4 4
PAHANG 120 3 19 18 12
TERENGGANU 55 2 10 9 4
KELANTAN 50 2 9 9 8
TOTAL 633 18 92 70 62
1.6.1 General Considerations
Though it would be best to set up the hydrological stations everywhere possible, in practice it would
be too expensive and laborious to maintain the lot. The networks for the various inter-related
elements should be designed to provide a maximum of information for the budget allocated. It is
most important that networks be operated in a manner to assure reliable and trustworthy
measurements which are homogeneous, spatially and temporally.
Factors which should be considered in the establishment of new networks as well as in the review of
those in existence are:
a. Minimum density of gauges
b. Gauge type
i. Manual readings / non recording
ii. Automatic / semi automatic recording / self recording (analogue charts and paper
punch tapes or digital logging system)
c. Gauge site location
d. Observers
i. Trainable
ii. Conscientious
iii. Reliable
1-12 March 2009

e. Standards of observations
i. Time and frequency of observations
ii. Limit of measurement and degree of accuracy
Climatological uses
Hydrological uses
iii. Substation inspection and quality control
Gauge maintenance standards
Statistical analysis for error detection and correction
f. Method of observing and communicating the data.
g. Data processing, storage, retrieval, and dissemination to users.
1.6.2 Hydrological Station Network Design
In planning hydrological networks, it is essential to keep their principal purpose always in view; i.e.,
to delineate the hydrology of the area. For this reason, stations should be so located that they
sample all physiographical characteristics and so that the data will be useful in determining the
functional relationships involved. To assure that the programme fully meets these requirements, it is
customary to include a number of representative catchments relatively well instrumented basins.
Hydrological bench-marks (catchments) and climatological references stations are included to provide
long term, stationary time series.
Among the hydrological data that needs the most attention is rainfall. This is because in the study of
hydrology, it mainly deals with the land phase of the hydrological cycle. Rainfall Stations network
need to be established and organized properly. Poor quality data can result in bad and even
catastrophic design failure. Related climatological observations data such as the evaporation,
moisture condition, sunshine and wind, usually will be incorporated in the rainfall station where
necessary to form an integrated hydrological observation station location.
River stage and discharge station, which is equally important, will be setup depending on their
necessity and functions such as for flood forecasting and warning, water resource project planning
and catchment study and monitoring. In almost all Rainfall Runoff computer model, observed
streamflow data is required to calibrate or compare the model simulated discharge output to the
actual observed/gauged values. Where real time data are required, the use of telemetric system of
data teleporting will be required
A principal difficulty in the proper planning of basic data networks concern funding. Although
planning can reflect inadequate funding, it must be based on projected funds for many years in
advance hopefully an orderly increase with time. Wide fluctuations in funding, reflecting economic
and other conditions in our country can result in gross inefficiencies. An important consideration in
the location of a gauge is, once installed, how long can it be maintained at that location and what
will be the quality of the observation.
A certain number of the network stations should be designated as Benchmark or primary stations
which will be long term sites for statistical or climatological purposes. These stations should be at
sites where there will be little or no chance of distributions for 50 years or more.
March 2009 1-13

They should be at site where attendance is by quality observers with responsible supervision. The
other stations in the network can be designated temporary or secondary and are established for
special purpose uses such as project design and operation.
WMO has set up standards of gauge location and exposure which should be referred to and adhered
to as closely as possible. The station inspector should always be aware of any changes in or near the
site that will tend to affect the observation, such as nearby trees or shrubs which grow so large that
they will interfere with, or the construction of buildings which will shield the gauge unduly or change
the wind patterns in a detrimental way.
It is most important that networks be operated in a manner to assure reliable and trustworthy
measurements which are homogeneous, spatially and temporally. Standardization of instruments and
methods of observations must be achieved through wise decisions and close supervision by
headquarters staff backed up by an adequate and well trained corps of observers, inspectors and
maintenance staff in the field. Since the goal of a basic data programme is to serve the users, quality
control must be exercised also in processing, publication, storage and retrieval; and the information
must be readily available in a suitable form at all times.
1.6.3 Selection and Training of Observers
The selection of an observer can often be more important than any other factor. The quality of the
data can rise or fall depending upon how well the observers attitude and responsibility is. The best
observers are generally those that have a technical background or training. Police stations, fire
stations, hospitals and other more or less permanently located public institutions are the best source
of supply. The observation can be considered a part of their daily routine. These people most often
will have a good sense of responsibility and knowledge of the value of good reliable data. Another
good source is the farmers or others who can make use of the data themselves.
1.6.4 Data Error Correction
Aside from improper location and poor maintenance the largest source of error is due to the lack of
proper standards of observation, observer training and a follow-up station inspection program. A
well-organized observer training and sub-station inspection program is absolutely essential since
unreliable data is the final result of poor training and improper follow-up and correction of errors.
1.6.5 Minimum network
1.6.5.1 Network for Rainfall
For rainfall, the World Meteorological Organization guidelines for determining the minimum densities
of precipitation networks are:
a) For flat regions ideally, 1 station per 600 900Km2 (minimum - 1station per 900
3000Km2)
b) For mountainous areas ideally, 1 station per 100 250 Km2 (minimum 1 station per 250
1000 Km2 )
1-14 March 2009

The minimum density network should consist of three kinds of gauges.
a) Standard gauges non-recording to be read daily or at other predetermined intervals

depending upon operational requirements. A standard time of observation should be
established and adhered to. The recommended is near 8 am local time with the data entered
on the day of observation. Some countries have varied this by entering the data on the day
previous. This has led to considerable confusion when the data is to be used for statistical
studies or for procedure development as this method of entry has not been consistent
between agencies or even between observes in the same agency.
b) Recording gauges It is recommended that at least 10% of the total gauges in the network
be of the recording type. These may be of the siphon, tipping bucket or weighing mechanism
depending upon availability and operational requirements.
c) Storage gauges - In many areas it is important to obtain data but due to a lack of population
or communication a standard gauge cannot be installed. A gauge with large enough capacity
so it can be read on a monthly, semi annual or annual basis. This data can be very useful in
filling gaps in the data field for climatological and hydrometeorological analysis.
For operational or other high priority purposes, it may be advisable to concentrate the precipitation
network in those areas of greatest importance at first rather than to try to get an even distribution.
Later, as funds become available, the network can be filled in to achieve the desired distribution.
1.6.5.2 Network for Stream flow stations
The river stage, discharge, suspended sediment and water quality data are normally observed at
the same site so that relationships between stage and discharge, suspended sediment and discharge,
river water quality and discharge can be established.
a) Network for Suspended Sediment stations
Detail description on the Determination of Suspended Discharge can be referred to HP No.19: The
Determination Of Suspended Sediment Discharge
b) Network for River Water Quality stations
Guidelines for the sampling of surface water involving in chemical and bacteriological sampling of
stream river lakes and ponds are discussed in DIDs Hydrological Procedure No.2: Water Quality
Sampling for Surface Water 1973.
c) Agro-hydrological stations network
Agro-hydrological stations network established by the Department is to collect the required data for
the planning and monitoring of major agricultural projects. The data required are rainfall,
evaporation, air temperature, relative humidity, wind run, sunshine duration, soil temperature and
soil moisture. HP 24. Establishment of agro-hydrological station 1982, discuss in details on its
establishment.
March 2009 1-15

1.7 DISSEMINATION OF DATA AND INFORMATION
Data stored in the hydrological database is disseminated to users in various forms.

Data can be retrieved in various standard formats:
PDAY format for those interested in tabulations of daily rainfall, daily evaporation, average
daily water levels, average daily discharge, average daily suspended sediment load (see
Figure 1.3)
PMONTH format (see Fig. 1.4)
PEXTREME format for those interested in extreme high or extreme low readings in each year.
o PEXTREME for river level and flow data will give the instantaneous high/low water
level/discharge for the station and for the year the user is interested in. (see Figure
1.5)
PMOVE format (see Figure 1.6)

o PMOVE for rainfall will require a duration parameter (for example: 5 minutes, 15
minutes, 3 hours, 24 hours) and the output of PEXTREME presents the maximum
rainfall recorded
Data can be supplied in hard copies or in digital form (ASCII text format)
Besides direct retrieval of data on request from the hydrological database, once in a few years, DID
releases publications of hydrological data as listed below:
1. Hydrological Data - Rainfall Records 1879-1958(1961)

2. Hydrological Data - Rainfall Records 1959-1965 (1970)
6. Hydrological Data - Rainfall and Evaporation Records 1981-1985 (1987)
7. Hydrological Data - Rainfall and Evaporation Records 1986-1990 (1991)
8. Hydrological Data - Streamflow Records 1910-1940 (1962)
14. Hydrological Data - Streamflow and Suspended Sediment Records 1975-1980 (1985)
17. Hydrological Data - Water Quality Records 1974 (1975)
22. Hydrological Data - Water Quality Records 1979-1980 (1982)
1-16 March 2009

Daily totals Year 1954 site 5204048

Item 1
Day Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
1 213 31 7 46 0 19 0 44 0 0 390 0
2 526 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 155 0 326 0
3 227 0 0 23 0 0 0 203 78 289 264 0
4 0 0 0 26 0 0 17 119 0 161 127 296
5 0 0 0 7 55 0 82 9 0 47 43 148
6 7 0 0 0 70 0 37 0 18 48 12 0
7 3 0 127 35 304 0 0 107 9 14 465 0
8 0 0 163 56 141 0 0 53 0 0 466 0
9 0 0 50 19 29 15 0 0 240 23 117 35
10 0 0 121 22 107 7 0 0 120 274 0 18
11 0 0 61 263 46 0 0 7 0 359 0 0
12 0 0 0 126 64 145 0 3 0 300 0 25
13 0 0 301 0 32 73 0 0 0 232 0 13
14 140 0 151 37 33 193 132 0 25 187 5 0
15 249 84 0 18 17 96 259 0 13 394 2 0
16 90 50 0 0 0 0 96 0 0 167 0 0
17 76 15 155 0 0 181 0 0 0 0 45 0
18 38 6 82 129 129 229 152 0 215 0 23 0
19 0 0 2 64 64 69 172 66 107 25 11 0
20 7 0 32 33 42 0 48 122 20 13 6 0
21 3 0 170 75 21 0 0 45 10 40 0 0
22 33 79 77 29 0 61 25 22 0 294 0 0
23 17 90 0 0 186 30 60 11 0 137 0 0
24 0 52 0 262 93 0 24 0 0 0 22 0
25 0 13 0 131 0 0 381 0 0 0 94 0
26 0 318 0 15 0 209 190 0 0 0 117 0
27 0 159 129 7 0 105 0 0 115 8 38 0
28 0 15 64 0 186 0 0 0 277 4 10 0
29 0 121 0 93 0 195 0 161 91 5 0
30 0 61 0 37 0 444 0 25 46 0 0
31 62 93 57 261 0 199 0
Min 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Tot 1691 913 1967 1426 1806 1432 2575 811 1588 3353 2589 535 20686
Max 526 318 301 263 304 229 444 203 277 394 466 296 526
NO>0.0 15 12 19 21 21 14 17 13 16 23 21 6 198
Figure 1.3 Daily Rainfall at Stn 5204048 in PDAY Format
March 2009 1-17

~~~ NIWA Tideda ~~~ JPS - Limited Functionality Version 24-JUL-2008

~~~ PCAL ~~~ VER 2.1
Source is C:\Documents and Settings\Engineers\Desktop\P.Pinang\Wlevel.mtd

Monthly means 1965 to 1974 site 5505412
Item 1
Year Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Mean
1965 5087 4816 4749 5535 5952 5042 5237 5978 6345 7496 7759 7369 5954
1966 6070 5639 5617 5838 6134 6049 5778 5526 5858 7312 7183 7208 6188
1967 7228 5798 5336 5483 6387 5907 5791 5568 5913 6950 6862 6242 6126
1968 5167 4828 4632 4964 5398 5346 5594 6069 5415 6606 6088 5425 5464
1969 5578 4872 4979 5224 5947 5913 5440 5775 5440 7103 6976 6420 5812
1970 5517 4889 4651 5078 5653 5394 5689 ? ? ? 7553 6364 5647?
1971 5815 5232 5718 5135 5244 5492 5140 5753 ? ? ? ? 5445?
1972 ? ? 4563 5419 5193 5095 4760 4671 5628 6589 7872 6542 5629?
1973 5285 4659 4553 5475 5799 5785 5334 5932 5701 6399 6761 7154 5743
1974 5436 5110 4691 5132 5831 5291 4893 5242 5851 5822 6012 ? 5392?
Min. 5087 4659 4553 4964 5193 5042 4760 4671 5415 5822 6012 5425 5464
Mean 5687 5094 4949 5328 5754 5532 5366 5613 5769 6785 7007 6591 5881
Max. 7228 5798 5718 5838 6387 6049 5791 6069 6345 7496 7872 7369 6188
The Min Mean and Max of Annual means are for complete years only.
End of process
Figure 1.4 Monthly Water Level Data at Stn 5505412 in PMONTH format
1-18 March 2009


~~~ PEXTREME ~~~
Source is Wlevel.mtd Site 5506416
From 600701 60000 to 721231 180000
Interval = 0
Item 1
Coeff.
Year Mean of Var. Minimum Date Maximum Date
---- ---- ------- ------- ---- ------- ----
*1960 9571.3 0.06 8839.0 600828 180000 11277. 600911 60000
1961 9421.6 0.06 8778.0 610708 60000 11277. 610418 180000
1962 9380.3 0.07 8564.0 620323 60000 11551. 621012 180000
1963 9189.7 0.07 8473.0 630513 180000 11338. 631115 60000
1964 9335.2 0.08 8503.0 640322 180000 11582. 640909 60000
1965 9489.4 0.09 8473.0 650129 180000 12466. 651031 180000
1966 9634.2 0.06 8748.0 660216 60000 11400. 660930 180000
1967 9386.1 0.07 8565.0 670323 60000 11674. 670107 60000
1968 9079.3 0.06 8352.0 680309 180000 11369. 681031 180000
1969 9376.6 0.08 8534.0 690212 180000 11521. 691017 60000
1970 9467.9 0.08 8443.0 700304 180000 11521. 701009 180000
1971 9345.2 0.08 8229.0 710328 60000 11704. 710920 180000
*1972 9315.2 0.08 8534.0 720314 60000 11460. 721111 60000
Average Annual Minimum 8514.7 Maximum 11582. (complete yrs)
'*' denotes years with gaps in the data or incomplete years

Coeff. of Var. = sd/mean
Minimum is 8229.00 at 710328 60000

Maximum is 12466.0 at 651031 180000
Mean is 9376.49
Std. Dev. is 702.797
Coeff. of Var. is 7.495E-02
End of process
Figure 1.5 Annual Maximum and Minimum Water Levels atStn. 5506416 Retrieved Using PEXTREME

~~~ PMOVE ~~~ VER 1.6
Source is Rfoto.mtd Site 5105051 < Untitled >
From 720701 80000 to 750707 75036
Maximum rainfall intensities over 3.000hrs interval
Year Ending Maximum Value (Item 1)

730701 80000 675.0 at interval beginning 730527 130248
750707 75036(PARTIAL) 390.0 at interval beginning 750707 25317
Mean annual Maximum = 635.7

(For complete years only)
End of process
Figure 1.6 Maximum Rainfall Over 3 Hours at Stn. 5105051 Retrieved Using PMOVE
March 2009 1-19

With internet being a convenient and easily available channel where the public can search and
browse for information publishing data and information via a website is an effective and probably
economical mode of information dissemination. The Hydrology and Water Resources Division of the
Department of Irrigation and Drainage (DID), Malaysia maintains an online hydrological data website
at http://infobanjir.water.gov.my/ or popularly known as InfoBanjir.
The hydrological data in InfoBanjir is updated at regular intervals (hourly to daily) from over 300
hydrological stations equipped with Remote Telemetry Units (RTUs). These stations also known as
telemetric stations are capable of automatically sending at regular intervals hydrological data
recorded at the stations to a central station (See Figure 1.7)
InfoBanjir provides the public with online rainfall and water level data. Heavy rainfall is an event
that could trigger flood or landslide and therefore InfoBanjirs rainfall data are useful indicators of
potential flooding or landslides. InfoBanjirs river level data is a direct measurement of flood level
available online to the public.
Another online information made available to the public is InfoKemarau. InfoKemarau provides the
public the results of DIDs drought monitoring effort. The results currently published on the web are
only for Peninsular Malaysia and is updated monthly.
Besides data DID also publishes two series of publications Hydrological Procedures (HPs) and
Water Resources Publications (WRPs) (see Appendices 1.A and 1.B) The HPs provides guidelines on
hydrological design and are often used by consultants to estimate hydrological design parameters
such as the 100-year flood discharge, 5 year low flow or the 20-year 3-hour rainstorm. Besides
hydrological design, the HPs also provide guidelines on operation hydrology such as installation of
hydrological recorders, gauging methodology and data processing procedures. The WRPs are
documentations of water resources research carried out by the Hydrological Division of DID and they
are useful references in hydrological design and research.
1-20 March 2009

Figure 1.7 DIDs Real-Time Flood Information System

(source: DIDs InfoBanjir website)
March 2009 1-21

The public can apply for hydrological data from the Hydrology and Water Resources Division of DID.
The application for data should be directed to:
Director
Hydrology and Water Resources Division
Department of Irrigation and Drainage Malaysia
Km 7, Jalan Ampang, 68000 Ampang, Kuala Lumpur.
Fax: 03 - 42601279
(u.p: Unit Pengurusan Maklumat)
E-mail :upm@water.gov.my
Request for data can be made using appropriate application forms (Form DI.1) or (Form DI.2) below.
Applicants can either fax the appropriate completed form to the above address or send it via E-mail.
The flow chart for processing hydrological data applications is shown in Figure 1.8.
DID will charge applicants for the data unless the data is used for the Government projects and for
research and academic purposes. The charges involved (Fees Order 1966) are as tabulated below.
Table 1.2 Charges for Hydrological Data (Fees Order 1966)
For any For any

3 months to 1 additional year additional year
For 3 months
Types of Data year or any up to 10 years in excess of 10
and below
part thereof of any part years or any
thereof part thereof
50.00 per year 25.00 per year

Rainfall 50.00 100.00
or part thereof or part thereof
Water Level 155.00 310.00 155.00 72.50
Discharge Data
(Stage-Discharge
35.00 35.00 35.00 17.50
Curve of Derived
Maps)
Discharge Data
165.00 330.00 165.00 82.50
(Discharge Readings)
Evaporation 35.00 70.00 35.00 17.50
1-22 March 2009

FORM DI.1
March 2009 1-23

FORM DI.2
1-24 March 2009

Explaintodatauseronthetypesof
hydrologicaldataavailableanddata
applicationprocedure
Userappliesfordata
ClassifyApplication
Datatobeusedfor Datatobeusedfor
governmentprojects privateprojects
orforresearchand
academicpurpose
ApplicantfillsFormDI.2
ApplicantfillsFormDI.1
Checkavailabilityof
dataandcollect
chargesasindicated
Retrievesdataand inTable1.2
supplydatato
applicantfreeof
charge
Retrievedataand
supplydatato
applicant
Figure 1.8 Flow Chart for Processing Hydrological Data Applications
March 2009 1-25

REFERENCES
[1] Klein, G.S., Yufit, G.A. & Shkurko, V.K., A new moving boat method for the measurement of
discharge in large rivers, 1993.
[2] McCuen, R.H., Hydrologic Design and Analysis; Prentice Hall, New Jersey, 1998, 814 pages.
[3] Riggs, H.C., A simplified slope-area method for estimation flood discharges in natural channels,
Journal Research US Geological Survey, 4(3), 1976.
[4] R. Imai, Health & Safety Alert US Wildlife Operations, Department of Fish and Game (DFG) and
the Office of Spill Prevention and Response (OSPR), 2004.
[5] D.K. Yobbi, T.H. Yorke and R.T. MYCYK, A Guide to Safe Field Operation, U.S. Geological Survey
Open-File Report, Tallahassee, Florida 1996, 95-777.
[6] SMHB Sdn Bhd, Ranhill Bersekutu Sdn Bhd and Jurutera Perunding Zaaba, Kajian Sumber Air
Negara ( Semenanjung Malaysia ) , 2000 -2050, March 2000.
1-26 March 2009

APPENDIX 1.A LIST OF DID HYDROLOGICAL PROCEDURES PUBLICATION

HP 1. Estimation of design rainstorm - 1982.
HP 2. Water quality sampling for surface water - 1973.
HP 3. A general purpose event water-level recorder (Capricorder Model 1598) - 1973.
HP 4. Magnitude and frequency of floods in Peninsular Malaysia - 1987.
HP 5. Rational method of flood estimation for rural catchment in Peninsular Malaysia - 1989.
HP 6. Hydrological station numbering system - 1974.
HP 7. Hydrological station registers - 1974.
HP 8. Field installation and maintainence of capricorder 1599 - 1974.
HP 9. Field installation and maintenance of capricorder 1598 digital event water level recorder -
1974.
HP 10. Stage discharge curves - 1977.
HP 11. Design flood hydrograph estimation for rural catchment in Peninsular Malaysia (1976)
HP 12. Magnitude and frequency of low flows in Peninsular Malaysia - 1985.
HP 13. The estimation of storage - Draft rate characteristics for rivers in Peninsular Malaysia -
1976.
HP 14. Graphical recorders instructions for chart changing and annotation - 1976.
HP 15. River discharge measurement by current meter - 1976.
HP 16. Flood Estimation for urban areas in Peninsular Malaysia - 1976.
HP 17. Estimating potential evapotranspiration using the Penman Procedure - 1991.
HP 18. Hydrological Design of agriculture drainage system - 1977.
HP 19. The determination of suspended sediment discharge.
HP 20. Hydrological aspects of agricultural planning and irrigation design - 1977.
HP 21. Evaporation date collection using class 'A' aluminium pan - 1981.
HP 22. River water quality sampling - 1981.
HP 23. Operation and maintenance of cableway Installations - 1981.
HP 24. Establishment of agro-hydrological station - 1982.
HP 25. Standard stick gauge for river station - 1982.
HP 26. Estimation of design rainstorm in Sabah and Sarawak - 1984.
January 2009 1A-1

APPENDIX 1.B LIST OF DID WATER RESOURCES PUBLICATION
WR 1. Surface water resources map (Provisional of Peninsular Malaysia). (1974)
WR 2. Hydrological regions of Peninsular Malaysia (1974)
WR 3. Sungai Tekam experimental basin annual report No.1 for 1973-1974. (1975)
WR 4. Notes on some hydrological effects on the influence of land use changes in Peninsular
Malaysia. (1975)
WR 5. Evaporation in Peninsular Malaysia. (1976)
WR 6. Average annual surface water resources of Peninsular Malaysia. (1976)
WR 7. Sg. Lui representative basin report no.1 - for 1971/72 to 1973/74.(1977)
WR 8. Water resources for irrigation of upland crops in South Kelantan.(1977)
WR 9. Sg. Lui representative basin report no.2 for 1974/75 to 1975/76.(1978)
WR 10. Sungai Tekam experimental basin report no.2 for Sept. 1974 to March 1977.(1978)
WR 11. Comparison of performance of U.S.Class 'A' evaporation galvanised iron pan and
aluminium pan.(1982)
WR 12. Average annual and monthly surface water resources of Peninsular Malaysia.(1982)
WR 13. Sungai Tekam experimental basin calibration report from July 1977 to June 1980.
WR 14. Comparison of raingouge performance under tropical climate conditions. (1984)
WR 15. Average annual surface water resources of Sabah and Sarawak. (1984)
WR 16. Sungai Tekam experimental basin transition report July 1980 to June 1983.(1986)
WR 17. Variation of rainfall with area in Peninsular Malaysia. (1986)
WR 18. Tanjung Karang evapotranspiration study 1987.
WR 19. Mean monthly, mean seasonal and mean annual rainfall maps for Peninsular Malaysia
1988.
WR 20. Sungai Tekam experimental basin final report July 1977 to June 1986. (1989)
1A-2 March 2009

APPENDIX 1.C OPERATING PROCEDURE OF THE MALAYSIAN NATIONAL COMMITTEE

FOR INTERNATIONAL HYDROLOGICAL PROGRAMME
OPERATING PROCEDURE OF THE MALAYSIAN NATIONAL COMMITTEE FOR INTERNATIONAL

HYDROLOGICAL PROGRAMME
1. Name
The Committee shall be known as the Malaysian National Committee for International Hydrological
Programme and shall be referred here after as the MIHP.
2. Objectives
The objectives of the MIHP are:
(a) To represent Malaysia on all issues related to the programmers of IHP under the
UNESCO and participate actively in those programmers.
(b) To promote and coordinate research programmers on hydrology and water resources in
the country and region.
(c) To promote and coordinate practices on hydrology and water resources.
(d) To promote and coordinate programmers on education, training and public information
on hydrology and water resources.
3. Membership
3.1 The membership of MIHP shall be opened to any governmental organization involved in
hydrology and water resources activities.
3.2 Subject to the approval of MIHP Executive Committee (EXCO), non-governmental

organisations may be accepted as Associate Members of MIHP.
3.3 Associate members shall have no voting rights.
4. Organisation Structure
4.1 The Annual General Meeting (AGM) and the Extra-Ordinary General Meeting (EGM) of
the MIHP shall be the highest decision making body within the MIHP.
4.2 The Director General of the Department of Irrigation and Drainage (DID) shall be the
Chairperson of MIHP.
4.3 The Director of Division of Hydrology and Water Resources of DID shall be the secretary
of MIHP.
4.4 The Executive Committee (ECXO) of MIHP shall consist of the Chairperson, Secretary,
eight other members and the Chairpersons for the standing committees. The EXCO shall
meet regularly to plan and implement programmers related to hydrology and water
resources.
January 2009 1A-3

4.5 The Chairperson and Secretary of the MIHP shall also be the chairperson and Secretary
of the EXCO.
4.6 The other eight EXCO members shall consist of four permanent members and four
elected members.
4.7 The four permanent members are:
(i) Malaysian National Commission for UNESCO (SKUM)
(ii) Malaysian Meteorological Department (MMD)
(iii) Department of Mineral and Geosciences (DMG)
(iv) The Department of Irrigation and Drainage (DID)
4.8 The four elected members shall be elected at the AGM and shall serve for a term of two
years. They are eligible to be re-elected at the end of the term.
4.9 The AGM is empowered to set up standing committees to fulfill the objectives of MIHP.
The EXCO is empowered to appoint the chairpersons of the standing committees.
4.10 The EXCO may from time to time establish sub-committees or working groups to handle
issues pertaining to hydrology and water resources. Non governmental organizations
may be co-opted into this sub-committees or working groups. The EXCO is also
empowered to dissolve the sub-committees and working groups when deemed
appropriate.
4.11 DID shall provide secretariat support for the MIHP and the EXCO.
5. Financial Management
5.1 The MIHP Chairperson shall operate the IHP Trust Account, which was approved by the
Ministry of Finance since 1988, Under Section 9.3. of the Financial Procedure Act 1957.
1A-4 March 2009

FINANCIAL PROCEDURE ACT 1957
DIRECTION UNDER SECTION 9(3)
Trust Account for Malaysian National Committee For International Hydrological Programme
1. There is hereby established a Trust Account in the Consolidated Trust Account to be

known as Trust Account for Malaysian National Committee for International
Hydrological Programmer hereinafter referred to as the Account.
2. The Account is established for the purpose of receiving and meeting all expenses related
to the activities of the Malaysian National Committee for International Hydrological
Programmed.
3. The Account shall be controlled by the Director General, Department of Irrigation and
Drainage or by an officer duly appointed by him in writing. The Senior Treasury
Accountant, Ministry of Agriculture Malaysia, shall account for all receipts and payments
for the purpose of the Account.
4. The Account shall be operated in accordance with the provisions of the Treasury
Instructions and any other financial regulations issued from time to time under the
Financial Procedure Act, 1957.
5. The Account shall be credited with contributions or donations from UNESCO, Malaysia
National Commission of UNESCO, or members of the public or institutions, which are not
wholly financed by the Government of Malaysia.
6. Moneys standing to the credit of the Account shall be expended for the following
purposes:
(a) Expenditure on local meetings, courses, seminar and workshops related to

International Hydrological Programme activities;
(b) Publication costs and expenditure for printing materials like articles, brochures,
invitation cards etc;
(c) Travelling expenses and per diem allowance for Malaysian delegates attending
meetings, seminars, conferences and workshops overseas;
(d) Expenditure for transportation and cost of living allowance for consultants;
(e) Incidental expenditures approved by the Director-General, Department of Irrigation

and Drainage. All payments made from the Account shall be on vouchers duly
certified by the Director General, Drainage and Irrigation Department or by officers
duly appointed by him in writing for the purpose.
7. All payments made from the Account shall be on vouchers duly certified by the Director
General, Drainage and Irrigation Department or by officers duly appointed by him in
writing for the purpose.
8. The Account shall always be in credit and shall not be overdrawn.
January 2009 1A-5

9. (a) The Director-General, Department of Irrigation and Drainage shall as soon as

possible after 31st. December of each year, but in any case not later than 31st.
May of the year following the financial year, submit to the Auditor-General
statements of accounts showing the opening balance, detailed classifications or
receipts and payments for the previous year, and the closing balance of the
Account.
(b) The Director-General, Department of Irrigation and Drainage shall forward a copy
of the account duly examined by the Auditor-General to the Secretary General of
the Treasury, Secretary-General Ministry of Agriculture and the Accountant-General
Malaysia.
(c) The Director-General, Department of Irrigation and Drainage shall as soon as

possible after 31st. December of each year, but in any case not later than 31st.
May of the year following the financial year, submit to the Auditor-General
statements of accounts showing the opening balance, detailed classifications or
receipts and payments for the previous year, and the closing balance of the
Account.
10. The Account shall be closed when it is no longer required and its credit balance, if any,
shall be credited to the Federal Revenue.
11. This Direction shall be deemed to have effect as from 1st. January 1988.
1A-6 March 2009

CHAPTER 2 PRECIPITATION
Chapter 2 PRECIPITATION
Table of Contents
Table of Contents..................................................................................................................... 2-i

List of Tables ........................................................................................................................ 2-ii
List of Figures ....................................................................................................................... 2-ii
2.1 MEASUREMENT OF RAINFALL ..................................................................................... 2-1
2.1.1 Non Recording Raingauge ............................................................................... 2-2
2.1.2 Recording Rain Gauges .................................................................................. 2-2
2.2 SITING OF RAINFALL STATIONS ................................................................................. 2-3
2.3 ERRORS IN MEASUREMENT .................................................................................... 2-7
2.4 WIND SHIELDS ................................. ......................................................................... 2-9
2.5 ANALYSIS OF RAINFALL DATA .................................................................................. 2-10
2.5.1 Records and their interpretation .................................................................... 2-10
2.5.2 Adjustment and Interpolation of Observations ................................................ 2-10
2.5.3 Variation of Rainfall with Area ....................................................................... 2-11
2.5.4 Rainfall Depth-Area-Duration Curves ............................................................. 2-13
2.5.5 Areal Reduction Factors ................................................................................ 2-14
2.5.6 Variation of Rainfall with Time ....................................................................... 2-15
2.5.7 Rainfall Intensity-Duration-Frequency Curves ................................................. 2-16
2.5.8 Estimation of PMP ........................................................................................ 2-23
2.5.8.1 The Storm Maximisation Method ..................................................... 2-23
2.5.8.2 Example of PMP Estimation by Storm Maximisation Method ............... 2-29
2.5.8.3 The Statistical Method .................................................................... 2-33
2.5.8.4 Example of PMP Derived Using Statistical Method ............................. 2-36
2.5.8.5 Temporal and Spatial Distribution of PMP ......................................... 2-38
REFERENCE ........................................................................................................................ 2-39
March 2009 2-i

List of Tables
Table Description page
2. 1 Rainfall Temporal Patterns West Coast of Peninsular Malaysia 2-16

2.2 Rainfall Temporal Patterns East Coast of Peninsular Malaysia 2-16
2.3 Coefficients of IDF Equations for Various Towns in Malaysia 2-17
o
2.4 Precipitable Water (in mm) as a Function of1,000 mb DPT ( C) 2-24
2.5 Maximum Recorded Rainfalls in Peninsular Malaysia 2-25
2.6 Historical Storms Selected for PMP Estimation 2-29
2.7 Computation of Equivalent 12-hr DPT at Mean Sea Level 2-29
2.8 Estimated Precipitable Water Above The Station Level Given the DPT 2-30
2.9 Storm Maximisation Factors Derived for the Various Storm Events 2-30
2.10 PMPs Derived from the Various Historical Storms 2-31
2.11 Complete Tabulation of PMP Estimation Using Storm Maximisation 2-32
2.12 24- hour Rainfall Statistics 2-36
2.13 Determination of Adjustment Factors f1 to f4 2-36
2.14 Computed Statistical PMP 2-37
2.15 Temporal Rainfall Distributions of a 24-hour Rainstorm 2-39
List of Figures

2.1 Standard 203 mm Diameter Rain Gauge 2-4
2.2 Measuring Cylinder 2-5
2.3 Standard Rainfall Station with Manual Gauge 2-6
2.4 Standard Rainfall Station with Weekly Rainfall Recorder 2-7
2.5 Standard Rainfall Station with Long-Term Rainfall Recorder 2-7
2.6 Variation of gauge catch with height for a given set of wind conditions as report by
Symons (1881) 2-8
2.7 Expected Undercatch due to Wind 2-9
2.8 Double Mass Plot of Station A Against Stations B, C and D 2-11
2.9 An Example of DAD Curves 2-14
2.10 Areal Reduction Factor Curves of USWB 2-15
2.11 Intensity-duration-Frequency Curves of Wilayah Persekutuan 2-23
2.12 Pseudo-adiabatic Chart for Equivalent DPT at MSL (1000 mb atms pressure) 2-24
2.13 Maximum 24-hour Persistent Dew Point Temperature in Peninsular Malaysia 2-27
2.14 Maximum 24-hour Persistent Dew Point Temperature in East Malaysia 2-28
2-ii March 2009

2.15 Km as a Function of Rainfall Duration and Mean Annual Series (after Hershfield) 2-33
2.16 f1 the Adjustment Factor for Xn for to cater for Maximum Observed Rainfall 2-34
2.17 f3 the Adjustment factor for Sn to cater for Maximum Observed Rainfall 2-34
2.18 f3 and f4, Factors to Adjust Xn and Sn Based on Length of Records 2-35
2.19 f5 Factor to to adjust PMP based on number of readings made over fixed interval
records 2-35
2.20 Comparison of Various Temporal Rainfall Distributions 2-38
March 2009 2-iii

(This page is intentionally blank)
2-iv March 2009

2 PRECIPITATION
Precipitation is water falling from the atmosphere to the ground and precipitation can take the form
of rain, dew, snow, sleet or hailstone. Of concern to DID is rainfall and precipitation is referred to, it
is rainfall most of the time. Rainfall is important to DID as projects such as flood mitigation,
irrigation, drainage and dams, rainfall is critical in deciding their size, capacity, configuration and
complexity.
The average annual rainfall (AAR) in Peninsular Malaysia is 2500 mm, it is higher (about 3500 mm)
in East Malaysia (Sarawak and Sabah). These are averaged figures and actual rainfall varies with
area and time. Kuala Pilah and Perlis receive the lowest (1800 mm) AAR while Besut and Taiping
receive the highest (4000 mm). The seasonal distribution of rainfall also varies from place to place.
While Besut receives the highest AAR, most of the heavy rain occurs during the North East Monsoon
months of November and December which is bad as far as flooding is concern and in the case of
Taiping, the higher than normal annual rainfall is more evenly distributed throughout the year which
is good for water resources development. Kuala Pilah receives low AAR but it does not have a
distinct drought season experienced in Kedah and Perlis during January and February. Accordingly
agricultural practices have evolved to meet the areal and temporal distribution of rainfall. In Kedah-
Perlis area for instance, the harvesting season is timed such that the dry season of January and
February is the harvesting season when dry weather is beneficial. The monsoon season brings
heavy rain during November and December which would be a good time for pre-saturation of the
paddy areas and that is if the floods brought about by the monsoon does not damage the paddy
areas. Rainfall bring beneficial water resources but also causes flood when it comes pouring down
with intensity so high that rivers and urban areas get flooded.
DID was initially an engineering branch under the Agriculture Ministry and was focused on designing
irrigation and drainage systems for agricultural areas. Agriculture depends to a great extent on direct
rainfall falling over the cropped areas for its crop water requirements and irrigation is meant to
supplement crop water requirements when rainfall does not occur over extended periods of time.
Hence the need to study rainfall, its amount and its distribution and to do this DID has set up a
network of rainfall stations all over the country. Rainfall is also an important parameter in the study
of water resources development for irrigation.
Besides irrigation DID also designs drainage systems initially for the agricultural areas but eventually
extended the scope to cover urban drainage and flood mitigation. Rainfall is again an important
parameter in designing urban drainage and flood mitigation projects. Under urban drainage, short
term rainfall intensity data is important and for large river basin flood studies the temporal and areal
distribution of rainfall must be considered.
2.1 MEASUREMENT OF RAINFALL
Rainfall is measured using a raingauge installed at allocation of interest. Rainfall collected at this
point would represent the rainfall over the area around the raingauge. DID has been recording point
rainfall data for more than 40 years using rain gauges. For many years rainfall data were manually
read by technicians who visited the raingauge stations regularly to measure the rainfall accumulated
since the last visit. The rainfall is manually read and we refer them as non-recording raingauges.
These raingauges are gradually replaced or supplemented with automatic recording raingauges so
that variations in rainfall intensity can also be recorded. In an automatic recording raingauge there
are recording devices added to register rainfall and its time of occurrence.
March 2009 2-1

2.1.1 Non Recording Raingauge
Two types of non-recording raingauges are used by DID.
o 203 mm diameter raingauge and they are referred to as manual gauges and readings are
taken daily or weekly
o 127 mm diameter raingauge with capacity to collect 4000 mm of rainfall and they are used
as check gauge and are read monthly. This is usually installed in stations located in remote
areas.
The standard rain gauge, shown in Figure 2.1, has a 203mm or 127mm diameter receiver cap on top
to catch and funnel the rain into a can. The receiving funnel has a knife edge to catch rain falling
precisely in the surface area of 203 mm or 127 mm diameter. Measurements are by pouring the
rainwater collected in the raingauge into a measuring cylinder.
The standard measuring cylinder (see Figure 2.2) is about 381mm high and has an internal diameter
of 76.2mm. It is developed by DID for use with the 203 mm diameter raingauge. The cylinder is
graduated in 1 and 0.5mm and is intended to read directly the depth of the rain collected without
any need to apply any factors. The cylinder has a convex base to allow reading of rainfall less than
0.5mm. The level of water in the measuring cylinder is the level of the bottom of the meniscus.
The raingauge is usually installed at a standard height of 1350m above the ground and has a
windshield to reduce the effect of wind turbulence from affecting the catch of the raingauge. Figure
2.3 shows the standard layout of a DID rainfall station equipped with non-recording raingauge (or
normally referred to as a manual rainfall station)
2.1.2 Recording Rain Gauges
Daily read rainfall data do not provide information on the temporal distribution of the rain and it does
not give details like how intense was the rainfall over short periods of time, information critical to
design of urban drainage systems and to flood simulation.
The tipping bucket type of rainfall recorder solves the problem of recording rainfall intensity and
temporal distribution and DIDs rainfall stations were gradually replaced with this type of recorder.
The description of the tipping bucket recorder is given in detail in the Hydrology Manual - Revised
and Updated 1988.
Tipping bucket recorder has a bucket system that catches rainfall and once rainfall amount exceeds a
certain value (DID adopts 0.2mm or 0.5mm tipping bucket), the weight of the rainfall in the bucket
causes it to tip. In the case of a 0.5mm tipping bucket, the bucket system collects 0.5mm rainfall
and it tips and empties the bucket and waits for the next 0.5 mm of rain. Likewise the 0.2mm tipping
bucket tips when rainfall collected reaches 0.2mm. Each time it tips the time is recorded. So if a
series of tips is recorded, the total amount of rain that occurred can be computed and the tipping
rate gives the intensity of rainfall.
In the 80s, the tipping was recorded on paper charts but this soon gave way to digital recordings on
memory chips. Paper charts have to be digitized to convert it to digital form and this is a time
consuming effort. The digital recordings have the advantage that data is already in digital form.
Figure 2.4 shows the standard layout of a weekly recording rainfall station. The weekly recording
rainfall station earns its name during the early days of automatic recording stations when the rainfall
tips were recorded on paper charts. The weekly recording stations have charts which lasts one week.
2-2 March 2009

To record more than one week (this is necessary for remote stations with difficult access, for
example the rainfall station at Gunung Gagau, Kelantan which is accessed by helicopter for
maintenance and data downloading) there are recorders with long paper scrolls to last months of
data recording.
With digital recordings on memory chips the differentiation between weekly and long term recording
equipments is no longer there as storage of data is no longer a constraint and all automatic
recorders are now long term recorders. There is some difference still maintained between weekly
and long term rainfall stations. All automatic recording stations have a manual station acting as a
check gauge. In the case of a weekly rainfall station (Figure 2.4) the check gauge has a smaller
capacity. The long-term recording station (Figure 2.5) has a large storage gauge as a check gauge.
2.2 SITING OF RAINFALL STATIONS
There are several conditions to consider when locating rainfall stations and these are mentioned in
detailed in DIDs hydrological manual Revised and Updated 1988. The rainfall station must be
located such that the rainfall collected is representative of the rainfall of the area of interest.
Basically, the rain gauge must not be covered by trees and the guideline is the distance, d of the rain
gauge must at least be 4 times the height, h of the tree. The same ruling goes for building,
structures, etc. in the vicinity of the rain gauge. In practice we have to allow a more generous
distance as trees grows with time.
Ideally the d 4h exposure criteria should be met but in practice, it is sometimes not easy to get a
suitable site with the exposure requirements. In some cases the exposure h 2h are accepted.
There are other considerations besides the 4h criteria such as availability of land for the station
(need to acquire land for the station), easy access to the station (near a road), security from
vandalism (in a school compound, in a plantation office compound), station not subjected to floods,
etc. Another consideration would be the availability of readers to regularly read the rain gauge
especially for the manually stations. However, DID is gradually converting the rainfall stations from
manual stations to automatic recording stations. However, so far experience shows that the
recording stations are still do need human input as the recording mechanism do malfunction and
there is still a need to read the check gauge results to cross-check readings, a part of DIDs quality
assurance and quality control measure.
For accurate determination of rainfall over a catchment, the coverage of rainfall stations is important.
If is not feasible economically to have sufficient density of rainfall stations to accurately the measure
area variation of localised thunderstorms often seen as the main cause of flash floods in urban
catchments. The rainfall stations network of DID is planned based on the recommendations of the
World Meteorological Organisation (WMO)
March 2009 2-3

203mm
SHARPEDGE

COLLECTING
FUNNEL
RIMWELDED
ONTOTRAPWATER
UTUBETOTRAP
381mm
WATER
COLLECTING
160mm
CAN
POURINGCAN
126mm
Figure 2.1 Standard 203 mm Diameter Rain Gauge
2-4 March 2009

Depth of rainfall is
read directly and
the correct level is
at the bottom of
the meniscus
Figure 2.2 Measuring Cylinder
March 2009 2-5

(a)PlanView
(b)IsometricView
Figure 2.3 Standard Rainfall Station with Manual Gauge
2-6 March 2009

Figure 2.4 Standard Rainfall Station with Weekly Rainfall Recorder
Figure 2.5 Standard Rainfall Station with Long-Term Rainfall Recorder
2.3 ERRORS IN MEASUREMENT
Several sources of measurement error is associated with the raingauge such as:
Height of gauge above the ground level
Wind
Instrument mechanism tipping bucket size
March 2009 2-7

It was demonstrated that a raingauge 30 feet (about 9m) above the ground level caught 80% of the
rain and 50 feet above ground level caught 50% of the rain
4
GaugeHeight(m)
0
100 98 96 94 92 90 88 86
PercentofCatchat2"Elevation
Figure 2.6 Variation of gauge catch with height for a given set of wind conditions as report by
Symons (1881)
(source: Curtis and Burnash 1996)
That rainfall catch reduces with height is actually due to another factor - wind or turbulent airflow
around the gauges when strong wind occurs.
2-8 March 2009

6 Relativepositionsof2mainrain VelocityProfile
gaugesinawindprofilewithwindsof
24kphattheheightofraingauge
5
24km/h
4 RainGauge15%
undercatch
Height(m)
2 12%undercatch GroundConditions:
Mowedgrassand
WetSoil
1
0
0 5 10 15 Velocity
20 ( km/h)
25 30 35 40 45
Velocity(kph)
Figure 2.7 Expected Undercatch due to Wind

(source: Curtis and Burnash 1996)
The other factor is related to the tipping bucket mechanism. It has been shown by researchers that
the tipping bucket raingauge underestimates higher intensity rainfall because of rainwater during the
tipping movement is not captured by the recorder. Marsalek 1981 reported that the loss is in the
range of 10 to 15 % for rainfall intensity greater than 200 mm/h. If tipping movements lead to loss
of rainfall records then smaller bucket size leading to more tip movements for the same storm will
lead to more under reporting of rainfall.
Size of tipping bucket also affects the rainfall recorded. At the end of a storm the remaining water in
the tipping bucket evaporates before the next tip. So in this sense a larger tipping bucket induces
more error.
2.4 WIND SHIELDS
Experiments have been carried out by the Hydrology Division to study the impact of DIDs standard
wind shield on rainfall catch since wind turbulence is the major factor affecting the catch of rainfall
by raingauges. However, the results show that the undercatch is only 1% for raingauge without
windshield for raingauge installed at the standard DID raingauge height of 1350 mm.
March 2009 2-9

2.5 ANALYSIS OF RAINFALL DATA
2.5.1 Records and their interpretation
Rainfall data are usually recorded as cumulative or incremental data.
Cumulative data the data represents the cumulative value of rainfall measured or
calculated up to a given instant of time
Incremental data the value represents the incremental value of a variable over a time
interval t
In DIDs hydrological database, rainfall is stored as incremental data. A further variation in data
recording is the time interval for incremental data can be regular or irregular. In the case of DIDs
hydrological database, the incremental rainfall data has irregular time intervals
The reason for irregular time interval is that it reduces data storage space for observations such as
rainfall. The nature of rainfall is such that there will be many days without rainfall and if it rains in
any of the days, more often the rain only lasts a few hours within the day. By adopting regular time
intervals then the question would be what time interval? If the interval is too short, for instance, 5
minutes then for days when there are no rain there will be a lot of 5 minute intervals records with
zero rainfall. If the regular time interval is too long then the database would miss out short duration
intensity records. But with irregular time interval it can be set such that each time the incremental
rainfall exceeds 0.5mm the data is recorded. Very detailed record of temporal distribution of rainfall
is possible during very intense storm. If there is no rainfall for 2 weeks nothing is recorded. This is
the advantage of irregular time interval recording. Incidentally this also how the tipping bucket
recorder records rainfall, i.e. at irregular time intervals.
Another issue with rainfall data storage is the treatment of missing data. In DIDs hydrological
database missing data is given a code GAP. So the value of rainfall during a particular interval is
assigned the value GAP it means that between the interval there is no records. It is important to
differentiate between an interval with zero rainfall and an interval with no data (GAP)
When extracting data for analyses, the user must be aware of the various types of rainfall stations.
To get rainfall intensities less than 24 hours, only data from automatic recording rainfall stations can
be used. If the user specifies a 3-hour maximum intensity data from a manual station, the data
retrieval software merely interpolates the intensity from a daily read database and the results will be
erroneous.
DID has longer records of manually read rainfall (daily data) records and it is not possible to ignore
the information and statistics that could be derived from these manually read records. Automatic
recording stations may be able to give more detail short duration intensity information but being
introduced more recently, the records are not long enough and moreover during the early days of
automatic rainfall recording there were a lot of problems with regard to instrument reliability.
2.5.2 Adjustment and Interpolation of Observations
As discussed above, the tipping bucket recorder has a tendency to record less rainfall due to loss
during the tipping action and the evaporation of rainfall in the tipping bucket. In many DIDs rainfall
stations there is another raingauge that is used as a check gauge. The check gauge does not use
any tipping bucket mechanism. It stores all the rainfall collected and the total rainfall can be
measured using a measuring cylinder. The check gauge data is used to adjust the tipping bucket
rainfall data.
2-10 March 2009

There is the issue of rainfall records not being consistent because through the years trees in the
surrounding may have grown or buildings constructed affecting the catch. The double mass analysis
is a method recommended for detecting such changes and for correcting the data.
Figure 2.8 shows a double mass plot of station A against Stations B, C and D. Station A is the
station whose data is being investigated because the changing conditions have resulted in changes
in catch. Stations B, C and D are surrounding stations whose data are deemed consistent through
the years. The y-axis is the cumulative annual rainfall of Station A. The x-axis is the cumulative of
the average annual rainfall of B, C and D. The plot detects that a change in catch of station A occurs
in the year 1990 and that the rainfall at A from 1991 to 1996 must be adjusted to bring the annual
cumulative rainfall to the dotted line.
Actualdoublemassplot
Toadjustrainfallat
CumulativeRainfall(mm)ofStationA
StationAtothisline
1996

1995
1994
1990
1993
1989
1992
1988
1991
1987
1986
1985
1984
1983
1982
1981
CumulativeRainfall(mm)
AverageofStationsB,CandD
Figure 2.8 Double Mass Plot of Station A Against Stations B, C and D
2.5.3 Variation of Rainfall with Area
Rainfall varies with area and several methods of estimating areal rainfall are described below.
Arithmetic Mean Method
This is the simplest method for determining areal average rainfall over a catchment. The
computation of arithmetic mean is shown below.
March 2009 2-11

For the storm of interest over the catchment shown

the following point rainfalls were recorded
o P1 = 10 mm
o P2 = 20 mm
o P3 = 30 mm
The arithmetic mean of the rainfall P would be

1
P= Ni=1 Pi (2.1)
N
10+20+30
P= =20
3
Thiessen polygon method
The assumption in the Thiessen Polygon Method is that any point in the watershed receives the
same amount of rainfall as that at the nearest gauge
Steps in Thiessen polygon method
1. Draw lines joining adjacent gages
2. Draw perpendicular bisectors to the
lines created in step 1
3. Extend the lines created in step 2 in
both directions to form
representative areas for gauges
4. Compute representative area Ai for
each gauge
5. Compute the areal average using
the following formula

1
p= Ni=1 Ai P (2.2)
A i
10 x 17+20 x 13+30 x 35
P=
65
=22.8 mm
2-12 March 2009

Isohyetal method
If many point rainfall data are or if radar raingauge data is available it is possible to plot a isohyetal
map of the variation of rainfall over the catchment during a particular time interval. The isohyetal
method of estimating areal rain fall is presented below.
Compute area between each pair of adjacent

isohyets (Ai)
Compute average precipitation for each pair

of adjacent isohyets (pi)
Compute areal average using the following

formula
1
P= Ni=1 Ai Pi
A
5 x 5+30 x 15 x 15 x 25+15 x 35
p=
65
= 21.2mm
2.5.4 Rainfall Depth-Area-Duration Curves
Point rainfall cannot be used to represent areal rainfall as the area of interest increases. In natural
occurrence of a storm, there is a storm centre where the rainfall is highest and the depth of storm
decreases with distance from the storm centre.
A typical Depth-Area-Duration (DAD) curve is shown in Figure 2.9.
March 2009 2-13

Figure 2.9 An Example of DAD Curves
The Depth-Area-Duration (DAD) curves show the maximum depth of precipitation occurring over
various size of catchment area for various storm durations. The curves can be derived using (1) the
mass curve method or (2) the isohyetal method. DAD curves are used in estimation of areal PMP
which is described in further detail in section 2.6.9.
2.5.5 Areal Reduction Factors
A variation of the DAD curves is the areal reduction factor (ARF) curves.
In many hydrological studies, the interest is to estimate the extreme areal rainfall over a catchment
(e.g the 20-, or 100-year ARI storm). Many do not have the resources to study areal distribution of
design storm in detail and would merely depend on point rainfall records to estimate areal rainfall.
There are also intensity-duration-frequency curves (IDF curves) and design rainfall estimation
estimation procedures (HP1 and HP26). However, these design rainfall estimates are derived based
on point rainfall data and applying the estimates for large catchment will tend to overestimate the
rainfall. Rainfall does not occur evenly over large catchment and this is particularly true for
thunderstorm type of rainfall which tends to be very localized. The other factor governing the areal
distribution of storm is the duration of the storm. Over a short duration, the areal variability of
storm is high. The longer the time duration considered the more even the distribution of storm
depth. Hence the shape of ARF curves (see Figure 2.10)
Figure 2.10 shows the ARF curves taken from US Weather Bureau. An attempt was made to derive
local ARFs. Details of ARFs obtained are presented in DIDs Water Resources Publication No.17.
2-14 March 2009

Figure 2.10 Areal Reduction Factor Curves of USWB
2.5.6 Variation of Rainfall with Time
HP1 and HP23 recommend standard temporal rainfall patterns (see Tables 2.1 and 2.2) for various
regions in the country.
Design rainfall obtained using frequency analysis or read from intensity duration frequency curves
gives the total rainfall amount for a given storm duration. The above temporal patterns can be
applied to distribute the design rainfall over the storm duration. Another approach would be to
distribute the design rainfall according to the temporal pattern of a selected storm event recorded by
a nearby rainfall station. The selected storm event would be a major storm of significant intensity
and with the same storm duration.
A third method of distributing the design rainfall over the storm duration would be to use the
synthetic bell-shaped temporal distribution derived from the intensity-duration-frequency (IDF)
curve. Being derived from the IDF curve, it contains within it the design storm of shorter storm
duration and is often used to distribute the probable maximum precipitation (PMP) for derivation of
probable maximum flood (PMF).
March 2009 2-15

Table 2.1 Rainfall Temporal Patterns West Coast of Peninsular Malaysia
Duration No. of
(min) Time Fraction of Rainfall in Each Time Period
Periods
10 2 0.57 0.43 - - - - - - - - - -
15 3 0.32 0.5 0.18 - - - - - - - - -
30 6 0.16 0.25 0.33 0.09 0.11 0.06 - - - - - -
60 12 0.039 0.07 0.168 0.12 0.232 0.101 0.089 0.057 0.048 0.031 0.028 0.017
120 8 0.03 0.119 0.31 0.208 0.09 0.119 0.094 0.03 - - - -
180 6 0.06 0.22 0.34 0.22 0.12 0.04 - - - - - -
360 6 0.32 0.41 0.11 0.08 0.05 0.03 - - - - - -
Table 2.2 Rainfall Temporal Patterns East Coast of Peninsular Malaysia
Duration No. of
(min) Time Fraction of Rainfall in Each Time Period
Periods
10 2 0.57 0.43 - - - - - - - - - -
15 3 0.32 0.5 0.18 - - - - - - - - -
30 6 0.16 0.25 0.33 0.09 0.11 0.06 - - - - - -
60 12 0.039 0.07 0.168 0.12 0.232 0.101 0.089 0.057 0.048 0.031 0.028 0.017
120 8 0.03 0.119 0.31 0.208 0.09 0.119 0.094 0.03 - - - -
180 6 0.19 0.23 0.19 0.16 0.13 0.1 - - - - - -
360 6 0.29 0.2 0.16 0.12 0.14 0.09 - - - - - -
2.5.7 Rainfall Intensity-Duration-Frequency Curves
Intensity-Duration-Frequency (IDF) curves are sets of curves showing the relationship between the
intensity (I) and duration (D) of a rainfall event with exceedance frequency (F). Figure 2.11 shows
the rainfall intensity-duration-frequency IDF curves derived for Wilayah Persekutuan. From this
curve the user can determine the design rainfall intensity given the storm duration and given the
frequency of occurrence (the average recurrence interval or ARI)
DID has developed, for 35 main cities/towns in Malaysia, polynomial equations of IDF curves of the
form:
ln( RI t ) = a + b ln( t ) + c (ln( t )) 2 + d (ln( t ))3 (2.3)
where,
R
I t = the average rainfall intensity (mm/hr) for ARI = R years and Duration = t minutes
R = average return interval (years)
t = duration (minutes)
a to d are fitting constants for ARI = R years
2-16 March 2009

Table 2.3 Coefficients of IDF Equations for Various Towns in Malaysia
ARI Coefficients of IDF Equation

Location
(year) a b C d
2 4.6800 0.4719 -0.1915 0.0093
5 5.7949 -0.1944 -0.0413 -0.0008
10 6.5896 -0.6048 0.0445 -0.0064
Kangar
20 6.8710 -0.6670 0.0478 -0.0059
50 7.1137 -0.7419 0.0621 -0.0067
100 6.5715 -0.2462 -0.0518 0.0016
2 5.6790 -0.0276 -0.0993 0.0033
5 4.9709 0.5460 -0.2176 0.0113
10 5.6422 0.1575 -0.1329 0.0056
Alor Setar
20 5.8203 0.1093 -0.1248 0.0053
50 5.7420 0.2273 -0.1481 0.0068
100 6.3202 -0.0778 -0.0849 0.0026
2 4.5140 0.6729 -0.2311 0.0118
5 3.9599 1.1284 -0.3240 0.0180
Pulau 10 3.7277 1.4393 -0.4023 0.0241
Pinang 20 3.3255 1.7689 -0.4703 0.0286
50 2.8429 2.1456 -0.5469 0.0335
100 2.7512 2.2417 -0.5610 0.0341
2 5.2244 0.3853 -0.1970 0.0100
5 5.0007 0.6149 -0.2406 0.0127
10 5.0707 0.6515 -0.2522 0.0138
Ipoh
20 5.1150 0.6895 -0.2631 0.0147
50 4.9627 0.8489 -0.2966 0.0169
100 5.1068 0.8168 -0.2905 0.0165
2 4.1689 0.8160 -0.2726 0.0149
5 4.7867 0.4919 -0.1993 0.0099
Bagan 10 5.2760 0.2436 -0.1436 0.0059
Serai 20 5.6661 0.0329 -0.0944 0.0024
50 5.3431 0.3538 -0.1686 0.0078
100 5.3299 0.4357 -0.1857 0.0089
2 5.6134 -0.1209 -0.0651 0.0000
5 6.1025 -0.2240 -0.0484 -0.0008
10 6.3160 -0.2756 -0.0390 -0.0012
Teluk Intan
20 6.3504 -0.2498 -0.0377 -0.0016
50 6.7638 -0.4595 0.0094 -0.0050
100 6.7375 -0.3572 -0.0070 -0.0043
March 2009 2-17

Table 2.3 Coefficients of IDF Equations for Various Towns in Malaysia (contd)

Location
(year) a b c d
2 4.2114 0.9483 -0.3154 0.0179
5 4.7986 0.5803 -0.2202 0.0107
Kuala 10 5.3916 0.2993 -0.1640 0.0071
Kangsar 20 5.7854 0.1175 -0.1244 0.0044
50 6.5736 -0.2903 -0.0482 0.0000
100 6.0681 0.1478 -0.1435 0.0065
2 5.0790 0.3724 -0.1796 0.0081
5 5.2320 0.3330 -0.1635 0.0068
10 5.5868 0.0964 -0.1014 0.0021
Setiawan
20 5.5294 0.2189 -0.1349 0.0051
50 5.2993 0.4270 -0.1780 0.0082
100 5.5575 0.3005 -0.1465 0.0058
2 4.2095 0.5056 -0.1551 0.0044
5 5.1943 -0.0350 -0.0392 -0.0034
Kuala Kubu 10 5.5074 -0.1637 -0.0116 -0.0053
Bahru 20 5.6772 -0.1562 -0.0229 -0.0040
50 6.0934 -0.3710 0.0239 -0.0073
100 6.3094 -0.4087 0.0229 -0.0068
2 5.3255 0.1806 -0.1322 0.0047
5 5.1086 0.5037 -0.2155 0.0112
Kuala 10 4.9696 0.6796 -0.2584 0.0147
Lumpur 20 4.9781 0.7533 -0.2796 0.0166
50 4.8047 0.9399 -0.3218 0.0197
100 5.0064 0.8709 -0.3070 0.0186
2 3.7091 1.1622 -0.3289 0.0176
5 4.3987 0.7725 -0.2381 0.0112
10 4.9930 0.4661 -0.1740 0.0069
Malacca
20 5.0856 0.5048 -0.1875 0.0082
50 4.8506 0.7398 -0.2388 0.0117
100 5.3796 0.4628 -0.1826 0.0081
2 5.2565 0.0719 -0.1306 0.0065
5 5.4663 0.0586 -0.1269 0.0062
10 6.1240 -0.2191 -0.0820 0.0039
Seremban
20 6.3733 -0.2451 -0.0888 0.0051
50 6.9932 -0.5087 -0.0479 0.0031
100 7.0782 -0.4277 -0.0731 0.0051
2-18 March 2009


Location
(year) a b c d
2 3.9982 0.9722 -0.3215 0.0185
5 3.7967 1.2904 -0.4012 0.0247
10 4.5287 0.8474 -0.3008 0.0175
Kuala Pilah
20 4.9287 0.6897 -0.2753 0.0163
50 4.7768 0.8716 -0.3158 0.0191
100 4.6588 1.0163 -0.3471 0.0213
2 4.5860 0.7083 -0.2761 0.0170
5 5.0571 0.4815 -0.2220 0.0133
10 5.2665 0.4284 -0.2131 0.0129
Kluang
20 5.4813 0.3471 -0.1945 0.0116
50 5.8808 0.1412 -0.1498 0.0086
100 6.3369 -0.0789 -0.1066 0.0059
2 5.1028 0.2883 -0.1627 0.0095
5 5.7048 -0.0635 -0.0771 0.0036
10 5.8489 -0.0890 -0.0705 0.0032
Mersing
20 4.8420 0.7395 -0.2579 0.0165
50 6.2257 -0.1499 -0.0631 0.0032
100 6.7796 -0.4104 -0.0160 0.0005
2 4.5023 0.6159 -0.2289 0.0119
5 4.9886 0.3883 -0.1769 0.0085
10 5.2470 0.2916 -0.1575 0.0074
Batu Pahat
20 5.7407 0.0204 -0.0979 0.0032
50 6.2276 -0.2278 -0.0474 0.0000
100 6.5443 -0.3840 -0.0135 -0.0022
2 3.8645 1.1150 -0.3272 0.0182
5 4.3251 1.0147 -0.3308 0.0205
Johor 10 4.4896 0.9971 -0.3279 0.0205
Bahru 20 4.7656 0.8922 -0.3060 0.0192
50 4.5463 1.1612 -0.3758 0.0249
100 5.0532 0.8998 -0.3222 0.0215
2 3.0293 1.4428 -0.3924 0.0232
5 4.2804 0.9393 -0.3161 0.0200
10 6.2961 -0.1466 -0.1145 0.0080
Segamat
20 7.3616 -0.6982 -0.0131 0.0021
50 7.4417 -0.6247 -0.0364 0.0041
100 8.1159 -0.9379 0.0176 0.0013
March 2009 2-19


Location
(year) a b c d
2 4.3716 0.3725 -0.1274 0.0026
5 4.5461 0.4017 -0.1348 0.0036
10 5.4226 -0.1521 -0.0063 -0.0056
Raub
20 5.2525 0.0125 -0.0371 -0.0035
50 4.8654 0.3420 -0.1058 0.0012
100 5.1818 0.2173 -0.0834 0.0001
2 4.9396 0.2645 -0.1638 0.0082
5 4.6471 0.4968 -0.2002 0.0099
Cameron 10 4.3258 0.7684 -0.2549 0.0134
Highland 20 4.8178 0.5093 -0.2022 0.0100
50 5.3234 0.2213 -0.1402 0.0059
100 5.0166 0.4675 -0.1887 0.0089
2 5.1899 0.2562 -0.1612 0.0096
5 4.7566 0.6589 -0.2529 0.0167
10 4.3754 0.9634 -0.3068 0.0198
Kuantan
20 4.8517 0.7649 -0.2697 0.0176
50 5.0350 0.7267 -0.2589 0.0167
100 5.2158 0.6752 -0.2450 0.0155
2 4.6023 0.4622 -0.1729 0.0066
5 5.3044 0.0115 -0.0590 -0.0019
10 4.5881 0.5465 -0.1646 0.0049
Temerloh
20 4.4378 0.7118 -0.1960 0.0068
50 4.4823 0.8403 -0.2288 0.0095
100 4.5261 0.7210 -0.1988 0.0071
2 5.2577 0.0572 -0.1091 0.0057
5 5.5077 -0.0310 -0.0899 0.0050
Kuala 10 5.4881 0.0698 -0.1169 0.0074
Dungun 20 5.6842 -0.0393 -0.0862 0.0051
50 5.5773 0.1111 -0.1231 0.0081
100 6.1013 -0.1960 -0.0557 0.0035
2 4.6684 0.3966 -0.1700 0.0096
5 4.4916 0.6583 -0.2292 0.0143
Kuala 10 5.2985 0.2024 -0.1380 0.0089
Terengganu 20 5.8299 -0.0935 -0.0739 0.0046
50 6.1694 -0.2513 -0.0382 0.0021
100 6.1524 -0.1630 -0.0575 0.0035
2-20 March 2009


Location
(year) a b c d
2 5.4683 0.0499 -0.1171 0.0070
5 5.7507 -0.0132 -0.1117 0.0078
10 5.2497 0.4280 -0.2033 0.0139
Kota Bahru
20 5.4724 0.3591 -0.1810 0.0119
50 5.3578 0.5094 -0.2056 0.0131
100 5.0646 0.7917 -0.2583 0.0161
2 4.6132 0.6009 -0.2250 0.0114
5 3.8834 1.2174 -0.3624 0.0213
Gua 10 4.6080 0.8347 -0.2848 0.0161
Musang 20 4.7584 0.7946 -0.2749 0.0154
50 4.6406 0.9382 -0.3059 0.0176
100 4.6734 0.9782 -0.3152 0.0183
2 5.1968 0.0414 -0.0712 -0.0002
5 5.6093 -0.1034 -0.0359 -0.0027
Kota
10 5.9468 -0.2595 -0.0012 -0.0050
Kinabalu
20 5.2150 0.3033 -0.1164 0.0026
50 5.1922 0.3652 -0.1224 0.0027
2 3.7427 1.2253 -0.3396 0.0191
5 4.9246 0.5151 -0.1886 0.0095
Sandakan 10 5.2728 0.3693 -0.1624 0.0083
20 4.9397 0.6675 -0.2292 0.0133
50 5.0022 0.6587 -0.2195 0.0123
2 4.1091 0.6758 -0.2122 0.0093
5 3.1066 1.7041 -0.4717 0.0298
Tawau
10 4.1419 1.1244 -0.3517 0.0220
20 4.4639 1.0439 -0.3427 0.0220
2 4.1878 0.9320 -0.3115 0.0183
5 3.7522 1.3976 -0.4086 0.0249
10 4.1594 1.2539 -0.3837 0.0236
Kuamut
20 3.8422 1.5659 -0.4505 0.0282
50 5.6274 0.3053 -0.1644 0.0079
100 6.3202 -0.0778 -0.0849 0.0026
2 4.3333 0.7773 -0.2644 0.0144
5 4.9834 0.4624 -0.1985 0.0100
Simanggang
10 5.6753 0.0623 -0.1097 0.0038
20 5.9006 -0.0189 -0.0922 0.0027
March 2009 2-21


Location
(year) a b c d
2 3.0879 1.6430 -0.4472 0.0262
5 3.4519 1.4161 -0.3754 0.0200
Sibu
10 3.6423 1.3388 -0.3509 0.0177
20 3.3170 1.5906 -0.3955 0.0202
2 5.2707 0.1314 -0.0976 0.0025
5 5.5722 0.0563 -0.0919 0.0031
Kapit 10 6.1060 -0.2520 -0.0253 -0.0012
20 6.0081 -0.1173 -0.0574 0.0014
50 6.2652 -0.2584 -0.0244 -0.0008
2 3.2235 1.2714 -0.3268 0.0164
5 4.5416 0.2745 -0.0700 -0.0032
Kapit
10 4.5184 0.2886 -0.0600 -0.0045
20 5.0785 -0.0820 0.0296 -0.0110
2 5.1719 0.1558 -0.1093 0.0043
5 4.8825 0.3871 -0.1455 0.0068
Kuching 10 5.1635 0.2268 -0.1039 0.0039
20 5.2479 0.2107 -0.0968 0.0035
50 5.2780 0.2240 -0.0932 0.0031
2 4.9302 0.2564 -0.1240 0.0038
5 5.8216 -0.2152 -0.0276 -0.0021
Miri 10 6.1841 -0.3856 0.0114 -0.0048
20 6.1591 -0.3188 0.0021 -0.0044
50 6.3582 -0.3823 0.0170 -0.0054
2-22 March 2009

Figure 2.11 Intensity-duration-Frequency Curves of Wilayah Persekutuan
2.5.8 Estimation of PMP
Probable maximum precipitation (PMP) is an estimated maximum rainfall that can ever occur and is
thus an ultimate extreme event to be used for designing spillways of large dams. Failure of large
dams are disastrous and thus the requirement that the spillway which is an overflow structure be
designed to cater for such an extreme event. PMP is defined in the WMO Manual for Estimation of
Probable Maximum Precipitation as:
"...the greatest depth of precipitation for a given duration meteorologically possible for a given size
storm area at a particular location at a particular time of the year, with no allowance made for long-
term climatic trends."
There are two commonly adopted methods of estimating PMP: (1) the storm maximization (hydro-
meteorological) and transposition method and (2) the statistical (Hershfield) method.
2.5.8.1 The Storm Maximisation Method
The storm maximization method requires the identification of a major storm event. For this major
storm event the following must be known:
The storm depth Po (mm)

The storm duration (hours/days)
The maximum 12-hour dew point temperature (DPT) during the storm event (C)
The elevation of the raingauge recording the major storm event (m. MSL)
Storm maximisation can be carried out to maximised the storm at its current location and the
transposing the maximised storm to the location of interest.
March 2009 2-23

At the target location, the following must be known:
The maximum 12-hour DPT (C)

The general elevation of the catchment (m MSL)
Moisture maximization involves increasing the observed storm precipitation by a factor Fm., where
Fm = (Wpm / Wps) (2.4)
where Wps is precipitable water at maximum 12-hour DPT observed during the major storm event
and Wpm is precipitable water at expected maximum DPT at the location of interest.
The precipitable water as a function of 1000 mb DPT is given in Table 2.4.
Table 2.4 Precipitable Water (in mm) as a Function of1,000 mb DPT (oC)
Height Precipitable Water 9in mm) at 1,000 mb Level for Equivalent Dew Point Tempertaure of
(m)
16 17 18 29 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
200 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 6 6
12,000# 37 40 44 48 52 57 63 68 74 81 88 96 105 114 123
# assumed altitude of the cloud surface.
Since Table 2.4 only gives precipitable water at 1,000 mb atmospheric pressure which is the
atmostpheric pressure at MSL (mean sea level), there is a need to convert to equivalent DPT if DPT
is recorded at higher elevations. Figure 2.12 presents the conversion chart. As an example, a DPT of
20.8 C recorded at 600m MSL lies exactly on the 23 C line in Figure 2.12 and is equal to 23 C at
MSL
Figure 2.12 Pseudo-adiabatic Chart for Equivalent DPT at MSL (1000 mb atms pressure)
Wps and Wpm can be obtained from Table 2.4, if the highest persisting 12-hour dew point at the
location is known.
2-24 March 2009

The above factor Fm applies for storm maximization at the location of the observed storm. In
practical applications, the observed storm is not available at the location of interest or the locally
observed storms are events considered not extreme enough (i.e the precipitation depth is not high
enough). Usually the observed storm is taken from another place. For many years PMP estimation
in Malaysia were based on the storm (29 Dec 1970 to 3 Jan 1971) in Mersing. Table 2.5 below
shows the maximum recorded storms in Malaysia. If storms from moisture maximization is taken
from another place then a transposition factor Ft is applied and Ft is given by:
Ft = (Wpt / Wpm) (2.5)
where, Wpm is precipitable water at maximum DPT at storm location and Wpt is precipitable water at
maximum DPT at transposed location.
PMP is computed as follows:
PMP = Po Fm Ft (2.6)
Note that
Fm Ft = (Wpm / Wps). (Wpt / Wpm) = (Wpt / Wps) (2.7)
In the above the factor Ft merely accounts for the difference in maximum DPT between the storm
location and the location of interest, i.e moisture adjustment for relocation. There is also the need to
take into account elevation differences. Table 2.4 gives the precipitable water from MSL up to 200m
height and up to 12000 m height.
Table 2.5 Maximum Recorded Rainfalls in Peninsular Malaysia
March 2009 2-25

NAHRIM has recently developed a standardized approach to PMP estimation in Peninsular Malaysia
and the PMP. A country wide analyses have been carried out to maximize and transpose storms to
all areas in Peninsular Malaysia and PMP isohyets have been prepared for PMPs of 1-day, 3-day and
5-day durations.
Maps (see Fig 2.13 and 2.14) showing the maximum DPT for Peninsular Malaysia and East Malaysia
extracted from NAHRIMs report is useful reference as it is an important parameter for storm
maximisation.
2-26 March 2009

Figure 2.13 Maximum 24-hour Persistent Dew Point Temperature in Peninsular Malaysia
(Source: NAHRIM 2007)
March 2009 2-27

March 2009
Figure 2.14 Maximum 24-hour Persistent Dew Point Temperature in East Malaysia
(Source:NAHRIM2007)
2-28
2.5.8.2 Example of PMP Estimation by Storm Maximisation Method
The PMP for Timah Tasoh Dam in Perlis is to be estimated. Several selected historical storms for
storm maximization were selected. The historical storms are as shown in Table 2.6
Table 2.6 Historical Storms Selected for PMP Estimation
Stations Air Tawar Mersing K Bahru K Krai Pdg Besar B'Worth

from 29-Dis-70 06-Dis-60 02-Jan-67 18-Nov-88 18-Nov-88 16-Sep-95
to 04-Jan-71 10-Dis-60 06-Jan-67 21-Nov-88 21-Nov-88 18-Sep-95
Observed Rainfall
24-hr rainfall (mm) 605 434 608 357 233 350
72-hr Rainfall (mm) 1143 843 1185 655 374 360
Moisture Adjustments
Altitude of Stns (m) sea level 43.6 4.6 68.3 60 2.8
12-hr persistent DPT (deg
23.3 23.9 22 22 22 23.5
C) during observed storm
Table 2.6 shows the selected 24-hour and 72-hour storms at Kg Air Tawar, Johor, Mersing, Kota
Bahru, Padang Besar and Butterworth and the parameters to note are the recorded rainfall amount
and the corresponding 12-hour persistent dew point temperature occurring during the storm events.
Of interest too is the altitude of the station recording the dew point temperature.
The DPT was first converted to equivalent DPT at mean sea-level and for this purpose the chart
shown in Figure 2.12 was used. The results are presented in Table 2.7.
Table 2.7 Computation of Equivalent 12-hr DPT at Mean Sea Level

12-hr persistent DPT (deg
C)
observed storm 23.3 23.9 22 22 22 23.5
at sea level
23.3 24.1 22 22.3 22.2 23.5
(from Fig 2.12)
Precipitable water was then computed and reference was made to Table 2.4. Table 2.4 indicates the
precipitable water at 1000 mb which is at mean sea level to the height indicated. Only two heights
are indicated in Table 2.4 and for these two heights namely 200 m and 12,000 m above mean sea
level. It is assumed that 12,000 m above mean sea level is the level of the cloud surface and
whatever precipitable water is water up to this level. The computed precipitable water are presented
in Table 2.8
March 2009 2-29

Table 2.8 Estimated Precipitable Water Above The Station Level Given the DPT
During the Storm Event

Precipitable water (mm)
(from Table 2.4)
above sea level 69.8 74.7 63 64.5 64 71
below station level 0 0.9 0 1.5 1 0
above station level
69.8 73.8 63 63 63 71
(WPs)
The precipitable water for the various storm events must be compared to the precipitable water at
the location of interest which is Timah Tasoh Dam Catchment. The precipitable water at Timah
Tasoh Dam Catchment is maximum when the corresponding DPT is maximum and from Fig 2.13 it is
indicated that the maximum 24 hour dew point temperature at Timah Tasoh Dam Catchment is 30
deg C. Another parameter of interest is the average elevation of Timah Tasoh Dam Catchment
which is estimated to be 195m.
From Table 2.4, the precipitable water corresponding to 30 deg C at mean sea level is 123mm. But
as the Timah Tasoh Dam Catchment level is about 200m, the precipitable water for the same dew
point temperature up to level 200m must be deducted. From Table 2.4, the precipitable water up to
level 200m is 6mm. Therefore the precipitable water WPt above Timah Tasoh catchment is
WPt = 123-6 = 117mm.
Therefore the Storm-Maximisation Factor is WPm/WPs for the respective stations . the computed
factors are presented in Table 2.9.
Table 2.9 Storm Maximisation Factors Derived for the Various Storm Events

WPt 117 117 117 117 117 117
WPs 69.8 73.8 63 63 63 71
Moisture Adjustment
and Transposition
1.67 1.58 1.85 1.85 1.85 1.64
Factor
WPt / WPs
The Point PMP estimated based on the various historical storms can then be estimated by multiplying
the observed rainfall Po by WPt/WPs
PMP = Po x WPt/WPs (2.8)
Finally to convert the Point PMP to Catchment PMP, the ARF (Areal Reduction Factor) was applied.
From Fig 2.10 the ARFs for a catchemt area of 191 km2 are:
0.94 for a 24-hour duration rainstorm

0.96 for a 72-hour duration rainstorm
2-30 March 2009

The results of PMP computations are presented in Table 2.10
Table 2.10 PMPs Derived from the Various Historical Storms

PMP at Timah Tasoh Dam
(mm)
24- hr Point PMP 1010 686 1125 660 431 574
24-hr ARF 0.94 0.94 0.94 0.94 0.94 0.94
24-hr Catchment PMP 950 645 1057 621 405 540
72-hr Point PMP 1909 1332 2192 1212 692 590
72- hr ARF 0.96 0.96 0.96 0.96 0.96 0.96
72-hr Catchment PMP 1832 1279 2105 1163 664 567
From Table 2.10 it can be seen that the maximum 24-hr catchment PMP is 1057 mm and the critical
72-hr catchment PMP is 2105 mm both derived from the Kota Bahru storm of 1967. The overall
computation is presented in Table 2.10. It has been the practice to estimate PMP for many dam
projects in the country based on the East Coast storms in particular the Mersing and Air Tawar
storms and of late the Kota Bahru and Kuala Terengganu Storms (See Table 2.5) regardless of
whether the nature of storm experienced in the target area (in this case the Timah Tasoh
catchment) is the same or not with the East Coast storms. The East Coast of Peninsular Malaysia
experiences monsoonal rain due to rain brought by the north easterly wind. Timah Tasoh catchment
is separated from the east coast by a high mountain range and the validity of the transposition may
be questionable. However, storms from Padang Besar and Butterworth which lies on the same side
of the main range as the Timah Tasoh Dam catchment is acceptable. If the Padang Besar and
Butterworth storms are adopted for storm maximization and transposition the PMPs would be:
the 24-hour catchment PMP = 540 mm and

the 72-hour catchment PMP = 664 mm
March 2009 2-31

Table 2.11 Complete Tabulation of PMP Estimation Using Storm Maximisation

Approach for Tamah Tasoh Dam
maximum persisting dew point at Timah Tasoh Dam 30

Catchment(deg C) (from Fig 2.13)
Average elevation of Timah-Tasoh Catchment (m) 195
Dam catchment area (km2) 191
Areal Reduction Factor - ARF(from Fig. 2.10) 0.94
Above sea level (Table 2.4) 123
Below EL 195m (Table 2.4) 6
Above Timah-Tasoh catchment (WPt) 117
From 29-Dis-70 06-Dis-60 02-Jan-67 18-Nov-88 18-Nov-88 16-Sep-95
To 04-Jan-71 10-Dis-60 06-Jan-67 21-Nov-88 21-Nov-88 18-Sep-95
Observed Rainfall
24-hr rainfall (mm) 605 434 608 357 233 350
72-hr Rainfall (mm) 1143 843 1185 655 374 360
12-hr persistent dew point
(deg C)
observed storm 23.3 23.9 22 22 22 23.5
at sea level
23.3 24.1 22 22.3 22.2 23.5
(from Fig 2.12)
(from Table 2.4)
above sea level 69.8 74.7 63 64.5 64 71
below station level 0 0.9 0 1.5 1 0
above station level
69.8 73.8 63 63 63 71
(WPs)
Moisture Adjustment and 1.67 1.58 1.85 1.85 1.85 1.64
Transposition Factor
PMP at Timah Tasoh Dam
(mm)
24- hr Point PMP 1010 686 1125 660 431 574
24-hr ARF 0.94 0.94 0.94 0.94 0.94 0.94
24-hr Catchment PMP 950 645 1057 621 405 540
72-hr Point PMP 1909 1332 2192 1212 692 590
72- hr ARF 0.96 0.96 0.96 0.96 0.96 0.96
72-hr Catchment PMP 1832 1279 2105 1163 664 567
2-32 March 2009

2.5.8.3 The Statistical Method
The statistical method developed by Hershfield is a more simplified method and is adopted if the
other data such as dew points and wind records are not available. The estimation of the statistical
PMP is similar to the frequency factor approach (described in section 2.6.8) carried out to estimate
statistical extreme precipitation such as the 100-year ARI precipitation. The equation is a follows:
Xt = Xn + Km . Sn (2.9)
Where:
Km is the frequency factor whose value depends on the frequency distribution selected to fit
the annual maximum rainfall series. Values of Km depends on storm duration and the mean
annual maximum rainfall and can be obtained from Figure 2.14
Xn, the mean of the annual maximum rainfall records
Sn, the standard deviation of the annual maximum rainfall data.
Figure 2.15 Km as a Function of Rainfall Duration and Mean Annual Series (after Hershfield)
Hershfield also developed the charts to facilitate determination of various adjustment factors in an
attempt to correct bias in datasets for outliers, record length and manually read rainfall data.
f1 : to adjust Xn based on length of records n and Xn-m/Xn (see Figure 2.16)

f2 : to adjust Sn based on length of records and Sn-m/Xn (see Figure 2.17)
f3 and f4: to adjust Xn and Sn based on length of records n (see Figure 2.18)
f5 : to adjust PMP based on number of readings made over fixed interval records (see Figure
2.19)

March 2009 2-33
Chaptter 2 PRECIPIT
TATION
Figure 2.16 f1 the Adjusstment Facto

F or for Xn for to
t cater for Maximum
M Ob
bserved Rainffall

Figure 2.17
7 f3 the Adjjustment facttor for Sn to cater for Maxximum Obse
erved Rainfall
2-34 March
M 2009
Chaptter 2 PRECIPIT
TATION
LengthofRecord (yyears)
Figure 2.18
2 f3 and f4, Factors to Adjust Xn an
nd Sn Based on Length o
of Records

e 2.19 f5 Facctor to adjustt PMP based on number of

Figure o readings made
m over fixxed interval records
March 2009
2 2-35
2.5.8.4 Example of PMP Derived Using Statistical Method
The example below shows the determination of statistical PMP.
To estimate the PMP at Timah Tasoh dam catchment , the 24-hour annual maximum rainfall time
series were extracted for four rainfall stations namely
Kaki Bukit Station (DID station 6602002)

Tasoh Station (DID station 6502003)
Kangar (MMS station 41614)
The relevant statistics for PMP estimation are shown in Table 2.12.
Table 2.12 24- hour Rainfall Statistics
Stations Kaki Bukit Tasoh Kangar A Setar

Mean (mm) Xn 103.4 95.4 94.9 100.1
Maximum (mm) Xm 212 200 137.6 178.8
mean w/o max (mm) Xn-m 100.7 92.4 92.8 98.2
mean ratio Xn-m/Xn 0.97 0.97 0.98 0.98
std deviation (mm) Sn 30.8 33.4 21.3 27.1

SD w/o max (mm) Sn-m 26.1 28.7 19.5 24.5
SD ratio Sn-m/Sn 0.85 0.86 0.92 0.90
Mean ratio Xn-m/Xn and SD ratio Sn-m/Sn are required for the determination of adjustment factors f1,
f2, f3 and f4 . The factors are obtained using charts in Figure 2.16, 2.17 and 2.18. Table 2.13
presents the adjustment factors and the adjusted Xn and Sn values.
Xn' = f1. f2. Xn (2.10)
Sn' = f3. f4. Sn (2.11)
Table 2.13 Determination of Adjustment Factors f1 to f4

length of records (years) n 42 36 21 42
Adjustment factors for mean
max obs rainfall (fig 2.15) f1 0.99 1 1.03 1
length of record (fig 2.17) f2 1 1.01 1.02 1
Adjusted Mean (mm) Xn' 102 96 100 100
Adjustment factors for SD
max obs rainfall (fig 2.16) f3 0.92 0.95 1.04 1
length of record (fig 2.17) f4 1.01 1.02 1.08 1.01
Adjusted SD (mm) Sn' 28.62 32.36 23.92 27.37
2-36 March 2009

Next the PMP frequency factor Km were determined from Figure 2.15. Km = 15 for all stations.
Another factor f5 was determined for all the stations and this relates to the number of observations
made during the 24-hour time interval. All the data are from manually read rainfall stations and it is
therefore 1 reading per 24-hour interval. From Figure 2.19, f5 = 1.13 for all stations. The computed
24-hour PMPs for all four stations are presented in Table 2.14.
Table 2.14 Computed Statistical PMP

Adjusted Mean (mm) Xn' 102 96 100 100
Adjusted SD (mm) Sn' 28.62 32.36 23.92 27.37
PMP frequency factor

(fig 2.14) Km 15 15 15 15
Factor for observation

1 reading per day (fig 2.18) f5 1.13 1.13 1.13 1.13
24-hr Point PMP (mm) 601 657 518 577

catchment area (km2) 191 191 191 191
Areal Reduction Factor ARF 0.94 0.94 0.94 0.94
24-hr Catchment PMP (mm) 565 618 487 542
The 24-hour point PMPs were computed using

Point
PMP =( Xn' + Km. Sn'). f5 (2.12)
The 24-hour catchment PMP is
Catchment PMP = ARF x Point PMP (2.13)
The highest 24-hour catchment PMP is the one derived from the Tasoh Station and is equal to
618mm. Compare this to the 24-hour point PMP of 540 mm derived using Storm Maximisation and
Transposition approach (see Example in Section 2.5.8.2)
March 2009 2-37

2.5.8.5 Temporal and Spatial Distribution of PMP
Having determined the PMP, the next step is to distribute the PMP spatially and temporally.. This is
done by computing the DAD curves for a typical large storm and the temporal and spatial
distribuition shown in the DAD curves can be applied. Derivation of DAD curves is a time consuming
process and in many projects the spatial distribution is taken care by simply applying the areal
reduction factor to the point PMP as have been done in the above PMP examples and a bell shaped
temporal distribution adopted. There are several temporal rainfall distribution that could be adopted
and Figure 2.20 presents several popularly used distribution (Moore and Riley)
Figure 2.20 Comparison of Various Temporal Rainfall Distributions

(Moore and Riley )

Moore, et al conclude that the World Curve Distribution was found to provide a valid basis for design
of high hazard structures and the World Curve Distribution for a 24-hour storm together with some
other distributions considered in their study is presented in Table 2.15.
2-38 March 2009

Table 2.15 Temporal Rainfall Distributions of a 24-hour Rainstorm
Rainfalldistribution(%)
Duration
World
(hr) ESFB HMR52 5Point
curve
0 0 0 0 0
1 21.6 19.2 1.2 1.5
2 30.1 35.3 2.4 3
3 36.6 43.3 3.7 4.5
4 42.1 48.7 5.2 5.9
6 51.2 57.4 8.6 8.9
9 62.3 67.4 28.4 42.9
12 71.5 75.8 77.6 76.9
15 79.7 82.9 87.2 84
18 87 89.2 94.2 91.1
21 93.8 94.8 97.3 95.5
24 100 100 100 100
REFERENCE
[1]Curtis, D.C. and Burnash, R.J.C., Inadvertent rain gauge inconsistencies and their effect on
hydrologic analysis, 1996 California-Nevada ALERT Users Group Conference, Ventura, CA, May 15-
17, 1996.
[2] DID, Varieties of rainfall with area in peninsular Malaysia, water resources Publication No 17.
[3]World Meteorological Organization-No.322,Manual for Estimation of Probable Maximum

Precipitation, Geneva, 1973
[4]NAHRIM, Technical Research Publication (TRP) No.1-Derivation of probable Maximum

Precipitation for design Floods in Malaysia, August 2007.
[5] James N Moore and Ray C Riley, Comparison of Temporal Rainfall Distributions for Near
Probable Maximum Precipitation Storm Events for Dam Design , National Water Management
Center, NRCS
[6] Hershfield, D. M. (1965) Method for Estimating Maximum Probable Precipitation, Journal
of American Waterworks Association, Vol. 57, pp. 965-972
March 2009 2-39

(This page is intentionally blank)
2-40 March 2009

CHAPTER 3 WATER LOSSES
Chapter 3 WATER LOSSES
Table of Contents

List of Tables ......................................................................................................................... 3-ii
List of Figures ........................................................................................................................ 3-ii
3.1 LOSSES TEMPORARY AND PERMANENT ........................................................................ 3-1
3.2 EVAPORATION ........................................................................................................... 3-1
3.3 MEASUREMENT OF EVAPORATION ............................................................................... 3-2
3.4 EVAPORATION FROM OPEN WATER SURFACES ............................................................. 3-3
3.5 TRANSPIRATION ........................................................................................................ 3-3
3.6 EVAPOTRANSPIRATION .............................................................................................. 3-3
3.7 FAOs PENMAN-MONTIETH METHOD ............................................................................ 3-3
3.8 INTERCEPTION .......................................................................................................... 3-4
3.9 SURFACE RETENTION ................................................................................................. 3-4
3.10 INFILTRATION ........................................................................................................... 3-4
3.11 SUMMARY .................................................................................................................. 3-7
REFERENCE ........................................................................................................................... 3-8
March 2009 3-i

List of Tables

3.1 Pan Coefficients 3-3
3.2 Parameter Estimates for Horton Infiltration Model (ASCE 1996) 3-5
3.3 Green-Ampt Parameters for Various Soil Classes 3-7
List of Figures

3.1 Evaporation Pan Class A Aluminium Pan 3-2
3.2 The Green-Ampt Equation concepts 3-6
3-ii March 2009

3 WATER LOSSES
3.1 LOSSES TEMPORARY AND PERMANENT
The rainfall-runoff process is complicated. Not all rainfall on a catchment results in runoff. In addition
even runoff can be subdivided into surface and subsurface runoff. Surface runoff reaches the river
rapidly and is also known as rapid runoff while sub-surface runoff flows to the river slowly. In a
simplistic manner, the relation between rainfall, water losses and volume of water reaching a river
may be expressed:
VT=P-LP (3.1)
where P is Rainfall.
Lp is that portion of the rainfall permanently lost (deep percolation and
Evapotranspiration
VT is quantity or water reaching the river.
Rainfall is lost through infiltration into the ground and evapotranspiration. The part that infiltrates
may emerge again to form surface runoff or may result in deep percolation.
In flood simulation where the interest is in rapid suface runoff and the relation between the rainfall,
water losses and volume of water rapidly reaching a river may be expressed as:
VR=P-Lp-LT (3.2)
where LT is that portion of the rainfall that infiltrates and slowly emerges and enters the river
by subsurface flow
VR is quantity or water rapidly reaching the river by surface runoff (rapid runoff)
During extended periods of no rainfall, it is the sub-surface flow which maintains the river discharge
and this discharge is usually referred to as the base flow.
3.2 EVAPORATION
Evaporation is water lost to the atmosphere. Open water evaporation depends on two main factors:
energy (mainly solar energy) to provide latent heat of vaporization and wind to transport the vapour
from the water surface.
Evaporation can be obtained by direct measurement (from evaporation pans) or computed using
empirical equations.
Evaporation from a catchment comes from open water surfaces, from the soil and from vegetative
surface (also known as transpiration). For saturated soils the evaporation is expected to be
essentially the same as open water evaporation. As the water table drops, the evaporation from soil
surface drops drastically. In general, the rate of evaporation from soil surfaces usually is less than
that from an open water surface. The rate of evaporation from a soil surface depends on the
moisture of the soil at the surface. The actual evaporation from a catchment is therefore less than
the potential evaporation which is the open water evaporation.
DID Water Resources Publication No; 5: Evaporation in Peninsular Malaysia, 1976" gives more
details on this subject.
March 2009 3-1

3.3 MEASUREMENT OF EVAPORATION
Evaporation pans are used to measure evaporation. A typical evaporation pan is as shown in Figure
3.1
Figure 3.1 Evaporation Pan Class A Aluminium Pan
The rate of evaporation from a pan is dependent on its exposure conditions, material of construction
and colour and accordingly there are different pan coefficients for different types of pans. The
coefficient relates the rate of evaporation from the pan to that from a large open water surface. The
U.S. Weather Bureau Class A galvanised iron pan has been adopted as standard pan for use in DID.
Due to maintenance problems the material for making the pan was changed to unpainted aluminium
pans in 1980. The pan coefficients for various types of Class A pans is reported in DID Water
Resources Publication (WRP No 11) "Comparison of Performance of U.S. Class A Evaporation
Galvanised Iron Pan and Aluminium Pan, 1982".
The U.S. Weather Bureau Class A pan is approximately 1,210 mm. internal diameter and 255mm.
deep (See Figure 3.1) placed on a raised timber platform on open level ground. The pan is made of
No. 20 gauge aluminium plate and is unpainted. On one side of the pan is a stilling chamber
complete with fixed point gauge. The water surface in the pan is maintained at 190mm. from the
bottom of the pan. Details on installation, maintenance and observation procedure can be obtained
from DID Hydrological Procedure No. 21: "Evaporation Data Collection using Class A Aluminium Pan,
1981".
Evaporation is measured daily at about 8.00 a.m. and recorded against the previous day's date, as in
the case of recording daily rainfall observations. Water in the pan is set to 190mm depth. After a
period evaporation will reduce the water depth and this is the pan evaporation. But because the
order of daily evaporation is in millimeters (average daily evaporation is about 5mm in Malaysia)
accurate measurement id difficult. Measurement is aided by appoint gauge in the stilling chamber. If
rain occurs, depth of water in the pan may be more than 190mm in which case, water from the pan
will have to be removed in order to lower the water level to the top of the of the point gauge.
The estimation of evaporation rates may also be carried out by the energy balance method,
aerodynamic method or the combined energy balance and aerodynamic method.
3-2 March 2009

3.4 EVAPORATION FROM OPEN WATER SURFACES
To convert pan evaporation to open water surface evaporation the observed pan evaporation must
be multiplied with a pan coefficient. A study using evaporation data obtained from three types of
Class A pans installed at the DID Research Station at Ampang from 1977 to 1980 yields the following
pan coefficients:
Table 3.1 Pan Coefficients
Pan Coefficient
Black painted Unpainted G.I. Aluminium
Surface
Unpainted
G.I. Pan Pan
Pan
Open Water 0.90 0.99 1.03
3.5 TRANSPIRATION
Transpiration is the vaporisation of water through the tissues of vegetation. The vegetation takes up
water from the soil and returns part of it to the atmosphere. The rate of transpiration depends on
the type of plant, its stage of development, temperature, solar radiation, sunshine hours, moisture
available, wind speed, etc.
3.6 EVAPOTRANSPIRATION
Evapotranspiration or consumptive use of water is the amount of water transpired by vegetation

during growth for building of plant tissue including water evaporated from adjacent soil and water
surface and water intercepted during rainfall.
The rate of evapotranspiration varies with the stage of development of the vegetation and also
depends on the availability of water. Consequently the term "Potential evapotranspiration is used for
the loss which would occur if sufficient water is available
When water is applied to the soil surface, the upper layers absorb moisture which is held by capillary
attraction while some passes downwards to make up the free groundwater. The maximum water
held in the upper layers is called the "field capacity" and is available for absorption by the vegetation
until a stage is reached (wilting point) when the surface tension in the water equals the suction
power of the plants and no further water may be removed.
If crops are to grow this capillary moisture in the upper layers must be replenished by irrigation or
rainfall to ensure that sufficient water is available for transpiration. Many equations have been
developed for the computation of evapotranspiration, all of which are empirical since it has not been
possible to derive a purely theoretical relation which includes all factors.
3.7 FAOs PENMAN-MONTIETH METHOD
The Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) of the United Nations recommends a standardized
method to compute reference evapotranspiration (ETo) from meteorological data i.e. the FAO
Penman-Monteith method as this method as It is a method with strong likelihood of correctly
predicting ETo in a wide range of locations and climates and has provision for application in data-
short situations
March 2009 3-3

Penman-Montieth Equation
In 1948, Penman derived an equation to compute the evaporation from an open water surface from
standard climatological records of sunshine, temperature, humidity and wind speed. This method
was further developed by many researchers and extended to cropped surfaces by introducing
resistance factors and under FAO, the Penman-Montieth Method evolved. The Penman-Monteith
equation is given by:
(es -ea )
Rn -G+a Cp
ra
ETo = r (3.3)
+1+ s
ra
where Rn is the net radiation, G is the soil heat flux, (es - ea) represents the vapour pressure deficit
of the air, r a is the mean air density at constant pressure, cp is the specific heat of the air, D
represents the slope of the saturation vapour pressure temperature relationship, g is the
psychrometric constant, and rs and ra are the (bulk) surface and aerodynamic resistances. Details of
the FAO Penman-Montieth Method for computing reference crop evapotranspiration is given in FAO
Irrigation and Drainage Paper 56.
FAO also distributes a software CROPWAT which assist the user in estimation of reference crop water
requirement ETo using the Penman-Montieth method,
3.8 INTERCEPTION
When rain falls, a portion of it is caught by vegetation and is later evaporated; thus never reaching
the ground. This interception loss is highest at the start of a storm, but as the capacity is satisfied, a
greater proportion of the rain reaches the ground.
Thus the amount of rain collected in a correctly exposed, rain gauge is not the same as the amount
reaching the ground in nearby areas under vegetation. In light storm no rain may teach the ground
at all.
3.9 SURFACE RETENTION
The surface retention includes interception and depression storage. It is that part of the rain which
does not appear as stream flow during or immediately after a storm, The depression storage is the
water which collects in depressions in the ground surface.
3.10 INFILTRATION
Infiltration is the movement of water into the soil surface and is the source of water to sustain
vegetation growth and groundwater supply. The main factors influencing rate of infiltration are the
vegetation cover, the soil structure and soil moisture. Vegetation cover prevents surface sealing due
to impact of raindrops and has a major influence in maintaining infiltration rate. Soil structure
determines the size and continuity of pore space in the soil and is influenced by the size of the
particles that make up the soil the degree of aggregation of soil particles.
When rain falls on a soil surface some or all of it passes through into the underlying soil. At the
beginning of a storm the rate of infiltration high, but it slowly decreases to a limiting value.
The decrease in the rate of infiltration is due to the compaction of the soil surface by the impact of
the rain drops, the clogging of the small pore in the soil, swelling of clay particles due to the
absorption of moisture, and the filling of the pores with capillary moisture thus creating resistance to
flow to lower levels.
3-4 March 2009

Infiltration rate will achieve its potential if the rate of water becoming available for infiltration (i.e the
rainfal intensity less the rate of surface retention) is equal to or greater than the existing rate of
infiltration.
There are various commonly used infiltration equations. One of the simplest equations is the Hortons
infiltration equation.
Horton developed the following infiltration equation:
fp = fc + (fo fc) e-Kt (3.4)
fp is infiltration capacity which is the maximum rate at which water can enter the soil under
given conditions.
Fo is maximum rate of infiltration existing at the beginning of the storm, i.e. when
t=0
fc is constant value of rate of infiltration to which the infiltration tends with time.
Table 3.2 Parameter Estimates for Horton Infiltration Model (ASCE 1996)
fc f0 Kt
Soil and Cover
mm/h mm/h min-1
Standard Agricultural(bare) 280 6-220 1.6
Standard Agricultural(turfed) 900 20-290 0.8
Peat 325 2-29 1.8
Fine sandy clay (bare) 210 2-25 2.0
Fine sandy clay (turfed) 670 10-30 1.4
Infiltration is essentially vertical flow of water through the unsaturated zone of the soil to the ground
water table (the saturated zone). Darcys Law of flow through a porous medium describe flow rate
per unit area of soil q as:
h
q= -K (3.5)
z
Where K: is the hydraulic conductivity of the soil, dh: the differential head and dz, the differential +
K) vertical distance.
The total head at any point in the unsaturated soil is the sum of suction head and the gravity head
z.
h= +z (3.6)
hence
(+z)
q= -K (3.7)
z
The continuity equation for one-dimensional unsteady and unsaturated flow in a soil is given by:
q
+ =0 (3.8)
t z
where is the soil moisture content.
March 2009 3-5

Combining the flow rate equation with the continuity equation yields the one-dimensional Richards
Equation:
y y y
= (D + K) (3.9)
x x x
Richards Equation in its general form cannot be solved analytically and therefore Richards equation
is often solved using numerical approximations.
Another infiltration equation often adopted is the Green-Ampt infiltration equation. The Green-Ampt
infiltration method simplifies the infiltration concept so that an analytical solution to the infiltration
equation can be obtained. The method assumes that the wetting front as water infiltrates into the
soil is a sharp boundary dividing soil of moisture content = i with the saturated soil (moisture
content = s) above. The concept is as illustrated below.
water i s =H
z =0 h1 = H + 0
soil
wetting front z = zf h2 = f + z f
= f
z (negative direction)
Figure 3.2 The Green-Ampt equation concepts
The Green-Ampt Equation is derived based on Darcys equation:
h2 -h1 f +Zf -H+0 f +Zf -H

q=-K5 =-K5 =-K5 (3.10)
z2 -z1 Zf -0 Zf
where,
H = the depth of ponding, cm,

Ks = saturated hydraulic conductivity (cm/s),
q = flux at the surface (cm/h) and is negative,
f = suction at wetting front (negative pressure head),
i = initial moisture content (dimensionless) and
s = saturated moisture content (dimensionless)
zf =distance of wetting front from soil surface.
However, the following simplifying assumptions are made:
a) The wetting front is a sharp boundary with constant volumetric water contents above and below
the wetting front.
b) The soil-water suction immediately below the wetting front remains constant as the wetting front
advances.
The Green Ampt equation for cumulative infiltration is given by:
F
K5 t=F-f s -i ln 1+ (3.11)
s -i f
3-6 March 2009

The Green-Ampt equation for infiltration rate is:
s -i f
f=Ks 1+ (3.12)
F
Table 3.3 shows typical values of porosity, effective porosity, wetting front soil suction head and
hydraulic conductivity for various soil classes.
Table 3.3 Green-Ampt Parameters for Various Soil Classes
Soil class Porosity

Effective Wetting front Hydraulic
Porosity soil suction conductivity
c (cm) k (cm/h)
Sand 0.437 0.417 4.95 11.78
(0.374-0.500) (0.354-0.480) (0.97-25.36)
Loamy Sand 0.437 0.401 6.13 2.99
(0.363-0.506) (0.329-0.473) (1.35-27.94)
Loam 0.463 0.434 8.89 0.34
(0.375-0.551) (0.334-0.534) (1.33-59.38)
Silt Loam 0.501 0.486 16.68 0.65
(0.420-0.582) (0.394-0.578) (2.92-95.39)
Sandy clay 0.398 0.33 21.85 0.15
loam (0.332-0.464) (0.235-0.425) (4.42-108.0)
Clay Loan 0.464 0.309 20.88 0.1
(0.409-0.519) (0.279-0.501) (4.79-91.10)
Silty Clay 0.471 0.432 27.30 0.1
loam (0.418-0.524) (0.347-0.517) (5.67-131.50)
Sandy clay 0.430 0.321 23.90 0.06
(0.370-0.490) (0.207-0.435) (4.08-140.2)
Silty Clay 0.479 0.423 29.22 0.05
(0.425-0.533) (0.334-0.512) (6.13-139.4)
Clay 0.475 0.385 31.63 0.03
(0.427-0.523) (0.269-0.501) (6.39-156.5)
The number in parentheses below each parameter are one standard deviation around the
parameter value given. Source: Rawls, Brakensiek, and miller, 1983.
3.11 SUMMARY
Summarising the above, therefore, the relation between volume of water reaching the river, rainfall,
losses etc., may be expressed as follows.
The total volume of runoff VT is given by precipitation P minus the permanent losses Lp:
VT = P - Lp (3.13)
The losses which together, make up the permanent losses Lp are interception, evaporation and
transpiration plus that part of infiltrated water reaching the sea or area outside the limits of the
catchment under consideration.
The total volume of rapid runoff, VR, which is the surface runoff component is precipitation P minus
the permanent losses Lp and minus the temporary loss LT
VR = P - Lp - LT (3.14)
March 2009 3-7

The temporary loss LT is that water lost by infiltration, but ultimately reaching the river within the
catchment area via subsurface flow through a slower route.
In general the flow rate Q is made up of two main components the rapid surface runoff QR and the
subsurface flow rate Qs.
Q = QR + Qs (3.15)
REFERENCE
[1] DID Water Resources Publication No.5, Evaporation in Peninsular Malaysia, Department of
Irrigation and Drainage (1976).
[2] Rawls, W.J., Brakensiek, D.L., and Miller, N, Green-Ampt Infiltration Parameters from Soils
Data, Journal of Hydraulic Engineering, Vol. 109, No. 1, American Society of Civil Engineers, 1983.
3-8 March 2009

CHAPTER 4 RIVER DISCHARGE
Chapter 4 RIVER DISCHARGE
Table of Contents

List of Tables ......................................................................................................................... 4-ii
List of Figures ........................................................................................................................ 4-ii
4.1 RAINFALL RIVER DISCHARGE RELATION ................................................................... 4-1
4.2 DATA REQUIRED ........................................................................................................ 4-1
4.2.1 Stage Discharge Relationship ........................................................................ 4-3
4.2.2 Permanent Control ....................................................................................... 4-3
4.3 EQUIPMENT ............................................................................................................... 4-8
4.3.1 Equipment for River Stage Measurements ...................................................... 4-8
4.3.2 Equipment for Measuring Current Velocities.................................................. 4-23
4.3.3 Discharge Measurement Method IV ............................................................. 4-37
4.4 CAUSES OF FLOOD AND THEIR ESTIMATION.............................................................. 4-45
4.5 ESTIMATION OF DESIGN FLOODS ............................................................................. 4-46
4.5.1 Empirical Methods and Regional Equations ................................................... 4-47
4.5.2 Hydrograph Method ................................................................................... 4-51
4.6 ESTIMATION OF PMF ................................................................................................ 4-58
REFERENCE ......................................................................................................................... 4-65
APPENDIX 4A MOVING BOAT METHOD BY KLEIN, ET. AL. ....................................................... 4A-1
March 2009 4-i

List of Tables
4.1a Calculations Output of Example 4-7
4.2 Summarizes the Discharge Measurement Methods Described Above, Their Typical
Applications and Required Equipment 4-38
4.3 Coefficients of the MAF Regional Equations 4-48
4.4 Constants of the FF Regional Equations 4-49
4.5 Catchment Groups of HP11 and Parameters 4-49
4.6 Parameters of Dimensionless Triangular Flood Hydrographs 4-50
4.7 Incremental Area, Rainfall and Effective Rainfall Hyetographs 4-52
4.8 Derivation of Runoff Hydrograph Using the Time-Area Method 4-53
4.9 Methods of Estimating Loss Rates Recommended in MSMA Manual 4-54
4.10 4-hourly Effective Rainfall Hyetograph 4-55
4.11 Derivation of the DRH by Convolution Process 4-56
4.12 Computation of Lag Time Lg 4-58
4.13 Computation of Unit Hydrograph Parameters 4-59
4.14 Ordinates of the Synthetic 2-hour UHs for Unit Rainfall of 1cm 4-60
4.15 2- Hourly Effective Rainfall Hyetographs 4-61
4.16 Derivation of DRH for Catchment A 4-61
4.17 Derivation of DRH for Catchment B 4-62
4.18 Derivation of DRH for Catchment C 4-63
4.19 Combining the Catchment hydrographs to form the PMF 4-64
List of Figures
4.1a, 4.1b Stage-Discharge Curve 4-3
4.2 aStage Discharge Curve: Arithmetic Plot and 4.2b Stage Discharge Curve
Logarithmic Plot 4-4
4.3 Selections of Q1, Q2, Q3 4-5
4.4 Typical Graduated Plastic Plate Used in Building a Stick Gauge 4-9
4.5 Multiple Stick Gauge Installation at K. Jemakah, Endau. 4-10
4.6 Float & Stilling Well Method for Water Level Monitoring 4-11
4.7 Typical Drawing for Float and Stilling Well Installation 4-12
4.8 Submersible-Type Pressure Sensor with External Standalone Data Logger 4-13
4.9 A Sherlock DP20 Gas Bubbler System with Gas Tank in Background. 4-15
4.10 Typical Single Line Installation of Gas Bubbler System 4-16
4-ii March 2009


4.11 Ultrasonic Water Level Sensor Installed from a Custom Arm Rest Overlooking the
Water Surface. 4-17
4.12 Regular Maintenance Includes Silt Removal from Stilling Well. 4-21
4.13 Submersible Pressure Sensor and Stilling Pipe before Cleaning 4-22
4. 14 Submersible Pressure Sensor and Stilling Pipe after Cleaning. 4-22
4.15a Ott C31 Propeller-Type Universal Current Velocity Meter 4-24
4.15b. Ott C2 Propeller-Type Current Velocity Meter for Small Streams 4-24
4.16 Pigmy Cup-Type Current Velocity Meter, also for Small Streams 4-25
4.17 Ott C2 Current Meter with Wading Rod and Counter 4-26
4.18 Current Meter and Sinker Weight (Yellow) Being Lowered Down from a Cableway 4-27
4.19 Type SDW-ES Electric Double Drum Winch with Invariable Motor 4-27
4.20 Hand-Operated A-Frame with Russian which Developed from a Bridge 4-28
4.21 Portable Gauging Winch with Boom Mounted to a Static Boat. 4-28
4.22 Electrical double drum gauging winch firmly anchored to secured cableway shelter 4-29
4.23 Typical Cableway Installation Drawing 4-30
4.24 Cableway with Weight Attached for Deployment 4-30
4.25 Rod Floats on Standby for Deployment. 4-31
4.26 Equally Sub-Divided Vertical Areas along River Cross-Section 4-33
4.27 One-Point and Two-Point Gauging VA Method 4-33
4.28 Coefficient to Convert Measured Float Velocity to Stream Velocity. 4-34
4.29 Float Deployment from a Bridge. 4-36
4.30 Profile Drawing of a Sharp-Crested Weir 4-37
4.31 Upstream Velocity Head would be much higher than the Downstream 4-40
4.32 A Single Point Acoustic Current Meter or ACM 4-44
4.33 Triangular Direct Runoff Hydrograph of HP11 4-50
4.34 Time-Area Method 4-53
4.35 4-hour UH for 1 cm Effective Rain and Tabulated UH Ordinates 4-54
4.36 Convolution of UH of Figure 5.4 with Effective Rain (ER) Hyetograph of Table 4.9 4-57
4.37 Triangular Unit Hydrograph 4-59
4.38 The 24-Hour PMF and the Component Catchment Hydrographs 4-65
March 2009 4-iii

4-iv March 2009

4 RIVER DISCHARGE
4.1 RAINFALL RIVER DISCHARGE RELATION
The entry of water into a river as a result of a particular storm occurs over a long period of time; in
large catchments it may take several years before all the water from a particular storm has reached
the rivers. It is therefore necessary to appreciate that the river discharge at any given time at a point
in a river is not simple related to any one storm of series of storms. Analyses of the rate of discharge
are usually referred to as Intensity Studies.
The relation between precipitation and runoff, referred to as the rainfall runoff relation since
rainfall is practically the only source of precipitation in Malaysia, is complex and dependent on many
factors. The factors are:
a) Precipitation Characteristics.
(i) Amount of rain
(ii) Intensity of rainfall
(iii) Extent of the storm
(iv) Seasonal distribution of rain
(v) Type of rainfall
(vi) Temperature
(vii) Relative humidity
(viii) Winds.
b) Catchment Characteristics.
(i) Size of catchment
(ii) Shape of catchment
(iii) Location of catchment in relation to storm path
(iv) Topography
(v) Geology
(vi) Vegetation
(vii) Extent and type of development
(viii) Lakes and swamps.
c) Storage Characteristics.
(i) Surface storage (depression storage and surface detention)
(ii) Reservoir storage (natural and artificial)
(iii) Ground Storage.
It is not proposed to deal at this stage with the effect of each factor on the runoff but it is obvious
that the relation is so complex that the only reliable manner in which data can be obtained for design
purposes is by accurate direct measurement. For this reason it is essential to pay great attention to
the methods and equipment used in such investigations. And to check continually the results
obtained. The need to check cannot be over emphasized as unreliable observations cannot be
rectified and may prove extremely expensive by rendering a scheme partly or completely valueless in
spite of great care in topographic surveys, design and construction. Such failures must not be
permitted and hence constant checking is essential to eliminate unsatisfactory results and to limit the
amount of time wasted on such observations.
4.2 DATA REQUIRED
The hydrological information generally required for design purposes comprises regular water level
observations and corresponding values of discharge over the entire range of flow. All heights should
be expressed in meter above mean sea level.
March 2009 4-1

It is thus necessary to measure at regular intervals, or continuously. The water levels at selected
points on certain rivers. These are tabulated and should be prepared in" a graphical form relating
water level and time of observation, usually referred to as a Stage Hydrograph.
It is also necessary to measure the velocity of the stream, its water level at time of observation, the
cross section at the gauging station, and to note whether the water level is rising or falling. From
these measurements the discharges are computed corresponding to different stages of flow and
hence the Stage-Discharge Curve is prepared, which relates the water level and discharge.
The stage-discharge curve is used to compute the discharges from the regularly observed water
levels. The corresponding discharges are then both tabulated and presented in graphical form as a
Discharge Hydrograph. This relates the discharge and the time.
Thus offices operating river discharge stations should have the following information immediately
available for all stations:
a) Reduced water levels and time of observation in tabular form.

b) Stage hydrograph.
c) Discharges and time of occurrence in tabular form.
d) Discharge hydrograph.
e) Cross section of stream.
f) Stage and corresponding discharge observations with time of observation.
g) Stage - discharge curve.
h) Field books containing details of field measurements of velocities.
i) Notes on changes in catchment, dredging of rivers, construction of structures in the river,
and details of water level equipment e.g. changes in stick gauge datum, damage to
recorders etc.
From the above information, analyses can be made to supply the designer with any information
required regarding peak flows, duration of flows, frequency of occurrence of flows, etc.
In the case of water level stations, the information which should be immediately available at all times
is:
a) Reduced water levels and time of observation in tabular form.

b) Stage hydrograph.
There are four main types of river observation stations operated by the Department:-
a) Water level stations. Here, water levels only are recorded.

b) Discharge Stations. In addition to reading water levels, velocity measurements are carried
out. This provides the information necessary to prepare a stage-discharge curve which is
generally produced for the entire range of stages at the discharge station. There are,
however, two exceptions to this.
c) High Stage discharge stations are generally established where interest is centered on flood
protection works or the minimum permissible waterway in the case of a new structure such
as a bridge. Observations are then restricted to the higher levels and discharges and no
routine measurements are undertaken.
d) Low stage discharge stations are usually operated for the purpose of investigating the value
of the stream as a source of water supply, particularly where the supply is directly from the
river without any impounding facilities. Provided the station is suitable for observation over
the necessary range of low stages, it does not matter if higher stages overspill and bypass
this type of station.
In all cases, methods of observation are the same and it is necessary to obtain an up to date survey
of the cross section.
4-2 March 2009

4.2.1 Stage Discharge Relationship
The aim of all current-meter and other direct discharge measurements is to prepare a stage-
discharge relationship which is also known as the rating curve. The measured value of the discharges
when plotted against the corresponding stages will enable us to estimate the discharges with respect
to the water depth.
Plots of the observed discharges Q at a gauging station versus the simultaneously observed gauged
water level G, one obtains a so-called scatter diagram of observed scatter points (Q,G). The
relationship could be:
i. Well-defined Fig 4.1a

ii. Complicated Fig 4.1b
Figure 4.1 a and 4.1b: Stage-Discharge Curve
The deviation from a well-defined relationship can becaused by different combined effects of a wide
range of channel and flow parameters such as:
i) Unsteady flow
ii) Backwater effects
iii) Unstable controls
iv) Change in roughness of the river bed condition
The combined effect of these parameters is termed control. If the stage discharge (G-Q) relationship
for a gauging section is well-defined, then the control is said to be permanent. Otherwise it is called
shifting control.
4.2.2 Permanent Control
In cases where the relationship between the stage and the discharge is almost well-defined, the
discharge (Q) in relation to the water gauged height (G), can be expressed by the rating equation as
follows:

Q = Cr (G a) (4.1)
March 2009 4-3

In which:
Q = stream discharge (m3/s)

G = gauge height (stage, m)
a = the gauge reading corresponding to zero discharge
Cr and are rating curve constants.
This relationship can be expressed graphically by plotting the observed stage (G) against the
corresponding discharge (Q) values in arithmetic (Figure 4.2a) or logarithmic plot (Figure 4.2b).
Logarithmic plot is advantageous as the equation above gives a straight line plot. The coefficient a,
Cr and need not be the same for the full range of stages.
Figure 4.2aStage Discharge Curve: Arithmetic Plot and 4.2b Stage Discharge Curve
Logarithmic Plot
The best values of Cr and for a given range of stage are obtained by the least-square error
method. Thus by taking logarithms,
logQ = loglog (G a ) + loglogC r (4.2)

or Y = X + b (4.3)
where:
Y = log Q(4.4)
X =log (G-a) (4.5)
b =log Cr (4.6)
For the best-fit straight line of N observations of X and Y, by regressing
X = log (G - a) on Y = log Q
XY - X Y
= (4.7)
N X2 - X 2
4-4 March 2009

Y- X
b= (4.8)
N
The coefficient of correlation r is given by:
N XY -( X) Y
r= 2 2
(4.9)
2 2
N X -( X) N Y2 - Y 2
For a perfect correlation, r = 1.0. If r is between 0.6 and 1.0 it is generally taken as a good
correlation.
Calculating a, Stage for Zero Discharge
The stage for zero discharge in the stream a is a hypothetical parameter and cannot be measured
in the field but can be obtained from the Running,s graphical method. In this method, the Q vs G
data are plotted to an arithmetic scale graph paper and a smooth curve through the plotted points
are drawn. Three points A, B and C on the curve are selected as in figure 4.3 such that their
respective discharges Q1, Q2 and Q3 are in geometric progression. i.e.
Q1 Q2
= (4.10)
Q2 Q3
2
or Q2 =Q1 Q3 (4.11)
G3 E
C
G2 D
B
Gauge Height G (m)
G1 Rating Curve
A
a
F
Q1 Q2 Q3
Discharge Q(m3/s)
Figure 4.3 Selections of Q1, Q2, Q3
March 2009 4-5

At A and B, vertical lines are drawn and then horizontal lines a drawn at B and C to get D and E as
intersection points with the verticals. Two straight line ED and BA are drawn to intersect at F. The
ordinate at F is the required value of a, that is the gauge height corresponding to zero discharge.
This method assumes that the lower part of the stage-discharge curve to be a parabola.
The value of the above can also be calculated based on the equation below:
G1 -a G2 -a
= (4.12)
G2 -a G3 -a
Therefore:
2
G1 G3 -G2
a= (4.13)
G1 +G3 -2G2
Example:
Following are the data of gauge and discharge collected at a particular river by stream gauging
operation.
a) Develop a stage discharge relationship for this section of the river

b) What is the coefficient of correlation of the derived relationship?
c) Estimate the discharge corresponding to a gauge reading of 4 m
Gauge readings (m) Discharge Gauge readings (m) Discharge

(m3/s) (m3/s)
4.18 95 2.20 22
4.48 114 2.01 16
4.18 105 2.68 35
3.90 87 1.92 13
1.43 3 3.11 48
1.80 10 4.33 109
1.65 7 4.63 123
1.49 5
4-6 March 2009

Calculation
Using the EXCEL Spreadsheet, establish the Table 4.1 below
Table 4.1a Calculations Output of Example
Q
Gauge X=
N G-a X2 Y=logQ Y2 (XY)
G(m) log(G-a)
(m3/s)
1 4.18 3.08 95 0.4881 0.2382 1.9772 3.9092 0.9651

2 4.48 3.38 114 0.5291 0.2800 2.0577 4.2341 1.0888
3 4.18 3.08 105 0.4881 0.2382 2.0194 4.0780 0.9857
4 3.90 2.80 87 0.4475 0.2003 1.9382 3.7568 0.8674
5 1.43 0.33 3 -0.4777 0.2282 0.4652 0.2164 -0.2222
6 1.80 0.70 10 -0.1557 0.0242 1.0123 1.0247 -0.1576
7 1.65 0.55 7 -0.2625 0.0689 0.8623 0.7436 -0.2264
8 1.49 0.39 5 -0.4046 0.1637 0.6979 0.4871 -0.2824
9 2.20 1.10 22 0.0395 0.0016 1.3343 1.7804 0.0527
10 2.01 0.91 16 -0.0399 0.0016 1.1975 1.4339 -0.0478
11 2.68 1.58 35 0.1995 0.0398 1.5444 2.3852 0.3080
12 1.92 0.82 13 -0.0858 0.0074 1.1151 1.2435 -0.0957
13 3.11 2.01 48 0.3031 0.0919 1.6769 2.8120 0.5083
14 4.33 3.23 109 0.5091 0.2592 2.0368 4.1486 1.0370
15 4.63 3.53 123 0.5483 0.3006 2.0887 4.3625 1.1452
March 2009 4-7

Table 4.1b Calculations Output of Example
N = 15
Sum X = 2.1262
Sum Y = 22.0239
Sum(XY) = 5.9261
2
SumX = 2.1438
2
SumY = 36.6160
2
(SumX) = 4.5206
2
(SumY) = 485.05
= 1.522
b = 1.2525
Cr = 17.89
r = 0.93
a = 1.1
G = 4 m

Q = Cr ( G - a ) m3/s
Q = 90.44 m3/s
Answer:
The stage discharge relationship for this section of the river is:
Q = 17.89 (4 1.1)1.522 (4.14)
The coefficient of correlation of the derived relationship = r = 0.93
The discharge corresponding to a gauge reading of 4 m = 90.4 m3/s
4.3 EQUIPMENT
This section covers the equipment involved in obtaining river discharge which includes the recording
of water level or river stage and measuring current velocities. Their typical installation, maintenance
and calibration and proper storage are also discussed.
4.3.1 Equipment for River Stage Measurements
The basic types of equipment currently used to measure water level or river stage in Malaysia are
generally confined to:
A. Stick Gauge Method
The traditional and manual method of measuring water level in an open channel is with a stick
gauge. The stick gauge must be graduated in decimetres and centimetres and the values read
thereinafter must refer to the elevation above mean sea level.
4-8 March 2009

The use of stick gauges graduated in any other manner should not be permitted as experience has
shown that it is a source of many errors in water level records. The Department has created and
adapted for use standard two-meter graduated phenolic, plastic, aluminum or fibreglass plate.
To determine the river discharge over a period of time, the gauge must be read at least twice daily.
More than one reading provides a means for checking the readings and also provides vital
information on any drastic changes in the river stage. Readings should be taken more frequently
when dynamic changes in stage e.g. high flow are expected or occur in the river body. Operation
and maintenance of the stick gauge is discussed later in this chapter. Figure 4.4 shows a typical
graduated plastic plate used by the Department while Figure. 4.5 represent a multiple-stick gauge
installation on a river bank. For details on specification and installation procedures please refer to
Hydrological Procedure (HP) No. 25. D.I.D. Hydrology Standard Stick Gauge for River Station
(1982).
Stick gauges may be installed either vertical or inclined. The inclined type should be carefully
graduated and accurately installed to ensure correct stage readings. Care should be taken to install
the gages solidly to prevent errors caused by changes in elevation of the supporting structure.
Figure 4.4 Typical Graduated Plastic Plate Used in Building a Stick Gauge
March 2009 4-9

Figure 4.5 Multiple Stick Gauge Installation at K. Jemakah, Endau.
B. Float and Stilling Well Method
One of the earliest automated equipment used to measure and record water level is a mechanical
recorder which used a moving ink pen and long roll of graph paper to record changes in water level.
A float is attached to one end of a steel cable and lowered into a stilling well where it rests on the
surface of the water. The cable then passes over a float pulley on the recorder and back into the
well. A counterweight is then attached to the opposite end of the cable to keep it taut. When the
water level changes, it causes the float to rise and fall. That movement is transferred to the pulley on
the recorder by the cable. As the pulley rotates it moves the pen back and forth, drawing a line on
the paper (Appendix 4A, Figure21/II/V). A battery-driven clock governs the speed at which the chart
paper is transported through the recorder.
The biggest drawback when using mechanical recorders is the time required to process the data that
they collected. It takes more than 100 m of paper and many reversals to match to record a year of
data. Since the data is analog, processing has to be done manually and results are then transferred
onto long-term paper graphs and subsequently digitized onto computers. Figure 4.6 shows a typical
float and stilling well system installed by the Department while Figure 4.7 represents a typical
drawing of a float and stilling well installation.
The current use of digital shaft encoders is a natural evolution from the mechanical chart recorders.
The existing mounted float and pulley arrangement could be removed from the mechanical recorder
and mounted directly to the shaft of the encoder. The encoder would typically provide a pulse
corresponding to the smallest measured increment (1 mm). As the float rises and lowers the encoder
would provide a positive or negative count depending upon the direction of movement. The
information is then recorded via a binary coded decimal onto a digital data logger. The main
advantages of the shaft encoder are the ease to which it can be retrofitted to stations already using
a float and well set-up and the excellent linearity and accuracy provided. The main disadvantage
would be the installation costs as float sensors do require a stilling well to operate.
4-10 March 2009

These stilling wells are usually much larger in size than the ones used when deploying pressure
sensors or gas bubblers. The bottom of the stilling well should be at least 45 cm below the lowest
water level in the river. The recording mechanism should be easily accessible even during flood times
so that charts can be changed.
Paper Chart Recorder
weight
Float
Water Intake Pipes

Stilling Well
Figure 4.6 Float & Stilling Well Method for Water Level Monitoring
March 2009 4-11

Figure 4.7 Typical Drawing for Float and Stilling Well Installation
C. Pressure-based Systems
Typically there are two pressure-based systems in the market to measure and record water level.
One is the (i) submersible pressure transducer system while the other is the (ii) gas bubbler system.
(i) Submersible Pressure Sensor
Submersible pressure sensor systems are commonly used where site logistics and related costs
discourage the use of large stilling wells and float recorders. These pressure sensors featuring the
latest silicon, micro-machined, piezo-resistive, strain gauge technology. The new generation of
pressure sensors is very sensitive and accurate and some are even serviceable. The sensor gives out
analog ouput i.e. 4 - 20 mA and is normally connected via a robust data cable to a data logger which
is powered by an external battery with a solar-panel charger (www.stevenswater.com). Some
pressure sensors such as the Diver (www.seba-hydrometrie.de), Level Troll (www.in-situ.com) come
with an onboard datalogger and power supply while others e.g. the WL16 (www.globalw.com)
depends on the power supply from their external data logger.
Included amongst the signal wires of a conventional pressure sensor is a vent tube. The vent tube
allows the sensor to equilibrate itself to changes in atmospheric pressure. The sensor measures the
pressure head at the point in the water column where it is mounted, and this pressure value is
converted to water depth above the sensor (pressure head is directly related to water depth by the
4-12 March 2009

unit weight of water). Submersible analog sensors can have accuracy as good as 0.1% of Full Scale
Output (FSO), while digital sensors are available with accuracy's of 0.02% FSO or better, depending
on the make and model. Disadvantages include variances in accuracy (again depending on make and
model). Inaccuracy can be caused by non-linearity, when the sensor's signal curve deviates from that
of a straight line. It can also be caused by sensors with poor repeatability and hysteresis, where the
difference in value for the same measured point when pressure is first increased, then decreased past
the point. Calibration drift in analog sensors can also introduce error in water level measurements.
Digital submersible stand-alone sensors, like the Diver offer high accuracy and excellent long-term
stability, but usually at a substantial cost over their analog counterparts. A small stilling pipe is usually
recommended since the pressure sensor is subject to damage by debris including bedload in the
channel during high flow events. The stilling pipe serves to protect the sensor while providing more
conducive water conditions for reliable stage readings. Figure 4.7 shows a conventional submersible
pressure sensor while Figs. 4.8a, 4.8b and 4.8c represent the types of submersible pressure sensor
usually installed.
Figure 4.8 Submersible-Type Pressure Sensor with External Standalone Data Logger
March 2009 4-13

PVC or GI pipe
Figure 4.8a: Submersible pressure sensor connected to external datalogger, battery and solar
panel.
Only USB/RS-232 data cable inside
secured housing.
PVC or GI pipe
Figure 4.8b: Submersible pressure sensor with onboard logger and USB/RS-232 output.
Stand alone datalogger

inside secured housing
PVC or GI pipe
Figure 4.8c: Submersible pressure sensor with standalone datalogger.
4-14 March 2009

(ii) Gas Bubbler System
Gas bubblers or pneumatic water level recorders consist of the bubbler unit, typically located in
weatherproof housing or enclosure some distance away from the water body, with an orifice line that
connects the bubbler unit to the water column in the channel. These "bubbler" gauges are similar to
the submersible digital sensors, with the exception that they are typically mounted away from the
water body in a walk-in shelter along with the pressure source (nitrogen tank or battery compressor)
and pressure regulator. The bubbler unit constantly releases gas bubbles at a predetermined rate
through the pressurized orifice line into the water. The pressure required to force the bubble into the
water is converted to river stage using the same mathematical relationships described for pressure
transducers. The river stage values are then recorded to either a paper chart recorder or a data
logger. A significant advantage of using gas bubblers is that the sensor itself can be located quite a
distance from the water body therefore circumventing any damage or loss which may occur during
peak flow event. Only the orifice line is at risk and this is easily replaced at minimal cost. Both
approaches provide a similar level of accuracy, generally about 2.1 mm. However the cost of a gas
bubbler system is typically two to three times the cost of a pressure transducer instrument and the
requirement of a replacement bulky pressure tank precludes its use in very remote and inaccessible
sites. Figure 4.9 shows a Department employed gas bubbler system with a paper chart recorder while
Figure 4.10 depicts a typical installation drawing of the system.
Figure 4.9 A Sherlock DP20 Gas Bubbler System with Gas Tank in Background.
March 2009 4-15

Figure 4.10 Typical Single Line Installation of Gas Bubbler System
D. Ultrasonic Sensor Method
Ultrasonic or acoustic sensors are used to measure river stage in cases where it is not feasible to
install any portion of the measurement device below the high water elevation. These non-contact
systems are installed above the highest water line and depend on the acoustic returns of ultra-high
frequency sound waves transmitted from a sensor mounted above the water body to determine the
river stage value. Sensors are typically installed from existing structures e.g. bridges. Because they
are generally more costly than the other sensor options described above and more exposed when
deployed, their use for measuring river stage at locations vulnerable to vandalism and theft is strongly
discouraged. Figure 4.11 shows an actual ultrasonic sensor installed by the side of a riverbank.
4-16 March 2009

Figure 4.11 Ultrasonic Water Level Sensor Installed from a Custom Arm Rest Overlooking the Water
Surface.
Crest Gauge for Flood Level Measurements
A crest stage gauge is usually vertical, used to indicate the highest peak stage that has occurred
since the previous setting. It is normally made of standard 40mm. diameter galvanised iron pipes
with timber rode cut to the lengths of approximately 1,165mm. Each pipe is threaded of a length of
25mm. on the top end to accommodate a galvanized iron cap. A hole is drilled at the top end of the
pipe just below the threaded length to allow trapped air to escape when water level rises. A hole is
also drilled about 40mm. above the bottom end of the pipe to allow a galvanized coachscrew to be
fixed there as a datum pin. A rectangular timber rod with graduated notches at 100 mm apart is
inserted into the pipe and seated on the coachscrew pin such that the lowest notch tallies with the
zero of the stick gauge while the second highest notch tallies with the meter mark of the stick gauge.
Prior to placing of the roll inside the pipe, the timber rod is coated all round with water soluble paint.
After placing the rod in the pipe, the entrance is closed with the cap. Two pieces of 65 mm diameter
disc galvanized wire mesh is forced up the bottom of the pipe using a suitable mandrell. The whole
crest gauge assembly is then attached vertically to trees or H.W. timber post of sufficient length by
means of the coachscrew and brackets. Figure24/II/V in Appendix 4A shows the design and
specifications of a typical crest gauge used by the Department.
When water reaches the highest mark in the pipe during a flood the soluble paint will dissolve
accordingly leaving a record of the highest level occurred. To record this flood level the galvanized
cap is removed and using the top locating clip, the timber rod is extracted from within the pipe and
March 2009 4-17

placed alongside the relevant stick gauge such that the lowest notch tallies again with the zero of the
stick gauge. The flood mark on the rod is then read off against the stick gauge which will give the
reduced level value of the maximum flood level. The rod is then recoated with the soluble paint and
placed in its former position to recording the next flood. The crest gauge should also be inspected
for damage and checked for level errors.
Several stages of crest gauges are usually installed to cover the maximum range of water levels at a
particular river section where discharge measurements are not required. With this information and
an estimation of peak discharge from nearby gauging stations a rating curve can be prepared for use
in design and construction of works at this river section. lf a series of crest gauges with several
barges are installed on a suitable over reach, the slope of the water surface can be used to estimate
the peak discharge.
Depth Gauge for Ground Water Level Measurements
The electric contact gauge is commonly used for measuring well water levels. It consists of a weight
suspended on #16 or #18 stranded insulated wire with depth markings and an ammeter or indicator
lamp to indicate a closed circuit. Current flows through the circuit when the end of the wire touches
the water surface. Current is supplied by a small 9- or 12-volt battery. To make a reading, lower the
electric wire or sounding line until the lamp lights up or needle (ammeter) deflects. Read the
distance from the water to the top of casing on the line. Mark the reference point on the casing
where you measured the depth. Most commercial models use two conductors and work in
conjunction with a standard polyamid tape measure to measure the distance between the marks on
the line.
For low electrical conductivity in some groundwater, use a meter in the circuit rather than a light
bulb. Electrical sounders, which include a reel of wire, meter, and battery, are available
commercially.
Operation and Maintenance of River Stage Stations
The stage of a stream, canal, or lake is the height of the water surface above an established datum.
The head in a water measurement structure or device can be defined similarly. The stage, or gage
height, of the water is usually expressed in meter and centimeter. Records of stage are important in
stream gauging because the rate of flow is plotted against stage in preparing discharge or rating
curves. After a curve has been established for a stable channel, rate of flow can be directly
determined from stage reading. Reliability of the stage reading is, therefore, of great importance.
Records of gage height may be obtained from a series of systematic readings of stick gauges or from
automatic water-stage recorders.
Normally mean sea level, MSL datum is selected for the station. The operating datum for the station
should be set below the water-stage elevation for zero flow. The datum should be permanent for the
expected life of the station and should be referenced to at least two or three other benchmarks that
are independent of the gauging structure.
Two basic philosophies can be used to determine stage or gauge height- direct and indirect. Direct
methods involve a measurement of the height from the water level to a datum line; an indirect
method infers the stage level from some other characteristic, such as the head read by a pressure
transducer. In most cases both are deployed as the latter allows for time-series data to be collected.
4-18 March 2009

Selection of Site
The purpose in establishing a river stage station is to obtain a truly representative record of river
levels whether for the direct use of this information or as a step towards the measurements of the
river discharge. Therefore the selection criteria must generally conform to certain ideals as
advocated by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) for the degree of reliability of
observations will depend in part on these conditions being met. One of the main criteria when
selecting a suitable site for establishing a river stage station is would be to choose a stretch that has
both firm and stable banks and bed, resistant to any scouring or erosion. The bed should also be
free of any obstructions including vegetation and there should not be any structures e.g. bridges in
proximity to the gauging station, both upstream and downstream. The flow should not under any
circumstances by pass the station e.g. via outflow stream(s) upstream. The water surface in this
reach should be steeper than the gradient, downstream of this reach. There should not also be any
periodic changes in downstream conditions which might affect the relation between stage and
discharge at the gauging site. Ideally there should be a straight section upstream at least five times
the width of the channel and for downstream twice the width. The site should also be accessible
during all stages of flow.
Choice of telemetry system depends on the prevailing terrain and topography and if real-time data
e.g. for early flood warning system is required. Due consideration must be given towards planning
and designing the water level recording system so as to allow seamless integration into the
Departments existing network.
Observation and Maintenance of Stick Gauge
Reading of stick gauges should always be done as close as possible to the gauge itself and at eye
level to avoid errors. Observation should only be done when the gauge is cleared of any debris or
dirt. Normal procedure dictates the observation to be taken to the nearest centimetre or 0.01 m. All
readings are recorded in metres with a qualifying m after the value. To improve rating curves
gauges should be read more frequent when the water level exceeds certain elevations especially
during high flooding events. Toward the highest stages, observations should be taken at short
intervals, sometimes of the order of about fifteen minutes.
Maintenance include routine inspection of the base to ensure it is still properly secured, cleaning of
any dirt or debris left by a high flow event and replacing the plastic plate if the numberings are
obliterated. The timber backing should be repainted to restore its condition or replaced if damaged
beyond repair. All bolts and nuts must be inspected and tightened if necessary or replaced if
damaged. Checking for the zero level at the base of the stick gauge in reference to a permanent
benchmark must be conducted on an annual basis or more often if the base is suspected of shifting,
especially after flooding events. In the case where a stick gauge is lost and replaced a temporary
benchmark (TBM) is used to relocate the zero level for the stick gauge. The establishment details of
the TBM can be found in HP. No.25, under Appendix A.
Operation and Maintenance of Float Type Water Level Recorder
All water level recording stations, be it float type or otherwise must also be equipped with stick
gauges. Every week when the chart is changed a record of the water level on the stick gauge must
be made and immediately compared with the level appearing on the chart. Remedial action should
be taken if any difference in the readings is observed. An inspection of the recorder will indicate the
course of action to adopt. If a recorder is out of action stick gauge readings should be taken so that
the record of water levels at the station is still maintained until the recorder is fixed and reinstalled.
Besides checking the water level on the stick gauge and chart, the time recorded on the chart should
be compared with standard time. If a discrepancy is found the clock should be checked by a
competent technician observer and either adjusted or sent to the Instrumentation Division for
repairs.
March 2009 4-19

The paper chart must be replaced with the correct type when necessary with the name of the station
and the date already written. The clock is wound, the drum replaced and the chart set to standard
time by rotating it in an opposite sense to the normal direction of rotation. The pen too should be
refilled with the special ink provided.
Each time the maintenance team visits the station the shelter and site must be inspected for any
potential problems such as damaged flooring or intake pipes, inoperative shutoff valves, and faulty
ladders. Any observed faults should be repaired immediately if possible, or scheduled for repair at
the earliest opportunity. Check for obstructions in the stilling well that may impede the float, float
line, or clock weight travel. Check the well for silt deposition by sounding with a weighted tape;
compare this measurement to the original clean depth of the well. Note: Remember, the lower
intake pipe may be only 0.15 m above the well bottom.
Silt deposits can be removed by using a pump and discharge hose to place the accumulated silt into
a suspension and to build the water head inside the well. The water head is discharged through the
intake pipes to remove the suspended silt. Flushing is continued until the plume of silt being
discharged through the intakes is no longer visible. Stilling well system accuracy and reliability
depend upon the free flow of water through the intakes, so these inlets must be cleaned thoroughly
(Figure 4.12).
Flush all intakes immediately before, during and immediately following seasonal high stage i.e. rainy
season. For the rest of the year, flush the intakes during each station visit, or as required. Frequent
flushing may be necessary where silting is an obvious problem. Make sure the intake valves are
open after flushing and before you leave the site. Also ensure that the float tape or line has not
been knocked out of position
Depending on the locality high flow season in Peninsular Malaysia occurs around March April and
again from October - November. During high flows the water surface in the well may appear to be
excessively turbulent. To dampen the oscillation, close one of the upper intake valves and look for
improvement. Slowly open the valve until a tolerable level of disturbance is achieved. For in-stream
installations, when the water level exceeds the elevation of the top vent holes, block the holes to
avoid further velocity turbulence. Note these actions on the station record or log.
If the water level should exceed the upper limit of float travel in the well, cut a hole in the floor to
allow passage of the float. This measure will provide additional distance for float travel which will in
turn add to record collection. Manually pull the float through the hole in the floor to its upper limit of
travel. Check to see if the counterweight hits the well bottom. If it does, shorten the float line
proportionately. Remove all buoyant material from the floor to prevent it from obstructing the float
line or restricting the float's return passage through the hole when the water level recedes.
Inspect the streambank for possible cave-in or excessive erosion. If the stilling well is endangered,
arrange for emergency corrective action. Until proper corrective actions can be taken, the stilling well
should be secured with a strong cable which can be anchored to inshore trees or other stable objects.
This will prevent tilting or loss of the well.
4-20 March 2009

Figure 4.12 Regular Maintenance Includes Silt Removal from Stilling Well.
Operation and Maintenance of Submersible Pressure Sensor Type Water Level Recorder
The pressure sensor is normally installed in a stilling pipe and biological growth besides silt built-up
can normally be observed on both the sensor and pipe after a period of time. Therefore periodic e.g.
monthly cleaning is necessary (Figs. 4.13 & 4.14). The power supply to the data logger and sensor
is also checked with a multi-tester during the cleaning exercise. The connections at the battery
terminals are also inspected for corrosion and/or oxidation and these too are cleaned with hot water
and a steel brush if necessary. If solar power is utilized, the panel must also be checked and
cleaned of any debris including bird droppings and leaves.
Data is normally downloaded using a notebook PC via a RS-232 connection. If no data is detected,
then the battery power level has to be checked first followed by the pressure sensor and the data
logger itself. Many data loggers come with wrap-around type of memory; therefore the frequency of
downloading has to be timely enough to prevent unnecessary loss of data.
March 2009 4-21

Figure 4.13 Submersible Pressure Sensor and Stilling Pipe before Cleaning
Figure 4.14 Submersible Pressure Sensor and Stilling Pipe after Cleaning.
Inspection
In order to obtain accurate and reliable records thorough inspections of the station, its ancillary
equipment and river conditions including both upstream and downstream activities must be carried
out on at least twice a year. Particular attention should be paid to the construction of bridges, weirs,
dams or any other structure in the river. Dredging, desilting and clearing operations in the river and
any alterations to the catchment should also be noted.
4-22 March 2009

Each river stage station has a log book in which a record should be kept of all inspections and all
changes in the river and conditions which affect in any way the water levels occurring or to the
equipment used. Periodic test should be conducted on gauge readers and their respective records to
determine their current competency level.
Checks and maintenance care should also be conducted on stick gauges and the water level recorder
as described in the previous section while recording any anomalies observed.
Observations
On each record of stick gauge observation the date and time of observation must be included
together with the readings obtained. Gauge readings should be in meters and centimeters above
mean sea level. On the top of each sheet the name of river, the site of the station and the station
number should also be included. For recording stick gauge readings, standard DID Form No. J.P.T.
7A should be used. Care too has to be taken to ensure that the records of float type water level
recorders have the station number, station name and period of observation appear on the chart.
They should be carefully stored in a dry place to prevent the ink running.
4.3.2 Equipment for Measuring Current Velocities
A. Current Meter
Current meters are instruments to measure velocity of water flow in the water column. A
conventional current meter measures the velocity and direction of the water flow at a discrete point.
Each measured point velocity is then related to its respective sub-area of the entire cross section
passing flow. The velocity-area formula is then used to compute discharge from current-meter data.
Total discharge is then determined by the summation of partial discharges.
Types of Current Meters
Several types of current meters are used in measuring current velocities in stream and rivers with
the majority falling into two categories:
Propeller and cup type velocity meters
Doppler velocity meters and Doppler current profilers
Propeller and Cup Type Current Meters

One of the most commonly used instruments to measure stream flows is the propeller current meter
(Figs. 4.15a & 4.15b) which operates on a horizontal axis, while the cup type is based on a rotating
vertical axis. In order to rate or calibrate these current meters, they are dragged through tanks of
still water (also known as rating car) at known speeds. A velocity formula table with a constant is
derived by calculating the number of revolutions of the cups or propeller in relation to the tow speed.
The propeller type current meters in use in the Department are Ott C31 Universal Current Meter, Ott
C2 Small Current Meter and Amsler 505, while cup type current meters are usual by Pigmy or Watts
Mark IV. Cup type current meters are usually applicable only for shallow low flowing rivers while the
propeller type is more suitable for all round flow conditions save flooding events. The Ott C31
Universal Current Meter is used for all river conditions except in very shallow streams where the dry-
weather flows can only be measured by Ott C2 small meter or the Pigmy. Propeller and cup type
current meters are unsuitable in extremely high velocity or very low velocity situations.
In high velocity turbulent situations, it would be difficult to maintain the face of the propeller in a
perpendicular orientation to the current and the presence of debris, either floating or submerged
could also interfere with the gauging operation. In low velocity situations, the speed of the current
is below the minimum threshold that enables the propellers to spin properly.
March 2009 4-23

It has been observed that both types do not function well when the water velocity drops below 0.05
m/s or when it exceeds 4.0 m/s or 80% of the given maximum range of the instrument, whichever
greater.
The current meter is deployed by clamped to the wading rod at the required depth (usually 0.2d &
0.8d) and the counter records the number of revolutions of the propeller over a given period of time.
Reliability and accuracy of measurement with these meters can be determined by checking to see if
there are any damaged parts and conducting spin time tests for excess change in bearing friction.
Usually an experienced field technician is able to check and verify the performance of the instrument
to see if further overhaul and calibration is required. As these high precision instruments are very
sensitive, due care should be exercise during operation, transit and storage. An improved version of
the H.P. No. 15 with Bahasa Malaysia translation provides complete details for proper operation,
instrument selection and gauging techniques while for care, diagnostics and calibration the operating
manual which comes with respective instrument should be consulted.
Figure 4.15a Ott C31 Propeller-Type Universal Current Velocity Meter
Figure 4.15b. Ott C2 Propeller-Type Current Velocity Meter for Small Streams
4-24 March 2009

Figure 4.16 Pigmy Cup-Type Current Velocity Meter, also for Small Streams
Gauging Accessories for Propeller-type Current Meters
Wading Rods
To securely position a propeller-type current meter to any desired depth, a wading rod is used when
gauging a stream. The depth of the measurement can also be adjusted by the operator depending
on the water depth at a certain location. Conventional round wading rods are used when working in
shallow and medium depth streams. The rod requires a base plate that is rested on the bottom of
the channel. The base is to prevent the current meter from striking the stream bed which could
damage the current meter and to stop the current meter from being placed too low near the bottom
of the wading rod. When in use, an appropriate number of graduated rods usually in 1 cm are
assembled based on the water depth. The double end hanger is fixed to the wading rod with a
simple thumb screw, and the current meter is attached to the double end hanger. The wiring
assembly is attached to the binding post of the current meter and to the top of the wading rod. The
plug at the end of the wiring assembly attaches directly to a counting device e.g. headset, counter,
Digimeter. The rod is placed vertically into the water until the base rests on the bottom, and the
water depth is read off the graduations. Figure 4.17 shows a typical wading rod set up with an Ott
C2 current meter and counter.
March 2009 4-25

Figure 4.17 Ott C2 Current Meter with Wading Rod and Counter
Gauging Winches
For deeper rivers where wading is impractical and dangerous, a winch is used instead if a bridge is
conveniently located near the gauging site or if the conditions on both sides of the banks permit the
installation of stanchions for a cable to be stretched across. The current meter is then together with
a weight suspended from the cable (see Figure 4.18) and raised and lowered to the desired depth by
way of a motorized winch installed on one side of the bank or in the case of an available bridge or a
boat directly from a portable hand-operated winch.
Winches for gauging purposes range from portable hand operated models to the electric-powered
versions such as the double drum SEBA SDW-ES gauging winch for heavy duty gauging purposes
(Figure 4.19). The corresponding cableway system is designed to bear a maximum of 100 kg sinker
weight. The double drums allow the vertical (for actual gauging work) and horizontal movement of
the current meter and two separate cable counters account for the precise positioning of the current
meter throughout the cross-section of the channel and also in the water column (0.2d, 0.6d & 0.8d).
The portable versions are usually mounted on an A-Frame and deployed from bridges (Figure 4.20),
boat boards (Figure 4.21) and cable way. These gauging winches can handle loads of up to 140kg
and using the spring ratchet stop, the reel can be locked at any desired depth. The winches usually
come with counters and display either digital or analog cable readings.
In the case of electrical winches, by employing two-conductor suspension cables, signal pulses from
the suspended current meter can be transmitted through an electrical brush arrangement to the slip
rings at the reel terminals which is then converted to meaningful values i.e. revolution counts and
obtained via a display unit integrated in the winch itself. This configuration is also known as a
cableway system (see following section for more details on cableway). Since the cables are highly
expensive and not easily replaced due consideration should be given towards preventive
maintenance. These electrical winches are normally installed in a permanent and lockable cableway
shelter with properly secured anchorage (Figure 4.22).
4-26 March 2009

Figure 4.18 Current Meter and Sinker Weight (Yellow) Being Lowered Down from a Cableway
Figure 4.18 Type SDW-ES Electric Double Drum Winch with Invariable Motor
March 2009 4-27

Figure 4.20 Hand-Operated A-Frame with Russian which Developed from a Bridge
Figure 4.21 Portable Gauging Winch with Boom Mounted to a Static Boat.
4-28 March 2009

Figure 4.22 Electrical Double Drum Gauging Winch Firmly Anchored to Secured Cableway Shelter
Cableways
There are two-types of cableway systems, one which is manned and operated from a cable car
across a river while the other is remotely operated from one side of the river bank. The former
approach has been discarded by the Department for the latter for safety reasons. Bank-operated
cableways are normally employed where regular discharge measurements need to be made at
suitable cross-sections of rivers or canals which are incidentally too deep to wade in, or where no
bridge exists and/or the currents in the river are too swift and dangerous for a static boat operation
to be used. A typical cableway system is one where a steel A-frame (galvanized) is installed on one
bank of a river. This frame is used as a bearing post. The frame is driven into the ground and firmly
anchored by two guide wires running from the post to two steel stakes at the rear. On the opposite
bank, the double winch rests on a folding skid made of steel. This also is held in position by guide
wires at the rear as previously shown in Figure 4.22. A traveller carriage running on the main cable
is used to bring the current meter and sinker weight across the water body. The traveller carriage is
moved either by the friction guide method or haul out system. The former permits bi-directional
traversing of the carriage while in the latter the carriage must first be hauled back to the operator
end each time before the next gauging run. Both current meter and sinker are suspended from the
traveler carriage via a conducting suspension cable as described in the previous section. Figure 4.23
represents a typical cableway installation drawing while Figure 4.24 shows a cableway gauging
station with the weight already attached for deployment.
The advantages of using the cableway method for gauging is personnel safety as no manpower is
required on the water while some disadvantages are encountered when deployed over severely
polluted rivers and where there are ongoing upstream logging activities. The cableway system too is
limited to a cross-section distance of approximately 400 m.
March 2009 4-29

Figure 4.23 Typical Cableway Installation Drawing
Figure 4.24 Cableway with Weight Attached for Deployment
The basic components required in a cableway system include the following:
a. Current meter, usually Ott C31;

b. Counter and stopwatch;
c. Electrical leads, connecting current meter to cable and subsequently to the counter;
d. Traversing winch, usually electric with manual operation as back-up;
e. Gauging winch with conducting cable;
f. Grab bar; and
g. Sinker weight; either Columbus 14, 23, 35 or 46 kg or Ott 50 or 75 kg;
Selecting a suitable site for a cableway system refers to a set of criteria similar to those previously
stated for a river stage station. For safe operation the surroundings on either side of the bank
including upstream must also be clear of any trees, buildings etc. so as to allow the operator a wide
4-30 March 2009

field of view. Maintenance includes bi-annual inspection where bolts, cables, motors, anchors,
carriage, connectors etc. are inspected and serviced or replaced where necessary. Clearing the
riverbed and banks of any lodged debris is also part of the routine maintenance. H.P. No. 23
describes in detail the installation, operation and maintenance of the cableway system.
Other Gauging Apparatus
Velocity Floats
This method should be used only when other methods are impractical or impossible or where a quick
but rough estimate of the discharge rate is desired. Site selection is critical with only a stretch that is
straight and uniform (in cross section and grade) and with a minimum of surface waves, be chosen
for this method. Surface velocity measurements should only be attempted on windless days to avoid
wind-caused deflection of the floats. Surface floats should immerse one-fourth or less of the flow
depth while rod floats are submerged more than one-fourth of the depth but do not touch the
bottom. Figure 4.25 show some of the rod floats usually used by the Department.
Figure 4.19 Rod Floats on Standby for Deployment.
River Discharge Stations
Selection of Site
In planning a discharge measurement system, a site selection process should be undertaken to

determine the most effective and accessible location for the final discharge point. Besides the
criteria already mentioned for selecting suitable locations for stage monitoring and cableway
systems, the following items should be also be considered during this process:
nature and frequency of the effluent discharge measurement (i.e., year round or seasonal);
requirements for upstream water level control (e.g., minimum and maximum operating
water levels);
vehicle and personnel access to the site during inclement weather;
personnel access to equipment for operation and maintenance (e.g., minimization of
confined spaces requiring specialized entry and safety procedures);
March 2009 4-31

power supply to the site (remote locations may require solar-powered systems);
protection of the equipment and instrumentation from weather, wildlife and vandalism; and
existing soil conditions and their effects on stability and cost of the installation e.g., proximity
to bedrock.
Equipment Selection and Installation
Once a site has been selected, discharge measuring techniques and equipment should be researched
to determine the best system to accurately measure discharge rate at the selected location. The
selection of gauging equipment should take into consideration the following:
the range of flows to be measured;

accuracy requirements over the range of flows to be measured;
potential changes in flow with future expansion or changes to the site;
environmental conditions that may affect the operation of the equipment;
power requirements;
water quality of the effluent body (suspended solids, various chemical or even floating or
submerged logs and other debris) parameters could have negative effects on the operation
of the equipment);
personnel and equipment safety, from loss or damages;
access to equipment for operation, maintenance and inspection; and
space available for the installation
The detailed design of flow measurement systems should be undertaken by qualified personnel with
experience in the design, calibration, inspection and maintenance of the gauging equipment. Any
equipment shelter considered for protecting or enclosing the system or parts thereof should have
adequate space for any necessary or appropriate health and safety equipment in addition to any
water quality instrumentation and sampling devices.
The site selection, system design and calibration should be thoroughly documented in report form
and be updated as necessary to reflect as built conditions. This document should be kept available
for review by the Department staff and other compliance authorities.
Discharge Measurement in Remote Locations
Measuring flow in remote locations is often problematic due to site access and power restrictions.
Design considerations for remote flow measurement systems include the following:
provision of a reliable power supply;

provision of a reliable data logging system to record and/or transmit flow measurement data;
and
minimal maintenance requirement.
With the advent of ADCPs, ultrasonic systems etc. real-time discharge rate can now actually be
obtained via various telecommunication means including fixed lines, GPRS, GSM and even satellite
network. If all means of communication are unavailable and access is restricted then the option of
downloading regularly from the data logger must be exercised. Details of the latest ADCP and their
various ways in measuring discharge are further discussed in Chapter 12. Routine inspections of
remote flow measurement systems would also include monitoring of the power supply.
Measurement of Discharge
The following describes the four main discharge measurement methods usually adopted by the
Department. Other non-traditional approaches such as moving-boat, tracer techniques and acoustic
are also mentioned in passing with the last i.e. ADCPs further elaborated in Chapter 12.
4-32 March 2009

Discharge Measurement Method I Velocity-Area Method
This method is the standard approach employed by the Department to measure discharge and it
depends on the measurement of velocities at various points across a stream or river, using a current
meter. Depending on the prevailing conditions at the gauging station, the method can be employed
using via four different ways i.e. wading gauging, bridge gauging, cableway gauging and stationary
boat gauging which in part were discussed earlier.
The velocity-area method is built around the premises that the discharge, Q can be derived if the
vertical surface area and its respective flow velocity are known:
Q = vA, (4.15)
Where v is the mean velocity as measured by the current meter and A is the surface area of the
equally subdivided portion of the cross-section in the river (Figure 4.26). By measuring the velocity
at different depths in a sub-divided area, the mean velocity for the vertical area can be calculated.
Various approaches could be utilized in obtaining the mean velocity, the most common being the
one-point and two-point methods. The one-point method places the current meter at a distance of
0.6 the depth or 0.6d from the water surface whilst the two-point method measures both 0.2d and
0.8d from the surface (Figure 4.27)
Figure 4.26 Equally Sub-Divided Vertical Areas along River Cross-Section
Figure 4.20 One-Point and Two-Point Gauging VA Method
March 2009 4-33

Discharge Measurement Method II Surface Float Method
Where site conditions preclude the use of current meter e.g. during periods of floods when it may be
necessary to sacrifice accuracy for speed in order to measure the discharge of a particular river on
several occasions to ascertain the shape of the flood hydrograph then the surface float method may
be employed although it must not be considered as a standard method to replace measurement by
current meter.
Cross sections are established along the straight reach of the channel at a beginning, midpoint, and
end. The cross sections should be located far enough apart so the time interval required for the float
to travel from one cross section to another can be accurately measured. The midpoint cross section
provides a check on the velocity measurements made between the beginning and end sections. The
channel width across the sections should be divided into at least three, and preferably five, segments
of equal width. The average depth of each segment must then be determined. The float must be
released far enough upstream from the first cross section to attain stream velocity before reaching
the cross section. The times at which the float passes each section should be observed by stopwatch
and recorded. The procedure is repeated with floats in each of the segments across the canal, and
several measurements should be made in each segment. The more segments there are, the more
accurate the measurement. However, it means that the degree of difficulty in doing the
measurements will increase also.
For flows in canals and reasonably smooth streams, the measured surface float velocities should be
multiplied by the coefficients as listed in Figure 4.28.
Correction table, k
d/h k=Vmin/Vf
0.1 0.86
0.25 0.88
0.5 0.90
0.75 0.94
0.95 0.98
where :
d = Float depth
h = Water depth
Vmin = min Velocity
Vf = Float velocity
Figure 4.28 Coefficient to Convert Measured Float Velocity to Stream Velocity.
The corrected velocities should then be multiplied by the cross-sectional area of the corresponding
stream segments to obtain the segment discharges. The sum of the segment discharges will be the
total discharge.
The criteria on site selection, float design and the ideal conditions in which to deploy them are
already discussed earlier. The following procedures describe the rules-of-thumb subscribed by the
Department to measuring discharge rates by surface float:-
(a) Measure at the river discharge station the water surface width and divide this into 10 to
20 sections each of equal width. The minimum number of sections may be used only in
those rivers with fairly level beds and symmetrical cross sections. In all order cases more
sections are necessary.
4-34 March 2009

(b) Note in the gauging card (Form No. JPT. IIA) the name of the river, station name, station
number, type of float and its dimensions, date and time, and whether the river stage is
rising, steady or falling.
(c) Set out a measured distance along the river bank not less than twice the width of the
river. At each end of the measured reach two stakes are set at right angles to the
direction of flow.
(d) Note the elevation of the water surface on the stick gauge and the water level recorder if
one exists.
(e) Note the distance of the first section between verticals 0 and 1.
(f) Measure the depth of water at vertical l using either a sounding rod or lead weight on a
wire. Note the value in the gauging card.
(g) Place the float on the water surface about 10 meter upstream of the first pair of stakes.
(h) The time to travel the distance between the first and second pair of stakes is measured
and noted in the gauging cards.
(i) Repeat steps (g) and (h) and if the difference between the two measurements is less
than 10% of the average, the observations may be accepted otherwise another
observation should be taken.
(j) Note the distance between verticals 0 and 2 and carry out the depth and velocity
measurements described in paras. (f) to (i) inclusive. Similarly observations are taken at
the other verticals.
(k) The water level is again observed and noted with the time of observation (1) The mean
velocity at each vertical is the measured velocity multiplied by 0.85.
One of the main uses of the above method will be for the measurement of flood flows when several
sets of observations are required or several rivers must be gauged. Where depth readings are
unobtainable, preparations must be made in anticipation of such observations and the necessary
measurements of the cross section made immediately before and immediately after the flood, taking
into consideration that bed scouring occurs during floods and the cross section of the river at the
time of measuring the depth will not be the same as when measuring the velocity. Figure 4.29
shows a tubular float about to be discarded from a bridge.
March 2009 4-35

Figure 4.21 Float Deployment from a Bridge.
Discharge Measurement Method III
For small stream and rivers the challenge is to obtain discharge rates during dry season or low flow
period. The accuracy with which discharge is estimated can be improved by using a weir to create an
area of the channel where hydraulics are controlled (control section). Each type of weir needs to be
calibrated either in the laboratory or by the manufacturer such that the stage at a predetermined
point in the control section is related to the discharge rate using a known empirical equation.
Weir is an obstruction (usually a vertical plane) built or placed across an open channel (or within a
pipe under open channel flow) so that water flows over the weir's top edge (or through a well
defined opening in the plane). Many types of weirs can be used to measure discharge; the most
common being the broad crested or rectangular weir. Specific discharge equations are used for each
type of weir.
Weirs are simple structures and relatively easy to install, although the cost may be expensive
depending on the site location (Figure 4.30). A weir can be used to regulate flow in a natural channel
with irregular geometry, a situation where the Manning equation, for example, would not provide
reliable estimates for the discharge rate. However, a weir will back water up in channels by creating
a partial dam. During large storm events, backed-up water may cause or worsen flooding upstream.
When evaluating the suitability of a monitoring site for a weir, it is important to determine whether
the system is "over designed." That is, will the conveyance be able to move the design capacity after
weir installation? In the case where the downstream depth of flow is greater than the crest of the
weir, a different stage-discharge relationship for the weir shall apply.
Another potential problem that weirs introduce to a channel is that sediments and/or debris may
accumulate behind the weir, which can alter the hydraulic environment. By altering the hydraulic
environment, these materials also change the empirical relationship between depth of flow and
4-36 March 2009

discharge rate. Therefore, weirs must be inspected regularly and all the accumulated sediment and
debris removed.
Figure 4.30 Profile Drawing of a Sharp-Crested Weir
4.3.3 Discharge Measurement Method IV
A single float is deployed for quick estimate ( 25%) of discharge rate, during normal flow or even
high flow. The stream or canal must be deep enough that the float does not touch the bottom and a
straight stretch is then selected. The float is deployed in midstream usually from a bridge or a boat
and the surface velocity measured with the aid of a stopwatch. The mean velocity in the channel is
usually 0.6 times of the observed velocity, which is then multiplied by the area of cross section to
determine the discharge.
March 2009 4-37

Table 4.2 Summarizes the Discharge Measurement Methods Described Above, Their Typical
Applications and Required Equipment
TABLE 4.2 DISCHARGE MEASUREMENT METHODS

Normal
Type Typical Site Required Equipment
Applications
Discharge Measurement I.
Low and
normal Shallow streams and canals Propeller-type current meter with wading
Current Meter
w/wading rod
discharge Manual sampling rod, fiberglass measuring tape, field
rates forms/notebook
Normal to
Streams and rivers too
Current Meter deep and/or dangerous to Propeller-type current meter with portable
w/portable winch high flow winch, fiberglass measuring tape, sounding
wade; bridge present
from bridge weight and line
Normal to Large and deep rivers with

Current Meter high flow no bridge present Propeller-type current meter with
from Cableway permanent double drum winch and shelter
Rivers too deep to wade

Current Meter Normal and no bridge present and Propeller-type current meter with portable
from Stationary flow terrain unsuitable for winch, fiberglass measuring tape, handheld
Boat cableway installation depth finder, cableway and stakes
Discharge Measurement II
Homogeneous cross-
High flow sections and stretches of Suitable float, stopwatch, stakes, fiberglass
Surface Float deep and fast flowing rivers measuring tape, sounding lead and line
Discharge Measurement III

Low flow Small streams and rivers Broad-crested weir and water level station.
Weir Installation
Calibration is necessary.
Discharge Measurement IV
Any streams or canal deep
Normal to enough, with straight
high flow reach, well-define banks Single float, stopwatch, sounding weight
Single Float
and a bridge nearby. and line and fiberglass measuring tape
Other Discharge Measurement Methods
Indirect Method of Peak Discharge Measurements
The discharge of a stream or river is typically measured directly by stream gauging or a rating curve.
However, conditions sometimes preclude direct measurement of discharge, such as during flooding
events, or in physically challenging sites. The slope-area method, also referred to as the stage fall
discharge method is used to determine peak discharge along sections of a river or stream where
gauges are not present. It is particularly applicable in determining the peak discharge during flooding
along a particular reach of stream or to estimate the discharge necessary to cause flooding along a
section of river.
The slope-area method is based on the Manning's equation for determining discharge,
Q = (AR2/3S1/2)/n] (4.16)
4-38 March 2009

where A is the cross-sectional area (m2), R is the hydraulic radius (cross sectional area/wetted
perimeter (m), S is the slope (drop in elevation/length (dimensionless)) and n is the Manning
roughness coefficient (dimensionless). Thus, the slope-area method is a function of (1) slope, (2)
channel dimensions and (3) channel roughness, and therefore field data are required for estimation
of peak discharge. These data include determining the elevation and location of high-water marks
along the stream, measurement of channel cross section and wetted perimeter by surveying, tape
and compass, or GPS, and selection of a roughness coefficient for the section of stream in question.
Procedure
A. Selection of Cross Sections
Select two cross sections along a reach that have at least 15 cm of elevation difference between
their high water marks (McCuen, 1998). We recommend a minimum of 100 m feet separation of
these cross sections along a reach, and 600 m is optimal in low slope areas.
a. High water marks must be clearly evident on both sides of the river, at both cross sections.
b. The reach of river between the cross sections must have similar roughness characteristics
c. There must not be any bridges or other "disruptions" to the stream course between the cross
sections.
d. If GPS is used to acquire cross section measurements, there must be no barriers that will block
or degrade the satellite signals at both cross sections.
B. Water Surface Slope Determination
One of the most difficult concepts to understand when using the slope-area method is that 2
different slopes are calculated. The first is the water surface slope ((hu-hd)/L), which is simply the
slope of the high water marks between the upstream (hu) and downstream (hd) sections, and would
be the slope of the water surface during peak discharge. The water surface slope is used as a first
approximation for the energy slope, which is ultimately the slope that the slope-area method relies
on. The energy slope ((Hu-Hd)/L) is the slope between the upstream and downstream cross sections
of the high water marks PLUS the velocity head (energy, or v2/(2g)), such that
2 2
Se = ((hu+ uvu /(2g)) - (hd+ dvd /(2g)))/L (4.17)
where Se is the energy slope, hu and hd are the high water marks, is a correction factor that
accounts for expanding or contracting reaches (and is typically ignored by giving it a value of 1 for
both upstream and downstream sections), L is the distance between the two sections, and g is
gravity.
For example, if the upstream section had a significant higher velocity than the downstream section,
then the upstream velocity head (Hu = hu+ vu2/(2g)) would be much higher than the downstream
head (Hd = hd+ vd2/(2g)) and the energy slope would be much greater (Figure 4.31). Alternatively, if
the downstream section had a significantly higher velocity than the upstream section, than the
energy slope would be lower (less difference between the upstream and downstream total heads).
The diagram below shows the relationships between the water surface slope ((hu-hd)/L) and the
energy slope ((Hu-Hd)/L).
March 2009 4-39

Figure 4.31 Upstream Velocity Head would be much higher than the Downstream
The slope-area method ultimately uses the energy slope to determine peak discharge, but the
energy slope is first approximated using the water surface slope (the "Calculation" section will
explain this more in depth). Therefore, to determine the water surface slope, first identify the high
water marks at each cross section (these marks should be at essentially the same elevation on both
banks of the same cross section). Using GPS or surveying equipment, measure the elevation
difference (hu-hd) and distance between the high water marks of the two cross sections (L) on the
right edge (looking downstream), then repeat for the left edge. Calculate the slope between these
water marks
S = (hu-hd)/L (4.18)
Compare the calculated slope for the right and left edges. If these differ by greater than 5%, recheck
your high water mark interpretation and your measurement of elevation differences and height.
If high water marks are not evident, or if there is a large discrepancy between your right edge and
left edge slopes, it is possible to estimate the water surface slope from a topographic map, realizing
that this method can introduce significant error in your estimate (the water surface slope and bed
slope may be very different during flooding events). Select two topographic lines that cut across the
streambed on the topographic map, and measure the distance the stream travels between these
lines (not straight-line distance), then divide the elevation difference by the distance. Remember that
using water surface slope is recommended when possible, but bed slope can be used when other
methods of determining water surface slope fail.
Note if using GPS. Make sure you measure the distance along the banks of the stream in order to
determine L, and not just the straight line distance between the high water marks. Thus, it is better
to select a "line" rather than 2 "points to determine the elevation difference and distance between
the cross sections.
C. Measurement of the Hydraulic Radius (R)
The hydraulic radius (R) is the cross-sectional area divided by the wetted perimeter of the section,
and thus has units of ft. A simple topographic profile of the cross-section measured by GPS,
surveying, or tape and compass provide the distance along the stream bed from the left high water
mark to the right high water mark (wetted perimeter), and cross-sectional area is easily determine
by multiplying the average depth of the section (elevation of the high water mark minus the average
stream bed elevation along the profile) by the width of the profile (straight-line distance between the
high water marks. Therefore, one must measure the following to obtain the necessary data at both
the upstream and downstream cross-sections.
4-40 March 2009

a. Measure elevation (relative or absolute) of the high water marks (they should be essentially
the same elevation).
b. Measure the straight line distance between the high water marks (width).
c. Measure depth of the river bed below the high water marks at set intervals (every 1 m 1.5
m) and calculate the average depth. The area (A) is calculated by multiplying the width of the
river by the average depth.
d. Measure the wetted perimeter (P) by measuring the distance along the river bed from one high
water mark to the other. The hydraulic radius
(R) = A/P (4.19)
Note if using GPS. Choosing a "line" setting rather than a "point" setting will enable you to easily
dump the data into an Excel Spreadsheet and calculate both the wetted perimeter (3-dimensional
line) and the straight line distance between the high water marks (2-dimensional line). You will also
be able to reasonably estimate cross-sectional area IF you walk across the section with a constant
velocity (straight line positions are fairly evenly spaced). See the GPS tutorial for calculating 2 and 3-
d distances and cross-sectional areas for more help.
D. Estimation of Manning's Roughness Coefficient (n)
Inspection of the riverbed will reveal characteristics related to roughness. An excellent treatment of
the use of Manning's coefficients is found on pages 128-136 of McCuen (1998). Below is a first-
approximation of Manning's coefficients for some widely observed beds.
n = 0.04 - 0.05 Mountain streams

n = 0.035 Winding, weedy streams
n = 0.028 - 0.035 Major streams with widths > 30 m at flood stage
n = 0.015 Clean, earthen channels
E. Calculations
i. Compute values of cross-sectional area (A), hydraulic radius (R), and roughness (n) for each
cross section, and water surface slope (S) between the cross sections.
ii. Calculate the upstream and downstream conveyance values (Ku and Kd), such that
Ku = AuRu2/3/nu and Kd = AdRd2/3/nd (4.20)
iii. Calculate the average conveyance of the reach of river between the cross-sections
K = (KuKd)0.5 (4.21)
iv. Calculate the first estimation of peak discharge by multiplying the average conveyance (K)
by the square root of the water surface slope.
Qp = KS0.5 (4.22)
This answer is in m3/s, and gives a rough approximation of the peak discharge. However, a closer
approximation is calculated if the slope includes the velocity heads, which can now be estimated
from this initial discharge calculation.
March 2009 4-41

v. Calculate the difference in the velocity heads (dhv) of the upstream and downstream section
according to
2
Qp u d
dhv = - (4.23)
2g A2u 2
Ad
where g is gravity (9.81 m/s2), and Au and Ad are the upstream and downstream cross-sectional
areas. Also remember that = 1. Note that the area values (and units) are squared, giving dhv in m.
Note: If the downstream area (Ad) is less than the upstream area (Au) then dhv will be a negative
number. Simply put, if the downstream area is less than the upstream, the downstream velocity and
its velocity head will be greater than upstream. Thus, the greater downstream velocity head will
reduce the energy slope (thus the negative number, see below).
vi. Compute a new energy slope
Se = ((hu - hd) + dhv)/L (4.24)
vii. If the dhv is negative (downstream velocity is greater) than the energy slope is less than the
water surface slope.
viii. Compute a new peak discharge using the energy slope

Qp = KSe0.5 (4.25)
ix. Repeat steps 6 and 7 above using this new peak discharge until Qp does not vary.
Non-Traditional Methods of Discharge Measurements
Other discharge measuring methods and ancillaries not previously mentioned are the moving boat
method, tracer methods and the use of acoustic (ADCP) technology. The following describes in brief
each of these methods with further elaboration of the ADCP, the various types available and their
discharge measurement approach in Chapter 12.
Moving-Boat Method
The moving-boat method is used when conditions in the river such as flooding events do not permit
the conventional wading rod velocity-area approach or when no bridge or cableway system is
available within the desired stretch. This method is also employed when there is a need to measure
rapidly changing flow (and stage) in a wide river e.g. 400 m or more across where time is of
essence.
THEORY OF THE MOVING-BOAT METHOD
The moving-boat method measurement is made by traversing the river along a pre-selected path
that is normal to the flow. The parameters measured are flow velocity, vessel position and speed
over ground, bottom depth and the angle at which the vessel deviates from the traverse line. Data
is continuously collected at specified intervals along the path without stopping. A weighted
hydrodynamic-shape platform is used to carry the various instruments involved and is lowered with
aid of a winch. Flow velocity is measured by a propeller-type current meter, while a hydro-acoustic
transducers of an acoustic Doppler log orientated perpendicular to the axis of the current meter and
at an angle of 30 relative to the vertical axis is used to measure vessel velocity along the transect.
An echo sounder is used to measure and record the bottom depth across the river. During a
traverse of the cross section, the boat operator maintains course by crabbing into the direction of
the flow sufficiently to remain on line. The step-by-step details describing the Pless system, an
4-42 March 2009

improved approach to the same method, its operation, formulas and calculations and field results
and comparison as described by Klein et al (1993) are found in Appendix 4A.
Tracer Techniques
Tracer methods can be used to determine discharge with accuracies that can vary considerably from
about +/-1 percent to over 30 percent, depending on the equipment used and the care in applying
the techniques. A tracer is considered anything that mixes with or travels with the flow and is
detectable. A detectable tracer can be timed as it passes through a reach, or tracer concentration
profiles can be measured in a reach. However, there are certain difficulties which cause errors when
using the tracer technique.
Salt tracer used to be popular back in the 60s but with the advent of cheap and reliable dyes this
method is now obsolete. Radio-isotope tracers are very reliable but they warrant special care and
handling by trained and certified personnel with special gear which makes the gauging task arduous.
Therefore the contemporary choice of tracers for gauging is still dye tracer.
Dye concentrations are measured by fluorimetry or color comparison standards. Sometimes, visual
observation of an exiting dye cloud is used, but considerable loss of accuracy occurs.
Dyes that are commonly used are Fluorescein, Rhodamine B, Rhodamine WT, or Pontacyl Pink B
because they are easily visible in very dilute solutions and also easily measured with optical
instruments such as fluorometer and spectrophotometer. Rhodamine WT have been cleared as
nontoxic by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration and can be used in potable water to a maximum
limit of 10 ppb. Rhodamine and Pontacyl Pink B are also quite stable with respect to fading by
sunlight and to changes caused by waterborne chemicals. They do not tend to deposit on flow
surfaces, sediments, or weeds. These dyes are usually available in liquid form, and solutions are
easily prepared. Before conducting a discharge measurement program, selected dyes should be
tested with water samples or earth canal embankment material samples and exposed to check for
possible adsorption, chemical reaction, and fading effects on dye stability.
Dye tracers are used to determine discharge in two basic ways: (1) the velocity-area method, in
which time of tracer travel through a known channel length and average cross-sectional area
determine discharge and (2) the dilution method, in which discharge is determined by the
downstream concentration of fully mixed tracer, which has been added upstream at a constant rate,
and by accounting for the amount of tracer substance found downstream. Detailed procedures of
methods (1) & (2) can be obtained from www.turnerdesigns.com/applications/flurorescentdye
tracing/998-5000.html
Acoustic Method
In transit time acoustic meters, the velocity of sound pulses in the direction of flow is compared to
the velocity of sound pulses opposite to the direction of flow to determine the mean velocity and,
thus, discharge. With Doppler acoustic meters, sound pulses are reflected from moving particles at
different frequencies within the layers in the water column, similar to radar principle.
A transit time acoustical sensor emits a sound wave under water across a channel and measures the
time required for the signal's return. Transit time is correlated with channel width. The relative
positions of the emitting and receiving sensors are used to estimate velocity. A minimum depth of
flow is required. This type of sensor can only be used at sites with sufficient baseflow to provide the
medium in which the sound wave travels. If there is no baseflow, the lower portions of the rising and
falling limbs of the hydrograph will be lost. A drawback of this technique is that it requires almost
permanent installation of both transmitter and receiver units including power supply thus exposing
the system to vandalism and theft.
March 2009 4-43

Acoustic technique, too can be used to measure velocities at equally divided points across a stream
the discharge rate can be calculated using the velocity-area equation. By measuring the change in
frequency from the acoustic reflections from moving particles in the water body like small sediments
and air bubbles, an acoustic type current meter can be used to determine the velocity. An Acoustic
Current Meter or ACM (Figure 4.32) is akin to single point current meters in that it measures velocity
in the water column one point at a time. By sending out an acoustic signal of a certain frequency
which bounces off moving particles at a point in the water column and is returned to a receiver, the
instrument is able to analyse the signals for frequency changes and the mean value of the frequency
shifts then can be related to the mean velocity of the moving particles in the water. ACMs are
typically used when only one point measurement in the water column is required over a period of
time.
Acoustic Doppler Current Profilers (ADCP) are natural progression from ACMs. These instruments
measure average velocities in cells of selected size in a vertical series along the water column.
ADCPs have long been used to measure current velocity and flow in deep waters in reservoirs,
oceans, and large rivers and new models with very high frequencies are now available for very
shallow rivers and streams. Most of the meters in this class are multidimensional or can
simultaneously measure more than a single directional component of velocity at a time. Both ACMs
and ADCPs are usually self-contained instruments; they come with tilt, temperature and pressure
sensors, compass and on-board battery packs and internal data logger for long term deployment.
Further details of ADCPs and their various approaches to discharge measurements are discussed in
Chapter 12.
Figure 4.32 A Single Point Acoustic Current Meter or ACM
Frequency of Discharge Measurement
The usual practice is to conduct gauging on a monthly basis to obtain an accurate rating curve. This
is true for steady state or normal flow situations for most period of the year. However more
frequent e.g. weekly basis gauging exercise are recommended for during drought months and also
during rainy seasons where the both extreme ends of the curve may vary depending on the changes
in river bank and bed morphology. For very low flow conditions dye tracer technique may be
necessary in addition to the usual current meters whilst for very high flow events the use of
unmanned ADCP (for small rivers and streams) or from a moving boat (manned ADCP) may be
applied at locations where cableway are not available. Chapter describes further the use of ADCP in
environmentally-challenging situations. During the low and high flow periods where manpower is
short, it is suggested that the stations are gauged on a rotation basis.
4-44 March 2009

Station Control
The pre-selected cross section of a river or artificial channel is usually referred to as a control. A
control is usually dictated by the geometry of the cross-section and also the physical features of the
river downstream of the section. Station control then refers to the physical features found
downstream, natural or otherwise influencing the existing rating curve for the gauging station at
hand. The control can be in the form of a weir, gravel bar, rapid channel, contracted passage etc.
that would cause backwater effect onto the stage and discharge curve.
There are mainly three types of station control:
a. Permanent station control whereby the effects of the control is steady and unchanged over
the whole rating curve, from low flow to high. Therefore no adjustments or adaptations are
required.
b. Partial station control refers to the situation where a simple stage discharge curve is only
applicable under normal flow conditions but more empirical and frequent measurements
would be required in order to extend the rating curve beyond the applicable limits.
c. Shifting station control poses more challenge as the stage discharge curve is constantly
subjected to fluctuation over time caused by the dynamics in scouring, silting, vegetative
growth etc. as reflected in a two stage-discharge curves, one for a rising flood and the other
for a falling flood.
For many stations, a shift in the station control or a backwater condition may occur at certain times
during the year as a result of vegetative growth, a jammed log and/or changes to riverbed and bank
morphology from high floods. During such periods, shift or backwater corrections can be determined
from available discharge measurements.
However, apart from these measurements which plot off the curve for reasons indicated above, most
of the measurements will plot somewhat off the curve as a result of normal scatter. For these, no
correction is computed; however, it is normally found useful for purposes of expressing
mathematically the degree of scatter to indicate for each measurement the percentage difference
between measured discharge and the discharge indicated by the stage-discharge relation. For
discharges less than about 0.005m/s the differences may be expressed in cubic meters per second
instead of percentage.
A discharge measurement made during the computation period may plot substantially off the stage-
discharge curve. It is recommended that discharge measurements be computed and plotted on site
and redone if it plots off the curve. This can often determine if it is a bad measurement or if a shift
has occurred. However, sometimes the second measurement cannot be done, or sometimes it is
done and the departure cannot be explained. If, after careful analysis and review, no satisfactory
cause of its departure from the stage-discharge curve can be determined, the measurement should
be eliminated from use in the computation
4.4 CAUSES OF FLOOD AND THEIR ESTIMATION
An area is said to be flooded if stormwater runoff cause a significant rise in water level above the
ground level inflicting damage to properties or crops or disrupting the normal activities in the area.
The source of stormwater runoff can be from a catchment upstream or it could be from an adjacent
river overspilling its banks or bunds.
Flood is of concern if it causes substantial property damage or it causes significant disruption to

normal activities. Therefore a swampy area or an undeveloped open space experiencing a 0.3 m of
rise in water level above the ground may not be viewed as flooding by some and thats the reason
some floods in undeveloped areas are not recorded as flood prone areas. On the other hand the
same 0.3 m inundation along a highway would cause havoc to traffic and be given lots of media
attention. Damage to properties will occur if flood rises above the floor level of properties and
March 2009 4-45

damage increases drastically as flood level rises. Beyond 1.0m flood becomes potential danger to
lives. Swift flowing flood waters of 0.6m can carry away most vehicles due to buoyancy of the vehicle
in water and momentum of flowing water.
Agricultural areas are more tolerant to flooding than urban areas. Most crops especially tree crops
(rubber, fruits) can withstand shallow inundation for periods of 48 hours. Oil palms are more
resistant to flooding and can stand longer periods of inundation and the loss is often attributed to
loss of harvest when access is cut off during a flood.
Localised floods experienced in many urban catchments such as Kuala Lumpur, Penang and Ipoh are
due to water brought about by short-duration and intense thunderstorms while the larger basin
floods such as the widespread flooding that occurs in Kelantan and Pahang River Basins are
attributed to longer duration and widespread rainfall brought about by the North-East Monsoon.
It is of interest to estimate flood events in terms of flood peak discharges and flood volumes as they
form the basis of design of flood mitigation works and flood management strategies.
4.5 ESTIMATION OF DESIGN FLOODS
Various techniques can be adopted in estimating design flood discharges and the techniques are
broadly categorized as follows:
Empirical formula such as the Rational Formula and regional equations such as those
described in DIDs hydrological procedures or HPs
Flood frequency analysis of observed floods which can be extracted from DIDs hydrological
database.
Rainfall-runoff models simulating the behaviour of catchment in receiving rainfall, storing
part of the rainfall and transforming the excess rain into runoff hydrographs
The choice of techniques depends on the availability of data, tools and expertise available (especially
in flood modelling), objectives of project and the complexity and importance of the project.
DID publishes Hydrological Procedures or HPs and many of the HPs describe techniques for
estimating design floods. The HPs related to flood estimation are HP1, HP4, HP5, HP11, HP16 and
HP18. The HPs resulted from studies carried out by DID using local data extracted from JPSs
hydrological database.
HP1 provides a method for estimating design rainfall for various storm durations and ARIs.
HP4 allows the user to estimate design flood discharge based on the regional flood
frequency method.
HP5 describes a procedure for estimating design flood discharge based on the Rational
Formula.
HP16 describes a procedure for estimating flood discharge in urban catchments based on a
modified form of the Rational Formula.
HP11s synthetic triangular hydrograph method of estimating floods in rural catchments is
based the Synders synthetic triangular flood hydrograph method but the equations used for
estimating some of the hydrograph parameters were derived based on local data.
HP18 is also a procedure for estimating floods but is meant to be applied to agricultural
drainage design.
HPs are often used by consultants for developers to design urban drains and ponds. They provide
the consultants with a uniform approach towards flood discharge estimation.
4-46 March 2009

In major flood studies such as development of urban stormwater master plans or river basin flood
studies, it is usually expected that effort be made to use whatever available recorded data from
DIDs hydrological database to estimate design flood discharges, flood volumes or flood hydrographs.
Depending on the design objectives, there are various approaches in hydrological data analyses in
flood estimation:
Where only designed peak discharge is required, i.e for sizing channel capacity, then
methods that yield design peak discharges such as the regional flood frequency method of
HP4, the Rational and modified Rational Formula of HP5 and HP16 respectively can be
applied.
Statistical analysis of annual peak discharges yields design peak discharges and thus can be
the adopted approach if historical peak flood discharge data are available.
In design of ponds, pumping schemes and tidal control gates, the volume of flood discharge
and the temporal distribution of flood discharge is an important consideration and therefore
estimation of peak flood discharge only is insufficient. The shape of the design flood
hydrograph is also important. For instance in the design of flood detention ponds the flood
hydrograph with lower peak discharge but with higher flood volumes may be more critical
than the flood hydrograph with higher peak discharge.
The HP that yields design flood hydrographs is HP11 which estimates flood based on the
synthetic triangular flood hydrograph method. But HPs which adopt the Rational Formula i.e.
HP5, HP11 and HP16 which is usually meant for estimating peak flood discharge also allow
the user to plot a simplified hydrograph (also known as the Rational Method Hydrograph
Method)
Where data is available and the complexity of the project justify the effort, then attempt
should be made to estimate design floods using rainfall-runoff modelling.
Many rainfall-runoff models: notable ones being as Hec-HMS of US Army Corps of Engineers,
RORB Model of Monash University and NAM Model of Danish Hydraulic Institute allow user to
break the catchments into sub-catchments and specify for each subcatchment, parameters
such as lag-time or its equivalent and loss rates (infiltration loss). This allows the modeller to
study impact of urbanisation of flood runoff as urbanisation affects infiltration loss and
hydrograph lag time.
Many models also allow the user to include storage dams, detention ponds, flood diversions
and such changes are cannot be estimated with statistical analyses of historical discharge
data.
Another instance where historical discharge data is of limited use is when there is a need to
estimate future urbanised discharges in a catchment where the current landuse is
predominantly rural in nature.
Many modelling effort are also carried out for catchments with limited runoff data for
calibration and verification. The main reason for modelling despite the lack of data is the
flexibility which the model accords to the user in terms of studying the impact of
urbanisation, the impact of proposed dams and river diversions, etc. Values estimated from
HPs are sometimes used to cross-check the results of models. This is not calibration in the
true sense of the word but more of ensuring the models results are reasonable.
The various common flood estimation techniques are described below.
4.5.1 Empirical Methods and Regional Equations
The Rational Method is an empirical flood estimation method which is described in detail in
Hydrological Procedures HP5 and HP16 and DIDs Stormwater Management Manual (2000).
The Rational Formula is given by:
Q y= C.I. A / 360 (4.26)
March 2009 4-47

Where
Qy = y year ARI peak discharge (m3/s)
C = dimensionless runoff coefficient
I = y year ARI rainfall intensity over time of concentration tc (mm/hr)
A= catchment area (ha)
Catchment area A can be measured from maps, intensity data obtained from the IDF curves
developed by DID or derived from recorded rainfall data. User needs to determine the time of
concentration tc. Runoff coefficient C depends on catchment landuse and rainfall intensity. More
developed areas will have more impervious areas leading to higher C values. Higher rainfall intensity
also leads to higher C values, the reason being catchment becomes more impervious when the
ground in ponded with water during intense rainstorms. The Rational Method is simple and is
popularly used in urban drainage design. Critics of the Rational Method claim that the method is
simplistic, does not take into account catchment storage and flood routing effects and as such the
method tends to overestimate the peak flood discharge. The general opinion is that the Rational
Method is acceptable for small catchment areas. DIDs Stormwater Management Manual (2000) says
that method gives satisfactory results for catchments up to 80 ha.
HP4 provides regional equations for estimating design floods for rural catchments greater than 20
km2. Catchments were categorized into 2 sets of regions.
One set of regions, the MAF regions (MAF 1 to MAF 6), is for mean annual flood (MAF)
determination.
Another set of regions, the FF regions (FF 1 to FF 6), is meant for flood frequency
determination.
The forms of the regional equations are as follows:
MAF = c . Aa . Rb (4.27)
Where MAF = mean annual flood (m3/s)

A = catchment area (km2)
R = mean annual catchment rainfall (m) and
a, b, and c are constants unique to each MAF region
Table 4.3 Coefficients of the MAF Regional Equations
MAF
a b C
Regions
MAF 1 0.6528 0.7901 0.1980
MAF 2 0.9630 0.6541 0.8093
MAF 3 0.1192 0.6175 3.0571
MAF 4 0.1048 0.7177 3.0224
MAF 5 0.0140 0.7954 5.0354
MAF 6 0.4783 0.9066 0.9463
In deriving the regional equations flood frequency analyses was carried out on flood discharge
records extracted from DIDs river stations and the flood frequency curves obtained were converted
to dimensionless curves by dividing the discharge by the MAF.
Z = Qt / MAF (4.28)
4-48 March 2009

where Z = dimensionless variable

MAF = Mean Annual Flood
Qt = t year ARI flood discharge
Catchments located adjacent to one another and exhibiting similar dimensionless curves (Z versus
ARI) were grouped into flood frequency (FF) regions. The general form of the dimensionless flood
frequency curves is a s follows:
Z = m log10(t) + c (4.29)
Where t = ARI (years)

m and c are constants unique to each FF region
Table 4.4 Constants of the FF Regional Equations
FF Regions m c
FF 1 0.77 0.72
FF 2 0.82 0.70
FF 3 0.92 0.66
FF 4 1.33 0.51
FF 5 1.49 0.45
FF 6 1.69 0.38
The regional frequency method allows the results of individual station flood frequency analyses to be
extended to any catchment within the same region. Experience shows that HP4 gives quite low
estimates of flood discharge.
HP11 describes a procedure for flood estimation which adopts the Synders synthetic triangular flood
hydrograph method (see Figure 4.33) and the parameters of the synthetic flood hydrograph are
presented in Tables 4.5 and 4.6. Three groups of catchments, Group1, Group 2 and Group 3 were
defined.
Table 4.5 Catchment Groups of HP11 and Parameters
Ct
Catchment Type n
imperial metric
Whole catchment very steep
Group 1 2 0.32 0.35
and covered in virgin jungle
Upper catchment very steep
and jungle covered, lower
Group 2 4 0.64 0.35
catchment hilly and covered
predominantly with rubber
Whole catchment undulation
with variable vegetation
Group 3 8 1.28 0.35
including jungle, rubber and
agricutural development
March 2009 4-49

Rainfall
Excess
Q
D
D /2 Lg
Tp Tr
qp
Q/2 Q/2
Tb
Figure 4.33 Triangular Direct Runoff Hydrograph of HP11
The catchment lag time Lg (hours) is given by:
L*Lc n
Lg =Ct (4.30)
S
Where Ct ,n = catchment group parameters from Table 5.3

L = main stream length from outlet to catchment boundary (miles)
Lc = main stream length from outlet to catchment centroid (miles)
S = weighted mean stream slope (ft/mile)
Parameter C (hrs) is computed based on the storm duration D (hrs) and the lag time Lg (hours) i.e:
C = D/2 + Lg (4.31)
and based on C, the parameters Dp, Tb and Tp can be determined from Table 4.6
Table 4.6 Parameters of Dimensionless Triangular Flood Hydrographs
Catchment
Dp Tb Tp Tb/Tp
Group
Group 1 1.06 1.89C 0.94C 0.50
Group 2 0.89 2.24C 0.87C 0.39
Group 3 0.75 2.67C 0.58C 0.22
The peak discharge is computed as
Dp *A*640*Q
qp = D (4.32)
Lg + 2
4-50 March 2009

Local adaptation of the method is reflected in the locally derived parameters of the lag time equation
and dimensionless flood hydrographs (Table4.5 and 4.6)
Feedback from many users of DIDs HPs indicates that HP11 gives the most realistic flood estimates
for rural catchments compared to other flood estimation procedures described in DIDs Hydrological
Procedures. HP11 contains a statement recommending that the procedure not be used for
catchments larger than 200 sq miles (km2) because the assumption of uniform area distribution of
rainfall becomes unrealistic for large catchments. The synthetic triangular hydrograph method of
HP11 assumes uniform rainfall distribution. But it should be noted that HP11 contains an alternative
procedure i.e. the triangular unit hydrograph method (note the difference between triangular
hydrograph and triangular unit hydrograph) which allows the user to derive triangular unit
hydrograph for any unit interval, (d hours) and thereafter the user can apply unit hydrograph
procedure to derive the runoff resulting from any regular interval (d-hour interval) storms with
varying temporal pattern.
Storage attenuation in larger catchments seems to be the issue in both the Rational Method and
HP11 and the implication is that both methods will yield discharge estimates on the high side if
applied to catchments larger than recommended. Catchment size is an issue if the whole catchment
is viewed as one single catchment. This need not be the case if the catchment is sub divided into
smaller sub catchments and each modeled separately and linked by channel and routing through
channels carried out using methods such as the Nash cascade or the Muskingum method. This
process would elevate the procedure to modeling techniques which is possible with powerful
spreadsheets software such as Microsoft Excel. There are also models such as Hec-HMS which
actually has the Synder Triangular Hydrograph Technique incorporated as one of its rainfall-runoff
technique.
4.5.2 Hydrograph Method
Time-Area Method
In the design of flood storage ponds and pumping schemes, the designer is interested not just in the
peak flood discharge values but also the shape of the flood hydrographs. Several flood hydrograph
methods are often adopted.
The time-area method described in DIDs Urban Stormwater Management Manual 2000 is an
example of design flood estimation using the hydrograph method. The time area method is a
hydrograph method for flood estimation.
The example below illustrates the time-area method. The incremental time step for hydrograph
computation is set and in this example it is 10 minutes. Isochrones or line of equal travel time to the
catchment outlet of 10, 20, 30 and 40 minutes are drawn and the areas between the isochrones A1,
A2, A3 and A4 determined.
The hyetograph of rainstorm to be used in the time-area method is determined. In this example the
hyetograph is as shown in Figure 5.3. Losses due to infiltration must be taken off to determine the
effective rain. Table 5.10 taken from MSMA manual recommends various approaches in estimating
values for loss rate. For this example, an initial loss of 5 mm for the first 10 minutes and constant
loss rate of 1 mm per time interval for the remaining time intervals were assumed. This loss is
subtracted from the rainfall hyetograph to yield the effective rainfall hyetograph (see Table 4.7)
March 2009 4-51

Table 4.7 Incremental Area, Rainfall and Effective Rainfall Hyetographs
A B C D E
Time Incremental Rainfall Losses Effective

(mins) area (ha) (mm) (mm) rainfall (mm)
0 0.0
10 2.0 15.0 5 10
20 5.0 20.0 2 18
30 6.0 8.0 2 6
40 4.0 10.0 2 8
To determine the runoff hydrograph attributed to the effective rainfall a computation process known
as convolution is applied. For the first 10 minutes the effective rainfall is 10 mm. This 10 mm over an
area of 17 ha will yield a total runoff of 170 mm-ha and the runoff will be distributed in accordance
with the time area curve as shown in column F of Table 4.8 which according to the principle of
proportionality, is the product of the effective rain of 10 mm with the incremental area values in
column B. The runoff attributed to the second 10-minute effective rainfall of 18 mm will likewise be
the product of 18 mm with the incremental area values in column B but is lagged 10-minute to
account for the time shift in occurrence of this rainfall and so on for the next 10-minute rainfall. The
runoff due to the storm is, in accordance with the principle of superposition, the addition of the
component hydrographs generated by the effective rainfall of each time-step (columns F, G, H and I)
30 minute
40 minute isochrone
isochrone
20 minute
isochrone
10 minute
A4 isochrone
A3
A1
A2
Catchment
outlet
(a) Identify Isochrones (b) Time-Area Curve
(c) Rainfall Hyetograph, Losses and Effective Rain
4-52 March 2009

(d) Component Runoff Hydrographs and Combined Runoff Hydrographs
Figure 4.22 Time-Area Method
Table 4.8 Derivation of Runoff Hydrograph Using the Time-Area Method
A B C D E F G H I J K
Runoff generated by each 10-
Effective minute effective rainfall (mm- combined runoff
time Incremental rainfall Losses
rain ha)
(mins) area (ha) (mm) (mm)
(mm) (mm-
10 18 6 8 ha) (m3/s)
0 0 0 0 0.0
10 2 15 5 10 20 0 20 0.3
20 5 20 2 18 50 36 0 86 1.4
30 6 8 2 6 60 90 12 0 162 2.7
40 4 10 2 8 40 108 30 16 194 3.2
50 0 72 36 40 148 2.5
Runoff generated by 1st 10-min effective
60 rain 0 24 48 72 1.2
Runoff generated by 2nd 10-min
0
70 effective rain 32 32 0.5
Runoff generated by 3rd 10-min
80 effective rain 0 0 0.0
Runoff generated by 4th 10-min
90 effective rain
Total 17 53 11 42 170 306 102 136 714
March 2009 4-53


Table 4.9 Methods of Estimating Loss Rates Recommended in MSMA Manual
Condition Loss Model Recommended Values
Impervious Initial Loss- Loss rate Initial Lost:1.5mm Lost rate:0mm/hr

Areas
Pervious Initial loss- Initial Lost: 10mm Proportional Loss

Areas Proportional loss or 20% rainfall
Initial Loss- Loss rate, Initial Loss: 10mm for all soil Loss rate
or (i) sandy open structure soil 10-25 mm/hr
(ii) Loam soil 3-10 mm/hr
(iii) Clays, dense structured soil 0.5-3 mm/hr
(iv) Clays subject to high 4-6 mm/hr
shrinkage and in a cracked
state at start of rain
Horton Model Initial Infiltration Capacity f Ultimate infiltration
A. DRY soils (little or no vegetation) rate fc (mm/hr), for
Sandy soil: 125 mm/hrLoam hydrologic soil
soil: 75 mm/hr Group (See Note)
Clays soil: 25mm/hr A 10-7.5
B 7.5-3.8
For dense vegetation, multiply values C 3.8-1.3
given in A by 2 D 1.3-0
B. MOIST soil
Soil which have drained but not dried out:
divide values from A by 3
Soil close to saturation: values close to
saturated hydraulic conductivity
Soil parties dried out: divides values from
A by 1.5 2.5
Recommended value of k is 4/hr
Note: Hydrological Soil Group corresponds to the classification given by the U.S. Soil Conservation Services. Well drained sandy soils are A;
poorly drained clayey soil are D. The texture of the layer of least hydraulic conductivity in the soil profile should be considered. Caution should
be used in applying values from the above table to sandy soils (GROUP A) Source: XP- SWMM Manual (WP-Software, 1995)
Unit Hydrograph (UH) Method
The unit hydrograph (UH) method defines for a catchment, a t-duration unit hydrograph. The t-
duration UH describes the runoff distribution due to a unit effective rainfall input over a duration t.
Figure 4.35shows a 4-hour unit hydrograph due to a unit effective rainfall of 1 cm.
Time Direct Time Direct

(hours) runoff (hours) runoff
(m3/s) (m3/s)
0 0.0 10 12.0
1 0.6 11 8.0
2 2.0 12 5.0
3 8.0 13 3.0
4 15.0 14 2.0
5 18.0 15 1.5
6 19.0 16 1.0
7 18.6 17 0.8
8 17.5 18 0.5
9 15.0 19 0.2
Figure 4.35 4-hour UH for 1 cm Effective Rain and Tabulated UH Ordinates
4-54 March 2009

Application of UH to rainfall-runoff modelling involves convoluting the effective rainfall hyetograph

with the unit hydrograph in accordance with the principle of proportionality and superposition (a
process demonstrated in the previous section on time-area method) to compute component runoff
hydrographs and adding the component hydrographs to derive the final direct runoff
hydrograph(DRH)
The following example illustrates the concept of using the UH Method for rainfall-runoff modelling.
The 4-hour UH of a catchment is as given in Figure 4.35.The objective is to derive the resulting DRH
given a 4-hourly interval effective rainfall hyetograph as shown in Table4.10
Table 4.10 4-hourly Effective Rainfall Hyetograph
Time (hrs) 0 4 8 12 16 20
Effective Rain, ER (cm) 0 1 4 3 1 2
Note that as the UH is a 4-hour UH, the effective rainfall hyetographs applied has to be presented in
the form of a 4-hourly interval hyetographs.
Table 4.11 shows the computations involved in deriving the DRH. The computation process is known
as convolution and is very similar to the process involved in time-area method. Figure 5.5 shows the
convolution process graphically.
March 2009 4-55

Table 4.11 Derivation of the DRH by Convolution Process
Time Direct Effective Runoff generated by each 4-hour effective rain Convoluted
(hours runoff Rain, ER (ER) (m3/s) Hydrograph
) (m3/s) (cm) (m3/s)
1 cm 4 cm 3 cm 1 cm 2 cm
0 0.0 0.0 0.0
1 0.6 0.6 0.6
2 2.0 2.0 2.0
1
3 8.0 8.0 8.0
4 15.0 15.0 0.0 15.0
5 18.0 18.0 2.4 20.4
6 19.0 19.0 8.0 27.0
4
7 18.6 18.6 32.0 50.6
8 17.5 17.5 60.0 0.0 77.5
9 15.0 15.0 72.0 1.8 88.8
10 12.0 12.0 76.0 6.0 94.0
3
11 8.0 8.0 74.4 24.0 106.4
12 5.0 5.0 70.0 45.0 0.0 120.0
13 3.0 3.0 60.0 54.0 0.6 117.6
14 2.0 2.0 48.0 57.0 2.0 109.0
1
15 1.5 1.5 32.0 55.8 8.0 97.3
16 1.0 1.0 20.0 52.5 15.0 0.0 88.5
17 0.8 0.8 12.0 45.0 18.0 1.2 77.0
18 0.5 0.5 8.0 36.0 19.0 4.0 67.5
2
19 0.2 0.2 6.0 24.0 18.6 16.0 64.8
20 0.0 0.0 4.0 15.0 17.5 30.0 66.5
21 3.2 9.0 15.0 36.0 63.2
22 2.0 6.0 12.0 38.0 58.0
23 0.8 4.5 8.0 37.2 50.5
24 0.0 3.0 5.0 35.0 43.0
25 2.4 3.0 30.0 35.4
26 1.5 2.0 24.0 27.5
27 0.6 1.5 16.0 18.1
28 0.0 1.0 10.0 11.0
29 0.8 6.0 6.8
30 0.5 4.0 4.5
31 0.2 3.0 3.2
32 0.0 2.0 2.0
33 1.6 1.6
34 1.0 1.0
35 0.4 0.4
36 0.0 0.0
4-56 March 2009

140.0
2
120.0 4
6
100.0
8
Runoff (m3/s)
Rainfall (cm)
80.0
10
60.0 12
14
40.0
16
20.0
18
0.0 20
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36
Time (hours)
Rain 1cm ER
4 cm ER 3 cm ER
1 cm ER 2 cm ER
Convoluted Hydrograph
Figure 4.36 Convolution of UH of Figure 5.4 with Effective Rain (ER) Hyetograph of Table 4.9
March 2009 4-57

4.6 ESTIMATION OF PMF
PMF or probable maximum flood is the flood to be designed for in design of spillways for large dams
or dams whose failure would result in heavy losses in properties and lives. The categorization of
dams that requires PMF to be designed for varies. There are criteria set up by USBR, WMO and these
are often be adopted in the absence of a local criteria.
The PMF is basically the flood that results from a PMP and there are various ways of routing the PMP
to yield the PMF. Since most dam catchments are undeveloped and rural in nature, many of PMFs
derived for the dams in Malaysia uses HP11 to rout the PMP. To cater for large catchment areas the
PMPs are often reduced with the application of areal reduction factors (ARFs).
But with the availability of more sophisticated models, there are PMFs derived using more
sophisticated rainfall-runoff models such as the RORB model, HEC-HMS. When such models are
adopted, then the need arises for determination of temporal and areal distribution of the PMP.
An example of PMF derivation is as follows.
A 24-hour PMF is to be derived for Timah Tasoh Dam. Given is the 24-hour PMP derived as shown in
the example in Section 2.5.8.2. This example illustrates the routing of the PMP using the triangular
unit hydrograph method of HP11.
The 24-hour catchment PMP is 540 mm.
Rainfall losses can be estimated in several ways. DIDs HP11 computes effective rain Pe (mm) from
rainfall P (mm) using the equation :
Pe = P2 / ( P + 6 * 25.4 ) (4.33)
= 5402 / ( 540 + 6 * 25.4 )
= 421 mm
The Timah Tasoh Dam catchment is divided into three sub catchments:
Catchment A of 17 km2 - the inundated reservoir area which is considered impervious

and all rain falling directly is converted to runoff
Catchment B of 48 km2 - Sg Timah catchment upstream of the reservoir area
Catchment C of 126 km2 Sg Tasoh catchment upstream of the reservoir area
Synthetic triangular unit hydrographs for duration D= 2 hours and for unit effective rainfall of 1 cm is
to be derived for catchments B and C. Table 4.12 shows the computation of lag time Lg
Table 4.12 Computation of Lag Time Lg
Catchments B C
River Sg timah Sg Tasoh
main stream length L m 19 21
main stream length from
Lc m 8 11
outlet to catchment centroid
slope S 0.01029 0.00575
Catchment Group 2 3
Ct (based on catchment
Ct 4 8
group)
Computed lag time Lg hrs 8.27 21.20
4-58 March 2009

Rainfall
Excess
U
D
D /2 Lg
Tp Tr
qp
Q/2 Q/2
Tb
Figure 4.37 Triangular Unit Hydrograph
Table 4.13 shows the computation of the unit hydrograph parameters which is then used to develop
the unit hydrograph ordinates in Table 4.14.
Table 4.13 Computation of Unit Hydrograph Parameters
Catchments B C
Sg timah Sg Tasoh
Area A Km2 48 126
Dp 0.89 0.75
slope U cm 1 1
Unit hydrograph
D hrs 2 2
duration
C hrs 9.27 22.20
Computed lag time Qp m3/s 12.70 11.73
Base of unit
Hydrograph Tb hr 22 60
Time to peak Tp hr 8 12
March 2009 4-59

Table 4.14 Ordinates of the Synthetic 2-hour UHs for Unit Rainfall of 1cm
Ordinates of UH
Time
Sg timah Sg Tasoh
hrs m3/s m3/s
0 0.00 0.00
2 3.18 1.96 CatchmentB SgTimah
4 6.35 3.91
6 9.53 5.87
8 12.70 7.82
10 10.89 9.78 CatchmentCSgTasoh
12 9.07 11.73
14 7.26 11.24
16 5.44 10.75
18 3.63 10.26 14
20 1.81 9.78
12
22 0.00 9.29
24 8.80 10
26 8.31
Dischargeinm3/s
28 7.82 8
30 7.33
32 6.84 6
34 6.35
4
36 5.87
38 5.38
2
40 4.89
42 4.40 0
44 3.91 0 20 40 60
46 3.42
48 2.93 Hours
50 2.44
52 1.96
54 1.47
56 0.98
58 0.49
60 0.00
The 24-hour PMP of 540mm needs to be distributed temporally and reference is made to the World
Curve in Table 2.14. The World curve is used as a basis for temporal distribution of the PMP. Two
sets of PMP hyetographs were derived. (see Table 4.15) For Catchment A rain falls directly onto the
reservoir water body and hence no losses. The total hyetograph ordinates adds to 540mm. For
catchments B and C the PMP hyetograph applied is the effective rainfall hyetograph of 42.1 mm.
Note that since the UH is derived for a unit rainfall of 1 cm, the hyetograph units are expressed in
cm.
4-60 March 2009

Table 4.15 2- Hourly Effective Rainfall Hyetographs
Effective Rainfall
Time Hyetographs (cm)
(hrs) Catchment Catchment
A B and C
0 0.0 0
2 14.1 11
4 8.1 6.3
6 6.3 4.9
8 4.8 3.8
10 3.6 2.8
12 2.8 2.1
14 2.2 1.7
16 1.9 1.5
18 1.9 1.5
20 2.3 1.8
22 2.9 2.2
24 3.1 2.5
Total 54.0 42.1
Tables 4.16, 4.17, 4.18 shows the convolution of the PMP hyetographs with the respective unit
hydrographs (UH) to derive the Direct Runoff Hydrographs (DRH) for the three catchments.
Baseflow was added tpo the DRH of catchment B and C and for this purpose the baseflow rate of
0.055 m3/s/km2 recommended in HP11 was adopted. All three hydrographs from catchments A, B
and C were combined to form the designed 24-hour PMF (see Table 4.19 and Figure 4.38)
Table 4.16 Derivation of DRH for Catchment A
March 2009 4-61

Table 4.17 Derivation of DRH for Catchment B
4-62 March 2009

Table 4.18 Derivation of DRH for Catchment C
March 2009 4-63

Table 4.19 Combining the Catchment hydrographs to form the PMF
Total Runoff Hydrographs (m3/s) PMF

Time For Catchments Hydrograph
(hrs)
A B C (m3/s)
0 0 2.64 6.93 9.57
2 332.76 2.64 6.93 342.33
4 191.16 37.62 28.49 257.27
6 148.68 92.524 62.288 303.492
8 113.28 163.057 105.737 382.074
10 84.96 245.578 156.538 487.076
12 73.16 282.171 212.885 568.216
14 68.44 293.919 273.262 635.621
16 66.08 286.687 310.086 662.853
18 54.28 265.181 334.443 653.904
20 51.92 234.54 349.755 636.215
22 44.84 199.062 359.409 603.311
24 44.84 162.161 366.474 573.475
26 0 145.659 373.28 518.939
28 0 133.089 375.906 508.995
30 0 120.441 374.868 495.309
32 0 103.696 370.142 473.838
34 0 79.569 361.023 440.592
36 0 59.239 346.509 405.748
38 0 42.007 326.005 368.012
40 0 27.484 305.457 332.941
42 0 15.697 284.899 300.596
44 0 7.165 264.333 271.498
46 0 2.64 243.732 246.372
48 0 2.64 223.124 225.764
50 0 2.64 202.512 205.152
52 0 2.64 181.898 184.538
54 0 2.64 161.394 164.034
56 0 2.64 140.846 143.486
58 0 2.64 120.288 122.928
60 0 2.64 99.722 102.362
62 0 2.64 79.121 81.761
64 0 2.64 63.903 66.543
66 0 2.64 51.768 54.408
68 0 2.64 42.032 44.672
70 0 2.64 34.158 36.798
72 0 2.64 27.659 30.299
74 0 2.64 22.193 24.833
76 0 2.64 17.563 20.203
78 0 2.64 13.643 16.283
80 0 2.64 10.458 13.098
82 0 2.64 8.155 10.795
84 0 2.64 6.93 9.57
86 0 2.64 6.93 9.57
4-64 March 2009

700
600
SgTasoh
500 SgTimah
Dischargeinm3/s
Reservoir
24hrPMF
400
300
200
100
0
0 20 40 60 80
Hours
Figure 4.38 The 24-Hour PMF and the Component Catchment Hydrographs
REFERENCE
[1] HP 4. Magnitude and frequency of floods in Peninsular Malaysia - 1987.
[2] HP 5. Rational method of flood estimation for rural catchment in Peninsular Malaysia - 1989.
[3] HP 11 Design Flood Hydrograph Estimation for Rural Catchments in Peninsular Malaysia (1976).
[4] HP 16. Flood Estimation for urban areas in Peninsular Malaysia - 1976.
[5] Tan Hoe Tim, Manual of Department of Irrigation and Drainage Hydrology (revised and
Updated), Department of Irrigation and Drainage Ministry of Agriculture,Malaysia,1988.
March 2009 4-65

4-66 March 2009

APPENDIX 4A MOVING BOAT METHOD BY KLEIN, ET. AL.
March 2009 4A-1

4A-2 March2009
March 2009 4A-3

4A-4 March2009
March 2009 4A-5

4A-6 March2009
March 2009 4A-7

4A-8 March2009
March 2009 4A-9

4A-10 March2009
CHAPTER 5 STATISTICAL HYDROLOGY
Chapter 5 STATISTICAL HYDROLOGY
Table of Contents
Table of Contents................................................................................................................................5i
List of Tables.......................................................................................................................................5ii
List Figures..........................................................................................................................................5ii
5.1 HYDROLOGICAL DATA..........................................................................................................51
5.2 MEAN, STANDARD DEVIATION, SKEWNESS AND KURTOSIS..............................................54
5.3 FREQUENCY ANALYSES........................................................................................................56
5.3.1 Methodology ................................................................................................. 5-6
5.3.2 Parameter Estimation of Probability Distribution................................................ 5-8
5.3.3 Regional Frequency Analysis ..........................................................................5-12
5.4 EXAMPLE OF INTENSITY DURATION-FREQUENCY ANALYSES USING THE LOG-NORMAL
DISTRIBUTION...................................................................................................................518
REFERENCE......................................................................................................................................526
March 2009 5-i


List of Tables
5.1 Annual Rainfall Time Series (Sg Kerian Catchment) 5-3

5.2 Computation of Sample Statistics by MOM 5-10
5.3 Computation of L-Moments of a Data Series 5-12
5.4 Annual Maximum Peak Flows of Sg Rajang at Bakun 5-15
5.5 Estimation of Qt based on the EV1 Frequency Distribution 5-15
5.6 Probability Plotting Positions Using the Standard Plotting Position Method
by US Water Resources Council 5-17
List Figures
5.1 Daily, Monthly and Yearly Rainfall Time Series of Sg Kerian Catchment (Derived from Data
Extracted from DIDs Hydrological Database) 5-2
5.2 Mean Monthly Rainfall of Sg Kerian Catchment 5-4
5.3 Mean Monthly Discharge (Sg Kerian at Selama) 5-4
5.4 Probability Distribution and Skewness 5-5
5.5 Kurtosis and Shapes of Distributions 5-6
5.6 Probability Distribution Graph Papers Normal Probability Graph Paper (top and Gumbel
Probability Graph Paper (bottom) 5-8
5.7 Annual Peak Flows of Sg Rajang @ Bakun Plotted onto a EV1 Probability Paper 5-16
5-ii March 2009

5.0 STATISTICAL HYDROLOGY
5.1 HYDROLOGICAL DATA
Statistics gives hydrologists a methodology to derive from observed data estimates of extreme
hydrological values such as extreme floods, rainfall and low often required for planning and design of
water resources projects. It also allows the hydrologist to understand uncertainty and confidence in
hydrological observations and estimates.
Hydrological time series data collected by DID comprises:
Daily rainfall time series by daily read rain gauges

Daily read evaporation time series
Discrete water level series by daily read stick gauges (normally read 2 times a day)
Continuous rainfall time series by automatic recording rain gauges
Continuous water level time series by automatic recording water level recorders
Besides time-series data, DID also performs regular stream-flow gauging at river stations to develop
and update stage-discharge curves. At selected river stations, suspended sediment samplings are
also carried out to develop suspended sediment load discharge curves. With these two rating
curves applied to the water level time series, DID can derive:
discharge time series and

suspended sediment time series
From the recorded time series users are able to perform various numerical computations to obtain:
Daily time series from continuous time series e.g. Daily rainfall, evaporation, water level,
discharge and suspended sediment discharge
Monthly time series of rainfall, evaporation, water level, discharge and suspended sediment
Annual time series of rainfall, evaporation, water level, discharge and suspended sediment
load.
Daily, monthly and yearly time series of rainfall derived for the Sg Kerian Catchment upstream of the
Kerian Barrage is as shown in Figure 5.1. Viewed as daily data, rainfall appears random in nature,
some pattern of rainfall behaviour can be seen in the monthly time series and the annual rainfall
time series shows appears as a jagged line wavering over a central value of 3364 mm. The central
value is the mean value and the variation about the mean value is often measured by a statistic
called the standard deviation. The standard deviation of the Annual Kerian Rainfall is 338 mm. The
annual series is presented in Table 5.1 together with standard statistics often computed i.e. the
mean, standard deviation, skewness and kurtosis.
The mean and the standard deviation are the most common statistics applied to observations,
including hydrological observations. The mean is a measure of central tendency while the standard
deviation is a measure of deviation from the mean.
March 2009 5-1

Figure 5.1 Daily, Monthly and Yearly Rainfall Time Series of Sg Kerian Catchment (Derived from Data
Extracted from DIDs Hydrological Database)
5-2 March 2009

Table 5.1 Annual Rainfall Time Series (Sg Kerian Catchment)
Annual Annual
Year Rainfall Year Rainfall
(mm) (mm)
1947 4098 1974 2805
1948 3134 1975 3639
1949 4018 1976 2942
1950 3254 1977 2881
1951 3843 1978 2987 Mean 3364
1952 3604 1979 2863 Std Dev 338
1953 3760 1980 3664 Skew 0.21
1954 3070 1981 3078 Kurtosis -0.68
1955 3855 1982 3498
1956 3515 1983 3245
1957 3255 1984 3644
1958 3210 1985 3314
1959 3352 1986 3233
1960 3126 1987 3950
1961 3414 1988 3699
1962 3265 1989 3197
1963 3376 1990 3548
1964 3126 1991 3394
1965 3242 1992 2859
1966 3456 1993 3788
1967 3082 1994 3483
1968 2743 1995 2998
1969 3543 1996 3262
1970 3504 1997 2848
1971 3118 1998 3785
1972 3160 1999 3944
1973 3400 2000 3596
Average monthly series is also another dataset often derived and in the case of rainfall and discharge
the monthly series gives an indication of seasonal variation in rainfall and flows respectively (see
Figure 5.2 and 5.3).
March 2009 5-3

Figure 5.2 Mean Monthly Rainfall of Sg Kerian Catchment
Figure 5.3 Mean Monthly Discharge (Sg Kerian at Selama)
5.2 MEAN, STANDARD DEVIATION, SKEWNESS AND KURTOSIS
Mean and standard deviation equations are given by,
xi
x =Average (5.1)
n
2
nI=1 XI -X
= Standard Deviation = (5.2)
n-1
Besides mean and standard deviation, the other statistics applied to hydrological observation is
skewness and kurtosis.
Data is skewed when there are unbalanced distribution of high and low observations. The normal
distribution is symmetrical about the mean and has zero skewness (see Figure 5.4). The shapes of
the probability distributions that are positively skewed and negatively skewed are shown in
Figure 5.4.If the larger observations are further away from the mean than the smaller observations
then the data shows positive skew and vice versa.
5-4 March 2009

normal distribution
(zero Skew)
positive skew negative skew
Figure 5.4 Probability Distribution and Skewness
The skew also called third moment about the mean is given by
3
n Xi -X
(5.3)
n-1 n-2 s
Kurtosis is the fourth standardized moment and is given by
4
(5.4)
4
where 4 is the fourth moment about the mean and is the standard deviation.
A distribution with high kurtosis (Leptokurtic) has a sharper peak and longer, fatter tails, while a low
kurtosis distribution (platykurtic) has a more rounded peak and shorter thinner tails (see Figure 5.5)
March 2009 5-5

(+) Leptokurtic
General Forms of
(0) Mesokurti
Kurtosis
(Normal)
(-) Platykurtic
Figure 5.5 Kurtosis and Shapes of Distributions
5.3 FREQUENCY ANALYSES
Frequency analysis of hydrological events is statistical analyses of extreme hydrological events in

order to determine the frequency of occurrence of an extreme hydrological event (usually applied to
maximum rainfall or discharge but it can be also applied to minimum rainfall or discharge) or to
extrapolate observed extreme or discharge data to estimate extreme rainfall events of a designated
Average Recurrence Interval (ARI).
A key concept is extreme rainfall event and an example of an extreme rainfall event would be the
maximum 3-hour rainfall. Note that a rainfall event always has a specified duration i.e. a 30 minute
rainfall, a 1-hour rainfall or a 48 hour rainfall. Whilst frequency analysis is often carried out for
maximum rainfall events, it is also carried out for minimum rainfall events such as the minimum
monthly or minimum annual rainfall usually for drought events.
Another key concept is average recurrence interval (ARI) which is a measure of the frequency of
occurrence of an extreme event. A 100-year ARI storm is a storm that occurs or recurs on the
average once in 100 years. Likewise a 5-year ARI rainfall is a rainfall that recurs once in 5-years not
necessarily at exactly every 5-year interval but if over a 50-year record the event is exceeded 10
times within the 50 years then the average recurrence interval is 5 years.
5.3.1 Methodology
The steps involved in conducting frequency analysis of rainfall using the method of frequency factor
are shown below:
Select the rainfall station of interest. This should be the rainfall station nearest to the
project area. The data quality of the station is also important and so is the length of
records available (the longer the period of records the more reliable the analysis)
Retrieve from each year of record, the maximum rainfall occurring over the specified
storm duration. The result is a series of the annual maximum rainfalls.
Compute the mean (Xm) and standard deviation (SD) of the annual maximum rainfall
series.
5-6 March 2009

Using the method of frequency factors, the rainfall (Xt) of t years ARI is given by:
Xt = Xm + Kt . SD (5.5)
Where: Kt is the frequency factor whose value depends on the probability distribution
selected to fit the annual maximum rainfall series.
Another popular method of fitting a rainfall frequency distribution is by plotting the annual maximum
rainfall series in a probability distribution graph paper. A probability graph paper is a graph paper
where the scale is distorted such that data that fits the probability distribution plots as a straight line.
This is possible for 2-parameter probability distributions. A three parameter probability distribution
will not plot as a straight line. Examples of probability graph papers are shown in Figure 5.6.
The simplest and most common probability distribution is the normal probability distribution but it is
usually found not suitable for extreme value hydrological data. Other probability distributions
commonly used in hydrology are the Gumbel and Pearson Type III distributions. The log transforms
of the normal and Pearson Type III distributions are also commonly used.
March 2009 5-7

Figure 5.6 Probability Distribution Graph Papers Normal Probability Graph Paper (top) and Gumbel
Probability Graph Paper (bottom)
5.3.2 Parameter Estimation of Probability Distribution
There are various approaches towards estimation of parameters of probability distributions. The
most commonly used method is the method of moments but increasingly there are preferences for
other methods such as the method of L-moments.
5-8 March 2009

Method of Moments (MOM)
The MOM assumes that the moments of the probability density function (pdf) are equal to the
corresponding moments of the sample data.
The first moment of a probability distribution about the origin is the centroid of the probability
distribution and is given by
= x f x dx (5.6)
And this is also the mean of the probability distribution.
The moments of a probability distribution about the centroid or the central moments of the
probability distribution are given by:
r r
r =E X- = x- f x dx (5.7)
Variance:2 =2 (5.8)
3
Skewness = 1 = 3/2 (5.9)
2
4
Kurtosis=2 = (5.10)
22
The first moment of the sample data about the origin is given by:
(5.11)
And this is the sample mean.
The moments of the sample data about the mean are given by:
r
mr =n-1 (Xi -X) (5.12)
Sample moments for r>1 are not unbiased and unbiased estimators are given by:
-1 2
s2 =(n-1) (xi -x) (5.13)
n2
m*3 = m3 (5.14)
n-1 (n-2)
* n2 n+1
k4 = m4 -3m22 (5.15)
n-2 n-3 n-1
March 2009 5-9

MOM is an established method and is easy to apply and hence in most hydrological studies MOM is
applied. Table 5.2 shows an example of how moments of sampled data (Annual Maximum
Discharge) are computed.
Table 5.2 Computation of Sample Statistics by MOM
Annual
Year Maximum (X-Xm)2
Discharge X
(m3/s)
1981 59 42
1982 95 870
1983 67 2
1984 56 90
1985 64 2
1986 71 30
1987 69 12
1988 53 156
1989 41 600
1990 45 420
1991 65 0
1992 92 702
1993 44 462
1994 96 930
Total 917 4322
Number of samples n= 14
The mean = sum of moments about the origin/n

= 917/14
= 65.5 m3/s
The variance s2 = sum of squares of moments about the mean/(n-1)

= 4322/13
= 332.4
Method of L-Moments (MLM)
L-moment is an alternative system of describing probability distribution proposed by Hosking (1990).

L-moments according to Hosking (1990) provide measures of location, dispersion, skewness,
kurtosis, and other aspects of the shape of probability distributions or data samples -- but are
computed from linear combinations of the ordered data values (hence the prefix L)
The L-moment of X is a function of probability weighted moments (PWM). PWMs are computed from
ranked observations Xj.
5-10 March 2009

The PWM of sampled observations is given by:
j-1 j-2 (j-i)

bi = n-1 nj=1+i x(j) (5.16)
n-1 n-2 (n-i)
Based on the PWM estimators the first 4 L-moments are defined as follows:
l1 =b0 , (5.17)
l2 =2b1 -b0 , (5.18)
l3 =6b2 -6b1 +b0 , (5.19)
l4 =20b3 -30b2 +12b1 -b0 (5.20)
l1 is a measure of central tendency, l2 a measure of dispersion. The following are dimensionless L-

moment ratios defined by Hosking (1990):
t= l2 l1 (L-coefficient of variation, L-Cv) (5.21)
t3 = l3 l2 (L-skewness) (5.22)
t4 = l4 l2 (L-kurtosis) (5.23)
L-moments are linear combinations of observations and do not involve squares or cubic functions of
observations. Therefore they are less sensitive to large values in observations and outliers.
For probability distribution with cumulative frequency function F(X), the PWMs are defined by:
r
r = x F x dF x , r=0,1,2 (5.24)
And correspondingly the L-moments are:
1 =0 (5.25)
2 =21 -0 (5.26)
3 =62 -61 +0 (5.27)
4 =203 -302 +121 -0 (5.28)
Computed L-moments of several theoretical probability distributions are as follows:

Uniform (rectangular) distribution on (0,1):
1 1
1 = , 2 = , 3 =0, 4 =0 (5.29)
2 6
Normal distribution with mean 0 and variance 1:

1
1 =0, 2 = , 3 =0, 4 0.123 (5.30)

Exponential distribution with mean 1:

1 1 1
1 =1, 2 = , 3 = , 4 = (5.31)
2 3 6
March 2009 5-11

Table 5.3 Computation of L-Moments of a Data Series
Annual Ranked L-
Rank PWM
Year Maximum Data i Moments
j bi
Discharge Xj Li
(m3/s) (m3/s) 0 65.50
1981 59 1 41 1 38.01 65.50
1982 95 2 44 2 27.32 10.52
1983 67 3 45 3 21.49 1.32
1984 56 4 53 4 17.77 0.88
1985 64 5 56
1986 71 6 59 L-Cv 0.16
1987 69 7 64 L-Skewness 0.13
1988 53 8 65 L-Kurtosis 0.08
1989 41 9 67
1990 45 10 69
1991 65 11 71
1992 92 12 92
1993 44 13 95
1994 96 14 96
5.3.3 Regional Frequency Analysis
Regional frequency analyses is a method for extending frequency statistics to sites with little or no
data. Dalrymple applied regional frequency analyses to derive average dimensionless flood
frequency distributions applicable to all drainage basins within a homogeneous region. The average
dimensionless flood frequency curve can only be defined if all the individual station curves have
almost the same slope. Normally, homogeniety test is required before regional curves can be
defined. Examples of regional frequency analyses can be seen in the following hydrological
procedures (HPs) developed by DID:
HP4: Magnitude and Frequency of Floods in Peninsular Malaysia (Revised and

Updated 1987)
HP12: Magnitude and Frequency of Low flows in Peninsular Malaysia (Revised and
Updated 1985)
The assessment of regional homogeneity is carried out in regional frequency analysis and three tests
of homogeneity are available:
the Discordancy measure, D test and

the Heterogeniety measure, H test and
the goodness of fit measure ZDIST of fitted probability distribution
In the discordancy measure test, L-moment ratios: L-Cv, L-skewness and L-kurtosis of a site are
computed for a group of homogeneous sites.
1 T
Di = N ui -u K-1 (ui -u) (5.32)
3
where ui = vector of L-moment ratios for station i,

K = covariance matrix of ui,
u = mean of vector ui
5-12 March 2009

The station i is declared to be discordant, if Di is greater than the critical value of the discordancy
statistic given in a tabular form by [Hosking and Wallis, 1993]
The heterogeneity measure H compares the inter-site variations in sample L-moments for sites
within a region deemed homogeneous and is given by:
V-v
H= (5.33)
v
where V = weighted standard deviation of L-coefficient of variation values,

V, V = the mean and standard deviation of number of simulations of V.
The criteria for deciding heterogeneity of a region is as: if H < 1, region is acceptably homogeneous,
if 1 H < 2, region is possibly heterogeneous, if H 2, region is definitely heterogeneous.
The goodness of fit measure, ZDIST, indicates how well the L-skewness and L-kurtosis of a fitted
distribution matches the regional average L-skewness and L-kurtosis values of the observed data.
The goodness-of-fit criterion for each distribution is defined as:
R
ZDIST =(DIST
4 -4 +B4 )/4 (5.34)
where t4R = average value t4 obtained from the data of a given region,
B4, 4 = bias and standard deviation of t4, respectively, defined as:
-1 N (m)
B4 =Nsim m=1
sim
(t4 -tR4 ) (5.35)
1/2
-1 N m 2
4 = (Nsim -1) m=1
sim
(t4 -tR4 ) -Nsim B24 (5.36)
Where Nsim = number of simulated regional data sets generated using a Kappa distribution,
m = mth simulated region obtained using a Kappa distribution.
The fit is deemed adequate if ZDIST is sufficiently close to zero, a reasonable criterion being
ZDIST 1.64. (5.37)
EXAMPLE OF FLOOD FREQUENCY ANALYSES.
In flood frequency analyses the objective is to carryout statistical analysis to find a probability
distribution that fits the observed flood data and thereafter extrapolating the probability distribution
to estimate extreme ARI flood events such as the 100-year flood. To carry out statistical analysis
there must be data and hence flood frequency analyses can only be carried out for catchments with
flood data collected.
March 2009 5-13

Like rainfall, flood events varies from time to time but if data of flood magnitudes is collected over
long periods of time one gets an idea of the central tendency (mean, average, etc.) and variability
(the standard deviation) of the flood event.
If the objective is to find the 100-year ARI flood then the approach would be to extract for each year
the maximum flood discharge (one value per year or the annual flood event).
A year is usually taken as the calendar year for convenience in data extraction. But this need not be
so in all cases. The idea is to make sure that the flood events considered are independent (i.e.
clearly separate events). A case for deviating from the standard calendar year would be floods in
Kelantan. The big floods in Kelantan occur during the North-East Monsoon Season and the season
occurs in November, December and January with floods occurring anytime between these months.
Should the big flood occur at the end of December and the heavy rainfall and flood persists until
January then there may be a possibility that the selected peak flood discharge for both years comes
from the same flood event. So statistically they are not independent events. So for Kelantan and
some other east coast states of Peninsular Malaysia, the hydrological year need not be the calendar
year and June to June would be a better choice of hydrological year.
Table 5.4 presents the annual maximum peak discharge records of Sg Rajang @ Bakun. As in many
stations records are often not complete. There are missing records for certain years.
The mean annual flood peak discharge is 5,487 m3/s and the standard deviation of the annual flood
peak discharge is 1,624 m3/s. Using the method of frequency factors and applying the EV1
distribution floods of various ARI (T years) can be computed.
QT = Qm + KT * S (5.38)
Where QT = the T-yr ARI peak flood discharge

KT = the frequency factor corresponding to T-yr ARI
KT for EV1, one of the probability distributions commonly used for flood frequency analysis is given
by:
6 T
KT =- 0.5772+ln ln (5.39)
T-1
5-14 March 2009

Table 5.4 Annual Maximum Peak Flows of Sg Rajang at Bakun
Year Qp (m3/s) Year Qp (m3/s)

1968 7670 1981 5925
1969 5838 1982 9574
1970 - 1983 6680
1971 6565 1984 5575
1972 4182 1985 6350
1973 6671 1986 7144
1974 5933 1987 6852
1975 - 1988 5334
1976 7601 1989 4075
1977 - 1990 4523
1978 - 1991 6538
1979 - 1992 9210
1980 - 1993 4364
1994 9620
Mean, Qm 6,487 m3/s

Standard Deviation, S 1,624 m3/s
Based on the frequency factor equation above the KT and QT for various ARI are computed and
presented in Table 5.5.
Table 5.5 Estimation of Qt based on the EV1 Frequency Distribution
ARI Estimated
Frequency
T Flood, QT
factor, KT
(years) (m3/s)
2 -0.164 6220
5 0.719 7655
10 1.304 8606
20 1.866 9517
50 2.592 10697
100 3.136 11581
Frequency analysis can also be presented graphically by plotting the observed annual floods onto
probability distribution paper. In this example, the EV1 distribution was chosen and hence the plot is
on EV1 paper. When plotted the goodness -of-fit (although there are statistical tests of goodness-of
fit that could be applied) of the proposed probability distribution can be viewed and be used as a
check (see Figure 5.7)
Table 5.6 shows how the data from Table 5.4 is ranked and assigned plotting positions (probability
of exceedance). The plotting position formula adopted is the US Water Resources Councils standard
method. The plotting position of a particular annual flood peak value is its position along the
probability or return period axis and is given by:
March 2009 5-15

T = (n + 1) / m (5.40)
Where T = the ARI (years)

n = number of annual flood peak data
m = rank of the flood peak discharge sorted in descending order
There are other plotting position formulas such as those advocated by Blom and Gringorton but
experience so far shows that the choice of plotting position does not significantly affect the results of
analysis.
Figure 5.7 Annual Peak Flows of Sg Rajang @ Bakun Plotted onto a EV1 Probability Paper
5-16 March 2009

Table 5.6 Probability Plotting Positions Using the Standard Plotting Position Method by US Water
Resources Council
ARI Exceedance
Q rank T= Probability
(m3/s) m (n+1)/m P = (1-1/T)
(years) (%)
9620 1 22.0 95.5
9574
2 11.0 90.9
9210
3 7.3 86.4
7670
4 5.5 81.8
7601
5 4.4 77.3
7144
6 3.7 72.7
6852 7 3.1 68.2
6680
8 2.8 63.6
6671 9 2.4 59.1
6565 10 2.2 54.5
6538 11 2.0 50.0
6350 12 1.8 45.5
5933 13 1.7 40.9
5925 14 1.6 36.4
5838 15 1.5 31.8
5575 16 1.4 27.3
5334 17 1.3 22.7
4523 18 1.2 18.2
4364 19 1.2 13.6
4182 20 1.1 9.1
4075 21 1.0 4.5
So far DID has adopted EV1 in many flood studies. Likewise many consultant studies have adopted
the EV1 distribution for flood studies. EV1 was adopted by the Natural Environment Research
Council (NERC) of UK in their Flood Studies Report (1975). In the US the U.S. Water Resources
Council recommended using the log-Pearson Type III distribution as the base distribution in all
federal planning related to water and related land resources to promote a uniformity and consistency
in planning.
With the availability of powerful spreadsheets the frequency factor method is more popularly used
compared to the graphical approach in flood frequency analysis. Frequency factor of the normal
probability distribution corresponding to probability of exceedance p, is given by:
2
2.515517 + 0.802853w + 0.010328w
KT =w- 2 3 (5.41)
1 + 1.432788w +0.189269w +0.001308 w
Where w = (ln(1/p2))0.5 (0 < p 0.5)
March 2009 5-17

If p > 0.5 then p = 1 p and KT = -KT

And the frequency factor of Log-Pearson Type III distribution is given by:
KT = z + (z2-1)k + 1/3(z3-6z)k2 -(z2-1)k3 + zk4 + 1/3 k5 (5.42)
where k =Cs/6
5.4 EXAMPLE OF INTENSITY DURATION-FREQUENCY ANALYSES USING THE LOG-

NORMAL DISTRIBUTION
IDF or Intensity-Duration-Frequency curves are often required in estimating design rainfalls

subsequently used as input of rainfall-runoff models. The basic data for IDF analysis is maximum
annual rainfall for various durations. Figure 5.7 shows the data extracted from DIDs rainfall records
of a rainfall station in Pejabat JPS Pahang. Note that DID can retrieve such data from the
hydrological database via its TIDEDA software package and in this case the TIDEDA routine used to
extract the data is PMOVE.
This example shows the fitting of a log-normal distribution to the data to derived extreme rainfall
intensities of various ARIs (average recurrence intervals).
The maximum rainfall data (mm) is first converted to maximum rainfall intensities (mm/hour) by
dividing the maximum annual rainfall by its duration (hours). The maximum annual rainfall intensity
data is presented in Table 5.8. The LN (natural log) is applied to the intensity data to transform the
original data to a LN-transformed data (see Table 5.9)
The mean and the standard deviation of the LN-transformed data is then computed and presented in
Table 5.10. The statistics i.e. the means and the standard deviations of the LN-Transformed data
were computed and the LN-Transformed values for various ARIs were computed using the frequency
factor method.
Y T = Ym + KT . S (5.43)
Where
Yt is the LN-Transformed value corresponding to ARI of T- year
KT the the normal frequency factor corresponding to ARI of T-year
Ym the mean of the LN-Transformed data
S the standard deviation of the LN-Transformed data
The normal distribution KT values for various ARI and the results of the LN-Transformed analyses
are also presented in Table 5.10
The final step is to find the exponent of the LN-Transformed results to obtain the Log-Normal
extreme values of the original data. (see Table 5.11)
The LN-Transformed Values in Table 5.10 were plotted against the LN(duration in minutes) and best
fit curves plotted and equations of best fit polynormial derived using Ms Excels trendline function.
From the derived polynormial equations of figure 5.8,the IDF table can be derived and curves plotted
(See Figure 5.9)
5-18 March 2009

Table 5.7 Annual Maximum Rainfalls for Various Storm Durations (DID rainfall Station in Pejabat JPS
Pahang)
Annual Maximum Rainfall(mm) for Various Storm Durations

YEAR
10 15 30 12 18 24
1 hour 2 hour 3 hour 6 hour
min min min hour hour hour
1971 13.90 20.80 29.40 51.90 60.50 71.90 114.70 157.00 197.70 236.30
1972 18.20 18.80 25.90 47.40 71.60 96.70 175.20 287.20 354.30 368.30
1973 19.90 25.60 38.70 64.40 81.90 82.80 83.30 83.40 83.40 83.40
1974 19.00 24.00 41.90 69.30 111.60 134.60 187.20 249.90 275.90 346.10
1975 18.80 26.90 34.60 50.50 97.80 106.30 144.00 159.00 198.00 204.00
1976 23.60 33.50 45.30 69.10 117.20 154.00 286.70 389.50 439.50 479.40
1977 23.10 28.90 46.10 66.10 90.10 100.60 118.50 122.00 195.70 208.00
1978 21.40 27.40 40.40 62.50 93.90 109.30 132.50 163.00 166.50 166.50
1979 25.10 28.90 37.00 54.00 81.60 86.70 90.00 139.90 149.00 152.30
1980 22.80 28.30 35.10 45.20 72.10 97.40 146.80 206.30 236.40 260.50
1981 11.70 17.50 26.70 34.20 49.10 50.00 50.50 50.50 50.50 50.50
1982 18.90 26.50 41.30 55.40 77.40 106.20 163.40 222.00 225.50 239.00
1983 18.70 25.20 37.00 49.50 51.00 51.00 51.50 51.50 53.30 71.00
1984 18.80 28.20 51.40 67.60 70.00 87.70 123.60 179.90 211.00 226.10
1985 20.50 20.50 34.20 63.30 79.00 79.50 116.80 134.30 135.50 140.50
1986 25.00 25.00 32.00 41.30 52.00 52.00 69.90 80.50 85.50 95.50
1987 19.10 28.60 51.90 63.90 76.00 76.00 97.30 144.70 167.30 172.40
1988 15.70 23.50 47.10 58.60 77.00 95.30 145.60 187.90 258.40 306.20
1989 15.70 19.10 29.20 49.40 65.50 77.30 106.30 146.70 186.40 201.00
1990 20.60 30.90 56.90 91.80 152.00 189.50 309.10 470.00 506.10 527.50
1991 7.50 10.50 18.80 34.20 59.90 73.80 118.90 195.30 231.80 274.80
1992 12.20 18.30 36.50 51.10 73.30 87.10 107.30 136.60 179.20 242.60
1993 11.20 16.80 26.60 51.50 73.60 102.70 174.20 259.00 273.50 278.50
1994 12.50 14.70 29.40 53.50 76.80 100.00 140.40 238.00 251.20 252.50
1995 16.40 17.30 27.40 48.80 69.10 84.80 105.50 138.20 163.10 198.20
1996 22.20 22.80 29.10 49.40 50.00 50.00 63.20 109.20 137.30 138.50
1997 32.10 34.30 41.00 54.30 106.50 108.00 110.50 110.50 110.50 110.50
1998 28.00 30.70 32.70 36.70 46.40 62.00 76.40 107.40 141.90 147.50
1999 23.20 25.00 46.00 59.00 74.50 101.00 153.00 194.50 235.00 247.50
2000 29.70 31.30 36.30 46.00 79.20 98.90 119.70 123.70 123.70 123.70
2001 23.60 26.00 40.50 53.50 69.00 88.50 98.90 120.80 132.00 138.00
2002 21.30 24.00 44.00 77.50 84.50 85.50 115.20 121.30 126.30 150.60
2003 20.00 25.00 36.00 49.50 69.00 82.00 105.50 140.50 175.50 182.00
2004 24.60 28.80 46.50 64.70 97.20 144.00 225.80 378.70 405.00 429.90
2005 24.30 31.00 37.90 51.70 62.50 66.50 99.20 118.70 156.10 204.90
2006 22.00 28.70 49.30 82.20 116.20 136.30 187.20 233.00 298.50 323.50
2007 27.40 37.90 60.10 106.40 117.50 117.60 154.00 189.50 235.00 268.00
2008 28.00 38.00 52.50 71.00 78.50 78.50 80.30 97.30 100.00 133.50
2009 21.50 30.60 49.20 62.50 62.90 76.20 109.20 199.30 230.20 237.20
March 2009 5-19

Table 5.8 Annual Maximum Rainfall Intensities (mm/hour)
Annual Maximum Rainfall Intensities (mm/hour) for Various Storm Durations

YEAR 2 3 6 12 18 24
10 min 15 min 30 min 1 hour
hour hour hour hour hour hour
1971 83.40 83.20 58.80 51.90 30.25 23.97 19.12 13.08 10.98 9.85
1972 109.20 75.20 51.80 47.40 35.80 32.23 29.20 23.93 19.68 15.35
1973 119.40 102.40 77.40 64.40 40.95 27.60 13.88 6.95 4.63 3.48
1974 114.00 96.00 83.80 69.30 55.80 44.87 31.20 20.83 15.33 14.42
1975 112.80 107.60 69.20 50.50 48.90 35.43 24.00 13.25 11.00 8.50
1976 141.60 134.00 90.60 69.10 58.60 51.33 47.78 32.46 24.42 19.98
1977 138.60 115.60 92.20 66.10 45.05 33.53 19.75 10.17 10.87 8.67
1978 128.40 109.60 80.80 62.50 46.95 36.43 22.08 13.58 9.25 6.94
1979 150.60 115.60 74.00 54.00 40.80 28.90 15.00 11.66 8.28 6.35
1980 136.80 113.20 70.20 45.20 36.05 32.47 24.47 17.19 13.13 10.85
1981 70.20 70.00 53.40 34.20 24.55 16.67 8.42 4.21 2.81 2.10
1982 113.40 106.00 82.60 55.40 38.70 35.40 27.23 18.50 12.53 9.96
1983 112.20 100.80 74.00 49.50 25.50 17.00 8.58 4.29 2.96 2.96
1984 112.80 112.80 102.80 67.60 35.00 29.23 20.60 14.99 11.72 9.42
1985 123.00 82.00 68.40 63.30 39.50 26.50 19.47 11.19 7.53 5.85
1986 150.00 100.00 64.00 41.30 26.00 17.33 11.65 6.71 4.75 3.98
1987 114.60 114.40 103.80 63.90 38.00 25.33 16.22 12.06 9.29 7.18
1988 94.20 94.00 94.20 58.60 38.50 31.77 24.27 15.66 14.36 12.76
1989 94.20 76.40 58.40 49.40 32.75 25.77 17.72 12.23 10.36 8.38
1990 123.60 123.60 113.80 91.80 76.00 63.17 51.52 39.17 28.12 21.98
1991 45.00 42.00 37.60 34.20 29.95 24.60 19.82 16.28 12.88 11.45
1992 73.20 73.20 73.00 51.10 36.65 29.03 17.88 11.38 9.96 10.11
1993 67.20 67.20 53.20 51.50 36.80 34.23 29.03 21.58 15.19 11.60
1994 75.00 58.80 58.80 53.50 38.40 33.33 23.40 19.83 13.96 10.52
1995 98.40 69.20 54.80 48.80 34.55 28.27 17.58 11.52 9.06 8.26
1996 133.20 91.20 58.20 49.40 25.00 16.67 10.53 9.10 7.63 5.77
1997 192.60 137.20 82.00 54.30 53.25 36.00 18.42 9.21 6.14 4.60
1998 168.00 122.80 65.40 36.70 23.20 20.67 12.73 8.95 7.88 6.15
1999 139.20 100.00 92.00 59.00 37.25 33.67 25.50 16.21 13.06 10.31
2000 178.20 125.20 72.60 46.00 39.60 32.97 19.95 10.31 6.87 5.15
2001 141.60 104.00 81.00 53.50 34.50 29.50 16.48 10.07 7.33 5.75
2002 127.80 96.00 88.00 77.50 42.25 28.50 19.20 10.11 7.02 6.28
2003 120.00 100.00 72.00 49.50 34.50 27.33 17.58 11.71 9.75 7.58
2004 147.60 115.20 93.00 64.70 48.60 48.00 37.63 31.56 22.50 17.91
2005 145.80 124.00 75.80 51.70 31.25 22.17 16.53 9.89 8.67 8.54
2006 132.00 114.80 98.60 82.20 58.10 45.43 31.20 19.42 16.58 13.48
2007 164.40 151.60 120.20 106.40 58.75 39.20 25.67 15.79 13.06 11.17
2008 168.00 152.00 105.00 71.00 39.25 26.17 13.38 8.11 5.56 5.56
2009 129.00 122.40 98.40 62.50 31.45 25.40 18.20 16.61 12.79 9.88
5-20 March 2009

Table 5.9 Ln-Transformed of Annual Maximum Rainfall Intensities
LN-Transform of Intensity Data for Various Storm Durations

YEAR 2 3 6 12 18 24
10 min 15 min 30 min 1 hour
hour hour hour hour hour hour
1971 4.42 4.42 4.07 3.95 3.41 3.18 2.95 2.57 2.40 2.29
1972 4.69 4.32 3.95 3.86 3.58 3.47 3.37 3.18 2.98 2.73
1973 4.78 4.63 4.35 4.17 3.71 3.32 2.63 1.94 1.53 1.25
1974 4.74 4.56 4.43 4.24 4.02 3.80 3.44 3.04 2.73 2.67
1975 4.73 4.68 4.24 3.92 3.89 3.57 3.18 2.58 2.40 2.14
1976 4.95 4.90 4.51 4.24 4.07 3.94 3.87 3.48 3.20 2.99
1977 4.93 4.75 4.52 4.19 3.81 3.51 2.98 2.32 2.39 2.16
1978 4.86 4.70 4.39 4.14 3.85 3.60 3.09 2.61 2.22 1.94
1979 5.01 4.75 4.30 3.99 3.71 3.36 2.71 2.46 2.11 1.85
1980 4.92 4.73 4.25 3.81 3.58 3.48 3.20 2.84 2.58 2.38
1981 4.25 4.25 3.98 3.53 3.20 2.81 2.13 1.44 1.03 0.74
1982 4.73 4.66 4.41 4.01 3.66 3.57 3.30 2.92 2.53 2.30
1983 4.72 4.61 4.30 3.90 3.24 2.83 2.15 1.46 1.09 1.08
1984 4.73 4.73 4.63 4.21 3.56 3.38 3.03 2.71 2.46 2.24
1985 4.81 4.41 4.23 4.15 3.68 3.28 2.97 2.42 2.02 1.77
1986 5.01 4.61 4.16 3.72 3.26 2.85 2.46 1.90 1.56 1.38
1987 4.74 4.74 4.64 4.16 3.64 3.23 2.79 2.49 2.23 1.97
1988 4.55 4.54 4.55 4.07 3.65 3.46 3.19 2.75 2.66 2.55
1989 4.55 4.34 4.07 3.90 3.49 3.25 2.87 2.50 2.34 2.13
1990 4.82 4.82 4.73 4.52 4.33 4.15 3.94 3.67 3.34 3.09
1991 3.81 3.74 3.63 3.53 3.40 3.20 2.99 2.79 2.56 2.44
1992 4.29 4.29 4.29 3.93 3.60 3.37 2.88 2.43 2.30 2.31
1993 4.21 4.21 3.97 3.94 3.61 3.53 3.37 3.07 2.72 2.45
1994 4.32 4.07 4.07 3.98 3.65 3.51 3.15 2.99 2.64 2.35
1995 4.59 4.24 4.00 3.89 3.54 3.34 2.87 2.44 2.20 2.11
1996 4.89 4.51 4.06 3.90 3.22 2.81 2.35 2.21 2.03 1.75
1997 5.26 4.92 4.41 3.99 3.97 3.58 2.91 2.22 1.81 1.53
1998 5.12 4.81 4.18 3.60 3.14 3.03 2.54 2.19 2.06 1.82
1999 4.94 4.61 4.52 4.08 3.62 3.52 3.24 2.79 2.57 2.33
2000 5.18 4.83 4.28 3.83 3.68 3.50 2.99 2.33 1.93 1.64
2001 4.95 4.64 4.39 3.98 3.54 3.38 2.80 2.31 1.99 1.75
2002 4.85 4.56 4.48 4.35 3.74 3.35 2.95 2.31 1.95 1.84
2003 4.79 4.61 4.28 3.90 3.54 3.31 2.87 2.46 2.28 2.03
2004 4.99 4.75 4.53 4.17 3.88 3.87 3.63 3.45 3.11 2.89
2005 4.98 4.82 4.33 3.95 3.44 3.10 2.81 2.29 2.16 2.14
2006 4.88 4.74 4.59 4.41 4.06 3.82 3.44 2.97 2.81 2.60
2007 5.10 5.02 4.79 4.67 4.07 3.67 3.25 2.76 2.57 2.41
2008 5.12 5.02 4.65 4.26 3.67 3.26 2.59 2.09 1.71 1.72
2009 4.86 4.81 4.59 4.14 3.45 3.23 2.90 2.81 2.55 2.29
March 2009 5-21

Table 5.10 Statistics of the LN-Transformed Data
Statistics of LN-Transformed Intensity Data for Various Storm Durations

YEAR 12 18 24
10 min 15 min 30 min 1 hour 2 hour 3 hour 6 hour
hour hour hour
Mean 4.77 4.60 4.33 4.03 3.65 3.40 2.99 2.57 2.30 2.10
SD 0.30 0.27 0.25 0.24 0.27 0.30 0.40 0.48 0.51 0.51
Computed LN-Transformed Values for Storms of Various Durations
Duration
ARI 10 15 30 60 120 180 360 720 1080 1440
(mins)
(yrs)
LN(Duration) 2.30 2.71 3.40 4.09 4.79 5.19 5.89 6.58 6.98 7.27
2
4.77 4.60 4.33 4.03 3.65 3.40 2.99 2.57 2.30 2.10
5 5.02 4.82 4.54 4.23 3.87 3.65 3.33 2.98 2.73 2.53
10 5.16 4.94 4.65 4.34 3.99 3.78 3.51 3.19 2.95 2.75
20 5.26 5.04 4.74 4.43 4.08 3.89 3.65 3.36 3.13 2.94
50 5.39 5.15 4.84 4.53 4.19 4.01 3.81 3.56 3.34 3.14
100 5.47 5.22 4.91 4.59 4.27 4.10 3.93 3.69 3.48 3.28
Freq.
ARI Factors
2 0
5 0.845
10 1.285
20 1.645
50 2.054
100 2.335
5-22 March 2009

Table 5.11 Statistics of the LN-Transformed Data
Statistics of LN-Transformed Intensity Data for Various Storm Durations

ARI
(yrs 12 18 24
10 min 15 min 30 min 1 hour 2 hour 3 hour 6 hour
hour hour hour
2 122.80 102.54 78.05 57.92 39.67 31.18 21.61 14.61 11.23 9.21
5 149.98 123.22 93.94 70.32 49.08 39.40 29.40 20.90 15.89 12.96
10 164.13 133.99 102.22 76.78 53.98 43.67 33.45 24.17 18.32 14.91
20 175.71 142.80 108.99 82.06 57.99 47.17 36.77 26.85 20.31 16.51
50 188.87 152.81 116.68 88.06 62.54 51.15 40.54 29.89 22.57 18.33
100 197.90 159.69 121.97 92.18 65.68 53.88 43.13 31.98 24.12 19.58
March 2009 5-23

6.00
6.00
2yr ARI
2yr-ARI
5.50
5.50 5yr ARI
5yr-ARI
10yr
10-ARIARI
20yr ARI
5.00
5.00 20yr-ARI
LN-Transformed Discharge
4.50
4.50
4.00
4.00
3.50
3.50
3.00
3.00
2.50
2.50
2.00
2.00
1.00
1.00 2.00
2.00 3.00
3.00 4.00
4.00 5.00
5.00 6.00
6.00 7.00
7.00 8.00
8.00
LN (storm duration)

ARI(years) Equation
100 y=0.0109x +0.1721x21.2674x+7.6176
3
50 y=0.0092x3+0.1422x21.118x+7.3252
20 y=0.0068x3+0.0988x20.9007x+6.8995
10 y=0.0046x3+0.0605x20.7093x+6.5249
5 y=0.002x3+0.0137x20.4755x+6.067
2 y=0.003x30.0761x20.0264x+5.1876
Figure 5.8 Plot of Log Transformed IDF Values (from Table 5.10)
WithPolynormialBestFitCurvesandEquations
5-24 March 2009

1000
1000
2 yrs
2yrs
5 yrs
5yrs
10 yrs
10yrs
100
100
Intensity, I (mm/hr)
20yrs
20 yrs
10
10
11
10
10 100
100 1000
1000 10000
10000
Duration, t (min)
Duration Intensity (mm/hour) for Various ARI Storms

(mins) 2yr 5 yrs 10 yrs 20 yrs 50yr 100yr
15 101.25 126.48 142.08 156.00 173.77 186.99
30 76.36 92.71 102.65 111.21 122.20 130.18
60 55.13 67.53 75.13 81.55 90.02 96.09
120 38.33 48.67 55.20 60.69 68.20 73.58
240 25.81 34.58 40.35 45.21 52.18 57.20
600 14.73 21.38 26.03 29.99 36.02 40.42
1200 9.43 14.46 18.13 21.25 26.25 29.91
1500 8.15 12.68 16.02 18.86 23.47 26.84
Figure 5.9 IDF curves Plotted Plotted on Log-log Graph Paper (Based on Equations in figure 5.8)
March 2009 5-25

REFERENCE
[1] DID, Varieties of rainfall with area in peninsular Malaysia, water resources Publication No 17.
[2] DID (2000). Urban Stormwater Management Manual For Malaysia. Water Resouces Publication,
No.1 Introduction to Manual. Dept. of Irrigation and Drainage, Ministry of Agriculture, Kuala
Lumpur, Malaysia.
5-26 March 2009

CHAPTER 6 LOW FLOWS, DROUGHT ANALYSIS AND
MONITORING
Chapter 6 LOW FLOWS, DROUGHT ANALYSIS AND MONITORING
Table of Contents
Table of Contents.6-i
List of Tables ......................................................................................................................... 6-iii
List of Figures ........................................................................................................................ 6-iii
6.1 GENERAL ................................................................................................................... 6-1
6.2 DROUGHT TERMINOLOGY ............................................................................................ 6-2
6.2.1 Agricultural Drought ...................................................................................... 6-3
6.2.2 Hydrological Drought .....................................................................................6-3
6.2.3 Socioeconomic Drought .................................................................................6-3
6.3 PURPOSE OF LOW FLOW AND DROUGHT MONITORING ................................................ 6-3
6.4 REAL TIME DATA COLLECTION FOR DROUGHT .............................................................. 6-4
6.5 USE OF FLOW DURATION CURVES................................................................................ 6-5
6.5.1 Introduction .................................................................................................6-5
6.5.2 Methodology.................................................................................................6-5
6.5.3 Procedure.....................................................................................................6-5
6.5.4 Interpretation of Results ................................................................................6-6
6.6 FREQUENCY ANALYSIS OF LOW FLOWS: LOW FLOW HYDROLOGY .................................. 6-7
6.6.1 Introduction .................................................................................................6-7
6.6.2 Criteria and Standard ....................................................................................6-8
6.6.3 Low Flow Frequency Analysis: Less Than 1-Month Duration ..............................6-9
6.6.4 Derivation of the Drought Flow Sequence...................................................... 6-17
6.7 OVERVIEW OF DID HP 12 ON LOW FLOW ESTIMATION ............................................... 6-21
6.7.1 Introduction: Regionalization and Transposition ............................................. 6-21
6.7.2 HP 12: Magnitude and Frequency of Low Flows in Peninsular Malaysia
(Revised and Updated) 1985 ....................................................................... 6-21
6.7.2.1 Introduction ............................................................................. 6-21
6.7.2.2 Notation .................................................................................. 6-22
6.8 HP 12 (NWRS, 2000).................................................................................................. 6-26
6.9 DROUGHT INDEX (SPI AND PALMER) .......................................................................... 6-29
6.9.1 Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI) .......................................................... 6-30
6.9.2 The Palmer Drought Severity Index .............................................................. 6-31
6.9.3 Crop Moisture Index (CMI)........................................................................... 6-31
6.9.4 Surface Water Supply Index (SWSI) ............................................................. 6-32
March 2009 6-i

6.10 WEB-BASED INFORM KEMARAU .................................................................................. 6-33

6.10.1 Introduction ............................................................................................... 6-33
6.10.2 Methodology............................................................................................... 6-33
6.11 IMPACT OF CLIMATE CHANGE .................................................................................... 6-38
REFERENCE ......................................................................................................................... 6-41
6-ii March 2009

List of Tables
6.1 Normal Probability 6-10

6.2 Normal Distribution Table 6-12
6.3 EV Type III parameters 6-23
6.4 Standard Precipitation Index Values 6-30
6.5 The Palmer Index 6-31
List of Figures
6.1 Flow Duration Curve Monthly Time Step Sg. Papar@ Kaiduan Streamflow Station. 6-7
6.2 Low Flow Frequency Analysis 1- And 7-Day Example 6-13
6.3 Example of Extreme Value DistributionExample of Low Flow Frequency Analysis
Using EV 3 and log EV 3 6-16
6.4 General Extreme Value Distribution 6-17
6.5 Low Flow Frequency Analysis Drought Sequence Example 1 Of 2 6-19
6.6 Low Flow Frequency Analysis Drought Sequence Example 2 Of 2 6-20
6.7 RC Regions for Peninsular Malaysia (HP 12) 6-24
6.8 RE Regions for Peninsular Malaysia (HP 12) 6-25
6.9 NWRS Regionalized Low Flow Analysis: 1/2 6-28
6.10 NWRS Regionalized Low Flow Analysis: 2/2 6-29
6.11 WWW site for Infokemarau (JPS) 6-34
6.12 Real Time Rainfall and Water Level Monitoring 6-34
6.13 Drought Monitoring by River Flow 6-35
6.14 Drought Monitoring by Dam Levels 6-36
6.15 Isohyet Map of three-monthly Rainfall Distribution 6-37
6.16 Standard Precipitation Index (SPI) For Kuala Nerang 6-38
6.17 Global Temperature Anomaly 6-40

March 2009 6-iii
(Thispageisintentionallyleftblank)
6-iv March 2009

6 LOW FLOWS, DROUGHT ANALYSIS AND MONITORING
6.1 GENERAL
Drought is a normal, recurrent feature of climate, although many consider it to be a rare and/or
random event. It occurs in virtually all areas, whatever their normal climate may be, and the
characteristics of a drought may be very different from one region to another.
Technically, drought is a temporary condition, even though it may last for long periods of time.
Drought is by technical definition, a natural hazard. Unlike many other disasters which are sudden
and/or spontaneous in terms of the time of occurrence, on the contrary droughts develop when
there is an unfavorable meteorological condition that less than normal precipitation or streamflow
over an extended period of time, usually for a continuation of several months or more. The
decreased water input in the form of precipitation and subsequent runoff generation results in an
inconvenient water shortage for water supply to both domestic and irrigation sector.
On the other hand, drought can also occur when the temperature is higher than normal for a longer
period of time. As a result, more water is to be drawn off by evaporation and evapotranspiration
alike. In agricultural or irrigation sector, there are also other probable causes of drought due to
delays in the start of the rainy season or timing of rains in relation to principal rain-fed crop growth
stages (e.g. rain at the wrong time). In addition, high winds and low relative humidity can also be
contributing factors to the droughts as well.
Drought, in its nature, is not to be considered as a disaster, the disaster occurs as the demand of the
people such as water supply can not be satisfactorily met. Human activities may have increased the
impact of drought because of high demand of water which cannot be supplied sustainably when the
natural supply decreases. Drought can have significant impacts on the economic and environmental
impacts and personal hardships and inconvenience.
An example on the hardships was caused by the 1997-1998 drought in Klang valley due to the effect
of the El Nino / Southern Oscillation (ENSO) phenomenon, when the rainfall patterns shift over
different regions of the world, especially the eastern and western pacific ocean. During this period, it
is in fact the entire South East Asia and Australia continent are extremely affected by one of the
most severe ENSO episode of the century, due to the sea surface temperature rises in the east
coastal region of South America, i.e. near the coast of Peru. In broad perspectives, the region
experiences extreme low rainfall episode over a period of two years, which then led to severe
drought conditions in the entire western pacific regions.
The 1997-1998 low rainfalls associated with the ENS0 event also affected some parts of Malaysia
other than the first ever imposition of water rationing of the entire Klang Valley, such as Malacca,
Penang, Kedah, Kelantan, the Borneo states of Sarawak and Sabah as well.
The extremely lower-rainfall-than-normal episode translates into low river flows at the respective
water supply intakes in most parts of Malaysia. The raw water sources could not met the targeted
demand at the intakes and water treatment plants. Thus this causes disruptions in the continuous
supply of treated water to various demand centers. The shortage of water production and
distribution resulted hardships and subsequently major economic and financial losses.
Additional woes to the situation were the frequent episodes of pollution (including illegal dumping of
solid wastes) in the water bodies concurrently. Due to lesser flows prevailing in the rivers, the
dilution effect is therefore insignificant to assimilate additional pollutant loads, the concentration of
the pollutants in the river therefore increased to unacceptable levels.
March 2009 6-1

The state of Selangor was the hardest hit area during the 1997-1998 ENSO episode. Due to lower-
than-expected low flows in almost all the intakes and reservoirs in the state of Selangor including
Kuala Lumpur, the state authority therefore imposed a state-wide water rationing exercise to its 1.8
million residents (including Kuala Lumpur) in both Sg. Klang and Sg Langat Basins for durations from
April to September 1998.
Similarly, in Kelantan, though the ENSO episode did not result in domestic water supply, the dry
conditions in March to May 1998 due to low river flow and level of Sg. Kelantan had caused irrigation
water supply shortage in KADA. Sand bunds were constructed to raise the hydraulic head of Sg.
Kelantan so that diversion of water to the existing pump houses along Sg. Kelantan could be made
possible.
6.2 DROUGHT TERMINOLOGY
The term Drought is rather difficult and subjective to define precisely, but conventional operational
definitions may help to define the sequence of occurrence based on (1) onset, (2) severity, and (3)
end of droughts. No single operational definition of drought works in all circumstances, and this is a
big part of why policy makers, resource planners and others have more trouble recognizing and
planning for drought than for other natural disasters. In fact, most drought planners now rely on
mathematic indices to decide when to start implementing water conservation or measures in
response to drought.
As cited in University of Florida (1998), research by Donald A. Wilhite, director of the National
Drought Mitigation Center, and Michael H. Glantz, of the National Center for Atmospheric Research,
in the early 1980s uncovered more than 150 published definitions of drought. The definitions reflect
differences in regions, needs and disciplinary approaches.
Wilhite and Glantz categorized their collection of definitions into four basic approaches to measuring
drought: (1) meteorological, (2) hydrological, (3) agricultural and (4) socioeconomic. The first three
approaches deal with ways to measure drought as a physical phenomenon. Last approach deals with
drought in terms of its supply and demand scenarios by tracking the effects of water shortfall as it
ripples through the socioeconomic systems.
Meteorological drought is usually measured by how far from normal the precipitation has been over
some period of time. These definitions are usually region-specific, and presumably based on a
thorough understanding of regional climates.
Examples of meteorological droughts from different countries at different times show why it is a
poor idea to apply a definition of drought developed in one part of the world to another:
United States (1942): less than one tenth inch of rainfall in 48 hours
Great Britain (1936): fifteen consecutive days with daily precipitation totals of less than one
hundredth of an inch
Libya (1964): when annual rainfall is less than 7 inches
India (1960): actual seasonal rainfall is deficient by more than twice the mean deviation
Bali (1964): a period of six days without rain. Under any circumstances, meteorological
measurements are the first indicators of drought.
6-2 March 2009

Operational definitions help people identify the beginning, end, and degree of severity of a drought.
(An abbreviated description of operational definitions is also available.) To determine the beginning
of drought, operational definitions specify the degree of departure from the average of precipitation
or some other climatic variable over some time period. This is usually done by comparing the current
situation to the historical average, often based on a 30-year period of record. The threshold
identified as the beginning of a drought (e.g., 75% of average precipitation over a specified time
period) is usually established somewhat arbitrarily, rather than on the basis of its precise relationship
to specific impacts.
An operational definition for agriculture might compare daily precipitation values to

evapotranspiration rates to determine the rate of soil moisture depletion, then express these
relationships in terms of drought effects on plant behavior (i.e., growth and yield) at various stages
of crop development. A definition such as this one could be used in an operational assessment of
drought severity and impacts by tracking meteorological variables, soil moisture, and crop conditions
during the growing season, continually reevaluating the potential impact of these conditions on final
yield. Operational definitions can also be used to analyze drought frequency, severity, and duration
for a given historical period. Such definitions, however, require weather data on hourly, daily,
monthly, or other time scales and, possibly, impact data (e.g., crop yield), depending on the nature
of the definition being applied. Developing a climatology of drought for a region provides a greater
understanding of its characteristics and the probability of recurrence at various levels of severity.
Information of this type is extremely beneficial in the development of response and mitigation
strategies and preparedness plans.
6.2.1 Agricultural Drought
Agricultural drought occurs when there isn't enough soil moisture to meet the needs of a particular
crop at a particular time. Agricultural drought happens after meteorological drought but before
hydrological drought. Agriculture is usually the first economic sector to be affected by drought.
6.2.2 Hydrological Drought
Hydrological drought refers to deficiencies in surface and subsurface water supplies. It is measured
as streamflow, and as lake, reservoir and ground water levels. There is a time lag between lack of
rain and less water in streams, rivers, lakes and reservoirs, so hydrological measurements are not
the earliest indicators of drought. When precipitation is reduced or deficient over an extended period
of time, this shortage will be reflected in declining surface and subsurface water levels.
6.2.3 Socioeconomic Drought
Socioeconomic drought is what happens when physical water shortage starts to affect people,
individually and collectively. Or, in more abstract terms, most socioeconomic definitions of drought
associate it with the supply and demand of an economic good.
6.3 PURPOSE OF LOW FLOW AND DROUGHT MONITORING
Contribution by monitoring, prediction, early warning and mitigation of adverse impacts of extreme
climatic events such as droughts on agricultural production and food security, water resources,
energy, and health among other socio-economic sectors are important for Malaysia.
One of the effective strategies is to minimize negative impacts associated with the climate extremes
are enhanced monitoring and timely availability of weather and climate information and prediction
products, so that decision making processes can be swiftly implemented together with the availability
of effective disaster preparedness policies.
March 2009 6-3

This enhanced applications of such products in order to reduce climate and weather related risks. It
is principally to be used in the water resources management for raw water supply to various intakes
for irrigation and water supply scheme in Malaysia.
6.4 REAL TIME DATA COLLECTION FOR DROUGHT
As mentioned earlier drought is a normal and randomly recurring feature of all climate regimes that
is affecting most of the countries at one time or the other for various degrees of severity. It is
characteristically differentiated itself from other natural hazards, such as floods, earthquakes,
landslides, etc as it has a slow onset and also a lack of the universal definition, It is often difficult to
define the boundaries of the affected, usually large area, its severity and the complex impacts.
Therefore the mitigation interventions of drought are basically less obvious. It often occurs in several
economic and social sectors and affects large geographic areas.
Real time monitoring program has been initiated and subsequently implemented by JPS in 2001. This
on line and real time service of hydrometric data acquisition is needed for effective and efficient
drought management in Malaysia. The main task of the monitoring and early warning systems is to
provide timely information on the formation, development, persistence of drought to the users and
decision makers. The system collects, analyzes and disseminates drought information.
The new measurement instruments based on the latest technology can conduct observations rather
frequently, these time steps of measurements are shorter than it is necessary for drought
monitoring. The creeping character of drought does not require monitoring in small time steps.
Based on timely and acquisition of crucial data for the drought prediction and monitoring systems,
allows for the early detection of drought conditions. It also enables the planners and management to
respond in a proactive rather than reactive manner.
Drought can be closely monitored by the application of various statistical techniques. This further
requires the availability of long term series of historical hydrometric data and information as base
reference by checking side-by-s9de on the deviation of the hydrometric variables from their long-
term mean and other statistical parameters.
Due to the fact that the drought affected areas can be very different from one another , several
operation drought definitions which had been mentioned before can be grouped in the following
types: (1) meteorological, (2) hydrological, (3) agricultural and (4) socioeconomic.
As noted, there is no single index that can be used satisfactorily to evaluate the combined effects of
meteorological, agricultural, or/and hydrological droughts, a variety of indices should therefore be
used. Meteorological drought is expressed solely on the basis of dryness or precipitation deficiency.
The other definitions are more concerned with the effects on water flows, agriculture or economy
and society; reflecting the fact that impacts of drought are not limited on agricultural production,
other sectors of economy like water management systems, transport, industry can be affected as
well
A total of 167 streamflow and rainfall stations are available for such purpose in the Infokemarau
network.
Application of information acquired other than for on line prediction of drought occurrence, they can
be useful for hydrological assessment of low flow for individual streamflow stations and extended
regionally using various regionalization approaches.
6-4 March 2009

6.5 USE OF FLOW DURATION CURVES
6.5.1 Introduction
The flow duration curve is a production of the analysis of flow discharge records that shows the
percentage of time that flow in a river is probably to be equal or exceeded at a pre-determined
magnitude of flow. To illustrate an example for clarity, it can show the percentage of time that the
magnitude of a river flow can be expected to exceed a design flow of some specified value. On the
other hand it is able to show the flow discharge of the river that occurs or is exceeded some percent
of the time.
6.5.2 Methodology
For preparation of a flow duration curve of a point or a gauging station is to gather all the available
time series records, irrespectively of the time sequence. The basic time scale is normally mean daily
or mean monthly discharge. Selection of basic time unit greatly affects the appearance and shape of
the flow duration curve. For example, a steeper curve for the mean flow over a long period is used
such as mean monthly flow. This is due to averaging effects of the short term peak flow with
intervening smaller flow with a month. In other words, extreme values of short time step are in fact
being averaged out as the time step get larger.
In general, both monthly and daily time step flow duration curves are presented side by side and it is
rarely to analyze and plot flow duration curves of longer than monthly time step, say annually. The
reason is rather obvious, (1) the annually flow duration curve cannot capture the time scale
variability of random variables. (2) there is a shortage length of records if a yearly or longer time
step is used.
6.5.3 Procedure
Step 1: Sort (rank) average daily discharges for period of record from the largest value to the
smallest value, involving a total of n values.
Step 2: Assign each daily or monthly flow value a rank (M), starting with 1 for the largest daily or
monthly flow value.
Step 3: Calculate Weibull exceedence probability (P) as follows:
m
p=100 x (6.1)
n+1
P = The probability that a given flow will be equaled or exceeded (% of time)
M = The ranked position on the listing (dimension less)
n = The number of events for period of record (dimension less)
Step 4: Plot the flow discharge versus the Weibull exceedence probability on a arithmetic paper
Adopted from http://water.oregonstate.edu/streamflow/analysis/flow/index.htm
March 2009 6-5

6.5.4 Interpretation of Results
A flow duration curve plot in arithmetic scale shows the magnitude of flow or discharge vs. percent
of time that a particular flow or discharge was equaled or exceeded. The area under the flow
duration curve (with arithmetic scales) gives the average daily flow, and the median daily flow is the
50% value. It is also useful to plot the graph on a probability paper with or without the distortion of
flow or discharge scale based on the extent of the extremity in low and high flow.
A flow duration curve demonstrates the ability of river basin at the point of analysis to contribute to
flows of various magnitudes. Information such as the relative number of time that flows past
through the point or gauging station are likely to equal or exceed a specified value of interest is
useful for river engineering design undertaking, establishment of the magnitude of environmental or
riparian flow, water supply yield calculation, calculation of firm power in hydropower development,
etc.
The shape of a flow-duration curve in its upper and lower limits is important in evaluating the river
flow and catchment hydrological characteristics and behaviors. The shape of the curve in the high-
flow region indicates the type of flood regime the river basin is likely to have. A shape curve at the
higher flow suggests infrequent and rare extremity in flows occurred within the river catchment. A
very steep curve (high flows for short periods) would be expected for rainfall induced floods on small
catchments. On the other hand, the shape of the low-flow region characterizes the ability of the
basin to sustain low flows during extremely drought or dry seasons.
If the upper catchment of a point gauging station is regulated by reservoir/dam storage, the flow
duration curve will show a very flatter curve to reflect that moderate or constant flows are sustained
throughout the year due to artificial regulation. However there are exceptions to the conventional
interpretation of the flow duration curves, such as if there is large ground water aquifer adjacent to
the effluent rivers which contributes to the base flow. An example of the flow duration curve plot is
illustrated in Figure 6.1
6-6 March 2009

Chapter 6 LOW
L FLOWS, DROUGHT AN
NALYSIS AND MONITORING
M G
MCM
M/mth Mld m3/s
1%
% 18
84 6043
6 69.94
2%
% 16
68 5495
5 63.60
5%
% 13
34 4401
4 50.94
10%
% 12
20 3923
3 45.40
20%
% 9
99 3252
3 37.64
30%
% 8
82 2704
2 31.30
50%
% 5
53 1740
1 20.14
80%
% 2
27 887 10.26
90%
% 1
15 496
4 5.74
95%
% 1
12 388 4.50
98%
% 8 254 2.94
99%
% 7 238 2.75
Fig
gure 6.1 Flow
w Duration Curve
C Monthlyy Time Step Sg. Papar@ Kaiduan Stre
eamflow Station.
6.6 FREQ
QUENCY ANA
ALYSIS OF LOW FLOW
WS: LOW FL
LOW HYDRO
OLOGY
6.6.1 Introd
duction
ow hydrologyy is a sub-disscipline of hyydrology conccerning the minimum

Low flo m or lowest flow in a river
during the dry perioods of the yeear. The maiin purpose ofo a low flow hydrological analysis is to assess
west limit of the
the low t water re esources availability of a pre-determined level of reliability in the river
basins. The term lowest
limit connotes the
t periods of lower or drought flow ws in a riveer system
where the
t amount or magnitude of water th hat can be diverted
d or exxtracted conttinuously thrrough the
entire period.
p In addition,
a freqquent low fllow episodess/spells espeecially during
g the drier months
m is
also po
osing severe water qualitty problems in the river basin. The detrimental
d e
effects of a prolonged
p
low flow episode are
a causing undue stressses to the fauna and flora f commu unities in the
e riparian
waters..
The obbjective of a low flow an nalysis is tw

wofold: (a) too provide qu uantitative aanalysis on the
t water
resourcces availabilitty for beneficial uses ma ainly in water supply and d irrigation se
ectors in Malaysia. In
recentlyy years in th
he midst of rising
r of envvironmental activism,
a asssessment of low flow is therefore
timely required in order
o to pro
ovide a basiss of environmmental flow releases for downstream m riparian
or any propo
users fo osed projectss that disturb the natura al state of th
he river reachhes.
March 2009
2 6-7
In terms of the impacts of low flow occurrence in a river system, due to exceptionally low velocity
prevails in the river, mostly in the stagnant water bodies, stenches and odors emitted by both
dissolved and undissolved pollutants are repugnant and offensive. These are the major
environmental problems faced by most riparian users along the river corridors in Malaysia. Both the
point and nonpoint pollutants that are generated from human activities in the cities and townships
mostly discharge directly with or without any forms of treatment processes. These mass of pollutant
flow into adjacent streams and drainage networks en route to the main stems of the river system.
Domestic and industrial wastewater effluents are being identified as the culprits responsible for water
quality deterioration and degradation in the riverine system. Due to lacking of diluting capacity of
the river especially during low flows, the impacts of pollution on the riverine system are considered
serious with prolonged drought events.
The magnitude of low flows that associated with specific severities and durations are of critical in
assessing the impact of water quality and pollution in a water body. These could be quantified and
derived at each point of interest within the river basin using results of point analysis of long-term
hydrometric (mostly streamflow) records. These results serve as input for subsequent works and
studies carried out on water quality assessment.
6.6.2 Criteria and Standard
Frequency analysis is the most conventional tool used in Malaysia for low flow analysis. The
minimum annual low flow series are extracted from streamflow gauging stations of interest. The
records are then ranked and plotted for frequency analysis. Subsequently best fit curves are then
drawn through their midst. The magnitudes of low flow of specific probabilities of occurrence are
then inferred from the graphs or computations.
The conventional low flow hydrological output of a selected N-year severity or probability of
occurrence and specific durations is deemed adequate for the purpose of assessing the amount of
raw water or continuous resources available at a specific point or outlet of a particular watershed.
These magnitudes of flow of specific return periods and duration could also be equally applicable as
driver for pollutant fate and transport mechanisms in the river system.
For example, a 50-year severity or reliability represents the lowest flow/yield with an average
recurrence interval (ARI) of 50 year on average is adopted in low flow analysis. It is also known as
98% reliability mainly in the water supply sector. The term, percentage reliability means the percent
of the time the flow being greater or equal to. Other return periods are of equal importance such as
5- and 20-years for irrigation water supply.
Two (2) types of quantitative/magnitudes of low flows using frequency analysis are typically
assessed for low flow. They are as follows
(a) Flow duration analysis and 1:N-year D-day (less than 30-day, from 1- to 30-day),
(b) 1:N-year D-month drought sequence that represents the lowest drought flow series of D month
or more duration (normally 36 to 48 consecutive month duration is adequate to characterize low
flow in a river system).
6-8 March 2009

6.6.3. Low Flow Frequency Analysis: Less Than 1-Month Duration
(a) Log Normal 2 P and 3 P

In Malaysia, assessment of low flow regime of streamflow station is best carried out using frequency
or probability distributions, such as Log-Normal distributions, of 2P or 3P parameters and Weibull
(Extreme Value type III) distribution. They have been used in several major hydrological and water
resources studies in Malaysia (SMHB, 1992, 1994; SMHB/RHB/ZAABA, 2000).
1:N-Year D day (1-, 7-, 14-, and 30-Day) Low Flow Frequency Analysis
Tasks of Frequency analyses on n-day low flows are carried out for point streamflow stations in a
river basin. The Normal and Log-Normal of 2P and 3P distribution are commonly used technique for
frequency analysis. Initially, the D-day low flows are tabulated from the daily flow records. The
selection of the n-day annual series is based on lowest moving n-day sum of the daily flow records.
The D-day data flow data are then duly tabulated and ranked in ascending order and plotted against
the Weibull normal unbiased plotting position or other plotting positions that might be suitable for
specific types of distribution as shown below.
M
T= (6.2)
N+1
1
=Weibull polotting position of an annual n day flow, year
T
M= Length of n day records year
N= Rangking of the annual flow in the n day series, ND
For consistency in calculations, the 1:N-year and other return periods low flow value was determined
analytically using the Normal, LN2P or LN3P distribution as appropriate instead of eye fitting.
Normal Distribution
The normal distribution is adopted to fit a best fit curve through the scattering low flow plotting on a
specially designed probability paper series data (a straight line if a normal probability assumption is
made). The Frequency factor technique was based on Chow et al. (1988) where standard moment
estimator is used to inferred statistical parameters. Other parameter estimation techniques, such as
maximum likelihood (ML), method of least square (MLS), probable weighted moment (PWM), L-
moment, etc. could also be used as appropriate. .
Qn year= Q+Kn year x (6.3)
Sample Statistics: Mean, Standard deviation and Skewness
1
a) Mean: Q= Ni=1 (Q)i (6.4)
N
2 1/2
N (Q)i -(Q i)
i-1
b).Standard Deviation: (6.5)
N-1
3
N N
i=1 log Q - log(Q)
c) Skewness: G= (6.6)
N-1 (N-2) 3
March 2009 6-9

Frequency factors associated with each return period or probability of non-occurrence could be
interpolated from the normal probability table (see Table 6.1) or estimated numerically by integrating
the Gaussian Probability Density Function (PDF), whichever is convenient. For brevity, commonly
used frequency factors are tabulated below.
Frequency Factors as Derived from Gaussian Normal Distribution
Table 6.1 Normal Probability
Return
Period Frequency Factor K
100 year 2.326
50 year 2.054
30 year 1.881
10 year 1.282
1.5 year 0.840
2.0 year 0.000
The plot of percentage of probability of non exceedance and flow on a distorted normalized and
arithmetic scale paper show a best fit line traverse through the randomly sampled flow annual series.
(b) Log Normal Distribution 2 Parameter
The LN2P distribution assumed that the logarithms of the discharges were themselves normally
distributed Most of the hydrologic parameters are log-normally distributed. In essence, the randomly
sample variables could be transformed into either natural or base 10 logarithm. However the latter is
the most commonly and frequently used technique. The logarithmic values of the random variables,
in this case, flows are transformed and the statistics of 1st, 2nd, and 3rd moments are calculated
accordingly as follows
log Qh year = Qlog19 + Kn year x log 10 (6.7)
log Qn year
Qn year =10 (6.8)
Sample Statistics: Mean, Standard deviation, Skewness

1
Log Mean:log (Q)i = Ni=1 log(Q)i (6.9)
N
2 1/2
N
i=1 log (Q)i - log (Q)i
Log Standard Deviation: log Q = (6.10)
N-1
3
N N
i=1 log Q log Q
Log Skewness:Glog Q (6.11)
N-1 N-2 log Q 3
The plot of percentage of probability of flow non exceedance and the magnitude of flow on a
probability and transformed log scale paper shows as in normal distribution, a straight line fitting
through the scattering annual flow series.
6-10 March 2009

(c) Log Normal Distribution 3 Parameter
As in the LN2P, The LN3P distribution assumed that the logarithms of the discharges were
themselves normally distributed. If the distribution was non-normal, a 3-parameters or LN3P
distribution was used instead. This was accomplished by transforming the variable i.e. n-day
average low flow either adding or subtracting a fitting parameter, X such that the skewness of the
logarithm of the series was more or less approaching zero.
By transforming the D-day low flow data, it was found out that a better fit could be obtained, in most
cases. In the final step, each data on the annual flow series was transformed into a logarithmic
value. Upon taking the logarithm of each value the mean, standard deviation, and skewness of the
transformed variable were obtained from,
1
log Q+x' i = Ni=1 log Q+x' (6.12)
N
2 1/2
N
i=1 log Q+X' -log(Q+X')i
log Q+X = (6.13)
N-1
3
N N
i=1 log Q+X' - log (Q+X)
G= (6.14)
N-1 N-2 log Q+X' 3
The 1:50 year and other years (return period) run-of-river yield using frequency factor techniques as
attributed to Chow (Chow et al, 1988) was then calculated as follows:
log Q+X' 50 = log Q+X' i +Klog Q+X' (6.15)
'
log (Q+X )
Q50 =10 -X (6.16)
Q50 =1:50 year n-day low flow,m3/s
log Q=Logarithmic value of annual series of n day low flow m3/s
log Q+X =Logarithmic standard deviation of annual series of flow n day flow, m3/s
X'=3rd parameter, dimensionless
N=Number of annual series of n- day low flow, dimensionless
G=Skewness of annual series of n-day low flow, m3/s
K=Frequency factor for normal probability distribution with the following values, ND
It was generally assumed that the abstraction upstream of the streamflow station was negligible. If
not, any known abstraction upstream can be added to the calculated low flow yields accordingly.
Figure 6.2 shows an example of LN2P frequency distribution curves of a streamflow stations in the
state of Perak
March 2009 6-11

Table 6.2 Normal Distribution Table
6-12 March 2009

Figure 6.2 Low Flow Frequency Analysis 1- And 7-Day Example
March 2009 6-13

(d) Weibull Distribution (Extreme Value Type III)
The Weibull distribution, is a well known probability distribution and also known as a variant of the
General Extreme Value (GEV) family, or Extreme Value Type III distribution. It is generally used for
the low flow frequency analysis of point streamflow or gauging station records. The distribution is
normally consists of two parameters to represent the probability density function (pdf):
X
x -1 -
f X = e :x>0 (6.17)

denotes the characteristic smallest value of the distribution and it is also called a location
parameter. On the other hand is a measure of dispersion or a shape factor. The corresponding
cumulative density function (cdf) is the integral form of the pdf as follows:
x
-
f x =1-e :x>0 (6.18)
Even though the Weibull distribution was originally developed to address the problems in material
science engineering discipline, it is now being widely used in many other areas, such as in low
frequency rainfall analysis, probability of occurrence of earthquake and other natural disasters, low
flow water quality frequency analysis, to mention a few. When =1, this distribution reduces itself to
the Exponential model, and when =2, it mimics the Rayleigh distribution which is mainly used in
telecommunications. In addition, it resembles the Normal distribution when =3.5: The expected
value and variance (first and second moments) are estimated from the samples statistics as
1
Mean: E X =+ - 1+ (6.19)

2 2 2 1
Variance:Var X = - 1+ - 1+ (6.20)

By taking the ratio between the first and second moment of the population, then the coefficient of
variation is only depend on the shape factor.
2
1+

V2x = 1 -1 (6.21)
-2 1+

The location factor is then estimated using the first moment equation.
1
E x == 1+ (6.22)

= 1 (6.23)
1+

(e) Modified Weibull Distribution
Some transformation to the original hydrological data helps to better fit by Weibull distribution. The
modification to the data that is normally associated with hydrologic practices of both low and high
flow frequency analysis is the logarithmic transformation. This results in better fit of the hydrological
annual series as shown in Figure 6.3.
6-14 March 2009

(f) Shifted Weibull Distribution
The shifted Weibull distribution is introduced to fit the lower bound of the distribution using a pre-
determined parameter,. This is in essence introducing another variable to the distribution. As such
third moment of the sample is neeed. This is represented by the skewness statistic of the sample in
tandem with the other two, previously mentioned first and second moments.
The probability density function (pdf) and cumulative density function (cdf) are modified accordingly
by including the third parameter as a correction factor, .

-1 x-
x- -
f x = e - :x>0 (6.24)
- -

x-
-
f x =1-e - :x>0 (6.25)
The moments are given as follows:

1
Mean : E x =+ - 1+ (6.26)

2 2 2 1
Variance: Var x = - 1+ - 1+ (6.27)
3 2 1 3 1
1+ -3 1+ 1+ +2 1+
Skewness:x= 3/2 (6.28)
2 2 1
1+ - 1+
March 2009 6-15

10000 0
1000
1000
1000
m3/s
100
100
m3/s
QQ
10
10
1
1
-6.00
-6.00 -4.00
-4.00 -2.00
-2.00 0.00
0.00 2.00
2.00
redReduced
ucedvariate
variate
observe
observed d EV
EV 33 log
Log EV
EV 3 3
Figure 6.3 Example of Extreme Value DistributionExample of Low Flow Frequency Analysis Using EV
3 and log EV 3
(g) General Extreme Value Distribution
Weibull distribution is also commonly known as Extreme Value type III distribution within the family
of General Extreme Value (GEV). The shape parameter, defines the category of the GEV that are
known as
Gumbel Distribution or EV type I if the shape factor, =1
Frechet Tippet Distribution or EV type II if the shape factor, <0
Weibull Distribution or EV type III if the shape factor >0
6-16 March 2009

Sketch below shows the general shape of the GEV distribution
Figure 6.4 General Extreme Value Distribution
6.6.4 Derivation of the Drought Flow Sequence
Derivation of a 1:N-year and D-month drought sequence using frequency analysis is an industrial
standard in water supply sector in Malaysia. The purpose of the drought sequence analysis is to
derive a 1N-year D-month synthetic drought or low flow hydrograph using long-term monthly
historical records of a streamflow station. The derived drought sequences are then used to
represent inflows in the water resources studies. It is mostly used for estimating the reliable yield of
a reservoir system. The rationale to adopt D-month duration drought sequence is fairly
straightforward. The step-by-step procedure of drought sequence analysis for 48-month is presented
as follows.
Probability analysis using LN2P/LN3P is undertaken for independent low flow sequence of up to 12-
month duration period, alternatively a double logarithmic plot (power equation) could also be used if
the data contains significantly higher skewness. The lowest sum of flow volume of a given duration
as obtained from the historical records are tabulated and ranked in ascending order. Their
respective plotting positions are computed using acceptable plotting position. The 1- to 12-months
duration values (or annual series) were then obtained for each record year. For duration shorter
than 12 months, lowest moving average sums were selected for drought sequence purposes. To
illustrate, the lowest 1-month duration flow can be selected 12 times from a 12-month record.
However for duration more than 1-month, the available selection was 11 moving average sum of the
flow volume. For instance, for a 11-month duration, only 2 moving average sums are available. It
should be reiterated that the lowest moving average flow volume for 1 to 12-months duration are
selected at all time. In short, for the first 1 to 12 month duration, the lowest 1- to 12- month total
flow volume is selected based on the criteria of lowest moving average value.
March 2009 6-17

For a longer duration, such as more than 12 months, the selection becomes limited as the duration
of the series increases. The sum of flow volume is no longer independent in a sense that, as the
series would continue or spill-over to next year. In this case, a fix-start event option was devised
to overcome this shortcoming of the dependency of the drought sequence of more than 12-month
duration (Twort et al., 2000).
The stating months for the derivation of the drought sequence was based on the lowest moving
average sum of the mean monthly flow and of a specific duration. For example, the starting month
of the 13-month duration is determined by selecting the lowest 13-month of the historical average
flow. The calculations were then repeated for other duration up to 48 months. As mentioned above,
1:N-year cumulative drought flow volume is calculated analytically the same way in the derivation of
12-month independent drought sequence previously discussed.
The annual series are then plotted on a logarithmic-normal probability paper using Weibull plotting
position or any suitable plotting position. For some shorter records, a double logarithmic paper
sometimes is used in replacement. The reason of logarithmic transformation is due to most of the
time, by transforming the annual series, a best-fit line was then normally drawn through the
individual annual series. In most cases, a straight line can be plotted through the data set. Though
sometimes it might be necessary to attempt a nonlinear curve fitting to the data series as deemed
appropriate. This has to be done because of the skewness in the annual series.
Generally, shorter annual series records tend to deviate from conventional normal distribution
assumption. However it could not be said confidently the same as if the absence of skewness might
be the result of longer annual series. Even if there is skewness in the annual series, it is most likely
due to existence of a small numbers of outliers in their midst. By visual observation, sometimes
these outliers could be excluded from computation without much reservation. Other a rigorous test
for outliers could be carried out prior to purging any extreme values from the annual series.
For consistency, the 1:D-year drought for any duration would be calculated analytically instead by
eye-fitting. This is accomplished by firstly transforming the annual series to logarithmic values. The
first (Mean), second (Standard Deviation) and third (skewness) moments of the logarithmic series
are then calculated. The steps involved are the same as above.
Once the 1:N-year D-month drought volume is calculated, then it is followed by the desegregation of
the estimated flow volume into a 1 to D month incremental flow volume. Then the D-month series
are rearranged to follow the most prevailing flow pattern, in most cases, the average observed
monthly pattern of the streamflow station is adopted.
Other patterns could also be used such as choosing the lowest observed historical records. Several
scenarios could be easily carried out with different temporal low pattern. Figure 6.5 shows an
example of 1 to 36 month duration drought sequence curves of Sg. Sarawak @ Kg Git streamflow
station in Sarawak.
6-18 March 2009

Figure 6.5 Low Flow Frequency Analysis Drought Sequence Example 1 of 2
March 2009 6-19

Figure 6.6 Low Flow Frequency Analysis Drought Sequence Example 2 of 2
6-20 March 2009

6.7 OVERVIEW OF DID HP 12 ON LOW FLOW ESTIMATION
6.7.1 Introduction: Regionalization and Transposition
Regionalization and transposition approach in the low flow hydrological assessment is another
important step once the magnitude of low flow associated with specific N-year return period or
probability of occurrence are established from the routine frequency analysis of point streamflow
gauging station.
The regionalized approach is a commonly adopted methodology of taking into consideration that the
point streamflow station may not be able to represent the spatial variability or areal wide of the
entire watersheds or hydrological region. Therefore a group of streamflow stations in the region and
vicinity could better performed the intended low flow estimation. The reason of areal wide estimate
is required is due to the fact that it is rarely streamflow stations are conveniently located in the
potential intake sites or vicinity as they are costly to build and maintained. As a matter of fact, most
often than not, only few streamflow stations are available compared to the vast numbers of rainfall
station in a given hydrological region or watershed.
Regionalization and transposition approach provides flow estimates and prediction to ungaged points
of interest in a river basin using the results of the point gauging streamflow station. This is in
essence similar to catchment wide rainfall estimates using several point raingauge records in a
catchment. Techniques of regionalization of low flows are narrated in the following procedures (Tucci
et al, 1995).
Fit a frequency distribution to point streamflow gauging station and relate the distribution
parameters to observed hydrological and physical basin characteristics, such as catchment area,
average catchment slope, mean annual rainfall volume, etc. Prior to this, normally the low flows of
N-year severity are transformed to non-dimensional form by normalizing with the annual average
flow (AAF).
Procedures of low (drought) and high (flood) flow regionalization approaches were carried out by
Department of Irrigation and Drainage (DID) in the middle of 1980s. The hydrological procedure of
HP 4 (Ong, 1987) and HP 12 (Toong, 1985) are being widely used in Malaysia for low flow assessing
using regionalization techniques. Other variants for low flow estimates of ungaged sites are being
made or evolved (i.e. NWRS SMHB/RB/JPZ, 2000).
6.7.2 HP 12: Magnitude and Frequency of Low Flows in Peninsular Malaysia

(Revised and Updated) 1985
6.7.2.1 Introduction
The purpose of this Hydrological Procedure (HP 12) is to estimate the design low flow (mainly for
run-of-river scheme) of ungauged catchments in Peninsular Malaysia. This procedure has been in use
since its inception in the late 1980s for preliminary screening and planning of water resources
projects in Malaysia. Especially the low flow yield of various duration and return period of probability
of non exceedance occurrence is required for mostly potential run-of-river water supply scheme.
The procedure is based on a regionalization approach by collating pertinent hydrological as well as

topographic/geographical variables together. The hydrological element of the procedure is the results
of observed individual annual series of streamflow stations in Peninsular Malaysia. Two variables are
of important in determining the low flow yield (a) the catchment area, and (b) the mean annual
rainfall of the catchment.
March 2009 6-21

6.7.2.2. Notation
This hydrological procedure is derived based on the following criteria.
a) The catchment land use has not changed significantly over the period of record.
b) The low flows have not been systematically regulated or affected by the extraction, storage or
diversion of water upstream.
c) There are eight or more years of stream flow record available.
d) The catchments are predominantly rural.
e) The catchment areas are greater than 20 km2.
f) The maximum return period is 50 years.
It is assumed that this procedure can yield reasonable results if the above criteria are met.
Additional prerequisite of applying this hydrological procedure is to ascertain that the catchment
must not have significant storage (swamps or lakes). Caution must be exercised on catchment areas
less than 20 km2, and also for catchments located in areas where the density of river stations used
for deriving the regional curves is sparse.
General Approach
The input parameters required are catchment area, mean annual rainfall (MAR), and the desired
return period (T). This procedure only caters for low flow estimation up to 50-year return period.
The mean annual minimum flow (MAM) for a given region is calculated by a multiple non-linear (2
variables) equation as shown in Table below based on the catchment area and the MAR.
Mean Annual Minimum Flow (MAM) equations
-8
1.092
RE1:1.097x10 A MAR1.663 (6.29)
-10 0.920
RE2:1.675x10 A MAR2.387 (6.30)
-16 1.197
RE3:1.675x10 A MAR3.856 (6.31)
A = area km2
MAR = Mean annual rainfall, mm/year obtained from 1:1,000,000 Peninsular Malaysia MAR map
After selecting the appropriate geographical region, (from RC 1 to RC 4; see Figure 6.5), the
Q
dimensionless quotient, d,T is calculated by equations in Table below. The low flow for 1-, 4-, 7-, 30-
MAM
day duration are calculated by multiplying the appropriate quotient to the MAM value, i.e.
Qd,t =Kx MAM (6.32)
The table below represents the Extreme Value (EV) Type III fit parameters for the 1-, 4-, 7-, and 30-
day duration of four (4) hydrological regions (see Figure 6.6). The probability distribution is described
as follows:
1
y=-ln -ln 1- (6.33)
T
Qd,T
=u+ 1-e-ky (6.34)
MAM k
6-22 March 2009

Where
K = Dimensionless quotient,dimensionless
T = Return period, year
Y = Reduced variate, dimensionless
u = EV parameter, dimensionless
=EV parameter, dimensionless

k = EV parameter, dimensionless
Table 6.3 EV Type III parameters
Region
RC 1 1.093 -0.437 0.583
1.176 -0.462 0.577
1.241 -0.480 0.594
1.619 -0.614 0.632
RC 2 1.121 -0.497 0.492
1.222 -0.514 0.465
1.310 -0.536 0.458
1.726 -0.676 0.474
RC 3 1.114 -0.482 0.540
1.212 -0.525 0.553
1.265 -0.535 0.543
1.749 -0.718 0.519
RC 4 1.154 -0.609 0.490
1.206 -0.609 0.490
1.261 -0.669 0.497
1.632 -0.876 0.506
March 2009 6-23

RC4
RC1
RC2
RC1 RC3
RC1
Figure 6.7 RC Regions for Peninsular Malaysia (HP 12)
6-24 March 2009

RE1
RE2
RE3
Figure 6.8 RE Regions for Peninsular Malaysia (HP 12)
March 2009 6-25

6.8 HP 12 (NWRS, 2000)
The regionalized approach is a commonly adopted methodology of taking into consideration that the
point streamflow station may not be able to represent the spatial variability or areal wide of the
entire watersheds or hydrological region. Therefore a group of streamflow stations in the region and
vicinity could better performed the intended low flow estimation. The reason of areal wide estimate
is required is due to the fact that it is rarely streamflow stations are conveniently located in the
potential intake sites or vicinity as they are costly to build and maintained. As a matter of fact, most
often than not, only few streamflow stations are available compared to the vast numbers of rainfall
station in a given hydrological region or watershed.
As a result, the regionalized approach takes into account both the spatial variability in topographic
and hydrological variations such as catchment areas and the magnitude of rainfall (normally mean
annual average rainfall [MAR], annual actual evapotranspiration [AE]) of the hydrological regions to
estimate the low flow yields of specific return periods and duration.
NWRS (2000) adopts a slightly different approach vis--vis HP 12 (Toong, 1985). Taking into the
advantage of availability of additional records of low flow annual series for various streamflow
stations in the region (i.e. additional 10 to 20 years of records available), efforts to recalculate the
point low flow yields at respective streamflow stations were made. Subsequently as in the HP 12
(Toong, 1985), a regionalized approach to estimate reliable yields of specific return periods at sites
of interest in the project areas.
The regionalized approach combines the results of frequency analysis of individual streamflow
stations in the hydrological homogeneous regions to derive meaningful relationships of low flow
yields of specific duration (normally, 1-, 7-, 14-, and 30-day) and return periods with the
geographical (catchment area) and hydrological (mean annual rainfall and actual evapotranspiration
rates) factors.
The mean annual minimum flow (MAM) is first calculated for a specific node (i.e. potential intakes) of
interest in the Larut Matang and Selama District which fall into Regions LF2 and LF3. The MAM is
estimated as follows:
b c
MAM=ea A MAR-AE (6.35)
-1.087
LF REGION2:MAM=e5.2669 A0.689 MAR-AE (6.36)
0.467
LF REGION3:MAM=e-6.582 A0.889 MAR-AE (6.37)
MAM = Mean annual minimum flow (m3/s)
A = Catchment area (Km2)
MAR = Mean annual rainfall (mm/year)
AE = Actual evapotranspiration (mm/year)
The MAM equation is a simple multivariate (two variables) regression where geographical
parameters, i.e. catchment area (A) draining the potential intakes and hydrological parameters i.e.
mean annual rainfall (MAR) and actual annual evapo-transpiration rates (AE) of the basin are the
independent variables.
For a 1-, 7- and 30-day low flow, the reliable yields are then estimated using relationships between
the return periods and MAM
6-26 March 2009

0.467
LF REGION 3:MAM=e-6.582 A0.889 MAR-AE (6.38)
Q7,T 2
=aRD3 +bRD +cRD+d (6.39)
MAM
LF REGION 2
Q1,T 3 2
1-day: =-0.0193(RD) +0.1818(RD) -0.6607(RD)+1.0985 (6.40)
MAM
Q7,T 3 2
7-day: =-0.0212(RD) +0.1956(RD) -0.7118(RD)+1.2633 (6.41)
MAM
Q30,T 3 2
30-day: =-0.0231(RD) +0.2240(RD) -0.8883(RD)+1.8383 (6.42)
MAM
LF REGION 3
Q1,T 3 2
1-day: =-0.0081(RD) +0.0757(RD) -0.3236(RD)+0.9158 (6.43)
MAM
Q7,T 3 2
7-day: =-0.0098(RD) +0.0862(RD) -0.3398(RD)+0.9810 (6.44)
MAM
Q30,T 3 2
30-day: =-0.0118(RD) +0.1072(RD) -0.4311(RD)+1.2861 (6.45)
MAM
MAM= Mean annual minimum flow (m3/s)
Qn,T =flow discharge of n day duration and T return period (m3/s)
T
RD=-ln ln reduce variate (nd)
T-1
T= Return period (year)
Different coefficients, a, b, c, and d are used for different durations. For information, these
coefficients are the results of regression analysis using computed yields of various return periods
(and transformed to reduced variates accordingly).
The differences between the JPS (Toong, 1985) and NWRS (2000) methodology are summarized as
follows:
a) Way of mean annual minimum (MAM) flow estimation: An extra variable, the annual actual
evapotranspiration rate (AE) is taken into consideration (in conjunction with MAR and
catchment area) in the HP 12 NWRS (2000), where as the MAM calculation in the HP 12
(Toong, 1985) is only based on MAR and catchment area.
b) Way of regression or curve fitting techniques used in their respective computation: A

multiple regression of low flow quotient (ratio of flow for specific return period and duration
over the mean annual minimum low flow[MAM]) is used in lieu of relatively mathematically
rigorous and theoretically correct version of Gumbel or type I of Extreme value (EV)
frequency distribution in HP 12 (Toong, 1985).
c) Way of grouping the hydrological homogeneous regions: seven (7) groupings of the
hydrological homogeneous regions are made in the HP 12 (NWRS, 2000). It is assumed that
the MAM and subsequent low flow yield calculations are of the same region. In other words
it is akin to combining three (3) RE and four (4) RC regions of HP 12 (Toong, 1986) into one
March 2009 6-27

single homogeneous zone. RE regions are for estimation of MAM whereas RC zones are for
estimation of flow quotient in HP 12 (Toong, 1985).
d) Way of increasing the hydrological/flow gauged records. In the HP 12 (Toong, 1985), only
some twenty years of records were available for analysis and subsequent preparation and
delineation of RE and RC regional maps. In the NWRS (2000), another ten (10) years or
more gauged records are available. This undoubtedly enhances the reliability of the
calculation of low flow yields.
As a result of the different techniques in computation, the MAM and LF regions in the NWRS (2000)
are basically redrawn and expectedly different from the RE and RC regions in the HP 12 (Toong,
1985). Figure 6.9 shows the LF zoning for Peninsula Malaysia.
HP12 - LOW FLOW ANALYSIS, NATIONAL WATER RESOURCES STUDY 2000
REGION
2
AREA 32 km Data LF3
MAR 4000 mm a -6.582
AE 1200 mm b 0.899
c 0.467
3
MAM 1.272 m /s Q D,T
T 1-day 7-day 30-day
2 1.026 1.103 1.452
5 0.729 0.804 1.069
10 0.609 0.688 0.921
20 0.522 0.605 0.817
25 0.496 0.579 0.786
30 0.475 0.558 0.760
50 0.413 0.490 0.681
100 0.306 0.366 0.538
Q D,T
T 1-day 7-day 30-day
2 89 95 125
5 63 69 92
10 53 59 80
20 45 52 71
25 43 50 68
30 41 48 66
50 36 42 59
100 26 32 46
Figure 6.9 NWRS Regionalized Low Flow Analysis: 1/2
6-28 March 2009

LF2
LF1
LF3
LF7
LF4
LF5
LF6
Figure 6.10 NWRS Regionalized Low Flow Analysis: 2/2
6.9 DROUGHT INDEX (SPI AND PALMER)
Drought index is used to provide fore-warning on the imminent on set of the drought episode based
on measureable or quantitative hydrological parameters such as rainfall and soil moisture content, to
an extent streamflow. The science and terminology on drought occurrence and analysis are fairly
well established. The content of this subchapter is mainly derived in full or in part from
http://drought.unl.edu/whatis/indices.htm#spi. There are many indices available for drought
prediction and assessment. Only three popular indices are introduced and outlined in this subchapter.
Surface Water Supply Index (SWSI) which is based on the streamflow records is briefly presented as
it is not suitable for Malaysia climates.
March 2009 6-29

Standard Precipitation Index (SPI) which is based primarily on precipitation records alone is the index
adopted in the Malaysia Infokemarau network project. As it is only based on single hydrometric
variable, it is easy to extend to drought forecasts. One of its advantages is soil moisture and other
hydrological conditions are not required.
On the other hand, Palmer Drought Severity Index (PDSI); which is based on the water balance
equation, is a rather complex technique for use. The prerequisite is the soil moisture condition of the
region to be monitored must be continuously monitored. This therefore, adds additional cost to the
effort.
6.9.1 Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI)
The Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI) is an index based on the probability of precipitation for
any time scale. Many drought planners and decision makers appreciate the versatility of this
particular index. The SPI can be computed for different time scales as mentioned earlier. It can also
provide early warning of onset of drought and help to assess drought severity. One of its advantages
is less complex than the other indices. This temporal flexibility allows the SPI to be useful in both
short-term agricultural as well as long-term hydrological applications.
The SPI was developed by T.B. McKee, N.J. Doesken, and J. Kleist and in 1993. The data and climate
division boundaries are from the National Climatic Data Center (NCDC). The Western Regional
Climate Center (WRCC) uses these data to calculate SPI values for each climate division. The
information is then reclassified and mapped at the National Drought Mitigation Center (NDMC) using
a Geographic Information System (GIS). The maps are then based on preliminary precipitation data,
and the datas source and methods used in incorporating the data into a final product must be
considered carefully when analyzing these maps. Table below shows the SPI values that are
classified from extreme wet to extreme dry with corresponding values ranging from +2.0 to 02.0 or
less.
Table 6.4 Standard Precipitation Index Values
SPI Values
2.0+ Extremely wet
1.5 to 1.99 Very wet
1.0 to 1.49 Moderately wet
-.99 to .99 Near normal
-1.0 to -1.49 Moderately dry
-1.5 to -1.99 Severely dry
-2 and less Extremely dry
This understanding shows a deficit of precipitation has different impacts on groundwater, reservoir
storage, soil moisture, snowpack, and streamflow. This has then led McKee, Doesken, and Kleist to
develop the Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI) in 1993. The SPI was designed to quantify the
precipitation deficit for multiple time scales.
These time scales reflect the impact of drought on the availability of the different water resources.
Soil moisture conditions respond to precipitation anomalies on a relatively short scale. Groundwater,
streamflow, and reservoir storage reflect the longer-term precipitation anomalies. For these reasons,
McKee et al. (1993) originally calculated the SPI for 3, 6,12, 24, and 48month time scales.
The SPI calculation for any location is based on the long-term precipitation record for a desired
period. This long-term record is fitted to a probability distribution, which is then transformed into a
normal distribution so that the mean SPI for the location and desired period is zero.
6-30 March 2009

In terms of interpretation of the result, positive SPI values indicate greater than median precipitation,
and on the other hand, negative values indicate less than median precipitation. Because the SPI is
normalized, wetter and drier climates can be represented in the same way, and wet periods can also
be monitored using the SPI.
6.9.2 The Palmer Drought Severity Index
The Palmer is a soil moisture algorithm calibrated for relatively homogeneous regions. It has been
adopted by many U.S. government agencies and states rely on the Palmer to trigger drought relief
programs.
It is the first comprehensive drought index developed in the United States. Palmer values may lag
emerging droughts by several months; less well suited for mountainous land or areas of frequent
climatic extremes; complex that has an unspecified, built-in time scale that can be misleading.
The Palmer Index was developed by Wayne Palmer in the 1960s and uses temperature and rainfall
information in a formula to determine dryness. It has become the semi-official drought index.
The Palmer Index is most effective in determining long term droughta matter of several months
and is not as good with short-term forecasts (a matter of weeks). It uses a 0 as normal, and drought
is shown in terms of minus numbers; for example, minus 2 is moderate drought, minus 3 is severe
drought, and minus 4 is extreme drought.
Table 6. 5 The Palmer Index
Palmer Classifications
4.0 or more Extremely wet
3.0 to 3.99 Very wet
2.0 to 2.99 Moderately wet
1.0 to 1.99 Slightly wet
0.5 to 0.99 Incipient wet spell
o.49 to -0.49 Near normal
-0.5 to -0.99 Incipient dry spell
-1.0 to -1.99 Mild drought
-2.0 to -2.99 Moderate drought
-3.0 to -3.99 Severe drought
-4.0 or less Extreme drought
The Palmer Index can also reflect excess rain using a corresponding level reflected by plus figures;
i.e., 0 is normal, plus 2 is moderate rainfall, etc.
The advantage of the Palmer Index is that it is standardized to local climate, so it can be applied to
any part of the country to demonstrate relative drought or rainfall conditions. The negative is that it
is not as good for short term forecasts, and is not particularly useful in calculating supplies of water
locked up in snow, so it works best east of the Continental Divide.
6.9.3 Crop Moisture Index (CMI)
The Crop Moisture Index (CMI) is also a formula derived from the original Palmer Index and was also
developed by Wayne Palmer subsequent to his development of the Palmer Drought Index. The CMI
reflects moisture supply in the short term across major crop-producing regions and is not intended to
assess long-term droughts.
March 2009 6-31

The CMI responds more rapidly than the Palmer Index and can change considerably from week to
week, so it is more effective in calculating short-term abnormal dryness or wetness affecting
agriculture.
CMI is designed to indicate normal conditions at the beginning and end of the growing season; it
uses the same levels as the Palmer Drought Index. It differs from the Palmer Index in that the
formula places less weight on the data from previous weeks and more weight on the recent week.
The Crop Moisture Index (CMI) uses a meteorological approach to monitor week-to-week crop
conditions. It was developed by Palmer (1968) from procedures within the calculation of the PDSI.
Whereas the PDSI monitors long-term meteorological wet and dry spells, the CMI was designed to
evaluate short-term moisture conditions across major crop-producing regions. It is based on the
mean temperature and total precipitation for each week within a climate division, as well as the CMI
value from the previous week. The CMI responds rapidly to changing conditions, and it is weighted
by location and time so that maps, which commonly display the weekly CMI across the United States,
can be used to compare moisture conditions at different locations. Weekly maps of the CMI are
available as part of the USDA/JAWF Weekly Weather and Crop Bulletin.
6.9.4 Surface Water Supply Index (SWSI)
The SWSI is designed to complement the Palmer Index, where mountain snowpack is a key element
of water supply; calculated by river basin, based on snowpack, streamflow, precipitation, and
reservoir storage.
It represents water supply conditions unique to each basin. However changing a data collection
station or water management requires that new algorithms be calculated, and the index is unique to
each basin, which limits inter-basin comparisons.
The Surface Water Supply Index (SWSI) was developed by Shafer and Dezman (1982) to
complement the Palmer Index for moisture conditions The Palmer Index is basically a soil moisture
algorithm calibrated for relatively homogeneous regions, but it is not designed for large topographic
variations across a region and it does not account for snow accumulation and subsequent runoff.
Shafer and Dezman designed the SWSI to be an indicator of surface water conditions and described
the index as mountain water dependent, in which mountain snowpack is a major component.
The objective of the SWSI was to incorporate both hydrological and climatological features into a
single index value resembling the Palmer Index for each major river basin in the state of Colorado
(Shafer and Dezman 1982). These values would be standardized to allow comparisons between
basins. Four inputs are required within the SWSI: snowpack, streamflow, precipitation, and reservoir
storage. Because it is dependent on the season, the SWSI is computed with only snowpack,
precipitation, and reservoir storage in the winter. During the summer months, streamflow replaces
snowpack as a component within the SWSI equation.
The procedure to determine the SWSI for a particular basin is as follows: monthly data are collected
and summed for all the precipitation stations, reservoirs, and snowpack/streamflow measuring
stations over the basin. Each summed component is normalized using a frequency analysis gathered
from a long-term data set. The probability of non-exceedencethe probability that subsequent sums
of that component will not be greater than the current sumis determined for each component
based on the frequency analysis. This allows comparisons of the probabilities to be made between
the components. Each component has a weight assigned to it depending on its typical contribution to
the surface water within that basin, and these weighted components are summed to determine a
SWSI value representing the entire basin. Like the Palmer Index, the SWSI is centered on zero and
has a range between -4.2 and +4.2.
6-32 March 2009

The SWSI has been used, along with the Palmer Index, to trigger the activation and deactivation of
the Colorado Drought Plan. One of its advantages is that it is simple to calculate and gives a
representative measurement of surface water supplies across the state. It has been modified and
applied in other western states as well. These states include Oregon, Montana, Idaho, and Utah.
Monthly SWSI maps for Montana are available from the Montana Natural Resource Information
System (http://nris.state.mt.us/wis/SWSInteractive/).
Several characteristics of the SWSI limit its application. Because the SWSI calculation is unique to
each basin or region, it is difficult to compare SWSI values between basins or regions (Doesken et
al., 1991). Within a particular basin or region, discontinuing any station means that new stations
need to be added to the system and new frequency distributions need to be determined for that
component. Additional changes in the water management within a basin, such as flow diversions or
new reservoirs, mean that the entire SWSI algorithm for that basin needs to be redeveloped to
account for changes in the weight of each component. Thus, it is difficult to maintain a
homogeneous time series of the index (Heddinghaus and Sabol, 1991). Extreme events also cause a
problem if the events are beyond the historical time series, and the index will need to be reevaluated
to include these events within the frequency
6.10 WEB-BASED INFORM KEMARAU
6.10.1 Introduction
Drought monitoring program was initiated since early 2001 (see Figures 6.12 to 6.13) with the aims
and objectives to
disseminate information, on-line on the water resources Status

provide early warning on potential drought
advice the general public on the drought status
6.10.2 Methodology
Closed relationship exists between water resources status and current rainfall amount received. In
this Infokemarau program rainfall data of 41 selected stations are used in the analysis to reflect the
water resources status of Peninsular Malaysia.
Real time hydrometric information such as streamflow and rainfall for about 167 stations could be
obtained on line via www.infokemarau.water.gov.my (see Figure 6.8). Figures 6.9 to 6.11 show the
web pages for real time data acquisition for river and dam streamflow stations respectively.
The percentage of deviation from the long term mean (LTM) value of 3 monthly moving rainfall totals
is used as indicator of the water catchments condition. A negative deviation from the LTM value
indicates that the particular region is experiencing a dryer than normal condition and vice versa.
In general if a certain catchment is receiving rainfall (3 monthly rainfall total) less than 60% of the
LTM for a consecutive period of 3 months and more. Then, it may be expected that the amount of
run-off or water resources of that catchment to be adversely affected, Figure 6.15 shows an
isohyetal map for entire peninsula Malaysia. An example of Standard Precipitation Index (SPI) for
Kuala Nerang is shown in Figure 6.16.
This monthly monitoring program provides early warning on the impending water shortages of a
particular region. Thus, follow up analysis and measures can be activated by the relevant agencies to
mitigate the water stress problem.
Reference: www.infokemarau.water.gov.my
March 2009 6-33

Figure 6.11 WWW site for Infokemarau (JPS)
Figure 6.12 Real Time Rainfall and Water Level Monitoring

6-34 March 2009

More than 150 hydrometric stations, i.e. streamflow and rainfall stations are included in this on line
program.
Figure 6.13 Drought Monitoring by River Flow

Source: www.infokemarau.water.gov.my
March 2009 6-35

Figure 6.14 Drought Monitoring by Dam Levels

6-36 March 2009

Figure 6.15 Isohyet Map of three-monthly Rainfall Distribution

March 2009 6-37

SPI VALUES
2.0+ - extremely wet
1.5 to 1.99 - very wet
1.0 to 1.49 -moderately wet
-0.99 to 0.99 -near normal
-1.0 to -1.49 -moderately dry
-1.5 to -1.99 -severely dry
-2 and less -extremely dry
Figure 6.16 Standard Precipitation Index (SPI) For Kuala Nerang

6.11 IMPACT OF CLIMATE CHANGE
Global warming is the raising of average measured air temperature near the earth surface and
oceans since the mid-20th century (see Figure 6.17), and it is projected to continue and increase
above long-term average in the near future.
This alarming state of global warming is due primarily to the increase in green house gases, i.e.
carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), NOx, CFC and others gases in the atmosphere. Increasing of
CO2 and other trace elements in atmosphere will alter energy balance of climate system, and cause
global warming in the future. It has received much attention in recent year (IPCC, 2008).
The presence of these high concentration green house gases in the troposphere, hinder the emission
of long-wave radiation processes from the earth to the atmosphere. The heat is therefore trapped
within the layer of green house gases (known as green house glasses) and reradiate back to the
earth. By doing so, this radiation hear balance raises the air temperature on earth in general.
6-38 March 2009

The impacts of global warming on water resource in particular are not quantitatively studied in
Malaysia (NWRS 2000) but in general consensus, the impact could be experienced in various
dimensions, such as it is believed that the impending rising in sea level at un precedent rate due to
accelerated melting of icebergs and glaciers in both north and south poles. Thus causes erosion and
recession of the coastal lines. It also affects the hydrologic cycles, etc.
The impacts of global warming suggest extremities in both climatologic hydrologic events, such as
recent more frequent occurrences and exceptionally high severity of tropical storms and monsoon
events accompanied with fiery wind gusts.
Potential direct impacts of global warming to water resources are systematically summarized as
follows (Pittock, 2003):
a. Reduce or increase inflows to water/hydrologic natural and artificial storages
b. Reduce streamflow/discharge in major river basins/catchments
c. Reduce or increase in water availability for rain fed agriculture and irrigation
d. Reduce recharge of groundwater due to less infiltration from surface waters
e. Increase in severity of both droughts and floods
f. Increase salinity of surface and ground waters.
g. Increase inundation of coastal freshwater wetlands and lowlands, rivers, and estuaries
h. Change in weather pattern from the past
i. Increase sediment and nutrients in streams
Some of the indirect impacts or consequences are as follows:
a. Threatened water supplies: Possible shortage of water supply to meet the increasing
demand by cities and towns, agricultural, industrial, environmental flows. This is primarily
due to low flows in the rivers or other water bodies. Relocation of water supply intakes
further upstream of the saline-freshwater interface due to saltwater intrusion by sea level
rising.
b. Increased risk of euthrophication in water bodies: algal blooms or enrichments and
impairment to the water quality in general due to ineffective dilution. Algal blooms degrade
the water quality by excessive growth of oxygen demanding organisms. When algal die off,
the biomass exerts oxygen demand for their biodegradation processes and in turn reduce the
oxygen concentration of the water bodies. Without oxygen, massive aquatic fauna depth as
a result.
c. Probable changes in ecological water requirements: Possible alternations/changes to
ecosystems. Displacement, reduction or loss of vulnerable ecosystems or species might occur
due to lower water availability.
d. Increase pressure on water related storages and infrastructure: With the extremity in
fluctuation in river water flows, some existing water related infrastructures such as water
supply schemes, flood mitigation projects, coastal protection, etc might not be able sustain
the intended design standards. As a result, inadequate raw water source might interrupt the
smooth operation of water supply schemes. Frequent flooding events and overtopping of
levees and embankments might occur in flood defense projects and thus increasing the risk
of flood damages. Coastal erosion and sedimentation might be recurring and frequent
episodes.
e. Increased competition for water: Global warming and climate change increase the
competition amongst nations for precious water commodity in many countries and many
regions within a country. It is especially vulnerable for competition amongst the countries
that are sharing common riparian boundaries. Water resources scarcity spurs competition in
dam building for storage in time of need.
March 2009 6-39

Figure 6.17 Global Temperature Anomaly

Sources: NOAA www site
6-40 March 2009

REFERENCE
[1] University of Florida, The Disaster Handbook, Institute of Food and Agricultural
Sciences,Cooperative Extension Center, National Edition, Gainsville, Florida,1998.
[2] Chow, VT, DR Maidment, L, Applied Hydrology, McGraw Hill, NY, NY, Mays.1988
[3] Ong, CY, Magnitude and Frequency of Flood Flows in Peninsular Malaysia, HP No: 4, Jabatan
Pengairan dan Saliran, Kementerian Pertanian, Malaysia,1987.
[4] Institute of Hydrology (IH), HYRROM User Manual, Institute of Hydrology, UK, 1988.
[5] SMHB/RB/JPZ, National Water Resources Study, 2000-2050. Final Report, EPU, Government of
Malaysia, 2000
[6] Toong AT, Magnitude and Frequency of Low Flows in Peninsular Malaysia. HP No: 12, Jabatan
Pengairan dan Saliran, Kementerian Pertanian Malaysia ,1985.
[7] Tucci, C, A. Sliveira, F Albuquerque. Flow regionalization in the upper Paraquay basin. Brazil.
Hydrological sicnece, 40 (4), 485-497. 1995.
[8] Twort, A.C., F.M. Law, F.W. Crowley, and D.D. Ratnayaka, Water Supply, Forth Edition, Edward
Arnold Ltd, London, UK, 1994.
March 2009 6-41

6-42 March 2009

CHAPTER 7 RIVER SEDIMENTATION
Chapter 7 RIVER SEDIMENTATION
Table of Contents
Table of Contents ................................................................................................................... 7-i

7.1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................ 7-1
7.2 TYPE OF SEDIMENT LOAD .......................................................................................... 7-1
7.2 MEASUREMENT OF RIVER SUSPENDED SEDIMENT ....................................................... 7-2
7.2.1 Type of Sediment Sampling in River ................................................................ 7-2
7.2.2 Depth Integrating Samplers ............................................................................ 7-2
7.2.3 Point Integrating Samplers .............................................................................. 7-4
7.3 MEASUREMENT OF BED LOAD .................................................................................... 7-5
7.3.1 Bedload Samplers .......................................................................................... 7-5
7.3.2 Bed Material Samplers .................................................................................... 7-6
7.4 MECHANICS OF SEDIMENT TRANSPORT ...................................................................... 7-7
7.5 SEDIMENT TRANSPORT MODELS ................................................................................ 7-8
March 2009 7-i

List of Figures
7.1 US DH 48 (Wading Type) 7-3

7.2 US DH 59 (handle type) 7-3
7.3 US DH 49 (Suspension type) 7-4
7.4 USP P - 61 A 7-5
7.5 Helley Smith Bed Load Sampler 7-6
7.6 Bed Material Sediment Samplers US BM 53 (Piston Type) 7-7
7.7 Sediment Rating Curves for catchment type I and II (NK/SMHB, 1999) 7-11
7-ii March 2009

7 RIVER SEDIMENTATION
7.1 INTRODUCTION
Basic understandings and knowledge of the quantitative amount, both spatial and temporal
distribution of sediment transport and movement in a river system is vital important to the
development and management of river flow.
These data are often being used to judge the health of watershed and river system and the success
or failure of human induced activities designed to mitigate adverse impacts of sediment on rivers and
its associated riparian habitats.
7.2 TYPE OF SEDIMENT LOAD
The technical classification on the type of sediment transport is mostly based on the mode of
transport in the river reach. There are three types of transportation mechanisms that rely on the
hydraulic parameters of the river channel, such as flow rates, cross sectional areas, hydraulic radius,
etc. Another type of the sediment transportation class is entirely independent to the hydraulic
properties of the river channel, known as Wash Load. The mechanism is highly hinged on the
amount of supply of sediment available from the upstream.
For an initiation of incipient motion to facilitate the sediment transport, the bed shear stress exerted
by the river flow must exceed a specific critical shear stress of the bed as explained in terms of
Newtonian mechanics. The bed shear stress is estimated based on the bed or energy slope of the
river reach, hydraulic radius of the cross section, and the specific weight of the flow. Only if this
critical bed shear stress is exceeded, the way in which the sediment is transported depends on the
characteristics of the sediment interaction with river water. As always the flow itself carries some
suspended particles as it flows downstream. Else the sediment will be setting down due to the
action of gravity. This settling velocity is the minimum velocity a flow must have in order to
transport, rather than deposit, sediments, and (for a dilute suspension) is described by Stokes law.
The best description of this type of sediment is the derivation of flow-sediment rating curve, where
the amount of sediment influx at any specific boundary is solely dependent on the flow rates.
(a) Suspended Load (particulate form)
The sediment composition consists of both organic and inorganic particulate matter that is
suspended in and carried by moving water. Sediment particles that are mechanically transported by
the sediment suspension due to turbulence within a stream or river suspended load is always
associated with sandy particles. Due to their lightweight and relatively smaller in size, the turbulence
generated by the water movement could literally throw them up in suspension.
Sediment occurred as suspended load if the velocity in the river channel is greater than the settling
velocity of the sediment particle. There is always possibility of non uniform sediments with a wide
spectrum of different particle sizes in the flow, some of these particles will have sufficiently large
diameters that they settle on the river or stream bed, but still move downstream. This mode of
transport is termed as bed load and is discussed in details later.
(b) Dissolved Load
All organic and inorganic material carried in solution by moving water. This is a better known as
solute transport phenomena.
March 2009 7-1

(c) Bed load
Coarse materials such as a larger size sand, gravel, stones, and boulders that are not transported by
the turbulence created by the water flow (primarily velocity field) are settled down by the force of
gravity to the bottom of the river channel. At this juncture, they move along mainly by the saltation
or bouncing around or near the bottom of the channel (saltation: jumping up into the flow, being
transported a short distance then settling again). On the other hand, these relatively coarse materials
move primarily by skipping, rolling, and sliding along the channel bed.
7.2 MEASUREMENT OF RIVER SUSPENDED SEDIMENT
Sediment measurement involves sampling the water-sediment mixture (sand, silt, and gravel in a
river) to determine the
(a) mean suspended sediment concentration,

(b) particle size distribution,
(c) specific gravity,
(d) temperature of the water sediment mixture, and
(e) other physical and chemical properties of the transported sand and gravel particles in the
rivers.
Suspended sediment concentration in a natural river system varies spatially and temporally from the
water surface to the bottom of the river bed and both longitudinally and laterally along and across
the river cross section. Most of the time, concentration generally increases from a minimum at the
water surface to a maximum at or near the bed of the river.
7.2.1 Type of Sediment Sampling in River
7.2.2 Depth Integrating Samplers
Depth integrating samplers are basically used to continuously obtain and extract a sample specimen
of sediment-water mixture as they are lowered from the water surface to the bottom of the river bed
and returned at a constant rate of travel to the river water surface again.
Both ascending and descending speeds however, need not be the same, but the rate of travel must
be constant in each direction. As the sediment-water sample is collected, air in the container is
compressed so that the pressure balances the hydrostatic pressure at the air exhaust and the inflow
velocity is approximately equal to the stream velocity. The analysis of the sediment in the sediment-
mixture bottle is expressed as weight of the sediment in a unit volume of water.
7-2 March 2009

(a) US DH - 48 (Wading type)
It is a light weight sampler for collection of suspended sediment samples where a wading road
sampler suspension is used in the sampling operation. The intake nozzle is orientated into the
current and held in a horizontal position while the sample is lowered at a uniform rate from the water
surface to the bottom of the stream instantly reserved and then raised to the water surface at a
uniform rate.
Figure 7.1 US DH 48 (Wading Type)

Reference: www.hydromatinstruments.com
(b) US DH 59 (Handle Type)
It is a medium weight suspended sediment samplers for hand line type. This sampler is equipped
with a tail vane assemble to orient the intake nozzle of the sampler into the approaching flow as the
sampler enters the water the sample container is sealed against a gasket in the head cavity of the
casting by pressure applied to the base of the bottle by a hand operated spring tensioned pull rod
assembly at the tail of the sampler.
Figure 7.2 US DH 59 (handle type)

Reference: www.hydromatinstruments.com
(c) US DH 49 (Suspension type)
It is a sampler for suspension by gauging winch to take suspended sediment samplers in the streams
not greater then 7.4 meter in depth. The head of the samplers is hinged to permit access to the
sample container. Tail fins are provided to orient the instrument into the stream flow. The head of
the sampler is drilled and tapped to receive the 6.3 mm or 4.8 mm or 3.2 mm intake nozzle which
projects into the current for collecting the sample.
March 2009 7-3

Figure 7.3 US DH 49 (Suspension type)

Sources: www.hydromatinstruments.com
(d) US DH 74 (Reel Type)
It is a 30 kg/CM2 sampler for suspension by cable Reel and Crane to take suspended sediment
samples in streams up to 5.5 meter in depth, the body of sampler is cast bronze or cast aluminium.
(e) US DH 75 (Wading Rod Type)
It is a 29.5 kg/CM2 sampler for suspension by cable reel and crane to take larger suspended
sediment or water quality samples originally designed to take samples in streams that are below
freezing it has mainly been used as a water quality sampler in its epoxy coated trace metal version.
The Sampler has a cast bronze streamlined body which is completely open in the front to hold a 3
liter plastic container.
7.2.3 Point Integrating Samplers
Point integrating samplers on the other hand, are equipped with an electrically controlled rotary
valve which opens and closes the sampler on command. They are designed to take a sample at any
point in a stream over a short period of time interval. With the control valve fixed in the open
position, these samplers are also used to obtain depth integrated samples. One-way depth integrated
samples may be obtained by opening the valve with the sampler at the water surface and lowering it
to the streambed at a constant speed. This permits sampling to greater depths.
Suspended-sediment samplers should be used only with the specified nozzle to give a truly
representative sample. All US-series samplers are designed to sample isokinetically which means that
water is entering the nozzle at the same speed as the water would be traveling if the sampler wasn't
there.
The US DH-2TM is a bag-type suspended-sediment/water-quality sampler, capable of being used as a

hand-line sampler. The sampler is designed to meet the requirements of the U.S. Geological Survey
(USGS) for a "clean" suspended-sediment sampler. The sampler will collect at least 1 liter of sample
isokinectally to 10 m
7-4 March 2009

(a) US P - 72
It is electrically operated sampler for collection of suspended sediment samplers at any point
beneath the surface of a stream, or for taking a sample continuously over a range of depth. The
sampler is made of cast aluminum it is electrically actuated valve mechanism to start and stop the
sampling process is located in the sampler head.
(b) USP P - 61 -A
beneath the surface of a stream, or for taking a sample continuously over a range of depth. The
sampler is made of cast bronze, the sampler is streamlined and equipped with tail fins to orient it in
the stream.
Figure 7.4 USP P - 61 -A

Sources: www.hydromatinstruments.com
(c) USP - 63
This is a electrically operated suspended sediment sampler for collecting of suspended sediment
sampler at any point beneath the depths and high velocities, the US P-63 A- 91 kg sediment
samplers, the P-63 is made of cast bronze, 1m inches long and has the capacity for a quart sized
round milk bottle.
(d) USP - 50
beneath the surface of a stream, or for taking a sample continuously over a range of depth. In
extremely deep rivers of high velocity, the USP-50, A-136 KG, sediment samplers, the USP - 50 made
cast bronze.
7.3 MEASUREMENT OF BED LOAD
7.3.1 Bedload Samplers
Suspended sediment samplers only sample the sediment water mixture to a point about slightly over
100 mm above the river bed. In contrast to this category of sampler for bed load where it is used to
sample sand, silt, gravel, or rock debris transported by stream on or immediately above its bed.
The bed load is the sediment that moves in the stream at velocities less than the surrounding flow by
sliding, rolling, or bounding on or very near the streambed. The size of particles moving as bed load
is identical with samples of bed material in the movable part of the stream bed.
March 2009 7-5

In wide sand-bed streams with shallow flow depths and high sand concentrations, more sediment
may be transported in the unsampled zone than in the sampled zone. As flow depth increases, the
proportion of sediment in the unsampled zone becomes smaller, often accounting for only a small
fraction of the total sediment load. The bed load portion of sediment discharge is primarily sampled
using Helley Smith sampler.
Figure 7.5 Helley Smith Bed Load Sampler

Source: www.stream.fs.fed.us
7.3.2 Bed Material Samplers
Bed material samplers are designed to collect samples from the bed of a stream, or from lake or
reservoir deposits. These samplers take an undisturbed consolidated bed sample and are therefore
designed to prevent sample washout or disturbance during retrieval. This is an important aspect of
bed material sample integrity.
Several types of bed material load samplers are introduced below.
A) Bed Material Sediment Samplers US BM 54 Type
This is a sampler used to collect samples from the bed of a stream or reservoir of any depth, the
material to be sampled may be firm, soft, plastic or granular. Particles in size up to one inch or larger
may be picked up in the sampler bucket the sampler which weights 100 pounds, the streamlined
body os made of cast steel and it is equipped with tail fins. when, the sampler is supported by a steel
cable the bucket may be cocked, that is set in the open position for taking a bed sample when
tension on the cable is released by resting the sampler on the stream beb or other support the
bucket snaps shut, taking a sample.
B) Bed Material Sediment Samplers US BM 60 (Bucket Type)
This is a sampler used to collect samples from the bed of a stream, lake or reservoir, this is a hand
line sampler about 56 CM approximate and 40 pounds. the sampler mechanism consists of a scoop
or bucket driven by a crosscurved constant torque motor type spring that rotates the bucket from
front to back, the scoop when activated by release of tension on the hanger rod can penetrate into
the bed about 430 mm and can hold approximately 175 cc of material
7-6 March 2009

C) Bed Material Sediment Samplers US BM 53 (Piston Type)
This is a sampler used to collect sample the bed of wadable streams. The instrument is 1.2 m in total
length and usually is made of corrosion resistant materials. The collecting end of the sampler is a
stainless steel thin walled cylinder 2 inches in diameter and 8 inches long with a tight fitting brass
piston.
The piston is held in position by a rod which passes through the handle to the opposite end. The
piston created a partial vacuum above the material being sampled and here by compensates in a
reverse direction for some of the frictional resistance required to push the sampler into the bed
Figure 7.6 Bed Material Sediment Samplers US BM 53 (Piston Type)
7.4 MECHANICS OF SEDIMENT TRANSPORT
The overall balance in momentum between sediment transport and sediment being deposited due to
gravity on the channel bed can be quantitatively described by the Exner equation. This equation on
the exchange of sediment in mobilization and incorporated in the channel is vitally important in that
exchanges in river water depth and the slope will change the bed shear stresses, and thus causing
local areas of erosion or deposition.
The Exner Equation describes the conservation of both suspended load and bed load sediment in a
riverine system (Yang, 1996). In its most commonly-used form, it is a mass conservation equation
between the sediment in the bed and the sediment in transport.
March 2009 7-7

The alternative name for Exner equation is sediment routing or continuity equation.
(Cv A) (As ) Qs
+ 1-p + + Cl ql =0 (7.1)
t t x
Cv = suspended load concentration
A = area of flow
P = porosity of bed
As = area of bed
Qs = suspended & bed load discharge
Cl = lateral concentration
ql = lateral flow
7.5 SEDIMENT TRANSPORT MODELS
Similar to water quality model, the utility of sediment transport modelling exercise is far reaching
other than to understand the underlying mechanism of sediment movement and behaviour in a
riverine system. The sediment transport model has been used to routinely describe the impact of
engineering project on the riverine environment, especially in the aggradation (deposition) and
degradation (scouring) of the river bed. Other specific application of sediment transportation is to
study the behaviour of sediment current influx into a reservoir system.
The model could be generally classified as steady (time invariant) and unsteady (time varying) in
terms of solutions for Exner equation. Water flow equations are normally coupled with the sediment
routing equation in modelling the behaviour of sediment in a riverine system. The velocity fields and
water depths or elevations are generally solved numerically a priori from the full or partial form of St.
Venant equations of flow continuity and conservation of momentum. The full St Venant equations
are described below in both flow continuity and momentum terms:
Flow Continuity equation
A Q As
+ +p + q1 =0 (7.2)
t x t
Momentum equation
2
(Q) Q y
+ + gA + gAS =0 (7.3)
t x A x f
A full analytical solutions for both hydrodynamic (flow and depth) and sediment routing are normally
not available except for a special circumstance where boundary and initial conditions are simple and
straightforward. Even recourse made to solve the system of equation by numerical means are not a
simple task, therefore, for simplicity, various modification of the flow routing exercises could be
made as deemed appropriate. With the cancellation of some terms in both continuity and momentum
equations, a simpler version of flow routing procedure could be obtained, such as approximations
using diffusion and kinematic equations for velocity field and depth computation.
7-8 March 2009

On the other hand, solutions of the sediment routing Exner equation requires a full understanding of
the sediment transport mechanisms with regard to the hydraulic parameters in the river channel.
The sediment flux (in terms of mass per unit width per unit time) that serves as input to the Exner
solution is required a priori. This subset of sedimentation engineering has been well studied
throughout the years either in the laboratory flumes or limited field studies. Various empirical
sediment transport formulas with the purpose for estimating sediment influx (mass (per unit time)
has been proposed from time to time since the earlier 1900s. These formulas are mainly of empirical
nature and based mostly on the calibration of limited sediment and hydraulic data collected in flume
or field studies.
Some of these formulas that are best suited for one form of river system might not be feasible for
others. One of the obvious examples is the formulas that are derived based on mostly gravel
mountainous river might not be applicable in low land alluvial bed rivers.
A further classification of these formulas is the estimation of either (a) bed load, (b) suspended load
transport or (c) both, which is termed as total load. Another important feature of these formulas is
the treatment of the sediment state variables. Some formulas proposed the adopted of an index
sediment size for estimating the sediment flux while the others take into account of the non
uniformity of the sediment available in the river bed.
Examples of these formulas throughout the century, from the beginning of earlier 1900s, are
Schoklitsch A, (1917). Duboys (1942) Meyer-Peter and Muller (1948), Einstein-Brown and variants
(1950), Laursen (1958), Colby (1964), Toffaletti (1969), Englund and Hansen (1972), Acker and
White (1973; revised 1990), Yang Unit Stream Power and variants (1973, 1979, 1984, 1996), Van
Rijn (1984), Parker (1990), Laursen-Madden (1993), Karim and Kennedy (1990), Karim (1998), Wu
et al (2000), Wilcox (2001), Yang and Lim (2003), and many others.
These formulas are generally can be presented in a quantitative functional form of
Qs =f(V, D, S, B,de ,s ,Gsf , ds ,ib , , T) (7.4)
V= average flow velocity

D = effective depth of flow
S = energy slope
B = effective width of flow
de = effective particle sizes of sediment mixture
s = density of sediment
Gsf = grain shape factor
ds = geometric mean of particle diameter in each size class
ib = percentage/fraction of particles ith size found in the bed
= density of flow water
T = water temperature
These sediment and hydraulic parameters or variables could be combined and rearranged in
dimensionless forms through a dimensional analysis for ease of derivation of sediment transport
equations. Such undertakings using Buckingham Pi Theorem are numerous; Yang (1996) and Karim
(1998) are representative of this form of analysis.
As mentioned earlier, most of these formulas are developed by empiricism mainly in flume studies in
a laboratory setting. Extrapolations of these formulas outside of their calibration range are generally
being prudently cautioned by the respective developers or originators of the formulas.
March 2009 7-9

Perhaps with the absence of flume and field studies in Malaysia context, it might not be wise that
these formulas are being adopted from time to time in engineering design undertakings without the
crucial and importance step of calibration and not to mention, a subsequent important and integral
part of modelling exercise, verification and validation. Several studies in Malaysia addressed the
issues of sedimentation impacts on river engineering.
In the feasibility study for interstate water transfer project, sedimentation rating curves as a function
of unit flow discharge per unit catchment area was developed albeit with limited suspended load
concentration database of selected stations in the states of Pahang, Selangor and around Kuala
Lumpur (NK and SMHB 1999).
7-10 March 2009

10000
1 2 3
4 5 6
7 8 9
10 11 12
1000
Suspended Sediment (mg/l)
100
10
0.001 0.01 0.1 1
Discharge/Unit Area (m3/s/km2)
1 Sg leper @ Jam Gelugor

2 Sg. Bernam @ SKC
3 Sg. Jelai @ Kuala Medang
4 Sg. Lipis @ Benta
5 Sg. Jelai @ Jeram Bungor
6 Sg. Bentong @ Kuala Marong
7 Sg. Selangor @ Rasa
8 Sg. Selangor @ Rantau Panjang
9 Sg. Langat @ Dengkil
10 Sg. Langat @ Kajang
11 Sg. Gombak @ Jalan Tun Razak
12 Sf. Semenyih @ Rinching
Figure 7.7 Sediment Rating Curves for catchment type I and II (NK/SMHB, 1999)
March 2009 7-11

7-12 March 2009

CHAPTER 8 RIVER WATER QUALITY
Chapter 8 RIVER WATER QUALITY
Table of Contents
Table of Contents ................................................................................................................... 8-i
List of Tables ........................................................................................................................ 8-ii
8.1 STREAM ECOLOGY ..................................................................................................... 8-1
8.2 PURPOSE OF SAMPLING ............................................................................................. 8-3
8.3 MEASUREMENT OF RIVER WATER QUALITY ................................................................ 8-3
8.4 RIVER WATER QUALITY MANAGEMENT ..................................................................... 8-11
8.4.1 POLLUTANTSOURCES.........................................................................................812
8.4.2 WATERQUALITYINDICESANDSTANDARDS.......................................................813
8.4.3 DischargeStandard(IWK,2008).........................................................................814
8.5 WATER QUALITY PARAMETER .................................................................................. 8-15
8.6 WATER QUALITY MODELLING .................................................................................. 8-16
8.6.1 ClassificationofWaterQualityModel................................................................818
8.6.2 ProcessDescription.............................................................................................820
8.6.2.1 Advection ..................................................................................... 8-20
8.6.2.2 Diffusion ..................................................................................... 8-20
8.7 MATHEMATICAL MODELS FOR RIVER WATER MANAGEMENT:
SELECTION AND ADOPTION ..................................................................................... 8-20
8.7.1 CalibrationandValidation...................................................................................821
8.8 ENVIRONMENTAL FLOW ........................................................................................... 8-22
8.8.1 EnvironmentalFlow:ADefinition.......................................................................822
8.8.2 EnvironmentalFlowinMalaysia.........................................................................823
8.8.3 MinimumAverageMonthlyFlow.......................................................................824
8.8.4 1:50year7daydurationMinimumFlow(7Q50)...............................................824
8.8.5 98%and99%ProbabilityofExceedance............................................................825
8.8.6 AFractionof(AnnualAverageFlow)Volume.....................................................825
8.8.7 OtherEnvironmentalFlowTechniques...............................................................827
8.8.8 ComprehensiveReviewbywww.eflownet.org...................................................827
8.8.9 ENFRAIM:EnvironmentalFlowRequirements;anAidfor
IntegratedManagement.....................................................................................829
8.8.10 ApplicationinMalaysia.........................................................................830
8.8.11 GlobalWarmingandWaterResources.................................................830
REFERENCES ...................................................................................................................... 8-32
APPENDIX 8A: LIST OF GLOSSARY ....................................................................................... 8A-1
March 2009 8-i

List of Tables
8.1 The classification of River Water Quality Based on Their Beneficial Uses 8-13
8.2 The present range of WQI 8-14
8.3 Discharge Effluent Standard A and B 8-15
8.4 The water quality parameters 8-16
8.5 The criterion on classification of the water quality model. 8-18
8.6 Tennant Method: In Stream Flow Requirement 8-26
8.7 Categorizations of international environmental flow assessments 8-28
8.8 Durations and major advantages and disadvantages of environmental flow
assessment methodologies 8-29
List of Figures
8.1 A typical freshwater stream food web 8-1

8.2 2.5 L Van Dorn Acrylic Water Bottle 8-4
8.3 Integrated depth water sampler. 8-5
8.4 BOD samplers. 8-5
8.5 COD sampler 8-6
8.6 A handheld DO meter 8-6
8.7 Multiparameter sondes 8-7
8.8 The flow diagram of calibration processes. 8-21
8-ii March 2009

8 RIVER WATER QUALITY
8.1 STREAM ECOLOGY
Streams like springs and rivers are also known as lotic habitat. A lotic habitat and its ecology is
primarily characterized by unidirectional flow, constant state of physical change and a high diversity
of microhabitats, where the fauna and flora has adapted themselves to the flow conditions. The
ecology of lotic habitat is governed by abiotic and biotic factors, the former being flow, light,
temperature, chemistry and substrate. Flow is the most influential abiotic component in determining
a stream ecosystem as it is responsible for producing riffles, pools and gliders via erosion and
deposition.
Light is the main source of energy in a lotic environment and is required for primary production
which provides the foundation for the trophic web (Figure 8.1) in an aquatic system. Aquatic plants
and algae including periphyton (filamentous and tufted algae which clings on rocks) need light for
photosynthesis and other animals depend on them as part of the food chain. The varying degree of
light available in the water column as well as the stream surroundings also help dictate the
community structure of both fauna and flora. Likewise differential temperatures resulting from
varying light intensities in a stream affects the biological population in a stream ecosystem. Deeper
waters tend to host fish with preference for colder temperature while shallower exposed streams are
dominated by species with tolerance for higher temperatures. Stream water temperature usually
varies diurnally and for some localities seasonally e.g. lower temperatures are normally associated
with wet season and vice versa.
Figure 8.1 A typical freshwater stream food web

Source: http://lakewhatcom.wsu.edu/display
March 2009 8-1

The chemistry of a stream greatly depends on the inputs from the geology of its watershed, or
catchment area, but can also be affected by precipitation and pollutants from anthropogenic sources
(Allan 1995; Cushing and Allan 2001). Due to a high rate of mixing small streams are usually less
variant than larger lotic systems as the latter exhibit less nutrients, dissolved ions and pH as distance
increases from the rivers source. (Giller and Malmqvist 1998). Physico-chemical parameters such as
dissolved oxygen, pH, temperature, depth, conductivity, salinity, turbidity, total suspended solids,
nutrients such as nitrate and phosphate all play a key role in determining the overall makeup of the
ecosystem. Amongs them dissolved oxygen is likely the most necessary component of lotic systems,
as survival of all aerobic organisms depends on it. Oxygen enters the water mostly via diffusion at
the water-air interface and its solubility in water decreases as water temperature increases. Rapid,
turbulent streams tend to have more oxygen content as more of the waters surface area is exposed
to the air (Giller and Malmqvist 1998). Ecosystems highly populated with aquatic algae and plants
produce high levels of oxygen during the day as a byproduct of photosysnthesis but the level drops
significantly during the night when primary producers switch to respiration. Large amount of detritus,
por circulation and high aquatic animal activity can also cause low levels of oxygen in lotic systems
(Cushing and Allan 2001).
Stream substrate type is normally a product of local geological material present in the catchment
that is eroded, transported, sorted, and deposited by the current. Inorganic substrates are usually
classified by size on the Wentworth scale consisting of boulders, pebbles, gravel, sand and silt (Giller
and Malmqvist 1998). As a rule of thumb, the further away the stream from its source the finer the
substrate type. The stream bed can also consist of organic substrate such as fine particles,
submerged wood, dead leaves and plants. Stream bed morphology is also dynamic as it is very
much affected by the flow especially during flooding events.
Normal organisms found in a stream biota or biological community are bacteria, tiny plants or
phytoplankton, zooplankton, fishes, insects and other invertebrates including those living within the
substrate (also known as benthos). Zooplanktons are tiny animals including fish larvae
(ichthyoplankton) which predate on smaller planktons. All these organisms interact with each other
and play a key role in driving the trophic (or energy) relationship in a stream ecosystem. Bacteria
are found everywhere in a stream and they play a large role in recycling energy in the system.
Phytoplankton and other aquatic plants tie up food or carbon via photosynthesis which in turn is
passed on to zooplankton and other grazers including fish when they get eaten. The zooplankton
then is fed upon by juvenile fishes which in turn are preyed upon by larger fishes. Aquatic plants also
offer shelter and food source to other organisms thus forming microhabitats (Brown, 1987). Insects
can make up to 90% of a lotic system invertebrate population and are found in various microhabitats
or niches in the system. They feed on plants, decaying matter and other smaller insects and pass on
energy when they get eaten by a fish or any organism on higher trophic level. Benthic invertebrate
such as polychaetes (worms), mollusks and gastropods are common denizens of the stream bed and
banks and are also fodder for higher positioned animals within the trophic web. Fishes are usually
near the top of the food chain in a stream ecosystem and usually consist of planktivores,
herbivores/detritivores, omnivores and carnivores. They are flexible in their feeding role and their
diet may vary according to food availability and their respective development stage (young of
different species usually require different prey sizes).
The trophic web in a stream ecosystem is dependent on two carbon or energy sources,
autochthonous and allocthonous. The former refers to energy sources derived from within the
ecosystem itself e.g. primary producers and also decaying organisms while the latter alludes to
organic based inputs e.g. leaves, detritus, dead organisms etc. brought into the lotic system by the
stream flow, wind, erosion, run-offs or ground water. Tropical streams are normally characterized by
high numbers of detritivores as the ecosystem is mainly dependent on allocthonous inputs brought
on by currents upstream. Therefore maintaining a good riparian cover along a stream goes a long
way in preserving its ecosystem.
8-2 March 2009

At present stream and river ecosystems in Malaysia are facing numerous threats from various
sources, almost all of them caused by humans. These threats include pollution, flow modification
and invasive species. Pollution can be from point source and/or non-point source. Point source of
pollution refers to a single identifiable localized source such as untreated discharge from palm oil
refineries, aquaculture and domestic sewage while non-point source implies pollution coming from
various and diffused sources such as agricultural and urban run-offs which can contain large
amounts of pesticides, herbicides, unused fertilizer and other chemicals. Human activities such as
logging, dredging, reclamation, construction of dams etc. can directly or indirectly impact the flow
and stream morphology, causing an imbalance in the ecosystem. Level of biodiversity may be
reduced when species which are very sensitive to physicochemical changes are displaced by those
more tolerant to the same alterations. The building of dams also cause fragmenting of rivers where
both anadromous (upriver bound) and catadromous (ocean-bound) fish species find themselves cut
off from their regular migratory routes for spawning. Local fishes like kelah migrate up the rapids
to spawn in shallow waters whereas others like freshwater eels migrate to the open sea to breed
before their young return to the same river and stream their parents came from.
The introduction of invasive or non-native species of fish (Malaysian context: peacock bass,
arapaima, pacu and arowana from South America, flower horn from local fish ornamentalists etc),
snails (in Malaysia padi farmers face economic threat from the siput gondang emas) etc. can cause
untold damages to not just the ecosystem but also the local economy. Introduced species are
generally known to be more competitive and aggressive than their native counterparts, therefore
ultimately displacing the locals in their respective niches. Once established, these species can be
difficult to control or eradicate, particularly because of the connectivity of lotic systems
8.2 PURPOSE OF SAMPLING
Water quality defines the physical, chemical, and biological properties of water against a specific set
of standards for it intended purposes, i.e. water supply, stormwater discharge, irrigation, recreation
etc. Water quality standards are typically tailored for different types of water bodies, such as lakes,
rivers, estuaries, seas, etc for intended utilization.
The primary objectives of water quality management are to measure and manage the properties of
water to suitable levels for the purpose of potable water supply, safety of human contact, aesthetics,
and for the health of ecosystems. Hydrometry such as streamflow gaging, current velocity
measurement, etc is used to quantify the flow rates in the water body. Likewise, chemical and
electromechanical techniques are used to determine the quantitative amount of both physical and
chemical parameters of the water body.
The water on earth is finite. Amongst these, sea water accounts for about 97% of total water
resources in the hydrosphere and the other meagre 3% comprising, surface waters in lakes and
rivers, icebergs, glaciers, and groundwater. Needless to say, the vast salt water resources could not
be fully utilized without additional cost in treatment. The need for water quality management is
pressing in Malaysia. Although blessed with more than 2500 mm/year of rainfall on average
throughout Malaysia, water quality impairment impedes full utilization of precious resources for
beneficial uses. With increased threats to streams and rivers as described in the previous section, it
has become an imperative mission for most major streams and river basins to be monitored on a
long term basis.
8.3 MEASUREMENT OF RIVER WATER QUALITY
Sampling Methods & In-situ Measurements
There are two main types of water quality parameters, chemical and physical. The third type
involves biological parameters which can be used in assessing not just the water quality but is also
useful in indicating the overall health of the ecosystem.
March 2009 8-3

Depending on the objective, the Water Quality Index (WQI) adopted by the DOE in 1990 (refer
Appendix) covers chemical parameters such as pH, dissolved oxygen (DO), chemical oxygen demand
(COD), biological oxygen demand (BOD), ammonium (NH4) while physical parameters include total
suspended solids (TSS). Other parameters commonly measured in a routine water quality study are
alkalinity, total hardness, conductivity, temperature, oxidation-reduction potential (ORP), chlorophyll
a (which reflects the density of algae in the water column), turbidity, nutrients such as nitrates,
phosphates and silicates and faecal coliforms. In some cases heavy metals and oil and grease are
also quantified. Sampling methods can vary for different parameters sought; however most form of
water sampling take place from either a boat or bridge as protocols require that samples be retrieved
from mid-stream at mid depth. Water sampling using this approach is usually accomplished by
lowering into the water column a Van Dorn PVC or acrylic body 2.5 L water bottle (see figure 8.2)
triggered to close by manual operation or by mechanically by a messenger (a streamlined weight
sent down the line which is attached to the sampler). A list of glossary is attached in Appendix 8A for
further explanation and definition of the parameters and their associated terminology.
Figure 8.2 2.5 L Van Dorn Acrylic Water Bottle
Stream water sampling can be conducted using either an integrated water sampler (Figure 8.3)
where samples can be retrieved from top to bottom in the middle of the channel or from side to side
at mid depth, or a grab sample using one of the Van Dorn water bottle samplers as described above.
When using the Van Dorn water sampler samples must be taken at various points of equal distance
across the stream. If only one sample can be collected then it should be done in the middle of the
channel and at mid depth. Due to possible loss of volatile compounds sampling should be avoided
where the water is turbulent. Instead sampling should be done beneath the surface in relatively
calm waters with the opening of the sampler facing away from the surface and against the flow in
order to avoid collecting surface scum unless oil and grease is the constituent of interest. Other
parameters such as BOD and COD require special samplers (Figures 8.4 & 8.5) while for heavy
8-4 March 2009

metals the insides of the Van Dorn PVC bottles should be coated with Teflon or a special Teflon FEP
bottle is used.
Figure 8.3 Integrated depth water sampler.

Source: www.rickly.com
Figure 8.4 BOD samplers.
March 2009 8-5

Figure 8.5 COD sampler
With the current technology advancement many of these parameters described above can now be
measured in-situ. Handheld instruments (Figure 8.6) and multiparameter sondes (Figure 8.7) are
capable of measuring on site parameters such as temperature, pH, DO, conductivity, salinity,
turbidity, chlorophyll a, depth, ORP and ions such as ammonium, nitrate and chloride. These
instruments when properly calibrated can yield very good accuracy and are relatively easy to
maintain.
Figure 8.6 A handheld DO meter

Source: www.ysi.com
8-6 March 2009

Figure8.7Multiparameter sondes
Source: www.eurekaenvironmental.com
The quality of data collected and the subsequent results from analyses are much dependent on how
the sampling was performed and the performance and reliability of the instruments used.
Regardless of the type of methods and instruments used the following information (CRC, 2009) are
useful in ensuring data integrity:
a) Precision
Precision is a measure of how reproducible the data collected is between samples. It determines the
consistency of repeated samples that are tested. Precision measurements are obtained by taking
duplicate samples each sampling day for each parameter recorded. The samples shall be taken at
the same time and the same place to ensure the precision of the measurement. The relative percent
difference will show how precise the data is for the parameters sampled. Precision is also known as
repeatability.
b) Accuracy
This is a measure of confidence that the data collected in the field and in the laboratory reflect the
true value of a given parameter. Each instrument used to obtain the water quality parameters will
have various ranges of expected values. For example, when calibrating the pH meter, a known pH
buffer solution of 7.0 will be sampled using the pH probe. If the value of the pH measured shows a
reading of 8.1, the difference between the average pH value is off, or biased, by 1.1 unit or having
86.4% accuracy. The laboratory will determine its level of accuracy for the fecal coliform bacteria
samples, and the turbidity samples. Accuracy, therefore, is simply a quantification of the difference
between the measured value and the true value.
c) Representativeness
Representativeness is a measure of the extent to which the measurements obtained (water quality
parameters) actually depict the true environmental condition being evaluated. For example, a sample
taken near a manure spill will not be indicative of the entire stream. Samples must be taken at
approximately the same location in the stream each sampling day.
March 2009 8-7

d) Completeness
The completeness of data quality controls relies on how many samples need to be taken to be able
to use the information that is collected. (For example, should the required parameters at each of the
fifteen stations plus a duplicate sample at each station be taken the completeness factor will have
been met. However, should only 10 stations be sampled out of 15, then the percent completeness
would be approximately 67 %.) Percent completeness is the number of planned measurements
judged valid divided by the total number of measurements taken multiplied by 100.
e) Comparability
The data gathered should be preferably by the same team or individual and over a minimum period
of one year. Both wet and dry sampling conditions should be monitored. Comparability can only be
measured by data gathered on the same stream or on a similar stream with similar conditions. If the
data is gathered over a period of two years, the data may be compared on an annual basis.
Sampling for Physical, Chemical and Biological Analyses & Sample Preservation
For temperature, pH, DO, conductivity, salinity, turbidity and ORP.
As previously described the sampling for and measuring of physical, chemical and biological
parameters is usually a combined method involving mechanical aid and digital instruments. In-situ
measurements of temperature, pH, DO, conductivity, salinity (automatically calculated from
conductivity and temperature values), turbidity and ORP save time and can be accomplished using
multiple handheld instruments (pH meter, conductivity meter, turbidity meter, D.O. meter etc.) with
single or multiple sensors e.g. YSI, Hach, Orion etc. or a multi-parameter sonde (a much bigger
cylindrical probe which can host up to 14 sensors or more) from YSI, HydroLab, Eureka
Environmental etc. Both type of instruments need to undergo calibration (if necessary) prior to
deployment. Usually the instrument is lowered down throughout the water column and real-time
readings are displayed via a handheld unit or notebook PC and the data manually recorded into a
field book or field forms. For long term monitoring purposes more advanced models can capture and
log the data onto their internal memory and subsequently retrieved by downloading to a notebook
PC.
For total suspended solids, ammoniacal nitrogen, nitrate and other nutrients
Mechanical sampling with the aid of a 2.5 L Van Dorn sampler is normally conducted for parameters
such as total suspended solids, ammoniacal nitrogen, nitrate and other nutrients. Samples are
collected from mid stream and at mid depth and kept on ice in a cooler for further lab analyses.
For Dissolved Metals
For metals samples are collected as single grabs in a 500ml Teflon FEP bottle (EPA Method 1669)
using the stainless steel metals sampler or by hand. Alternatively a teflon coated PVC 2.5 L Van Dorn
bottle can also be utilized. Care must be used at all times when collecting and processing metals
samples to avoid contaminating the inside of the sample bottle or cap with debris or ambient air.
Also, samples need to be preserved with acid and placed in ice in a cooler as soon as possible after
collection. The holding time prior to analysis for all metals, except mercury, is six months. The
holding time for mercury is 28 days.
8-8 March 2009

For Faecal Coliform
Standard procedures involve using a bacteria sampler with an empty faecal coliform glass bottle
inside it to retrieve samples from the stream. Great care has to be exercise at every step of the
sampling exercise to avoid any possible contamination of samples. After removing the stopper the
sampler is lowered down just to the water surface to have its bottom rinsed. Similar to metal
sampling, the sampler is submerged completely at about 0.5 m depth before retrieval. The inner
glass bottle is then carefully removed, tagged and placed on ice in a cooler.
For biological oxygen demand (BOD)
Water sample is retrieved and transferred with great care to a BOD sample bottle without
introducing any air bubbles. The bottle is then capped and stored on ice in a cooler. All BOD
samples must be analyzed within 48 hours.
For chemical oxygen demand (COD)
Similar to BOD sampling method water sample is retrieved and transferred with great care to a COD
sample bottle containing sulfuric acid without the introduction of air bubbles. The bottle is then
capped and stored on ice in a cooler. All COD samples must be analyzed within four days.
For chlorophyll a
Samples retrieved from the Van Dorn water sampler are quickly filtered and preserved on ice in a
cooler before subsequent extraction by acetone and measurement by a fluorometer or
spectrophotometer in the lab. Some handheld instruments and multiparameter sonde can also
measure chlorophyll a in situ but these are just approximated readings and lab extraction is still
necessary to obtain the true concentration of chlorophyll a. If proper procedure is adhered to a
good correlation curve between in vivo (live) chlorophyll a and extracted concentrations can be
obtained. This curve is useful and applicable when regular or routine samplings are required from
the same locality. A new curve is however required to account for seasonal changes in the algal
assemblage or for a new sampling site i.e. stream or river as the probability of a different algal
composition is very high. In other words different algal communities give different chlorophyll a
readings, depending on geographical location and the time of the year.
For step-by-step procedure on sampling procedures of all the parameters described avoe please
refer to the American Public Health Association (APHA) Standard Methods for Examination of Water
& Wastewater (21st ed.).
Flow measurements
Often water quality is measured without the flow of the stream or river quantified at the time of
sampling. Without flow values, the sampling results and in-situ measurements would not be as
meaningful as quantitative information is required for water quality modeling etc. Flow can be
measured on site during sampling with simple methods using float and stopwatch or with a current
velocity meter. For more details on various gauging method please refer to Chapter 4.
Trend in Water Quality Monitoring Using Bio-Indicators and Bio-Assay
Most if not all aquatic communities whether micro- or macroscopic, may provide information on the
quality of its environment. The community normally used in evaluating lotic systems condition are
large, readily visible invertebrate animals colonizing the substrata of all rivers. These animals are
collectively referred to as macroinvertebrates of which the main constituents are young aquatic
stages of insects.
March 2009 8-9

Within this community each species tend to exhibit varying degree of sensitivity and tolerance to
pollution. Some species are, for example, are very intolerant to high levels of silt i.e. turbidity thus
will not be found where the concentration of suspended solids is high. A characteristic feature of
polluted environments is a reduction in overall species assemblage and an increase in the density of
tolerant species. Benthic macroinvertebrates generally inhabit their respective microhabitats in parts
of a stream throughout their life cycle and tend to remain localized. Therefore they are continually
exposed to any changes that occur in the environment. The composition of a macroinvertebrate
community at any point in a stream or river then reflects the average water quality at that particular
point. Hence the common objective in bio-monitoring projects is to detect stream and river
degradation and the extent of it due to forest and agricultural practices, urbanization, or other
controllable sources of impact.
In the United States and European countries macroinvertebrates have long been utilized as a bio-
indicator in assessing river quality. Majority of this indicator are bottom dwellers such as crustaceans
while others like fishes depending on their degree of availability can also make good candidates for
monitoring and assessment purposes. The common criteria in selecting the type of organisms
suitable for long term monitoring are:
a) The animal must relatively abundant and be easily captured or sampled, so size and density
are important;
b) The animal must have a good range of distribution and in varying forms of lotic conditions
for comparative investigations; and
Preferably, the biological characteristics e.g. morphological, physiological and behavioural

adaptations and the immense variation in life history patterns and reproductive traits of the animal
must already be well documented (to save additional baseline studies).
In a typical study design for biomonitoring of stream and riverine system the following guideline
(Plotnikoff & Wiseman, 2001) would assist the lead researcher in reaching their objectives:
i) Choose representative riffle-habitat (broken surface water) sampling of benthic

macroinvertebrates, physical habitat, and water quality to describe biological community
condition as a result of natural and human-induced disturbance. Normally, samples are
collected from riffles to characterize the benthic macroinvertebrate community unless
degradation is suspected in pool habitat (slow moving or eddying water). To distinguish natural
versus human influence, data must be collected at reference sites and at degraded sites over a
period of time to address spatial and temporal variability.
ii) Reference sites are intended to represent relatively unimpacted or least impacted conditions.
Minimally disturbed conditions reflect sites that have experienced very little historical activity that
alters stream integrity. Least disturbed sites have been degraded historically, but exhibit some
level of recovery. Reference sites are used to describe biological variability due to natural
disturbances (e.g. precipitation, drought). Degraded sites are surveyed to describe a continuum
of human influence on natural stream communities. Identification of what a degraded
macroinvertebrate community is and the factor(s) that caused the resulting condition defines
severity of impact
iii). This gradient of biological condition is used to determine the levels of human-induced
disturbance that are excessive in a waterbody.
iv) Besides high-quality reference conditions, sites with high levels of physical and chemical
modifications should be surveyed to obtain a data set that represents a gradient of biological
conditions as a response to the existing stream condition.
8-10 March 2009

v) Choose one or two species of macroinvertebrates which life history and wide distribution is well
known using the set of criteria aforementioned.
vi) Additional information on stream site characterizations should be gathered: canopy cover, stream
bed substrate, flow, turbidity, water temperature, pH, and dissolved oxygen. Detecting
degradation through evaluation of invertebrate communities requires establishment of a
description for reference condition. This is the focal point for developing analytical tools
commonly used to evaluate stream condition and "biological integrity".
Complementing biomonitoring studies are bioassay work which in the environmental context refers
to a broad-range survey of toxicity, and a toxicity identification evaluation is conducted to determine
what the relevant toxicants are. Bioassays are typically conducted to measure the effects of a
substance on a living organism. Bioassays may be qualitative or quantitative. Qualitative bioassays
are used for assessing the physical effects of a substance that may not be quantified, such as
abnormal development in fish larva, or heavily biased sex ratio in fish population. In some countries
the law requires some industrial dischargers and sewage treatment to conduct bioassays. These
procedures, also known as whole effluent toxicity tests, include acute toxicity tests as well as chronic
test methods. The methods involve exposing living aquatic organisms to samples of wastewater.
All said, biological monitoring provides useful information that can also serve as an early warning
system.
8.4 RIVER WATER QUALITY MANAGEMENT
Water quality defines the physical, chemical, and biological properties of water against a specific set
of standards for it intended purposes, i.e. water supply, stormwater discharge, irrigation, recreation
etc. Water quality standards are typically tailored for different types of water bodies, such as lakes,
rivers, estuaries, seas, etc for intended utilization.
The primary objectives of water quality management are to manage and measure the properties of
water that suitable for the purpose of water supply, safety of human contact, aesthetics, and for the
health of ecosystems. The hydrometry such as, streamflow gaging, direct velocity measurement, etc
are used to quantify the flow rates in the water body. Likewise, chemical and physical techniques are
used to determine the quantitative amount of both physical and chemical parameters of the water
body.
The water on earth is finite. Amongst these, sea water accounts for about 97% of total water
resources in the hydrosphere and the other meagre 3% comprising, surface waters in lakes and
rivers, icebergs, glaciers, and groundwater. Needless to say, the vast salt water resources could not
be fully utilized without additional cost in treatment (because they are too salty to drink).
The need for water quality management is pressing in Malaysia. Although blessed with more than
2500 mm/year of rainfall on average throughout Malaysia, water quality impairment impedes full
utilization of precious resources for beneficial uses.
Another generalized perception is that the water quality is merely a simple property that indicative
whether the water body is polluted or not by both qualitative and quantitative forms. However, water
quality issue is a far more complicated subject matter, in part of because water itself is a complex
medium implicitly tied to the ecosystems on earth. Industrial and domestic pollution is merely one of
the major culprits responsible for water pollution, as well as runoff from overland and built up areas,
urban stormwater runoff and discharge of untreated sewage.
The needs for water quality management are vital to aesthetics, socio-economical growth, and
subsequently environmental sustainability in Malaysia. This applies to the good quality water bodies
such as lakes and rivers that meandering through cities and towns.
March 2009 8-11

The degradation of water quality disrupts the environmental well-beings and harmonies of the water
bodies and their surrounding landscapes. Ability to predict the changes to water quality is imperative
to management of riverine resources.
Water quality management" is the management processes and techniques with the objective of
planning and implementing the protection of a water body, such as rivers, lakes, and seas, for
various beneficial uses. The objective of the water quality management is two folds; (a) to provide
a healthy and clean water body, and (b) to effectively management the finite resources in the water
body.
Provision of adequate wastewater (domestic/industrial/agricultural) collection, treatment, and

disposal for domestic and industrial wastes is a prerequisite in the water quality management. In
addition for activities that might create water quality problems, and regulating and enforcing
programs to accomplish the planning goals and laws and regulations dealing with water pollution
control.
DID is in charge of river water management in Malaysia. A special case of water quality issue worthy
of attention is the water quality downstream of reservoir or dam prevailing mostly in the upper
reaches of the river basin. Examples are dams/reservoirs under the jurisdiction of the DID. These
dams/reservoirs are mainly for irrigation as well as domestic water supply. The impacts of
reservoirs/dams in the upper reach of a river basin are far reaching both in terms of temporality and
spatiality. The impacts and repercussion on water quality downstream of the water retenting
structures can be far reaching over time. Impacts such as relatively clear water outflows from the
reservoir could erode and scour the river conveyance channels further downstream. Sometimes,
releases from the dam/reservoir bottom will degrade the water quality downstream with its anoxic
contents and could affect the fauna and flora and riparian community downstream.
8.4.1 POLLUTANT SOURCES
Water pollution is the consequence of a body of water being adversely affected due to the addition
of large amounts of materials to the water. These materials by nature will reduce the aesthetic
values of water and bring impairment if not disastrous consequences to the quality of water in
general. In addition, when the water body is unfit for its beneficial use, water is then considered
polluted.
Two types of water pollutants exist; (a) point source and (b) nonpoint source. Point sources of
pollution occur when harmful substances are emitted directly into a body of water. This connotes to
end of pipe discharges from any known or readily identifiable points along the water body. An
example of the point sources pollutions are attributed to effluents discharged by the sewage
treatment plants, industrial/manufacturing and household septic tank effluents directly into surface
drain, and effluents from yards and farms, to mention a few.
Typical point source pollutants to river water body are originated from industrial and domestic
sources. These include a variety of organic and inorganic, dissolved or solid form. The most common
pollutants are nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus, inclusive of micronutrients), dissolved or
undissolved forms of metal ions, sediments, etc.
Whereas the non-point sources pollution which are mainly diffused and not attributed to a single
traceable source such as in agricultural activities and cities, where rainfall induced surface runoffs
could not be traced to a single end-of-pipe outlet. An example of this type of water pollution is when
fertilizer from a field is carried into a stream by rain, stormwater discharges into river that carry
sediments and other pollutant washoff along their paths. Nonpoint pollutants could also be attributed
to areal airborne contribution of nutrients, i.e. particulate nitrogen and phosphorus in the forms of
wet and dry deposition.
8-12 March 2009

Nonpoint source also delivers pollutants indirectly through adverse environmental changes.
Examples such as a sudden pulse of pollutant being mobilized and eventually flushes into nearby
water body and en route to river network.
Discharges or effluents from domestic wastewater treatment facilities such as industrial and domestic
treated effluents are also considered as input into the receiving river water body. Incidents of
untreated effluents could cause fishkills in river due to their undesirable raw content of pollutant and
moreover, also affect the operation of raw water intakes downstream of the discharge point.
Incidents of water intake shut down were reported on several occasions.
8.4.2 WATER QUALITY INDICES AND STANDARDS
River water quality standard in Malaysia is based on Phase I and II studies of water quality criteria
and standards for Malaysia. In the Phase I of the studies, recommendation was made on the
classification of river water quality based on their beneficial uses. Six (6) classifications were
designated as follows (Table 8.1):
Table 8.1 The classification of River Water Quality Based on Their Beneficial Uses
Classification
Use
Conservation of the natural environment
Water supply I-practically no treatment necessary (except by
Class I disinfection or boiling only)
Fishery I- very sensitive aquatic species
Water supply II- conventional treatment required

Class IIA Fishery II- sensitive aquatic species
Recreational use with body contact

Class IIB
Water supply III- extensive treatment required
Fishery III- common species of economic value and tolerant
Class III species
Livestock drinking
Irrigation
Class IV
Water unsuitable for any of above uses
Class V
In the Phase II study, another criterion was developed on the need of quantitative assessment of the
river water quality as the phase I study was merely a fuzzy qualitative index on the health of river
system in Malaysia. The phase II study proposed and subsequently adopted a numerically based
Water Quality Index (WQI) in the Environmental Quality Report 1990. The WQI relates a cohort of
measured water quality parameters to a common scale and combined them into a single indicator
index. The water quality parameters used in the WQI formulation include pH, Dissolved Oxygen
(DO), Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD), Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), Suspended Solid (SS)
and Ammoniacal Nitrogen (AN). The present range of WQI ave been grouped into five (5) classes as
shown in table 8.2.
March 2009 8-13

Table 8. 2 The present range of WQI
Parameter Unit Classes
I II III IV V
Ammoniacal Nitrogen mg/l < 0.1 0.1 - 0.3 0.3 - 0.9 0.9 - 2.7 > 2.7
Biochemical Oxygen Demand mg/l <1 1-3 3-6 6 12 > 12
Chemical Oxygen Demand mg/l < 10 10 - 25 25 - 50 50 100 > 100
Dissolved Oksigen mg/l >7 5-7 3-5 13 <1
pH mg/l > 7.0 6.0 - 7.0 5.0 - 6.0 < 5.0 > 5.0
Total Suspended Solids mg/l < 25 25 - 50 50 - 150 150 300 > 300
Water Quality Index > 92. 7 76.5 - 92.7 51.9 - 76.5 31.0 - 51.9 < 31.0
8.4.3 Discharge Standard (IWK, 2008)
Domestic sewage treatment is designed with the objective to produce an effluent low in solids and
organic matters in both dissolved and solid forms. Standards have been established for the quality
of effluent discharged from treatment plants to receiving waters. Discharge effluent standards by
sewage treatment processes are imposed either classified as Standard A or B depends on the
location of the point sources.
Effluent that is discharged upstream of a water supply intake should meet Standard A, while effluent
that is discharged downstream has to meet Standard B. These standards are set by the
Environmental Quality Act 1974. If the discharge is upstream of a raw water intake, Standard A is
relevant. On the other hand, if the discharge is downstream of an intake, Standard B is imposed.
Table 8.3 below shows both Standard A and B.
8-14 March 2009

Table 8.3 Discharge Effluent Standard A and B
Standards
Parameter Unit
A B
Temperature C 40 40
pH Value unit less 6.0-9.0 5.5-9.0
BOD5 at 20C mg/l 20 50
COD mg/l 50 100
Suspended Solids mg/l 50 100
Mercury mg/l 0.005 0.05
Cadmium mg/l 0.01 0.02
Chromium, Hexavalent mg/l 0.05 0.05
Arsenic mg/l 0.05 0.10
Cyanide mg/l 0.05 0.10
Lead mg/l 0.10 0.5
Chromium, Trivalent mg/l 0.20 1.0
Copper mg/l 0.20 1.0
Manganese mg/l 0.20 1.0
Nickel mg/l 0.20 1.0
Tin mg/l 0.20 1.0
Zinc mg/l 1.0 1.0
Boron mg/l 1.0 4.0
Iron (Fe) mg/l 1.0 5.0
Phenol mg/l 0.001 1.0
Free Chlorine mg/l 1.0 2.0
Sulphide mg/l 0.50 0.5
Oil and Grease mg/l Not Detectable 10.0
(Source: www.iwk.com.my)
8.5 WATER QUALITY PARAMETER
The river water quality for selected river basins is monitored by a private concessionaire, ASMA
under agreement with the Malaysian Department of Environment (DOE). Other than these six (6)
parameters used for the computation of the Water Quality Index (WQI; i.e. Dissolved oxygen,
Biochemical Oxygen Demand, Chemical Oxygen Demand, Ammoniacal Nitrogen, Suspended solids,
and pH), other parameters such as heavy metal ions, microorganisms, organic chemicals presented
in the river water might also relevant.
March 2009 8-15

The water quality parameters are important in assessing the state of the well being of the water
bodies. They are categorically regrouped into three (3) subgroups; (a) Physical, (b) Chemical (c)
Biological Parameters respectively, as shown in Table 8.4 below.
Table 8.4 The water quality parameters
Physical Parameters Chemical Parameters Biological Parameters
Streamflow/hydrometry Nutrients Total Coliform Bacteria

Temperature BOD/COD Fecal Coliform Bacteria
Specific Conductance Phosphate E. Coli Bacteria
pH Orthophosphate
Turbidity Total Organic Carbon Virus
Dissolved Oxygen Dissolved Organic Carbon
Hardness Ammonia
Alkalinity Nitrate
Nitrites
Sediment/Solid Sulfate
Total Suspended Solids Chloride
Total Dissolved Solids Fluoride
Metal Ions
Heavy Metals (Ca, Mg, Na, Fe,
Ba, Cd, Cr, Pb, Mn, Zn)
8.6 WATER QUALITY MODELLING
The prediction of the ecological as well as environmental impacts of waste and pollutant disposal as
a result of associated land use changes and modification is now appeared to be more than a
fundamental requirement for river engineering personnel. Investigating ways and means of linking
land use, pollutant loading and disposal, water quality and ecosystem impacts together. The use of
computer-based water quality models is widely accepted for such purpose. These models could be a
merely simple "black box type" mass balance models to be used as planning and screening tools to
commercially available dynamic and complex water quality models primarily used for strategic
planning purposes
Water quality modelling techniques have evolved as an accepted tool to support the surface water
management. Modelling techniques are used to carry out a systematic and methodical analysis,
aiming at understanding the cause and effect relationships and assessing the impact of changes in
ambient water quality due to various possible scenarios, such as changes in land use and loadings,
etc. Water-quality modelling is the linkage between the sources of pollution and the in stream water
quality processes of a given water body. In summary, a model is not perceived to be more than a
representation of the physical, chemical, and biological water-quality processes and mechanisms that
occur in a water body.
8-16 March 2009

Water quality models are tools for simulating the movement of precipitation and pollutants from the
ground surface through pipe and channel networks, storage treatment units and finally to receiving
waters. Both single-event and continuous simulation may be performed on catchments having storm
sewers and natural drainage, for prediction of flows, stages and pollutant concentrations.
Each water quality model has its own unique purpose and simulation characteristics and data
requirement. A thoroughly review of each individual model therefore should be undertaken prior
adoption. Water-quality modelling can be resource-intensive. Different levels of complexity may be
used depending on the level of confidence required in a given situation. Learning curve could be
steep and time and resources should be invested as appropriate in order to perform a successful
modelling endeavour.
Water quality models can be classified according to its special features, such as model complexity,
type of water body, and the extensive of water quality parameters to be modelled. The more
complex the model is, the more difficult and expensive will be the successful and meaningful
execution of the modelling exercise.
In addition, observed/measured records of water parameters to be modelled must be available

sufficiently a priori for model calibration and validation purposes. These two steps are vital to the
credibility of modelling endeavour. Without them, the modelling exercise is simply reduced to
guessing game and no substantial understanding on the water quality process could be discerned.
Factors to be considered in the modelling exercises are:
a. On the number and type of water quality indicators or parameters to be modelled: Generally
speaking, the more the parameters are to be included in the model, the more complex the
model will be. Furthermore, some parameters are more complicated than the other to be
modelled and studied, especially if they are interrelated to one another and subject to
physical aspects of the environments.
b. On the level of spatiality: The complexity of the modelling exercise increases with the
increase in number of sources/input that have to considered. This leads to the additional
demand in the data collection effort such that calibration and verification could be carried
out amicably.
c. On the level of temporality: Long- term simulation undertaking requires fairly long-term
commitment in data collection and computational tasks. A long-term simulation provides
static averages are easily to be accomplished than a relatively short term dynamic variation
in water quality.
d. On the type of water body: The physical size of the river, such as length, width, and depth
could influent the mechanisms of pollutant transport in the modelling exercise.
Representation of the water quality parameters in the transport processes in both
longitudinal and traverse directions varies for a wide river channel vis--vis a lake or a
narrow water body. The summary is shown in Table 8.5.
March 2009 8-17

Table 8.5 The criterion on classification of the water quality model.
Criterion Comment
Single-plant or regional Simpler models can usually be used for single-plant marginal
focus effects. More complex models are needed for regional analyses
Static or dynamic Static (constant) or time-varying outputs
Stochastic or deterministic Stochastic models present outputs as probability distributions;
deterministic models are point estimates
Type of receiving water Small lakes and rivers are usually easier to model. Large lakes,
(river, lake or estuary) estuaries, and large river systems are more complex
Water Quality parameters
Dissolved oxygen Usually decreases as discharges increases. Used as a water quality

indicator in most water quality models.
Biochemical oxygen demand A measure of oxygen-reducing potential for waterborne discharges.
(BOD) Used in most water quality models.
Temperature Often increased by discharges, especially from electric power
plants. Relatively easy to model.
Ammonia nitrogen Reduces dissolved oxygen concentrations and adds nitrate to water.
Can be predicted by most water quality models.
Algal concentration Increases with pollution, especially nitrates and phosphates.
Predicted by moderately complex models.
Coliform bacteria An indicator of contamination from sewerage and animal waste
Nitrates A nutrient for algal growth and a health hazard at very high
concentrations in drinking water. Predicted by moderately complex
models.
Phosphates Nutrient for algal growth. Predicted by moderately complex models
Toxic organic compounds A wide variety of organic (carbon-based) compounds can affect
aquatic life and may be directly hazardous to humans. Usually very
difficult to model.
Heavy metals Substance containing lead, mercury, cadmium, and other metals
can cause both ecological and human health problems. Difficult to
model in detail.
Adopted from Pollution Prevention and Abatement Handbook, World Bank Group, 1998
8.6.1 Classification of Water Quality Model
The first known water quality model approach and attempt to river management application and
planning begins with a simple parameter, i.e. dissolved oxygen (DO) balance sag curve in Ohio river,
USA in the 1920s by Streeter and Phelps (1925). At that time, the dissolved oxygen concentration in
water body appears to be the most significant criteria in sanitation as the discharges of impurity and
organics from domestic as well as industrial wastewater has had major impact on the receiving water
course. Bacteria, which are present in abundance in wastewater consume oxygen in waters to
breakdown organic matter.
8-18 March 2009

A reduction of dissolved oxygen is therefore served as an important indicator for the state of water
quality and ecological health in the river course. However, rapid running water and self purification
of river waters was also taken place. Both water flows and agitation due to turbulence nature of
running waters and wind induction on surface aeration somewhat inducing oxygen from the air into
the water body by apparently the diffusion mechanism. This particular mechanism is known as
reaeration. Oxygen in the air is resupplied to the water body via both natural and mechanical
aeration processes. It was fundamental and practical for river water to purify itself naturally or with
the aid of minimum engineering approaches other than the natural course of running water.
Dobbins and OConnor (1958) carried out an empirical study in the late 1950s to relate the
reaeration rate of a natural river reach with measured mean flow velocity and hydraulic parameter,
i.e. average depth of the river cross section. Subsequently other researchers followed the lead and
derived various forms of reaeration coefficients using the same methodology as Dobbins and
OConnor (1958); (Churchill et al, 1962; Owens et al. 1964; Langbein and Durum, 1967). Other
variant is Tsivoglou and Neal (1976) where only the average stream velocity and stream slope are
used.
Wind induced reaeation on surface water was also been carried out by Chu and Jirka (2003).
Ramakar et al (2003) presented a variant form of Dobbins-OConnor type reaeration formula based
on least square (curve fitting) approach of the hydraulic parameters such as stream/channel velocity,
bed slope, flow depth, cross-sectional area and measured dissolved oxygen concentration.
Reaeration attributed to moving waters by momentum and water surface wind blow by no mean the
only oxygen diffusion mechanisms. Other factors such as biological processes might be played a role
in reintroducing oxygen into waters as well. This is primarily caused by autotrophic primary producer
organisms that produce cell biomass by photosynthesis.
The DO model of Streeter and Phelps (1925) evolved to the next plateau after three decades by
taking into account of other instream reaeration processes such as photosynthesis, respiration, and
sediment oxygen demand (SOD) in the oxygen balance computation (OConnor, 1960) in the 1960s.
These advances marks the foundation of modern water quality modelling of natural waters, i.e. river,
lake, estuary, etc.
Ultimately, it should be reiterated that the classification of the water quality model depends on the
purpose and objective of the water quality modelling exercise. The models could range from simple
to complex based on the number of parameters and state variables to be simulated in the modelling
exercises and on both spatial and temporal scales of the river reach to be modelled.
Before performing the water quality modelling assignment, hydrologic and hydraulics submodelling
to determine the discharges and the water surface elevation should be carried out a priori. The
submodels can be divided into stationary and non-stationary modes. Stationary in the connotation
means the flow or discharge to be constant during the simulation time period. On the other hand, in
the non-stationary mode, the discharge or flow varies with time.
In general, water quality model can be broadly defined as (a) lumped or distributed-parameter; (b)
deterministic and physically based, or stochastic types.
Lump Parameter type of water quality model can be considered as deterministic or stochastic in its
formulation. It treats the entire water body as a single entity or compartment in its representation
of the river reach. The mechanism of transport and chemical as well as biological processes takes
place only within the compartment. Mass balance equations are formulated accordingly based
mainly on the law of mass conservation and continuity. The utility of lump parametered water quality
model is limited and could perhaps address only a very simple process and confine to a fairly simple
and straightforward undertaking. Mathematically speaking, ordinary differential equation (ODE) can
be used to represent adequate the processes of pollutant fates, transport, and transformation in
simple analytical or numerical solution. A short river reach and a lake are representative of lump
March 2009 8-19

parameter model. The derivative of the pollutant with time depends on the mass conservation of the
pollutant entering and leaving the compartments and in addition, subject to in-stream or in-lake
chemical as well as biological reaction processes.
Rate of change of pollutant = inflow outflow reaction
d(VC)
= Qin Cin -Qout Cout kVC (8.1)
dt
Distributed parameter type of water quality model on the other hand, represents relative
sophistication in representing the fate, transport, and transformation of water quality parameters in
a water body in space. Generally the processes could be mathematically represented by the various
genres of partial differential equations (PDEs) with reaction components as appropriate. Solutions to
this type of mathematically function depend on the appropriate boundary and initial conditions that
reflect the physical and hydraulics reasoning of the river basin model. The 3-dimensional PDE for a
single chemical variable is as follows:
(1) rate of change = (2)advection + (3)dispersion (4)reaction:
C C C C C C C
= - Vx + Vy + Vz + Dx + Dy + Dz + reaction (8.2)
t x y z x x y y z z
8.6.2 Process Description
The fate and transport processes of pollutants in a water body hinges on physical, chemical, and/or
biological processes and their associated transformation. Physical processes to describe the transport
of pollutants are (1) advection and (2) diffusion in both longitudinal and traverse directions along the
river reach.
8.6.2.1 Advection
Advection is the physical process where the waterborne variables i.e. pollutant is transported by the
motion of water particle or current velocity in a river reach. It describes the state of pollutant
transport downstream of a reference point at the mean flow velocity of the river reach. Actual
velocity though varies temporarily and spatially. For a narrow river channel, one dimension model
representation is suffixed to describe the fate and transport of pollutant due to the influence of
channel velocity. Most of the time, an average representative velocity is chosen for this purpose.
8.6.2.2 Diffusion
As a result of the action of velocity movement, mixing process takes place. This mixing is caused by
both the turbulent and molecular diffusion and by dispersion. Turbulent diffusion represents the
pollutant mixing due to temporal deviations or fluctuations of the flow velocit from the local mean
velocity value. Dispersion on the other hand, describes mixing due to spatial velocity fluctuation
along the river.
8.7 MATHEMATICAL MODELS FOR RIVER WATER MANAGEMENT: SELECTION AND

ADOPTION
Selection of the model to be adopted in a water quality modelling study is nonetheless based on
several factors such as the individual and the unique objective of the water quality management and
planning, resources availabilities and expertise, availability of observed and measured water quality
parameters, etc. In other words, model selection can be reasonably made based on the management
objective and familiarity and affinity of the users to the specific models.
8-20 March 2009

Chapter 8 RIVER WATE
ER QUALITY
This su
ubsection furrther elaboraates on the selection
s and
d adoption crriteria and th
heir associate
ed issues
such ass calibration and validatio
on of the watter quality models
m as a whole.
w
8.7.1 Calibrration and Validation

V
Calibrattion is define
ed as the pro
ocess of esta
ablishing the relationship between a m measuring de evice and
the units of measurement by comparing a devise or the output of an instrument to an inde ependent
standarrd having known
k meassurement characteristics.. However in the conte ext of wate er quality
modelling endeavour, it is consstrued as a crucial step of obtaining g model para ameters by matching
mulated resullts to the ob
the sim bserved or measured
m varriables. It is idealistic to have fairly long-term
observeed records so that the e calibration process co ould be carried out me eaningfully. However
oftentim
mes suitablyy lengthy obsserved recorrds are not forthcoming
f due to vario ous reason. As such,
most off the water quality
q modeels are basica
ally calibrate
ed using a re elatively shortt term if nott sporadic
observeed state varia able records. Figure 8.8 below show ws the flow diiagram of calibration processes.
Unmeasuredinputtdata
RealsystemLake, Measu
ured field datta
reseervoir,river,estuary
Measured inpu
M ut error
e
bo
oundary and d
MatthematicalMModelof
fo
orcing data
lake,river,esttuary,
reservoirr
Measure Predicted mo
odel
Adjustmentt of model pa
arameters
Figure 8.8
8 The flow
w diagram of calibration processes.
p
Validatiion is defined
d as a part of
o modelling process to ascertain
a if th
he models are working within
w the
confineement of the e theoretical understandings using independent observed
o reccords. In oth
her words
the simmulation run is
i to be carriied out as pe
er previous calibration
c sta
age but usin
ng the newly obtained
or calibbrated parameters. Oth her terms have been used u at one e time or another are such as,
verification, corrob boration, auuthentication
n, substantia ation, and confirmation n. Oftentimes the
nce between these two im
differen mportant mo odelling processes is amb biguous. Due e to shorter length of
recordss, it is thereefore imposssible to sepaarate the ob bserved reco ords for twoo different purposes.
p
Validatiion sometim mes is being construed as the comparison of the t reasonableness of simulated
s
results with other similar
s studie
es and at mo ost subjectiv
vely based on the modellers experie ences and
knowledge in any specific mode els.
It is ge
enerally expeerienced tha
at water qua ality models for riverine systems mo ost of the time show
surprisiingly poor ag
greement whhen it comess to comparisson between n model simu ulated resultss and the
observeed or measu ured state va
ariables in the field. Often this discrepancy is missunderstood as a lack
of complexity and/o or an incomp
plete formulaation of the in
nvolved varieed processess.
March 2009
2 8-21
8.8 ENVIRONMENTAL FLOW
Scarcity in water resources has been well recognized as an en emerging global issue that deserved
utmost importance and attention amongst the water resources planners and professionals. Growing
awareness on the increased water demand by human activities does not only reduce the amount of
water available for future industrial and agricultural development but also appears to have significant
impacts on aquatic (fauna and flora) ecosystems and the inhabitable species.
Increasing water consumption and demand by the domestic, industrial as well as irrigation sectors,
and other environmental unfriendly human activities such as deforestation by opening of large tract
of land mass for agricultural cultivation expansion, wetland/peat swamp draining and reclamation,
commission and construction of reservoirs, and other water diversion structures significantly alter
the natural hydro-geomorphic processes and regimes. Hence these impacts result in a series of
water related environmental problems such as increasingly frequent freshwater shortage, declining
groundwater tables, dangerous levels of pollution, serious habitat degradation and disastrous and
extreme event flooding over the past decades in many parts of the world.
Reaching a consensus on satisfying the needs of both the aquatic environment and other beneficial
uses for expanded and intensive human activities is an emerging as well as a critical issue in many
countries for sustainability in economic development and at the same with minimum disturbance and
detriment to the environment as a whole. Competition for water resources utilization in worlds river
basins is destined to be intense as human population and associated water demands attributed to
higher living standard. With the needs of reaching harmony with the environment in mind, the
ecological well being of the riverine community must not be in any way compromised. The water
demand to satisfy these riparian communities is termed as environmental or compensation flow.
The raison detre of putting forward the concept of environmental flow is to set up a threshold value
while increasing the demand for human activities but without scarifying the riverine natural function.
Protection must therefore be considered at an acceptable level. In essence, compensation or
environmental flow could be considered at the continuous flow that keeping the river at an
acceptable natural functional level. It must be borne in mind that drastic reducing or altering the
flow regime in a river would seriously pose long-term detrimental consequence to the riparian
community as a whole.
8.8.1 Environmental Flow: A Definition
Environmental flow or riparian release is defined as the prior release that is required to be made by
statue downstream of any water resources abstraction or storage projects i.e. intakes and reservoirs.
It is also rarely termed as river maintenance flow in some studies (RB/SSP 2003) purportedly
necessary quantity of flow to sustain healthy riverine environments. Another often used term is
instream flow. As the name implied, it is the flow or water/hydraulic depth that has to be maintained
after significant diversion of water resources from a water body. The term is defined as following by
Washington State Department of Ecology.
The term "instream flow" is used to identify a specific stream flow (typically measured in cubic feet
per second, or cfs) at a specific location for a defined time, and typically following seasonal
variations. Instream flows are usually defined as the stream flows needed to protect and preserve
instream resources and values, such as fish, wildlife and recreation. Instream flows are most often
described and established in a formal legal document, typically an adopted state rule.
Instream flow is the amount of water needed in a stream to adequately provide for downstream
uses occurring within the stream channel. Instream uses may include some or all of the following:
aquatic habitat, recreation, wetlands maintenance, navigation, hydropower, riparian vegetation, and
water quality.
8-22 March 2009

The purpose of these mandated releases by law is to provide adequate living conditions and spaces
for fauna and flora and/or other riparian communities downstream. Else detrimental long term
ecological consequences will be forthcoming in both short- and long-term.
Definition advocated by Global Environmental Flows Networks (2006) is as follows:
Environmental flow is the amount of water needed in a water course to maintain healthy, natural
ecosystems. The term is used in the context of rivers which have been dammed, with most or all of
the flow trapped by the dam the failure to provide an environmental flow can have serious
ecological consequences.
The terms, environmental flow, instream flow, maintenance flow, and compensation flow are used
interchangeably in this report.
8.8.2 Environmental Flow in Malaysia
For most of the water resource development projects in Malaysia, there are always some riparian
stakeholders/users, water extractors for irrigation and WTP operators downstream, which divert
waters in the rivers for their respective utilization. Therefore it is of utmost importance at this
juncture to differentiate between compensation flows during average, wet and drought years which
are in essence seasonally varied according to their own unique requirement.
In the first two categories, the issue of compensation flow does not seem to be an issue as
abundant water would be available downstream during these periods of higher and average flows in
the rivers. This however, does not hold true during extreme drought periods, when water levels are
comparatively lower than average. Only during these periods of time and depending also on the
duration of low flow regime, the riparian communities and extractors/stakeholders downstream of
the water resources projects may not receive their fair share or allocation of precious water
resources. Any detrimental non-action will have environmental as well as ecological impacts to the
downstream communities.
The general issues of the compensation flows are discussed and appropriate recommendations or
decisions could then be made on the adoption of the amount of the compensation releases and
especially a prolonged drought period where competitive demand for water by various riparian users
are both critical and crucial. The practice of compensation or environmental flow release is in fact
an integral part of the water management operation requirement. For the case of reservoir design
and operation, it is an important parameter for determining the optimum yields and their
corresponding live storage capacities of the reservoirs. On other words, this essentially means that
to a certain extent, the available reliable yield depends on the amount of water that is needed to
release a priori to the riparian users downstream before it can be supplied to the WTP. On the
contrary, generous and less optimal allocation of compensation flow reduces the beneficial uses and
vice versa.
This is an attempt to summarize the general concepts, rationales and findings of the past studies
carried out in Malaysia with respect to the issues of compensation or environmental flows. The
experiences are mainly drawn from the water supply industry with regards to the issue of
compensation flow.
In the past experience, the issue of compensation flows has been addressed in two major water
resources studies (Pahang and Johor Water Resources Studies, PWRS; 1992, JWRS; 1994). These
studies findings were used as a basis to establish the magnitude of compensation flows for river
system in the state of Pahang and Johor.
March 2009 8-23

This guideline on water releases from dam or reservoir is being used to date in most of the water
supply projects in Malaysia (SMHB, 2003). It must be cautioned that these practices of
compensation releases are mainly of mechanistic nature or based solely on quantum of flows
availability assessed by hydrological study output. Therefore, the practices do not take into account
the actual of amount of flows that are needed to be releases for sustainability of aquatic flora and
fauna communities in the riverine environments. As a matter of fact, the type of study to meet the
requirement of fauna and flora communities in their life cycles, to the best of knowledge is not yet
being carried out systematically in Malaysia. In this transition period, only techniques derived from
hydrological assessment are being considered.
Four (4) techniques that have been practiced solely based on quantitative hydrological assessment
of flow are described briefly below. They are namely,
(a) Observed minimum average (monthly or daily) flow,

(b) 1:50-year 7-day low flow obtained from a low flow frequency analysis,
(c) A percentage of the Annual Average Flow (AAF).
(d) Flow duration curve is included for comparison purpose.
The last technique, 99% and 98% probability of flow exceedance as interpolated from flow duration
curves have been practiced from time to time in Malaysia although JICA (1982) in its National Water
Resources Study for Malaysia has advocated some higher percentage, i.e. 90 to 80% to be adopted
as compensation or environmental flow. Each individual method with its merits and demerits is
briefly discussed in a more systematic manner.
8.8.3 Minimum Average Monthly Flow
The minimum monthly average flow volume is the simplest technique among other. The minimum
flow is basically selected from the long-term historical monthly flow records of the gauged
streamflow stations and appropriately transposed to the sites of interest using appropriate
transposition factors. This is in fact a hydrological index number based solely on observed records
with some uncertainties.
Notwithstanding the simplicity of this technique in deriving the magnitude of low flow, however, it
should be cautioned that the lowest observed record of streamflow rate might not be a better and
reasonable indicator as operational difficulties are always encountered during field gauging exercises
and instrumentation errors are prevailing if they are not properly maintained and calibrated. The
lowest flow might therefore be recorded erroneously due to variety of reasons, such as instrument
malfunction, one-time freak event, etc. Hence the observed lowest flow records should somehow be
interpreted with due diligence and prudence before they can be adopted for estimating
compensation flow.
8.8.4 1:50-year 7-day duration Minimum Flow (7Q50)
The 1:50-year 7-day (7Q50) low flow can be conveniently extracted from the result of
probability/frequency analysis of minimum low flow annual/partial series of gauged streamflow
stations of significant years of records and appropriately transposed to the site of interest. The
frequency analysis is normally carried out using both LN2P and LN3P distributions as deemed fit.
Sometimes, Log-EV type I (EV1, Gumbel) and Log-Pearson type III (LP3) distributions are also
considered amongst the popular choice. This is however depends mostly on the preference of the
individual hydrologists. The minimum record length of annual series is preferably more than 30 years
for extrapolation to 50-year return period or 2% chance of occurrence.
8-24 March 2009

Most of the time, the results using various distributions in frequency analysis do not vary
significantly to warrant unnecessary concerns. The low flow frequency analysis is part of the routine
hydrological estimation tasks commonly undertaken in waster resources assessment. The magnitude
of flows for various durations and return periods or specific probabilities of occurrence are readily
available.
The origin of 7Q50 is perhaps based on USA technique of 7Q10 approach in determining the low
flow regime in the river for waste assimilation purpose. 7Q10 is used by EPA (2008) on the premise
that 7Q10 design flow was similar to the biologically-based 4B3 design flow and recommended the
use of either design flow for water quality standards and toxic waste load allocation studies relating
to chronic effects on aquatic life. 7Q10 is the average seven-day consecutive low flow with a ten
year return frequency or probability of occurrence. In laymans term, as depicted in the lexicon of
frequency analysis this is the lowest stream flow for seven consecutive days that would be expected
to occur once in ten years in average. The same magnitude of flow however could occur
consecutively.
It is used in the USA in setting point load discharge limits from municipal wastewater treatment
plants (WWTP) in National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) water quality permits.
This permit will only be granted if the proposed amount of pollutants that will be discharged into a
river will not significantly impair its beneficial uses, such as extraction for drinking or swimming.
When the river discharge is below the 7Q10 level, under the stipulated NPDES permit requirement,
the WWTP operators are then restricted from discharging pollutants that would cause concentrations
in the receiving water to exceed their permit limits, even at very low (i.e. 7Q10) streamflow levels.
Although such a low streamflow value, roughly equivalent to a ten-year drought, is appropriately
used in the context of limiting pollution discharges, the 7Q10 flow statistic is sometimes
inappropriately claimed to represent an adequate streamflow for maintaining a healthy aquatic
ecosystem, when in fact much higher streamflow levels are required.
Due to the fact that 7Q10 is somewhat higher in magnitude in some studies, in some practices, only
a fraction of 7Q10 is assumed as environmental flow.
8.8.5 98% and 99% Probability of Exceedance
Interpolation from the results of flow duration analysis was introduced earlier in the Pahang and
Johor water resources studies (1992, 1994) as an additional technique in order to examine the
sensitivity of the water resources model simulation with respect to the magnitude of
compensation/environmental flows released downstream of the proposed dams and intakes. The
criterion is originally based on the recommendation in the National Water Resources Study (JICA,
1982) in which 90% and 95% exceedance of the flow duration curves are generally adopted in the
planning and design of the proposed water resource development projects in Malaysia. However,
subsequent works in hydrological and water resources assessment by SMHB (2002, 2004), opined
that the values proposed by JICA (1982) are considered too stringent for conditions in Malaysia. This
is due to the fact that the natural fluctuations between highest and lowest flows are too extreme
high. The lower flow at flow duration of lesser strict such as 99% and 98% are adopted instead.
These values are obtained from the daily or monthly flow duration curves analysis of gauged
streamflow stations and appropriately transposed to the site of interest.
8.8.6 A Fraction of (Annual Average Flow) Volume
The origin of this technique being adopted in water resources studies in Malaysia unfortunately is
not known at the time of writing this report.
March 2009 8-25

It was first appeared in the Pahang Water Resources Study (PWRS; 1992) study where conclusions
was made on the fact that a 10% non-exceedance flow as equivalent to about 10 to 25% of the AAF
after analyzing the flow duration curves of the selective streamflow stations in the state of Pahang.
This technique is almost similar to Tennant or Montana method (1976) adopted in estimating the
instream flow requirement in the rivers for fish habitats in the Midwest region of the USA. In 1976
Tennant introduced a method for determining instream flow requirements for fish, known as the
Montana method or more commonly the Tennant method. The method uses a percentage of
average annual flow (AAF) to determine fish habitat quality.
From field data collected of 58 cross sections from 11 streams in Montana, Nebraska, and Wyoming,
Tennant concluded that 10% of AAF is the minimum for short term fish survival, 30% of AAF is
considered to be able to sustain fair survival conditions, and 60% of AAF is excellent to outstanding
habitat. These quantities are employed internationally, regardless of physical and hydrologic setting,
due to the simplicity of using only the average annual hydrograph.
The Tennant method was developed for eleven (11) streams in the state of Montana, Wyoming, and
Nebraska. It is also known as Montana method in its less recognized and alternate name outside of
the USA. It is used to find satisfactory level of discharges for fish passing. A flow of 30% of the
annual average flow was found to maintain satisfactory widths, depths ad velocities. The study was
mostly carried out by field observation. In the temperate climate where it was originated, Tennant
technique can be branched to both winter and summer month requirement. The criteria and
condition where Tennant method based on is rather site specific, it is therefore rather difficult to
transfer this technique to sites. Furthermore, it does not account for daily, seasonally, or annual flow
variations (see table 8.6 below).
Table 8.6 Tennant Method: In Stream Flow Requirement
Description of flow Recommended base flow regime
Oct March April-September
Flushing or maximum 200%
Optimum range 60 to 100%
Outstanding 40% 60%
Excellent 30% 50%
Good 20% 40%
Fair or degrading 10% 30%
Poor or minimum 10% 10%
Severe degradation 0 to 10%
Problems with Tennant methods are again of empirical nature. The method could not be used
outside of its calibration ranges, i.e. such as applications to hydrologically and geomorphological
inhomogeneous basins. This is to say that other than, the validity in theory on ability to quantify the
magnitude of flow of a river basin accurately, the quantum of environmental releases that are
suitable for fishes or other fauna and aquatic communities are therefore uncertainty. This is best
undertaken on specific locality basis, such as, field studies may be needed to determine the
quantum of flow in selected river basins in the state of Sarawak.
8-26 March 2009

Another shortcoming of this technique is its inability to provide environmental release to account for
daily, seasonal, or annually flow variations, since the methodology is solely based on the average
annual flow. Sometimes, comparison with the average 10- and 30-day natural flows maybe
advisable to determine whether the flows are available naturally during the low flow periods or
durations. Checking with monthly or 30-day average low flow seems to be a reasonable approach.
Several variants of Tennant method evolved throughout the years. The modification is based on the
premise of different water requirements for geographical and physiological factor of fish species in
other regions of the USA or perhaps in other parts of the world.
The improved Tennant method purportedly computed eco-environmental water requirement for
reach by taking other riverine factors into consideration. This is basically Tennant method in essence
is only a hydrological based or commonly known as indexed technique. Recognizing the
shortcomings of Tennant method, other variables, apart from the hydrological magnitude of the
flow, such as toe-depth, river channel hydraulic parameters are also taken into account in the
development of instream or compensation water requirement models not only for fishes but for
other aquatic fauna and flora habitats as well. These models are such as Range of Variability
Approach (RVA), PHAMSIM, IFIM, amongst others.
8.8.7 Other Environmental Flow Techniques
The issues of environmental flows and their quantification have spurred many interests amongst the
team members and professionals in the water resources development sectors internationally.
Protection of the salmon fisheries and habitats and further extension to other threatened aquatic
species is the raison detre for the proliferation of various environmental flow assessment techniques
around 1960s. The techniques range from a simple hydrological or hydraulic index techniques to
some sophistications by taking into account the ecological and environmental factors into account.
These models are being practiced throughout the world. Comprehensive review of environmental
flow models is described in the following subsection, which is an excerpt in toto from
www.eflownet.org.
8.8.8 Comprehensive Review by www.eflownet.org
In the most recent review of international environmental flows assessments, Tharme (2003)
recorded 207 different methods within 44 countries. Several different categorizations of these
methods exist, three of which are shown in table 8.7 below.
March 2009 8-27

Table 8.7 Categorizations of international environmental flow assessments
Categorization of
Organisation Sub-category Example
methods
IUCN Methods Look-up tables Hydrological (e.g. Q95 Index) Ecological (e.g. Tennant
(Dyson et al. Method)
2003)
Desk-top analyses Hydrological (e.g. Richter Method) Hydraulic (e.g.
Wetted Perimeter Method)
Ecological
Functional analyses BBM, Expert Panel Assessment Method, Benchmarking
Methodology
Habitat modeling PHABSIM
Approaches Expert Team Approach,
Stakeholder Approach (expert and non-expert)
Frameworks IFIM, DRIFT
World Bank Prescriptive Hydrological Index Tennant Method
(Brown & King, approaches Methods
2003)
Hydraulic Rating Wetted Perimeter Method
Methods
Expert Panels
Holistic Approaches BBM
Interactive IFIM
approaches DRIFT
IWMI Hydrological index methods Tennant Method
(Tarme, 2003)
Hydraulic rating methods Wetted Perimeter Method
Habitat simulation methodologies IFIM
Holistic methodologies BBM
DRIFT
Expert Panel
Benchmarking Methodology
The following review is based on Tharme (2003), Dyson et al. (2003), Brown & King (2003) and
Acreman & Dunbar (2004), but follows the categorization of Tharme (2003). The table 8.8 below
shows durations of assessment needed and major advantages and disadvantages of environmental
flow assessment methodologies.
8-28 March 2009

Table 8.8 Durations and major advantages and disadvantages of environmental flow assessment
methodologies
Duration of
assessment Major advantages Major disadvantages
(months)
Hydrological Not site-specific, ecological
Low cost, rapid to use
Index links assumed
Hydraulic rating 2-4 Low cost, site specific Ecological links assumed
Extensive data collection
Habitat
6-18 Ecological links included and use of experts, high
simulation
cost
Requires very large
Holistic 12-36 Covers most aspects scientific expertise, very
high cost, not operational
8.8.9 ENFRAIM: Environmental Flow Requirements; an Aid for Integrated

Management
In 2001, the ENFRAIM project began with a review of existing environmental flow requirement
methodologies. The main conclusion arising from this review is that there is a vast amount of
methods being developed throughout the world geared towards setting Environmental Flow
Requirements, either for specific rivers or specific regions. Particularly in North America, many
Environmental Flow Assessments are developed with respect to the conservation of fish habitats,
whereas in South Africa, for example, a holistic approach is most frequently used. However, it often
occurs that not all of a rivers functions are taken into account (functions which include flood
mitigation, recession agriculture, drinking water, local fisheries, delta formation and stabilisation).
ENFRAIM is a decision making tool for water resources managers for determining the quantum of
environmental flow requirement in a river basin. It is a new generation of model framework with
clarity and transparency in operational management. The flow assessment is though a much more
complex procedure, especially if both riverine and coastal downstream requirements are to be
included in the process.
It was a Dutch funded project to develop the concept of Environmental Flow Requirements into an
adequate (i.e. effective and efficient) planning tool for integrated river and coastal management.
International collaboration were also been carried out with case studies and field applications in
Vietnam, Thailand, and Bangladesh.
Attention was focused on the way in which one should deal with these functions when setting
environmental flow requirements. Specific local issues such a climate, geomorphology, functions
sustained by the river and requirements of different parts of the complete river basin ecosystem
should be taken into account accordingly.
March 2009 8-29

8.8.10 Application in Malaysia
Most of the environmental or compensation flow requirements for Malaysia are based on
hydrological index techniques where a fraction of river flows are released downstream of a dam or
diversion structure. These four (4) techniques are explained in brief in previous subsections.
Admittedly this is most simple mechanistic approach to date on the quantification of environmental
flow requirement. Without consideration of the requirement of fauna and flora communities in the
river system makes the hydrological index techniques seems simplistic. In theory, the environmental
flow requirement should be tailored to the need of the aquatic species. The need for water to
growth hinges on the growing and life cycle of the communities, to be exact. Without taking this
factor into consideration, it seems flaws in the allocation of environmental flow requirement. Due to
primarily the limitation in knowledge and understanding of fish population and their behavior and life
cycle in a river system. It makes the estimation on the quantum of environmental flows or releases a
difficult task laden with uncertainty.
Attempt to link the environmental flow requirement to the complexity and sustainability of fauna and
flora habitats in a river system was plausible but unfortunately appropriate and suitable references
and undertakings are not available in Malaysia, to the best of the knowledge. However this does not
preclude attempt to tailor the environmental flow requirement to the instream water quality
parameters. An example of such attempt was a master water resource study for Sg Selangor Basin
utilized criteria other than hydrologic index technique in estimating the environmental flow
requirement (RB/SSP, 2003).
One of these techniques was the flow requirement at each tributary to meet the DOE type II or III
instream water quality requirement, i.e. BOD in a river water body. Mappings were carried out a
priori for each tributary, Landuse and intent of present and future utilization were amongst other
criteria were been taken into consideration in tandem. To meet the DOE type II or III requirement,
in essence, adequate water must be released from a dam, i.e. Sg. Selangor, in the headwater zone
of the basin so that dilution of the BOD could be taken place. Other water quality parameters can
also be used to determine the environmental flow requirement.
The study did not attempt to estimate the flow requirement based on the fauna and flora needs.
This is essentially the dilemma faced by the water resources planners in Malaysia. At best perhaps a
compromise could be made. This will therefore enable interim solutions using hydrological index
techniques could be used. Further refinement on this issue could be pursued once adequate
information and knowledge on the fauna and flora life cycle could be confidently established.
8.8.11 Global Warming and Water Resources
Global warming is the raising of average measured air temperature near the earth surface and
oceans since the mid-20th century and it is projected to continue and increase above long-term
average in the near future. This alarming state of global warming is due primarily to the increase in
green house gases, i.e. carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), NOx, CFC and others in the
atmosphere. Increasing of CO2 and other trace airs in atmosphere will alter energy balance of
climate system, and cause global warming in the future. It has received much attention in recent
year (IPCC, 2008). The presence of these high concentration green house gases in the troposphere,
hinder the emission of long-wave radiation processes from the earth to the atmosphere. The heat is
therefore trapped within the layer of green house gases (known as green house glasses) and
reradiate back to the earth. By doing so, this radiation hear balance raises the air temperature on
earth in general.
8-30 March 2009

The impacts of global warming on water resource in particular are not quantitatively studied in
Malaysia (NWRS 2000) but in general consensus, the impact could be experienced in various
dimensions, such as it is believed that the impending rising in sea level at un precedent rate due to
accelerated melting of icebergs and glaciers in both north and south poles. Thus causes erosion and
recession of the coastal lines. It also affects the hydrologic cycles, etc.
The impacts of global warming suggest extremities in both climatologic hydrologic events, such as
recent more frequent occurrences and exceptionally high severity of tropical storms and monsoon
events accompanied with fiery wind gusts.
Potential direct impacts of global warming to water resources are systematically summarized as
follows (Pittock, 2003):
a. Reduce or increase inflows to water/hydrologic natural and artificial storages

b. Reduce streamflow/discharge in major river basins/catchments
c. Reduce or increase in water availability for rain fed agriculture and irrigation
d. Reduce recharge of groundwater due to less infiltration from surface waters
e. Increase in severity of both droughts and floods
f. Increase salinity of surface and ground waters.
g. Increase inundation of coastal freshwater wetlands and lowlands, rivers, and estuaries
h. Change in weather pattern from the past
i. Increase sediment and nutrients in streams
Some of the indirect impacts or consequences are as follows:
a. Threatened water supplies: Possible shortage of water supply to meet the increasing
demand by cities and towns, agricultural, industrial, environmental flows. This is primarily
due to low flows in the rivers or other water bodies. Relocation of water supply intakes
further upstream of the saline-freshwater interface due to saltwater intrusion by sea level
rising.
b. Increased risk of euthrophication in water bodies: algal blooms or enrichments and

impairment to the water quality in general due to ineffective dilution. Algal blooms degrade
the water quality by excessive growth of oxygen demanding organisms. When algal die off,
the biomass exerts oxygen demand for their biodegradation processes and in turn reduce
the oxygen concentration of the water bodies. Without oxygen, massive aquatic fauna depth
as a result.
c. Probable changes in ecological water requirements: Possible alternations/changes to

ecosystems. Displacement, reduction or loss of vulnerable ecosystems or species might
occur due to lower water availability.
d. Increase pressure on water related storages and infrastructure: With the extremity in
fluctuation in river water flows, some existing water related infrastructures such as water
supply schemes, flood mitigation projects, coastal protection, etc might not be able sustain
the intended design standards. As a result, inadequate raw water source might interrupt the
smooth operation of water supply schemes. Frequent flooding events and overtopping of
levees and embankments might occur in flood defense projects and thus increasing the risk
of flood damages. Coastal erosion and sedimentation might be recurring and frequent
episodes.
March 2009 8-31

e. Increased competition for water: Global warming and climate change increase the
competition amongst nations for precious water commodity in many countries and many
regions within a country. It is especially vulnerable for competition amongst the countries
that are sharing common riparian boundaries. Water resources scarcity spurs competition in
dam building for storage in time of need.
REFERENCES
[1] Allan, J.D. 1995. Stream Ecology: structure and function of running waters. Chapman and Hall,
London. Pp. 388
[2] Brown, A.L. 1987. Freshwater Ecology. Heinimann Educational Books, London. Pp. 163
[3] Carl von Ossietzky Universitt Oldenburg, FB Biologie (ICBM), Postfach 2503, D-26111
Oldenburg, Germany. e-mail: gerd.p.zauke@uni-oldenburg.de
[4] Cushing, C.E. and J.D. Allan. 2001. Streams: their ecology and life. Academic Press, San Diego.
Pp. 366.
[5] Chehalis River Council, Lewis Conservation District, Washington State Department of Ecology.
2009. Water Quality Monitoring - A How to Guide
[6] Giller, S. and B. Malmqvist. 1998. The Biology of Streams and Rivers. Oxford University Press,
Oxford. Pp. 296.
[7] Plotnikoff R.W. and Wiseman C. 2001. Benthic Macroinvertebrate Biological Monitoring Protocols
for Rivers and Streams. Washington State Department of Ecology.
http://www.ecy.wa.gov/biblio/0103028.html
[8] Rinderhagen M.., Ritterhoff J. and Zauke G.P. Crustaceans as Bioindicators.
8-32 March 2009

APPENDIX 8A: LIST OF GLOSSARY
Alkalinity Alkalinity is not a pollutant. It is a total measure of the substances in water that
have "acid-neutralizing" ability. AT is a measure of the ability of a solution to
neutralize acids to the equivalence point of carbonate or bicarbonate. Alkalinity
is closely related to the acid neutralizing capacity (ANC) of a solution and ANC is
often incorrectly used to refer to alkalinity. Alkalinity is equal to the
stoichiometric sum of the bases in solution. In the natural environment
carbonate alkalinity tends to make up most of the total alkalinity due to the
common occurrence and dissolution of carbonate rocks and presence of carbon
dioxide in the atmosphere.
BOD Biochemical Oxygen Demand or Biological Oxygen Demand. Its is a chemical

procedure for determining how fast biological organisms use up oxygen in a
body of water.
Chloride Chlorine is a greenish-yellow gas that dissolves easily in water. It has a pungent,
noxious odor that some people can smell at concentrations above 0.3 parts per
million. Because chlorine is an excellent disinfectant, it is commonly added to
most drinking water supplies in the US. In parts of the world where chlorine is
not added to drinking water, thousands of people die each day from waterborne
diseases like typhoid and cholera. Chlorine is also used as a disinfectant in
wastewater treatment plants and swimming pools. It is widely used as a
bleaching agent in textile factories and paper mills, and its an important
ingredient in many laundry bleaches. Free chlorine (chlorine gas dissolved in
water) is toxic to fish and aquatic organisms, even in very small amounts.
Chlorophyll-a Chlorophyll-a is the green pigment found in plants and algae. Plants and algae
use this pigment to trap the energy from the sun so they can grow. Chlorophyll
a is the most common of the six types, present in every plant that performs
photosynthesis. The reason that there are so many pigments is that each
absorbs light more efficiently in a different part of the spectrum. Chlorophyll a
absorbs well at a wavelength of about 400-450 nm and at 650-700 nm.
Chlorophyll a is measured in micrograms per liter (g/l) units. Micrograms per
liter is micrograms of chlorophyll a per liter of water. In estuaries, chlorophyll a
measurements can range from 1 g/L to higher than 20 g/L. Scientists
measure chlorophyll a in the lab by separating the chlorophyll a from the algae
in the water.
COD Chemical Oxygen Demand. Its is a test, commonly used to indirectly measure
the amount of organic compounds in water. Most applications of COD determine
the amount of organic pollutants found in surface water (e.g. lakes and rivers),
making COD a useful measure of water quality
March 2009 8A-1

Conductivity Conductivity is a measurement of the ability of an aqueous solution to carry an

electrical current. An ion is an atom of an element that has gained or lost an
electron which will create a negative or positive state. For example, sodium
chloride (table salt) consists of sodium ions (Na+) and chloride ions (Cl-) held
together in a crystal. There are several factors that determine the degree to
which water will carry an electrical current. These include the concentration or
number of ions, mobility of the ion, oxidation state (valence) and temperature of
the water.
DO Dissolved Oxygen. Its refer to the amount of gaseous oxygen (O2) dissolved in
an aqueous solution.
Faecal coliform Fecal coliforms (sometimes faecal coliforms) are facultatively-anaerobic, rod-
shaped, gram-negative, non-sporulating bacteria. They are capable of growth in
the presence of bile salts or similar surface agents, oxidase negative, and
produce acid and gas from lactose within 48 hours at 44 0.5C. Fecal
coliforms include the genera that originate in feces; Escherichia as well as
genera that are not of fecal origin; Enterobacter, Klebsiella, and Citrobacter. The
assay is intended to be an indicator of fecal contamination, or more specifically
E. coli which is an indicator microorganism for other pathogens that may be
present in feces.
NH4 Ammonium. It is the ionized form of ammonia, which is occurs when the water
is acidic.
Nitrates In inorganic chemistry, a nitrate is a salt of nitric acid with an ion composed of
one nitrogen and three oxygen atoms (NO3). In organic chemistry the esters of
nitric acid and various alcohols are called nitrates. Nitrate reactions [NO3-] in
fresh water can cause oxygen depletion. Thus, aquatic organisms depending on
the supply of oxygen in the stream will die. The major routes of entry of
nitrogen into bodies of water are municipal and industrial wastewater, septic
tanks, feed lot discharges, animal wastes (including birds and fish) and
discharges from car exhausts. Bacteria in water quickly convert nitrites [NO2-] to
nitrates [NO3-].
ORP Oxidation Reduction Potential also known as redox potential. It is the tendency
of a chemical species to acquire electrons and thereby be reduced. Each species
has its own intrinsic reduction potential; the more positive the potential, the
greater the species' affinity for electrons and tendency to be reduced.
pH Potential of Hydrogen. It is a measure of the acidity or basicity of a solution.
Phosphate The element phosphorus is necessary for plant and animal growth. Nearly all
fertilizers contain phosphates (chemical compounds containing the element,
phosphorous). When it rains, varying amounts of phosphates wash from farm
soils into nearby waterways. Phosphates stimulate the growth of plankton and
water plants that provide food for fish. This may increase the fish population and
improve the waterways quality of life. If too much phosphate is present, algae
and water weeds grow wildly, choke the waterway, and use up large amounts of
oxygen. Many fish and aquatic organisms may die.
8A-2 March 2009

Salinity Salinity is a measure of the mass of dissolved salts (ionic constituents) in a given
mass of solution and usually expressed as parts per thousand (ppt). Ions
commonly found in water include calcium, magnesium, potassium and sodium
cations and bicarbonate, carbonate, chloride, nitrate, and sulfate anions.
Silicates Silicates are those compounds which have a silicon-oxygen anion chemically
combined with such metals as aluminum, calcium, magnesium, iron, potassium,
sodium and others to form silicate salts. Most silicate salts, with the exception of
sodium silicate, are only slightly soluble in water and are widely distributed in
nature. Minerals such as asbestos, mica, talc, lava, etc., contain silicates.
Temperature In physics, temperature is a physical property of a system that underlies the

common notions of hot and cold; something that feels hotter generally has the
greater temperature. Temperature is one of the principal parameters of
thermodynamics. For water quality study, to having its own toxic effect,
temperature affects the solubility and, in turn, the toxicity of many other
parameters. Generally the solubility of solids increases with increasing
temperature, while gases tend to be more soluble in cold water. Temperature is
a factor in determining allowable limits for other parameters such as ammonia.
Total hardness In water quality, the total hardness is due to the presence of multivalent metal
ions which come from minerals dissolved in the water. Hardness is based on the
ability of these ions to react with soap to form a precipitate or soap scum. In
fresh water the primary ions are calcium and magnesium; however iron and
manganese may also contribute. Carbonate hardness is equal to alkalinity but a
non-carbonate fraction may include nitrates and chlorides.
TSS Total Suspended Solids. It is one of parameter use for water quality
measurement. Usually refers to the identical measurement of the dry-weight of
particles trapped by a filter, typically of a specified pore size

March 2009 8A-3
8A-4 March 2009

CHAPTER 9 FLOOD FORECASTING AND WARNING SERVICES
Chapter 9 FLOOD FORECASTING AND WARNING SERVICES
Table of Contents

9.1 DEFINITION OF FLOOD .......................................................................................... 9-1
9.2 TYPES OF FLOODS ................................................................................................. 9-1
9.3 FLOOD PREPAREDNESS .......................................................................................... 9-2
9.4 ROLE OF DID IN FLOOD FORECASTING AND WARNING ............................................ 9-4
9.5 TELEMETRY SYSTEMS AND CHOICE OF TELEMETRY SYSTEMS .................................. 9-5
9.6 FLOOD FORECASTING TECHNIQUES ....................................................................... 9-6
9.7 ACCURACY AND TIMELINESS OF FORECAST ............................................................ 9-6
9.8 FLOOD WARNING SYSTEMS .................................................................................... 9-7
9.9 DISSEMINATION OF FORECAST AND WARNING ..................................................... 9-11
REFERENCE ......................................................................................................................... 9-13
March 2009 9-i

List of Figures
9.1 Form for Reporting Current River Level Status (Form C) ..................................... 9-3
9.2 Form P for Reporting Flood Events ................................................................... 9-4
9.3 The river basins .............................................................................................. 9-7
9.4 Locations of Telemetric Flood Monitoring Stations .............................................. 9-8
9.5 An Example of A Flood Warning Board .............................................................. 9-9
9.6 Locations of Flood Warning Siren Stations ....................................................... 9-10
9.7 Processes and Information Flow of DIDs Flood Warning Service ....................... 9-11
9.8 Processes and Information Flow in DIDs Flood Forecasting Service ................... 9-12
9-ii March 2009

9 FLOOD FORECASTING AND WARNING SERVICE
9.1 DEFINITION OF FLOOD
An area is said to be flooded if stormwater runoff cause a significant rise in water level above the
ground level inflicting damage to properties or crops or disrupting the normal activities in the area.
The source of stormwater runoff can be from a catchment upstream or it could be from an adjacent
river overspilling its banks or bunds. Not all floods are caused directly by stormwater. It could be
caused by a dam-break event or from releases from pond or dam storage.
Flood is of concern if it causes substantial property damage or it causes significant disruption to

normal activities. Therefore a swampy area or an undeveloped open space experiencing a 0.3 m of
rise in water level above the ground may not be viewed as flooding by some and thats the reason
some floods in undeveloped areas are not recorded as flood prone areas. On the other hand the
same 0.3 m inundation along a highway would cause havoc to traffic and be given lots of media
attention. Damage to properties will occur if flood rises above the floor level of properties and
damage increases drastically as flood level rises. Beyond 1.0m flood becomes potential danger to
lives. Swift flowing flood waters of 0.6m can carry away most vehicles due to buoyancy of the
vehicle in water and momentum of flowing water.
Agricultural areas are more tolerant to flooding than urban areas. Most crops especially tree crops
(rubber, fruits) can withstand shallow inundation for periods of 48 hours. Oil palms are more
resistant to flooding and can stand longer periods of inundation and the loss is often attributed to
loss of harvest when access id cut off during a flood.
9.2 TYPES OF FLOODS
There are two main forms of flooding, flash flood and river flood.
Flash floods usually occur in urban areas. Flooding is usually caused by short, intense localized
thunderstorms, the type of storm usually experienced in the evening. Runoff rate and volume from
the relatively impermeable urban area is high and time of concentration short and in many urban
areas with flash flood problems, the existing drains were designed for previous catchment condition
which would be a catchment less densely urbanized with more open spaces, for instance the Klang
and Batu Pahat urban areas.
Besides flash flood, there is also river flood. When flow in a river exceeds its conveyance capacity,
the water in the river rises above its bank level and overspills into adjacent low-lying areas causing
river floods. River floods are commonly experienced in Kelantan and Pahang. The monsoon rains
that occur in Kelantan and Pahang during the months of November and December are widespread,
heavy and prolonged. Continuous raining of three days are common. The stormwater runoff from
the vast catchment converges to the main river and when flow exceeds the capacity of the river, it
overspills and cause extensive flooding due to the sheer volume of runoff coming from a large
catchment.
In Malaysia, flash floods are common occurrences and may occur from time to time in flood prone
areas throughout the year. In terms of flood extent, flash floods affect smaller areas but because of
its tendency to occur in densely urbanized areas, the value of property damaged is high and
disruption to traffic and businesses substantial.
March 2009 9-1

However, river floods especially the river floods of Kelantan and Pahang the flood extent is large can
extend over 1000 square kilometres. Although the value of property and density of population is
lower, the flood damage inflicted can also be high because the area affected is large. The annual
average flood damage of the river basins Sg Kelantan and Sg Pahang amounts to RM 93 million and
RM 76 million respectively.
9.3 FLOOD PREPAREDNESS
Floods cause damage to properties and also endanger lives and preparedness of the community and
government agencies to handle an emergency flood situation is important to minimize losses in the
event of a flood.
Preparing the public for emergency flood response is outside the scope of hydrology although in an
emergency flood situation, DID vehicles, boats and personnel are sometimes mobilized to assist in
evacuation and related activities. To DID, in particular to the Hydrology Division of DID, flood
preparedness would mean preparedness to provide flood warning services and flood forecasting
services. For the purpose of flood forecasting, DID has set up a central Flood Forecasting Centre
(FFC) at DID Ampang. This centre will be manned 24-hours by teams working on shifts should there
be any indication of impending severe floods in the country.
There is also an annual meeting of state hydrological officers before the onset of the monsoon
months to prepare DID for flood forecasting for rivers in the east coast states of peninsular Malaysia.
Flood forecasting relies on real-time rainfall and water level data obtained from DIDs network of
telemetric stations. In preparation for floods during the monsoon season, the performance of the
telemetric stations will be checked and repairs carried out and forecasting models tested and
parameters adjusted if necessary.
DIDs standard operating procedures (SOP) in flood disaster management are documented and they
are as follows:
Before the flood season
Prepare flood operation check list for district, state and federal DID offices
Ensure that all rivers, main drains, dams, pumps, river and coastal bunds and drainage
facilities under JPS are in good condition.
Ensure that all telemetric systems, river gauges, flood warning stations, communication
equipments and vehicles are in good condition.
During the flood season
Monitor flood levels at flood warning stations

Submit flood level status report (see Form C in Figure 9.1) to the respective district and state
DID Flood Operations Centre.
Prepare and submit flood reports (see Form P in Figure 9.2)
Carry out flood forecasting for selected rivers (currently seven rivers are provided with flood
forecasting services) and submits forecasts to the respective district and state DID Flood
Operations Centre.
Provide logistic support (vehicles and boats) for flood disaster rescue operations.
Provide technical input and advice in assessment of flood disaster and flood mitigation.
9-2 March 2009

After Occurrence of Flood
Record flood and related hydrological data

Determine source and causes of flood and recommend mitigation measures
Assess damage to DID infrastructures
Implement rehabilitation works to DID infrastructures
Figure 9.1 Form for Reporting Current River Level Status (Form C)
March 2009 9-3

Figure 9.2 Form P for Reporting Flood Events
9.4 ROLE OF DID IN FLOOD FORECASTING AND WARNING
Flash floods occurs intermittently throughout the year and because flash flood usually occurs
suddenly and time available for response is short, DID has installed flood warning sirens along
identified flood prone areas to provide flood warnings to residents. These sirens trigger when flood
level exceeds specified threshold levels.
DID also monitors the flood status throughout the country via its network of flood warning stations.
The flood warning stations are equipped with water level sensors so that river flood levels can be
monitored. To assist in assessment of severity of flood, DID has designated threshold flood levels at
all the flood warning stations. The threshold flood levels are: ALERT LEVEL, WARNING LEVEL and
DANGER LEVEL colour coded in green, orange and red respectively.
ALERT LEVEL is taken as the level whereby, DID officers are alerted of an impending flood and
hence officers on standby for flood warning duties are alerted and they have to start monitoring the
flood status.
WARNING LEVEL is a level whereby the flood situation has deteriorated further and flood is about
touching DANGER LEVEL
DANGER LEVEL would be the level where lives and properties are now in danger. The flood has
reached the level beyond which property gets inundated in water.
9-4 March 2009

Setting these threshold levels depends on the flood behaviour in the area which will vary from one
location to another. DANGER LEVEL is the level where substantial property damage starts occurring
and as a rough guide the DANGER LEVEL can be taken as the mean annual flood level. The ALERT
LEVEL can be taken as the 10 percentile of the annual flood level. (The ALERT LEVEL can be taken
as the maximum of the mean annual water level) The WARNING LEVEL is the level exactly between
ALERT LEVEL and DANGER LEVEL.
Not all these flood warning stations are telemetric stations and readings are sometimes manually
read.
For large rivers like Sg Kelantan and Sg Pahang, the distance of the upstream catchment to the flood
affected areas (eg. Pasir Mas and Kota Bahru in the case of Sg Kelantan) is long and therefore the
flood experiences longer lag time. This provides sufficient lead time for forecasting to be effective.
Lead time is the time between forecast of a flood and the actual occurrence of the flood and a longer
lead time allows the recipient of the forecast to respond.
The Hydrology division of DID provides flood forecasting services to these two rivers during the
north-east monsoon months of November and December.
With the implementation of sophisticated flood mitigation projects such as the SMART flood diversion
tunnel project in Kuala Lumpur, DID is now involved in flood forecasting which will provide the basis
for operation of projects during a flood. The SMART tunnel operation requires flood forecasting as
the tunnel fulfils dual role of vehicular traffic tunnel and flood diversion tunnel and to activate the
flood diversion sufficient lead time must be available for the traffic within the tunnel to be cleared. As
projects become more sophisticated, flood simulation and forecasting will become an important
component in the operation of the projects. It need not be limited to the SMART tunnel project.
There may be other projects where operation can be further fine tuned with the incorporation of
flood simulation models in decision making.
To date, flood forecasting services are provided to 7 river systems namely Sg Kelantan, Sg Golok, Sg
Besut, Sg Pahang, Sg Perak, Sg Muda and Sg Batu Pahat. Flood warning service is provided to 39
river and the rivers are equipped with telemetric systems for real-time monitoring of flood levels.
9.5 TELEMETRY SYSTEMS AND CHOICE OF TELEMETRY SYSTEMS
For flood forecasting to be effective, sufficient lead time must be available. Lead time of a flood
forecast is the time between the detection or forecast of a flood event and the time of actual
occurrence of the event. In fact for large rivers in the world such as the Ganges, the Mississippi and
the Rhine, the flood has to travel over large distances therefore can be detected days before it
reaches the target area. In a sense flood forecasting for these rivers are easier. Simple stage
correlation methods would probably yield quite realistic forecast of floods which can be issued with
sufficient lead time for the flood forecast to be meaningful in terms of getting people to evacuate.
But, a flash flood such as those experienced in Kuala Lumpur the flood arrives less than 2 hours after
the rain and therefore to provide sufficient lead time for the forecast to be meaningful, DID is also
looking into the possibility of forecasting rainfall quantitatively (quantitative precipitation forecast or
QPF).
March 2009 9-5

Therefore the flood forecasting systems under DID are all equipped with telemetric rainfall and water
level stations so that data are collected in real-time. DIDs hydrological stations are equipped with
sensors, raingauge for collecting rainfall data and water level sensors for collecting water level data.
These data are traditionally read by field technicians when they visit the stations. Data used to be
recorded on paper charts but with modern electronics these data are now recorded digitally in
memory cards. But readings are not available immediately despite the upgrade to electronic storage
systems. For flood forecasting data must be available in real-time and to achieve that sensors are
now incorporated with remote terminal unit (RTU). The RTU is essentially a telecommunications unit
which gets the data read by the sensor and transmit the data via telemetry to a central data
collection station which is usually at the state DID office. Telemetry stands for remote measurement
and using telecommunications to transmit the measured data to a master station where the data
picked up could be used for flood forecasting for early response.
9.6 FLOOD FORECASTING TECHNIQUES
Various flood forecasting techniques have been adopted by DID and they depend on the nature of
the river, the flood (flash flood or river flood, long lag time or short lag time, tidal influence or no
tidal influence), availability of data and supporting systems such as hydrological instruments and
SCADA . The flood forecasting techniques adopted include:
simple stage correlation method applied to forecast Kota Bahru Flood based on Kuala Krai
Flood level.
black box type of model e.g. the multiple linear regression model which was at one time
used for Sg Kelang and the linear transfer function model currently used for Sg Pahang.
conceptual rainfall runoff models such as the Tank Model currently used for Sg Kelantan
The unit hydrograph based models which is also a form of conceptual rainfall-runoff model
such as the Flash Flood Model which was also at one time applied to Sg Kelang.
9.7 ACCURACY AND TIMELINESS OF FORECAST
Obviously for any forecast to be effective it must be accurate and in the case of flood it must also be
timely.
In terms of accuracy we have to be realistic. Rainfall collected by the network of telemetric rain
gauges can never truly record the actual areal rainfall whose spatial variability can be quite high. The
spatial variability of rainfall is higher for localized convectional rain compared to the monsoonal
rainfall. The real catchment process is quite complex and we are merely trying our best to represent
the rainfall runoff process by viewing the process in a simple manner so that the process can be
described by equations.
In flood forecasting the lead time of forecast is important. The lead time of a flood forecast is the
time between the prediction of the occurrence of the flood and the actual occurrence of the flood.
At various DID flood warning stations three flood levels have been defined i.e. the Alert Level
(Green), the Warning Level(Orange) and the Danger Level(Red). If Danger Level is the threshold
level whereby flood occurs then the period between the time when forecast is made and the time
the flood level rises to the Danger Level is the lead time.
Lead time varies with the catchment characteristics especially the length of the catchment and also
with the nature of rainfall. Lead time also depends on the technique of flood forecasting. To give an
idea of lead time in DID s flood forecasting service, the lead time of a flood forecast of Sg Kelantan
at Kuala Krai is about 12 hours while the lead time of a flood forecast of Sg Kelang at Jambatan
Sulaiman is about 1.5 hours.
9-6 March 2009

Obviously the longer the lead time the more useful the forecast as it allows time for action to be
taken to save lives and properties. To improve lead time, information on rainfall should be obtained
in real-time and this is made possible through the establishment of telemetric stations and SCADA
systems. In the case of the SMART Tunnel project where sufficient lead time is critical for its
operation, DID is contemplating applying quantitative precipitation forecast (QPF) to further increase
the lead time despite the uncertainty over the reliability of QPF.
9.8 FLOOD WARNING SYSTEMS
The flood warning systems varies from sophisticated flood forecasting operated by DID, to
community self help system such as the flood warning board system to simple flood siren system.
Whilst ideally flood forecasting should be a component of a flood warning system, sometimes flood
forecasting is not possible due to reasons such as:
Insufficient lead time. To achieve a reasonable lead time of forecast, real time monitoring of
rainfall and water level.
A suitable flood forecasting model has not been developed yet
Lack of manpower, hardware and software to process the data and expertise to operate the
flood forecasting model.
Flood warning in many areas is achieved using other methods such as Flood Warning Boards (FWB)
or flood sirens.
Telemetric Flood Monitoring Stations
As of 2008, there are thirty nine (39) river basins are equipped with telemetric flood monitoring
stations where the flood levels and rainfalls are monitored in real-time. The river basins are as
follows:
Figure 9.3 The River Basins
March 2009 9-7

The breakdown of telemetric stations is: 42 telemetric water level stations, 127 telemetric rainfall
stations and 193 combined water level and rainfall stations. The locations of the telemetric stations
are as shown in Figure 9.4.
Figure 9.4 Locations of Telemetric Flood Monitoring Stations
Flood Warning Board
DID flood warning board (FWB) systems were established in various river systems. Three rivers
where FWBs have been established are Sg Kelantan and Sg Pahang. The obvious similarity of both
rivers is they are large rivers with long lag time. Another prerequisite for FWB system is that there
must be a reliable stage correlation between flood levels upstream and flood levels downstream at
target FWB sites.
In the FWB system, a reference station upstream is identified e.g. Kuala Krai in Sg Kelantan. In
analyses of past records it was found that the flood levels at various towns downstream at Pasir Mas
and Kota Bahru areas is strongly correlated with the flood levels at the upstream reference station,
Kuala Krai. The travel time of the flood is also known.
9-8 March 2009

Real-time data of the flood level at Kuala Krai (which is equipped with a telemetric water level
station) is obtain at regular intervals (1-hourly to 6-hourly). When the level at Kuala Krai reaches
alert level, the flood levels are broadcasted via the local radio stations so that residents in flood
prone areas downstream are constantly informed of the Kuala Krai Levels.
Though analyses of past flood records DID has established a reasonably reliable stage correlation of
flood levels at Kuala Krai with flood levels at various target flood prone areas and are able to mark
on the FWB the various flood levels that would be experienced at the FWB site corresponding to
various Kuala Krai flood levels. At the flood prone areas, the FWB are located where the affected
people congregates, i.e. near to a local coffee shop. The community affected by the flood is able to
determine the expected flood level in their area by noting the flood level at the reference station
Kuala Krai and the time of travel of flood is also displayed in the FWB as a guide to residents in
planning their evacuation.
After the 1983 flood in the east coast states of Peninsular Malaysia there was a review report
prepared. The report concluded that FWBs are practical tools for delivering warnings direct to the
public and some suggestions to improve the FWBs were made. A typical flood warning board is
shown in Figure 9.5.
The FWB system continues to be implemented and to date about 138 FWBs have been established.
Figure 9.5 An Example of A Flood Warning Board
March 2009 9-9

Flood Siren
A flood siren is located in flood prone areas where due to short forecast lead time or for some other
reasons, flood forecasting and FWB systems are not applicable. An example would be an area
affected by flash floods. Flash floods are floods which occur suddenly (short lag time) and flood siren
is definitely one of the options in providing flood warning. The operation of a flood siren is simple. If
the flood level rises to a set threshold flood level then the siren is triggered, thereby warning
residents nearby of an impending flood and flood can occur anytime even at night when those asleep
can be alerted by the siren. There are variations to the simple flood siren where several threshold
levels can be defined and different siren tone assigned to each threshold level. About 300 flood
sirens have been set up and they are located in locations prone to flash flooding (see Figure 9.6)
Figure 9.6 Locations of Flood Warning Siren Stations
9-10 March 2009

9.9 DISSEMINATION OF FORECAST AND WARNING
For the flood forecast to be useful, it must be disseminated to the intended stakeholders. The
stakeholders need not be directly to the affected people and can be the authorities in charge of flood
evacuation. The FWB and flood siren system disseminate warnings directly to the affected residents.
In DIDs flood forecasting service, the forecast or prognosis of flood forecast is disseminated to Bilik
Gerakan, Bahagian Keselamatan Negara and Pusat Kawalan Malaysia (Polis). The flow chart of
processes and the various agencies involved in DIDs flood warning service is presented in Figure
9.7. For River Basins with Flood Forecasting Service the processes is slightly different (See Figure
9.8)
Figure 9.7 Processes and Information Flow of DIDs Flood Warning Service
March 2009 9-11

Figure 9.8 Processes and Information Flow in DIDs Flood Forecasting Service
9-12 March 2009

REFERENCE
[1] DID Review of the Flood Warning Board System, Department of Drainage and Irrigation,
Malaysia, 1984.
March 2009 9-13

9-14 March 2009

CHAPTER 10 CATCHMENT MODELLING
Chapter 10 CATCHMENT MODELLING
Table of Contents
Table of Contents .................................................................................................................. 10-i

List of Figures .......................................................................................................................10-ii
10.1 OVERVIEW OF MODELLING OF RAINFALL, RUNOFF AND STORM DRAINAGE ................. 10-1
10.2 EVENT BASED AND CONTINUOUS SIMULATION OF RAINFALL-RUNOFF ........................ 10-3
10.3 TANK MODEL ........................................................................................................... 10-4
10.4 TIME SERIES MODELLING ......................................................................................... 10-7
REFERENCES ......................................................................................................................10-12
March 2009 10-i

List of Figures
10.1 A Simple Catchment Model 10-1

10.2 Configuration of a Distributed Catchment Model 10-2
10.3 A Basic Tank Model Configured for Sg Kelantan 10-4
10.4 The Tank Configurations for a Sub-basin and fora Channel Reach for the
Modified Tank Model 10-5
10.5 Sub-Basins and Channel Reaches of the Modified Tank Modelfor Sg Kelantan
and Tabulation of Model Parameters 10-5
10.6 Tank model Simulation Results for the 1992 and 1994 Floods 10-6
10.7 Unit Hydrograph (UH) as a Function that Transform Effective Rainfall to a
Direct Runoff Hydrograph (DRH) 108
10.8 A Typical Three-Layer Feed Forward ANN 10-9
10.9 Logsig Transfer Function 10-10
10-ii March 2009

10 CATCHMENT MODELLING
10.1 OVERVIEW OF MODELLING OF RAINFALL, RUNOFF AND STORM DRAINAGE
In reality, hydrological processes are complex and attempts have been made to represent the
processes in a simplified manner and these simplified representations of a catchment are models of
the catchment.
In many typical catchment models, the catchment is represented as storage and rainfall falling on
the catchment goes into this storage. Water is lost from this storage via evaporation, infiltration and
outflows. In a typical application of catchment models, the parameter of interest is usually the
outflow or discharge from the catchment. Simple equations are used to compute outflow from this
storage. Such models are also called rainfall-runoff models. See Figure 10.1.
E R E
R
Q Q
I I
Catchmentandhydrological Modelrepresentationof
processes hydrologicalprocesses
R:Rainfall I:Infiltration
E:Evaporation Q:Discharge
Figure 10.1 A Simple Catchment Model
With powerful computing tools made possible by computers, a more complex catchment model can
be configured. The additional model features that are usually adopted are:
Further differentiation of storage into: surface storage and groundwater storage.

Outflow from surface storage comes out fast whilst outflow from groundwater storage
comes out slowly. Rainfall enters surface storage first and water gets into groundwater
storage via infiltration. Some models even differentiate groundwater into primary and
secondary groundwater storages.
March 2009 10-1

Chapter 10
0 CATCHMENT
T MODELLING
ng the catchm
Dividin ment into intterlinking subbcatchmentss. The modeel is now a distributed
catchmment model as opposed to a single lumped catcchment mod del (see Figu
ure 10.2).
This allows the moodeller the flexibility
f to consider
c para
ameter and input variatiions from
one suub-catchments to another, such as:
Rainfa
all variationn in meteorological input
Infiltration
n variation in soil type
Catchment lag time variation in terrain
t

Catchmentsubd
C dividedintosub
bbasinsto Schematicofd
distributedmod
del
model
configureadistributedm
2 Configuratiion of a Distrributed Catch

Figure 10.2 hment Model
Examplles of commo
only used raiinfall runoff models
m are:
RORB: The RORB runoff routiing software e was develooped by the e Departmen nt of Civil
Engineering of Mon nash Universsity. It is now
w a freewaree (RORB Verssion 6 is avaailable for
downlooad). RORB features the e non-linear storage
s routing equationn of Laurenso on. RORB
is a rainfall-runoff and streamfflow routing program. Itt subtracts lo osses from rainfall
r to
producce rainfall-exxcess and routs this through cattchment sto orage to prroduce a
hydroggraph through a network of basins an nd channels.. The model is areally disstributed,
nonline
ear. RORB also a modelss retarding basins and storage resservoirs. Ma any early
catchmment runoff studies in the 80s and 90s on mo odelling by consultants and DID
engineeers uses thiss RORB Version 2 which runs under DOS D operatin
ng system. The
T latest
version
n of RORB Ve ersion 6 runss under MS Windows.
W
10-2 March
M 2009
SWMM: The EPA Storm Water Management Model (SWMM) is a rainfall-runoff simulation
model used for simulation of runoff quantity and quality from primarily urban areas. The
runoff component of SWMM operates on a collection of subcatchment areas that receive
precipitation and generate runoff and pollutant loads. The routing portion of SWMM
transports this runoff through a system of pipes, channels, storage/treatment devices,
pumps, and regulators. SWMM tracks the quantity and quality of runoff generated within
each subcatchment, and the flow rate, flow depth, and quality of water in each pipe and
channel during a simulation period comprised of multiple time steps. SWMM was first
developed in 1971, and has since undergone several major upgrades since then. The
latest version of SWMM 5 was produced by the Water Supply and Water Resources
Division of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's National Risk Management
Research Laboratory in a joint development effort with CDM, Inc. SWMM is also a
freeware but there are third party developers packaging SWMM with pre and post
processors. The software is used by some consulting firms in stormwater drainage
design in Malaysia.
Hec-1/Hec-HMS: Hec-1, developed by the Hydrologic Engineering Centre of the US

Army Corps of Engineers, is a well known and popularly used software for hydrological
modelling.. The model is designed to simulate the surface runoff response of a river
basin to precipitation by representing the basin as an interconnected system of sub-
basin and channel components. Hec-1 is rewritten to run under MS Windows and is now
known as Hec-HMS. Hec-HMS is also a freeware and features an impressive user
interface and features for very versatile model configuration and file management. Being
a freeware with quite impressive and versatile functions, the software commands a large
user base with active online user forums. As expected many consultants are using this
software in catchment studies. Currently Hec-HMS also has functions to use radar
rainfall data and can be linked to GIS software
10.2 EVENT BASED AND CONTINUOUS SIMULATION OF RAINFALL-RUNOFF
Many models used in catchment studies in particular the flood models are event based model. In
event based model of flood flow, the groundwater contribution to flow is not significant as the
surface runoff far exceeds the groundwater flow. Therefore simple rainfall loss models are often
adopted simplifying the rainfall runoff modelling procedure. Loss models such as initial loss followed
by constant continuous loss model or runoff coefficient loss model are often applied.
There is sometimes a need to implement flow simulation or flow forecasting covering longer time
durations covering both flood flows and extended periods of dry weather flow. When flow simulation
is extended to the dry weather periods groundwater contribution becomes significant. Evaporation
and evapotranspiration becomes significant and would have to be factored in the rainfall-runoff
simulation process. Examples of such models are the flood forecasting models of Sg Kelantan and Sg
Pahang. For such models continuous soil moisture accounting is applied. In continuous soil moisture
accounting, the model keeps track of groundwater storages whereby infiltration from surface storage
recharges groundwater and groundwater storage is depleted via both groundwater outflow and
evapotranspiration. The Sg Kelantan flood forecasting model uses Sugawaras Tank Model which has
different levels of tanks representing surface and groundwater storages for soil moisture accounting.
The Hec-HMS model although applied in many cases as event-based model do have a continuous
soil-moisture accounting module which can be selected if required. The obvious reason for not using
continuous soil moisture accounting is its complexity.
Another area of simulation where soil moisture accounting plays an important role is the long term
daily flow simulation carried out for water resources studies.
March 2009 10-3

The Thornwaite and Mather Water Balance Model described in DIDs Water Resources Publication No
6 (WRP6) is an example of a daily continuous soil moisture accounting model. The lumped
catchment model of Blackie and Eeles adopted in the HYRROM software of UKs Institute of
Hydrology is another example of a daily runoff simulation model using continuous soil moisture
accounting.
10.3 TANK MODEL
Modelling for flood forecasting would be considered the most demanding rainfall-runoff modelling
effort. The reliability of the model in simulating the catchment runoff can be compared with
observed data immediately.
One of the models adopted for flood forecasting is Sugawaras Tank Model. The model was used for
real-time forecasting of floods at Guillemard Bridge, Sg Kelantan. Sugawaras Tank Model can be
configured in many ways and one of the model configurations is as shown in Figure 10.3 below.
The Sg Kelantan Tank Model comprises 3 tanks. One for the surface flow, a second tank for the
interflow and outflows from both tanks is routed through a third tank to simulate river routing
process.
Rainfall R enters the first tank. First tank storage must rise above H1 before any outflow occurs
(conceptually H1 is the interception storage). Water is lost from the first tank via evaporation EV and
infiltration INFIL1, storage higher than H1 will result in surface flow Q2 and Q1 if rain so heavy raises
the storage to above H2.
Figure 10.3 A Basic Tank Model Configured for Sg Kelantan

by Sugawara (1981)
The second tank receives water from INFIL1 and the second tank storage must be in excess of H3
before interflow Q3 occurs. INFIL2 represents deep percolation. A constant base flow is included.
Flows Q1, Q2, Q3 and baseflow feeds into the third tank and the routed flow represents the
simulated flow at the catchment outlet and in the case of the Kelantan Flood Forecasting model, the
outlet is at Guillemard Bridge.
10-4 March 2009

The parameters initially configured for Sg Kelantan is presented in Figure 10.3 above. The original
Tank model configured for Sg Kelantan is a lumped model. Towards the end of 90s, the Kelantan
Tank Model was modified. The Tank configuration is as shown in Figure 10.4. This configuration is
for a sub-basin and a channel reach. Availability of more powerful and cheaper computers allows DID
to configure Sg Kelantan model as distributed model. The Sg Kelantan basin is divided into four sub-
basins, B1 to B4 and the sub-basins are linked by channel reaches C1 to C3. A schematic of the
Modified Tank Model for Sg Kelantan and the model parameters are presented in Figures 10.5 and
10.6.
Figure 10.4 The Tank Configurations for a Sub-basin and fora Channel Reach for the Modified Tank
Model
Figure 10.5 Sub-Basins and Channel Reaches of the Modified Tank Modelfor Sg Kelantan and
Tabulation of Model Parameters
March 2009 10-5

Avg Rainfall OLVL4 LVL4

18 70
16 60
14
50
12
Rainfall (mm)
Stage (m)
10 40
8 30
6
20
4
2 10
0 0
1
1
92
92
1
-9
-9
-9
n-
n-
ec
c
ov
De
Ja
Ja
-D
-N
1-
8-
1-
15
15
20 100
18 90
16 80
14 70
Rainfall (mm)
Stage (m)
12 60
10 50
8 40
6 30
4 20
2 10
0 0
2
2
2
2
2
-9
-9
-9
-9
-9
ec
c
ct
ov
v
De
No
-O
-D
-N
1-
15
1-
13
15

20 50
18 45
16 40
14 35
Rainfall (mm)
Stage (m)
12 30
10 25
8 20
6 15
4 10
2 5
0 0
4
4
4
4
4
-9
-9
-9
-9
-9
ec
ec
c
ov
v
De
No
-D
-D
-N
1-
1-
15
24
15
Figure 10.6 Tank model Simulation Results for the 1992 and 1994 Floods

10-6 March 2009

10.4 TIME SERIES MODELLING
Whilst hydrological models described thus far are models which attempt to simulate the physical
hydrological processes such as the various storages and flows in the hydrological cycle, there is
another way to generate runoff data based purely on statistics of historical data. Such analyses are
also called time-series analyses.
A hydrological time series is a set of hydrological observations such as rainfall, evaporation and river
discharges that are arranged chronologically. Ideally, long series of data can be derived from actual
observations but this is usually not the case and studies are sometimes carried out using synthetic
time series in particular rainfall and streamflow series. Synthetic flow series are generally adopted in
many studies for reservoir sizing, for determining the reliability of water supply and for reservoir
operation studies.
Natural hydrological processes are either stochastic or combination of deterministic and stochastic
processes. Inflow and rainfall processes often exhibits marked seasonal variability, superposed with
random deviations from the seasonal variation. Therefore, in a typical time-series analysis, the
historical time series data is taken and attempt is made to break down the data into the deterministic
component and the stochastic component. The deterministic component of a monthly flow for
instance would be the seasonal cycle of monthly flows.
Such models do not place emphasis of the physical processes. The catchment is considered a system
that transform the system input (rainfall) to yield system output (runoff) and there is no necessity to
understand the physical processes that transform rainfall to runoff and therefore such models are
also known as black box models. The transformation function (the mathematical or statistical
function that transforms the rainfall input to runoff output) is determined using mathematical and
statistical calibration. Examples of such models are:
o Simple and multiple regression,

o transfer functions,
o neural networks and
o stochastic models
Regression Model
The most simple relationship between two variables (e.g. yearly runoff, Y versus yearly rainfall, X) is
a linear regression equation of the form:
Y=a+bX (10.1)
where a, b are equation constants or regression coefficients.
Multiple regression is a straightforward extension of simple linear regression. It is used for

correlating one variable with many variables, for example yearly runoff, Y as a function of yearly
rainfall, X1 and yearly evaporation, X2.
Y = a + b X1 + c X2 (10.2)
where a, b and c are equation constants or regression coefficients.
Regression equations that have higher degree polynomials.
Y = a + b X13+ c X2 (10.3)
March 2009 10-7

The regression coefficients are usually chosen to minimize the sum of squares of error e
Minimize e2 (10.4)
Where e = difference between observed Y, Yi and predicted values of Y, Yi
Regression methods are conceptually simple and have been applied to infill data series. Although
attempts have been made to improve the reliability and accuracy of hydrological data collection,
there are still data gaps (periods of missing data) in DIDs hydrological records. Regression methods
are often be used to infill the missing records, the missing monthly and yearly rainfall or discharge
data.
Transfer or Transformation Functions
Transfer or transformation function seeks to convert rainfall series to runoff series. In many
applications, it is the runoff data that is of main interest. Runoff data is more difficult to collect and
more difficult to extrapolate to the point of interest. In DID, rainfall records extends to the 1940s
while streamflow records began during the 1960s. In terms of numbers, there are more rainfall
stations than streamflow stations. One way of generating runoff data from rainfall data (apart from
the other conceptual models such as the Tank Model and Lumped Catchment Model described in
previous sections) is the unit hydrograph method.
The unit hydrograph method is an application of the convolution integral procedure and is an
example of a black-box transfer or transformation function (see Figure 10.7 Details of unit
hydrograph method is described in section 5.2.3).
Effective Transfer or
Direct
rainfall transformation
function runoff
hyetograph
Unit
hydrograph
Figure 10.7 Unit Hydrograph (UH) as a Function that Transform Effective Rainfall to a Direct Runoff
Hydrograph (DRH)
10-8 March 2009

Artificial Neural Network (ANN)
Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs) are basically computing systems similar to biological neural
networks. They are characterized by three components:
Nodes
Weights (connection strength)
An activation (transfer) function
In an ANN, there are layers and at each layer there are nodes. A commonly used ANN is the three-
layer feed-forward ANN. A typical three-layer feed-forward ANN, consists of a layer of input nodes, a
single layer of hidden nodes, and a layer of output nodes, as shown in Figure 10.8. In the figure, i, j,
k denote nodes inner layer, hidden layer and output layer, respectively. w is the weight of the nodes.
Subscripts specify the connections between the nodes. For example, wij is the weight between nodes
i and j. The term "feed-forward" means that a node connection only exists from a node in the input
layer to other nodes in the hidden layer or from a node in the hidden layer to nodes in the output
layer; and the nodes within a layer
i are not interconnected to each other.
wij j
wjk
k
Input Layer Hidden Layer Output Layer
Figure 10.8 A Typical Three-Layer Feed Forward ANN
Each node in the input layer receives an input variable and passes it to the nodes in the hidden layer.
In addition, a bias node, which is also a weight with a fixed input, 1.0, is usually added to the input
layer and to the hidden layer. The nodes in the hidden layer and in the output layer are nonlinear
nodes meaning the weights multiplied by inputs.
Activation function determines the response of a node to the total input it receives. The most
commonly used sigmoid function given as,
1
y=f x = =logsig(x)
1+ exp (-x)
(10.5)
Sigmoid functions are used to bound the outputs of the weighted sum of all the incoming inputs x.
Whatever the output of x becomes, the result will be limited to [0, 1] interval by sigmoid function in
a nonlinear manner. Since, it is easy to take derivative of sigmoid function; it is more popular than
any other functions. A log sig transfer functions is given Figure 10.9.
March 2009 10-9


y

1
0
x
1
Figure 10. 9 Logsig Transfer Function
The process of fitting the network to the experimental data is called training. It consists of adjusting
the weight associated with each connection (synapse) between neurons. Training and testing
concept is similar to the idea of calibration, an integral part of most hydraulic modelling studies. The
available data set is generally grouped into two parts, one for training and the other for testing.
The purpose of training is to determine the set of connection weights that cause the ANN to estimate
outputs within the given tolerance limits to target values. The data set reserved for training is used
for this purpose. This grouping of the complete data to be employed for training should contain
sufficient patterns so that the network can learn the underlying relationship between input and
output variables adequately. That is why the training part generally consists of most of the data
available. In the literature, there is no specific rule while grouping total data into training and test
divisions.
It became standard for some years to train artificial neural networks by a method called
Backpropagation. Backpropagation models, in a feedforward architecture, contain three components.
They are an input layer, an output layer and at least one hidden layer.
In backpropagation algorithm there are two main steps. The first step is a forward pass, which is
also called as activation phase. In that step, inputs are processed to reach the output layer through
the network. After the error is computed, a second step starts backward through the network, which
is also called as error backpropagation.
During the training phase, an error value, usually mean square error (MSE) is calculated between the
desired output and the actual output. The MSE is then propagated backwards to the input layer and
the connection weights between the layers are readjusted. After the weights have been adjusted and
the hidden layer nodes have generated an output result, the error value is again re-determined. If
the error has not reached, which is usually defined by a particular iteration number, the error will
then again be propagated backwards to the input layer. This procedure continues until the model has
finally reached to the predetermined tolerance limit.
The weights in backpropagation algorithm are adjusted according to the direction in which the
performance function, in this study MSE, decreases rapidly. Although the function decreases most
rapidly along the steepest descent direction (negative of the gradient), it may not produce the fastest
convergence. A search is performed along conjugate directions, which produces generally faster
convergence than steepest descent directions
10-10 March 2009

The number of input, output, and hidden layer nodes depend upon the problem being studied. If the
number of nodes in the hidden layer is small, the network may not have sufficient degrees of
freedom to learn the process correctly. If the number is too high, the training will take a long time
and the network may sometimes overfit the data.
Stochastic Models
Stochastic models are used in hydrology for time series data generation often for water resources
simulation studies. The performance of a proposed water resources system, often involving a
combination of direct river extraction, dam storage and perhaps diversions from another catchment
is assessed by simulating the flows and storages in the proposed system using long term hydrological
time series. However, in many cases, the observed records are short. In Malaysia, many areas do
have about 20 years of streamflow records available. Based on statistics of available time series
records which are often too short or fragmented to be useful, stochastic models are applied to
generate longer hydrological time series with statistics that preserved the statistics of the available
time series. There are a number of commonly used stochastic models such as the autoregressive
(AR) and the Periodic Autoregressive (PAR) models
The objective of stochastic models is to generate hydrological time series, which preserve the
statistical properties of the original data at more than one time level (typically annual and seasonal).
For instance, generated monthly inflows must reproduce the basic statistics (e.g., mean, standard
deviation and skewness coefficient) of observed monthly flow data. Further, they should represent
adequately the statistics of the annual historical series.
The autoregressive model assumes that there is persistence in successive hydrological values e.g.
rainy days occurs in a stretch or dry weather persists for many days. Therefore a simple approach to
predicting river flow is to correlate it with flows 1 day before (lagged by 1 day). An example of a
simple first order AR model for predicting flow xt is as follows:
xt = xm + k(xt-k xm) + e (10.6)
Where xm = mean x: xt-k = the k time step lag time Q:

k = the lag k serial correlation coefficient and
e = a random error term
The serial correlation coefficient is given by:
t ,t-1
t, = (10.7)
t-1 21 2
t-1
Where t = (xt xm) and t-k = (xt-k xm)
where k = 0, 1, 2, is the time lag. The zero lag coefficient r0 is equal to one, and higher lag
coefficients generally damp towards small values with increasing lag. The autocorrelation coefficients
can be plotted versus lag in a plot known as a correlogram.
Besides flows and rainfall, the AR model is also used to model residual errors in flood forecasts. For
example, adjustments to flood forecasts made using the DIDs Tank Model for Sg Kelantan is
adjusted using the AR Model of the residual errors.
March 2009 10-11

The Thomas-Fiering model has been widely used for data generation and forecasting of hydrologic
variables. Thomas and Fierings (1962) early model and its periodic autoregressive (PAR) and moving
average (MA) extensions generate monthly or seasonal flow directly. An example of a Thomas-
Fiering Model for predicting inflow qt to the reservoirs is as follows:
qt =t +t-1,t t (q -t-1 )
+t t 1-2t-1,t (10.8)
t-1
t-1
where , and are the estimated lag-one autocorrelation, mean and standard deviation associated
with the inflows to the reservoirs.
REFERENCES
[1] Curtis, D.C. and Burnash, R.J.C., Inadvertent rain gauge inconsistencies and their effect on
hydrologic analysis, 1996 California-Nevada ALERT Users Group Conference, Ventura, CA, May 15-
17, 1996.
10-12 March 2009

CHAPTER 11 SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS
Chapter 11 SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS
Table of Contents
Table of Contents ................................................................................................................. 11-i

List of Figures ......................................................................................................................11-ii
11.1 OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ACT (OSHA) REQUIREMENTS 1994 ................... 11-1
11.2 GENERAL PRACTICES .......................................................................................... 11-3
11.2.1 Training for New Employees ......................................................................... 11-3
11.2.2 Communication ............................................................................................ 11-3
11.2.3 Preparing for the Field .................................................................................. 11-4
11.2.4 Transportation ............................................................................................. 11-4
11.2.5 In the Field .................................................................................................. 11-6
11.2.6 Equipment ................................................................................................. 11-10
11.2.7 Maintenance and Storage ........................................................................... 11-10
11.2.8 Safety Inspection ....................................................................................... 11-11
11.3 SPECIFIC PROCEDURES AND SAFETY ISSUES ...........................................................11-11
11.3.1 Cableway Measurements ............................................................................ 11-11
11.3.2 Bridge Measurement .................................................................................. 11-12
11.3.3 Wading ..................................................................................................... 11-13
11.3.4 Moving boat .............................................................................................. 11-14
11.3.5 Helicopters ................................................................................................ 11-15
11.3.6 Safety Procedures When Working In Confined Space and Stilling Well ............ 11-19
11.3.7 Safety Procedures When Working At Height ................................................. 11-21
REFERENCE .......................................................................................................................11-22
March 2009 11-i

List of Figures
11.1 Using orange pylons for warning approaching motorists. 11-6

11.2 Examples of Poisonous and Thorny plants 11-9
11.3 Landing Area Dimensions 11-16
11.4 Approach helicopter between 10 and 2 oclock zone 11-17
11.5 Approach and leave by the down slope side for rotor clearance 11-18
11.6 Example of the stilling well 11-19
11-ii March 2009

11.0 SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS
11.1 OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ACT (OSHA) REQUIREMENTS 1994
In certain works, the DID employee are required to undertake field works which may be hazardous
such as making flood measurements. It is important that the safety aspects of the work procedure
be implemented and adhered with, to avoid or minimize accidents from happening. OSHA (The
Occupational Safety And Health Act) have been formulated to:-
assist in the coaching and stimulation of the operating units safety and health objectives
design, develop and implement the safety and health programs for the safety officer.
manage and ensure all environment and OSHA legal requirement is in compliance.
The Department of Occupational Safety and Health (DOSH), under the Ministry of Human Resources,
has been assigned the responsibility of administrating and enforcing legislation related to
occupational safety and health (OSH) to ensure that safety, health and welfare of people at work as
well as others are protected from hazards resulting from occupational activities.
The department carries out enforcement activities on industries governed by three legislations which
are Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA) 1994, Factories and Machinery Act 1967; and
Petroleum Act (Safety Measure) 1984.
To achieve a good record for occupational safety and health management at the workplace, Safety
and health program audit is used as a tool for benchmarking a firm's safety and health efforts
against accepted standards which are outlined in the MS 1722 : Part 1 : 2005 OSH MS ( Occupational
Safety and Health Management Systems Requirements ). This standard was developed by
Department of Standards Malaysia and with other agencies collaboration. It provides a means of
measuring both documentation and implementation of the safety and health program.
The Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA) 1994 provide the legislative framework to promote,
stimulate and encourage high standards of safety and health at work. The aim is to promote safety
and health awareness, and establish effective safety organisation and performance through self-
regulation schemes designed to suit the particular industry or organisation. The long-term goal of the
Act is to create a healthy and safe working culture among all Malaysian employees and employers.
The Department of Occupational Safety and Health (DOSH) is responsible for enforcing compliance
with OSHA 1994. DOSH also enforces compliance with the Factories and Machinery Act 1967.
OSHA 1994 defines the general duties of employers, employees, the self-employed, designers,
manufacturers, importers and suppliers of plant or substances. Although these duties are of a
general character, they carry a wide ranging set of responsibilities. The Act provides a
comprehensive and integrated system of law to deal with the safety and health of virtually all people
at work and the protection of the public where they may be affected by the activities of people at
work.
The general duties of employers, employees, the self-employed, designers, manufacturers, importers
and suppliers of plant or substances are clearly defined under OSHA 1994. Employers must
safeguard so far as is practicable, the health, safety and welfare of the people who work for them.
This applies in particular to the provision and maintenance of a safe plant and system of work.
Arrangements must also be made to ensure safety and health in the use, handling, storage and
transport of plant and substances. Under OSHA 1994, 'plant' includes any machinery, equipment,
March 2009 11-1

appliance, tool and component, whilst 'substance' means any natural or artificial substance whether
in solid, liquid, gas, vapor or combination thereof, form.
Risks to health from the use, storage or transportation of substances must be minimised. To meet
these aims, all practicable precautions must be taken in the proper use and handling of any
substance likely to cause a risk to health. It is the duty of employers to provide the necessary
information, instruction, training and supervision in safe practices, including information on the legal
requirements. Employers need to consider the specific training needs of their organisations with
particular reference to processes with special hazards.
An employer employing 40 or more persons must establish a safety and health committee at the
workplace. The committee's main function is to keep under review the measures taken to ensure the
safety and health of persons at the workplace and investigate any related matters arising. An
employer must notify the nearest occupational safety and health office of any accident, dangerous
occurrence, occupational poisoning or disease which has occurred or is likely to occur at the
workplace.
Some operation, installation, maintenance and dismantling of equipment and process need
competent persons. Thus, during the installation of machinery and equipment such as cranes, lifts
and local exhaust ventilation systems, competent persons are compulsory to ensure safe erection,
whilst a boilerman and a steam engineer are required to operate high risk equipment such as boilers.
Processes that use hazardous chemicals require competent persons to conduct the air quality and
personal monitoring, and a safety and health officer and an occupational health doctor are required
to ensure the proper surveillance of the workplace.
There are seven regulations under OSHA 1994 that enforced by DOSH. They are:
a. Employers' Safety and Health General Policy Statements (Exception) Regulations, 1995
b. Control of Industrial Major Accident Hazards Regulations, 1996
c. Classification, Packaging and Labelling of Hazardous Chemicals Regulations, 1997
d. Safety and Health Committee Regulations, 1996
e. Safety and Health Officer Regulations, 1997
f. Use and Standards of Exposure of Chemicals Hazardous to Health Regulations, 2000
g. Notification of Accident, Dangerous Occurrence, Occupational Poisoning and Occupational

Disease Regulations, 2004
Contravention of some of the requirements can lead to prosecution in court. A person who fails to
comply with an improvement or prohibition notice that is served on him is liable to prosecution, with
a maximum fine of RM 50,000 or imprisonment for a term not exceeding 5 years, or both.
The objective of the Factories and Machinery Act (FMA) 1967, on the other hand, is to provide for
the control of factories on matters relating to the safety, health and welfare of persons, and the
registration and inspection of machinery. Some high risk machinery such as boilers, unfired pressure
vessels, passenger lifts and other lifting equipment such as mobile cranes, tower cranes, passenger
hoists, overhead traveling cranes and gondolas, must be certified and inspected by DOSH. All
factories and general machinery must be registered with DOSH before they can be installed and
operated in Malaysia.
11-2 March 2009

11.2 GENERAL PRACTICES
This section discusses on policies, procedures, and safety issues that are common to most of the
field activities or assignments. It includes training and responsibilities of supervisors, maintaining
adequate communication, field preparations, transportation, field situations, operation and
maintenance of tools, and safety inspections.
11.2.1 Training for New Employees
Training includes a combination of formal classroom training, reading assignments, discussions with
the supervisor, and on-the-job training. It will also include initial training and refresher courses on
defensive driving, first-aid and cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR), boating and water safety, and
swimming, if employee is a non swimmer. The employee's immediate supervisor has the primary
responsibility of ensuring that adequate training is provided.
Training begins with discussions between the supervisor and the employee on the mission of the
Division, activities assigned to individual offices, and what is expected of the employee. The
supervisor needs to assess the employee's capabilities and maturity, determine his or her previous
safety record, determine the type of training and previous field experience, and discuss a specific
training plan for the individual. The employee also will need to accurately state his or her previous
experience and training, ask questions about the nature of potential assignments, and be confident
that the instructions and training will be adequate for the employee to begin field activities.
11.2.2 Communication
Communication is a two-way affair: it includes instructions and questions and answers if clarification
is needed, it includes letting people know where you are going and why and checking to make sure
of safe returns, and it includes contacting others to explain the plans and receive permission to enter
on or use the property of others.
Making assignments and conveying instructions for accomplishing assigned tasks is the responsibility
of the supervisor; making sure the assignments and instructions are understood is the responsibility
of both the supervisor and the employee and this constitutes an effective two-way communication.
In addition to specific instructions, the supervisor needs to explain the purpose of the assignment
and how it relates to the overall mission.
Employees must be made aware of potential risks, how to avoid them, and how to get help if an
accident does occur. Supervisors need to know where employees are going and when they will
return to provide information to searchers and rescuers in case the employees do not return from an
assignment.
Special communication equipments, such as two-way radios or cellular telephones, are necessary if
assignments are in remote locations. Remember to think, communicate, and consider the following
procedures to ensure your safety:
Prepare an itinerary and discuss it with your supervisor, including a list of field sites, a route-
of-travel log, motel reservations, and a schedule for "check in" telephone calls to your home
or office.
If going to a remote area, use mobile or portable radios or a cellular telephone if coverage is
adequate.
Always have fully charged batteries and an extra set of batteries.
March 2009 11-3

Whether using telephones or radios, keep to your pre-arranged check in schedule and
provide update information or adjustments to your itinerary.
Another important aspect of communication is conveying plans for hydrologic data-collection

activities to co-operators and landowners. Many field activities are conducted on land or water that is
in private ownership or under the jurisdiction of local, state, or federal agencies. Before starting an
assignment, contact the appropriate agencies or individuals.
Discuss plans, and receive permission. Give them a schedule of planned activities and keep them
posted on progress. Time spent talking with a public official or landowner may help avoid problems
or gain their cooperation for activities in the future. We can do our job only if we have access to
collect the needed data.
11.2.3 Preparing for the Field
Adequate preparations before beginning a field assignment will help ensure that you complete
assignments, avoid accidents, and return safely. Prepare yourself, plan specific activities and tasks,
and check both your personal protection gear and tools and instruments needed for the job.
Adequate planning for field assignments includes:
Discussing the assignment thoroughly with your supervisor to ensure that you understand
what is expected, why it needs to be done, and how it should be accomplished.
Know where the nearest emergency medical facilities are located; make plans on how to
contact these facilities if you are alone and severely injured (cellular phone).
Reviewing maps, property descriptions, and notes made by yourself and others on previous
visits to ensure that you are aware of site conditions and potential hazards that may exist.
Reviewing technical manuals, memoranda, previous field inspection notes, and safety
procedures.
Preparing a schedule for completing individual tasks and making a list of required
instruments, tools, and supplies.
Contacting landowners, public officials and relevant authority such as Department of Forestry
and Military to inform them of your plans and obtain permission for access.
Checking weather forecasts.
Wear appropriate attire and protective safety gears for the assignment.
A list of required tools, instruments, and supplies should be made when planning your trip, and these
items should be checked to ensure they are in good operating condition before you start your trip.
Bring along a first aid kit, flashlight, compass, personal floatation device (PFD), matches, cellular
phone, insect repellant, suntan lotion, drinking water, machete (parang), and a triangular-shaped
reflector device.
11.2.4 Transportation
The common means of transportation for hydrologists and hydrologic technicians involved in field
activities are passenger cars, vans, light trucks, and small boats. The first step in safe vehicle
operation is an inspection of a vehicle before beginning a trip.
11-4 March 2009

This inspection will include
Checking for adequate fuel supply, engine oil, and coolant
Testing of headlights, tail lights, and turn signals.
Checking all belts and hoses.
Checking windshield washers and wipers.
Testing brakes and checking tires.
Checking to be sure that all equipment is properly stored and secured. Any piece of
equipment or tool could become a flying projectile during a sudden stop or accident.
Checking and adjusting rear-view mirrors.
Ensuring vehicle is equipped with adequate safety and emergency equipment.
Another step required for a safe trip in your vehicle is a pre-planned schedule and route to save time
and avoid known road hazards. Plan your trip to allow for a mix of driving and rest or other activity.
For long trips, plan on rotating drivers. Also, plan your route to avoid potentially dangerous
situations, such as having to:
Obey the speed limit and traffic signs.
Always drive defensively.
Wear safe seat belts.
Do not ford a stream or flooded road section without first checking for deep holes or
washouts.
Test brakes after fording a stream or any deep water; they probably will be wet and not as
responsive as normal.
Be aware of weather conditions. A dry road or track going into a field site may become wet
and impassable coming out after changes in weather conditions.
Be especially cautious on logging and mining roads. Logging trucks have the right-of-way on
a logging road.
Be especially aware of wild animals and open-range livestock while driving at night.
Drive only on existing, well-established back roads or trails. Avoid driving on agricultural
fields, open pasture or other unsafe area.
Always attempt to park your vehicle completely off the road surface and shoulder. If this is
not possible, use orange pylons, traffic cones, reflectors emergency flashers, etc. to warn
approaching motorists as shown in fig. 11.1.
March 2009 11-5

Figure 11.1 Using orange pylons for warning approaching motorists.
11.2.5 In the Field

In the field, you will be subjected to many natural and manmade dangers. These include varying
weather conditions, rough terrain, animals, and manmade structures such as flood control and
drainage structures, overhead power lines, cableways, stream gage houses and stilling-wells hazards.
a) Thunderstorms
Thunderstorms are a serious danger while working in the field. Lightning is the storm's worst killer.
While working in the field, keep an eye on the weather and notice whether towering cumulus clouds
that mark the location of thunderstorms are approaching your work area. The safest place to be
during a thunderstorm is in the field vehicle with doors and windows closed. General guidelines for
avoiding dangerous conditions during thunderstorms are
Stop making wading, bridge, or cableway measurements and seek shelter in a structure or
your vehicle
Do not use the telephone or work on electrical lines or steel structures, such as bridges or
cableways, because a lightning strike some distance away could affect you
Avoid isolated trees; seek shelter in dense stands or clumps of young trees
Sit on your feet in a crouched position or sit on some insulating material, such as wood,
rubberized material, or plastic sheet.
Be aware of flash floods, avoid stream crossings, and move vehicle and equipment to higher
ground.
b) Terrain
Working in and around streams and rivers will subject you to many conditions in which the local
terrain may cause slips and falls that could result in serious injury to you and your coworkers. You
cant avoid all potential dangers, but you can minimize risk of accidents by considering the
followings:
Wear shoes or boots that provide good arch and ankle support instead of low-cut sneakers
11-6 March 2009

Inspect the area before beginning work and locate gopher, muskrat, or other holes; isolated
rocks and boulders; fallen logs; loose and slippery rocks; and other obstacles
Select a level work area and remove debris that could cause you to trip and fall. It may be
necessary to cut tall vegetation to be sure the site is free of obstacles. Carry a machete in a
sheath to cut vegetation instead of plowing through dense vegetation or taking another
route over treacherous terrain to avoid dense vegetation
If you must travel some distance from your vehicle, avoid taking shortcuts across
treacherous terrain; consider the time lost by an accident than by going the longer and safer
way around.
Avoid steep slopes with loose rocks and boulders that could come loose and tumble down
the slope.
Select sites for wading discharge measurements very carefully; keep in mind both the
hydraulic characteristics required and safe conditions for accessing and wading the stream.
Traverse streams carefully and use a wading rod or stout stick to probe the bottom in
advance. If you find deep holes or a highly irregular bottom, look for another section.
Be careful while walking on rocks and boulders in streams; they are usually very slippery.
Consider wearing some type of sole gripper to give you additional traction.
Wear a life jacket when working in and around streams, rivers, and lakes.
c) Animals
There are numerous animals that may represent a risk. Snakes and insects are probably the most
common that you will face, but other reptiles and domestic and wild animals can cause serious
injury, illnesses, and fatalities. The most effective defense against snakes is to avoid being bitten.
The following precautions should be taken to minimize the risk of snakes while working in the field:
Familiarize yourself with the description and habits of all poisonous snakes indigenous to the
work area.
Wear protective clothing, including boots and knee-high or full-length leggings in prime
snake terrain.
Be observant and look before you step or reach for something.
Use existing trails and use a walking stick to clear vegetation ahead of you. Don't step over
logs without looking on the other side first.
Don't climb among rocks where you have to reach above your level of sight for a handhold.
Don't pick up rocks or other objects that might conceal a snake. Turn the object toward you
with a stick or shovel. This could shield you from being bitten.
March 2009 11-7

Insects generally are a nuisance while working in the field, but they can be dangerous depending on
the type of insect and your reaction to their sting or bite. Stinging insects, which include honey bees,
killer bees, wasps, yellow jackets, hornets, and ants, are painful and can be dangerous to individuals
that are allergic to the venom. The yellow jacket and hornet are the most dangerous because they
are aggressive and can inflict multiple stings. You may be allergic to venom or you may develop an
allergy with each new attack.
Reactions can range from fever, light-headedness, hives, and painful swelling to a sudden drop in
blood pressure and breathing difficulties. Biting insects, such as mosquitoes, chiggers, ticks, and
various flies, are generally of less immediate hazard than stinging insects, but they may be carriers
of disease.
Common precautions against insect bites and stings are:
Wear clothing that makes access to the skin difficult.
Avoid tramping through heavy vegetation if another choice is available.
Be observant of wasp nests, hornet hives, and ant hills.
Use insect repellants on exposed skin and at openings in your clothing. Spraying pants cuffs
and socks is a good preventative for chigger bites.
In the case of ticks, inspect clothing and exposed skin periodically during the day, and
disrobe completely and inspect your skin at the end of the day.
Obtain immunization in advance if you are allergic to stings or will be working in an area with
infestations of disease carrying insects.
Carry appropriate medication for allergic reactions and inform your coworkers about how to
administer it.
Watch out for characteristic dense webs of spiders.
Avoid reaching into dark places where you can't see and be careful picking up rocks and
clothing that have been lying on the ground.
Other animals may be a dangerous depending on whether you surprise them or represent a threat to
their young, food, or territory. Most wild animals will be frightened away at sight, but the more
domestic they are and the more familiar they are with humans, the less likely they will run from you.
Because of this, dogs probably represent the greatest threat while in the field.
Significant animal threats also come from wild boars, buffaloes, bull and some domestic livestock.
These animals may actually chase people, so dont challenge them. Expect animals to defend their
territory. The following guidelines are recommended to avoid animal attacks while in the field.
Avoid surprising animals by making noise while traversing a trail or open country.
Choose open terrain with good visibility.
Make a wide detour around any animals with young, or over a fresh kill.
Avoid walking in pastures or fields with domestic bulls.
11-8 March 2009

Avoid any animals acting abnormally. Many smaller mammals, including the fox, monkeys,
and squirrel may bite and transmit rabies
Carry a walking stick to fend off attacks from domestic dogs.
Watch out for rodent nests. New rodent nests must be noted for future removal.
d) Poisonous And Thorny Plants
The most common problem with poisonous plants is the allergic reaction that individuals have to
their sap such as Rengas tree, Poison Ivy, Sesudu (Euphorbia Lactea) and wild yam. The sap can
cause an allergic skin reaction of varying intensity depending on the amount of contact and the
degree of susceptibility of the individual. The sap can be transferred directly by brushing against or
handling the plants and indirectly from tools or clothing and from smoke of burning plants.
The jelatang plant (oxicodendron radicans - syn. Rhus toxicodendron, Rhus radicans) must be
avoided because a slight brush with its ordinary looking leaves will give you an extraordinary itch and
burning sensation for the next few days.
Thorny plants such as the touch me not and the rattan plant have sharp needle like thorns that could
inflict pain if being pricked. Some example are shown in figure 11.2
Rengastree jelatang plant
Poison Ivy Poison Ivy
Figure 11.2 Examples of Poisonous and Thorny plants
March 2009 11-9

Avoid allergic reactions to poisonous plants by:
Learning to identify poisonous plants and avoiding contact
Wear gloves and protective clothing when contacting plants cannot be avoided.
Remove contaminated clothing as soon as possible and wash immediately to avoid contact
by other individuals.
Wash affected skin with abundant soap and water.
11.2.6 Equipment
Each hydrologist and hydrologic technician usually is equipped with and expected to handle a wide
variety of tools and instruments. This equipment represents a potential risk to the user if it is
improperly maintained and mishandled.
A wide variety of instruments in our assigned field tasks ranging from small hand-held levels to
sophisticated electromagnetic data loggers and data storage devices are used by hydrological field
personnel. While the use of these instruments usually do not represent a risk, they are expensive
and irreplaceable in some cases, and they should be secured and protected from damage or theft.
Instruments and other sensitive equipment should be stored and transported in protective cases to
avoid damage. Levels, pH meters, and other instruments should not be routinely stored in vehicles
they should be stored in an assigned and locked storage area in the office or warehouse. Storage of
instruments in cabinets in vehicles provides additional protection from being damaged and also keeps
them out of sight of would-be thieves. Locking your vehicle at all times will provide security for the
valuable equipment assigned to you.
List of safety equipment, walkie talkie, life jacket, safety harness, proper signboard and cones,
swimming lessons.
11.2.7 Maintenance and Storage
One of the activities that is least adhered to because of other pressing tasks is the proper
maintenance and storage of equipment and instruments. Many times personnel are rushed when
returning from a field trip and do not take time to clean, service, and return equipment to the
appropriate storage area. Often, work is postponed until the next day, but many times it never gets
done, and then it may become someone else's problem. This can lead to hard feelings between co-
workers, safety risks, and inefficiency. Some actions that may eliminate some of these problems are:
Prepare an itinerary that includes time for cleaning and resupplying vehicle and cleaning and
servicing equipment after the field trip.
Schedule time during the trip to clean and service equipment after use each day.
Note any equipment problems on field notes or personal diary as a reminder to get the
equipment repaired upon return from the field.
Inform supervisor or the person responsible for field equipment of the problems or
personally insure that the equipment is repaired. At the very least, attach a note to the
equipment indicating the problems encountered while using the equipment.
11-10 March 2009

Maintain a log for each piece of equipment which includes instructions and a schedule for
servicing.
Provide an assigned storage place for each of the equipment. Return them to the storage
area rather than leaving it in vehicles, loading dock, hallways, or office space.
11.2.8 Safety Inspection
The inspection of all operations, equipment and facilities is a continuous part of each employee's
responsibility. The identification of hazards require the routine review of facilities, equipment, and
operations by every employee as part of the daily work routine. To maintain a safe work
environment, a formal safety inspection of all facilities, equipment, and operations must be made
each year to identify potential hazardous or substandard conditions. The inspections must be made
by qualified personnel who are knowledgeable of the appropriate safety standards and procedures.
Any condition identified as not meeting established standards or creating a risk to the safety or
health of the employee, or other employees, or to the public must be reported and brought to the
attention of the responsible supervisor for corrective action.
11.3 SPECIFIC PROCEDURES AND SAFETY ISSUES

This section of the guide discusses specific procedures and safety considerations for most of the
routine field assignments undertaken by hydrologists and hydrologic technicians. It includes
discussions on safety guidelines that need to be observed when undertaking surface-water, ground-
water, and water-quality activities.
11.3.1 Cableway Measurements
Cableways have been used for many decades by DID in making discharge measurements especially
during peak flood events. Cableways provide a track for suspending a travelling trolley which holds
the current-meter suspended from it. The gauge person/hydrographer operates the cableway
measurements from the banks. The trolley is moved from one point to another on the cableway by
means of cable-pulley system. The following safety procedures are recommended to be followed
when making cableway measurement:
On reaching the station, check for any poisonous snakes, insect nest and other harmful
creatures that may shelter in the station.
Review field folder and note any special conditions or procedures to be used at the site.
Before starting, undertake a close inspection of supporting frames, all cables, cable
connectors, and all bolts for damages and possible failures, at both banks if possible.
Inspect all areas of the travelling trolley for weak or missing parts; also check operation and
condition of the braking system.
After completing cableway inspection, proceed with setting up necessary measuring

equipment on the trolley. Check that all cables are on the pulley wheel groves and not
derailed.
Avoid personnel working under cableway platform when assembling measuring equipment
on the trolley.
March 2009 11-11

The trolley when not in use, must be locked to the cable support by a bar hook, without
danger of it getting loose.
Wear life jacket and work gloves. Carry extra sounding reel, insect repellent, and necessary
tools for repairing and measuring equipment.
Keep your hands off the cable when the trolley is moving to prevent possible injury.
If the river is used by boats, some warning device must be used to alert the boat operators
that there is a cable in the water ahead.
11.3.2 Bridge Measurement
Bridges are often used for making discharge measurements of streams that cannot be waded.
Equipment needed in making bridge measurements differs from that used in wading measurements
in that a portable metal crane is often used to mount a reel and suspend the meter, sounding
weights, and cable over the bridge. Power equipment, which may be mounted on vehicles, is used
for large rivers. Some bridges are not adaptable for cranes, and bridge boards must be used. On
some foot bridges a special rod or handline is used.
Bridges are inherently dangerous because of vehicular traffic. The following safety procedures are
recommended when making discharge measurements from a bridge:
Review field folders to determine any hazards that are noted and maximum depths and
velocities that have been observed.
Know how to use the equipment. Make a dry run with new equipment or unfamiliar
equipment at the office with someone who knows how it operates.
Check the operation of the equipment before leaving the office to make sure that cranes,
meters, reels, and motors are in good operating condition. Perform a visual inspection of
batteries used with power cranes. Replace if unusual wear or cracks in the casing are
observed.
Follow the procedures outlined in the Traffic Control Plan (TCP) for each bridge site for
placing traffic control devices, and keep a copy in the field folder. The plan must meet
Federal standards as a minimum, or State or local standards, whichever prevails.
Park the vehicle on the shoulder and use colored, revolving beams and emergency flashers
on vehicle to warn oncoming traffic, as stated in the TCP.
Set "caution" signs and plastic cones around work area and assign a person, when
necessary, to watch for traffic and debris in the river and shout warnings as appropriate.
Wear an orange-colored life jacket and work gloves.
Using a reel and crane, either hand operated or power, can be dangerous because of the
possibility of getting fingers caught under the cable or having the cable break and fly wildly.
If at any time you lose your grip on the hand crank, make no attempt to grab the handle. Let
it go! The flying handle can severely bruise an arm or even break a bone.
When measuring at night, use adequate lights, especially if drift is running.
11-12 March 2009

Keep a sharp look-out for drift when measuring. Have a pair of heavy duty wire cutters
handy to cut loose if drift is snagged.
Work from upstream side of the bridges if at all possible, so that debris can be spotted
moving downstream.
Provide some device to alert boat operators that a cable is in the water.
When working from a bridge that has hazardous power lines, provide a permanent warning
sign on some part of the bridge directly above or below the hazard to alert the field person
of the danger.
11.3.3 Wading
Discharge measurements using current meters are best made by wading. Wading measurements
have a distinct advantage over measurements made from bridges, boats, or cableways in that it is
usually possible to select the best available cross sections for the measurement. Constant awareness
of wading dangers and weather conditions needs to be maintained to avoid accidents and potential
injury.
Listed below are some safety guidelines that need to be observed:
Review the field folder to determine the best section for making wading measurements. Also
determine if any potential risks are noted and the maximum velocity (1m/s) and depths (1m)
that may be encountered.
Determine whether the river stage is rising or falling. Beware of rapid rises in river stage
when wading and anticipate and allow for changes in flow conditions at the end of the
measurement. It is a good idea to select an object (rock, stump, mark along bank, etc.) that
is just above water surface and keep watching it to determine if the river stage is rising or
falling.
Always probe the stream bed ahead with a rod when moving from bank to bank. Keep your
feet spread apart and alignment of legs parallel to the flow for better stability.
If the velocity becomes too great for safe wading do not turn around, because when the
greater area of the front or back of the body is exposed to the current, you may be swept
downstream. Back out carefully, bracing yourself with the wading rod.
Don't try to break the station discharge record for the maximum wading measurement.
Wear a life jacket when wading and conducting discharge measurements. Tie the tagline
securely so that you may pull yourself out, if necessary.
Beware of sand channels where potholes, quicksand, and scour can be hazardous.
Beware of slick, steep banks, and swampy areas.
Watch for debris drifting.
At controlled or regulated streams, consult recorder or instruction for pattern of regulation.

Contact dam, reservoir or gate operators before entering stream.

March 2009 11-13
11.3.4 Moving boat
Measurements made from boats require special equipment not used for other types of
measurements. Generally, a cross-piece reaching across the boat is clamped to the sides of the boat
and a boom attached to the center of the cross-piece extends out over the bow. The cross-piece is
equipped with a guide sheave and clamp arrangement at each end, to attach the boat to the tag line
and make it possible to slide the boat along the tag line from one station to the next. Power-
operated equipment, which may be mounted on boats, is used for large rivers. The following safety
procedures are necessary to prevent accidents or damage to equipment:
Review field folders to determine potential risks and maximum depths and velocities.
Select the proper boat and motor for the particular job and maintain them in good, workable
condition.
Follow all safety precautions during trailering, towing, and launching boat.
After arriving at boat measuring site, locate launching area for the boat. Check this area for
snakes and clear any bush.
Unload boat from top of truck or trailer. Remember to use proper lifting techniques.
At least two people on board and one on bank
Boat trailer must have lights rather than reflector
Operators of boats must be trained in cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) and have

completed an approved boating skills and seamanship course.
Assemble all equipment associated with the boat measurement. Carry spare paddles, horn,
cutting pliers, bailing devices, personal floating devices (PFD), and water bucket.
Stretch a tagline (with white or red flagging attached) across the river and secure it to a tree
or stake with a cable grip. Wear a life jacket, work gloves, and be observant for boat traffic.
Provide an advanced warning to the boaters such as a compressed air horn, buoys, or
flashing lights. Warning devices should be positioned 400 m upstream and downstream of
tagline. Remember, the only practical way to avoid tagline accidents is to engage a tagline
release person and provide them with equipment to release the tagline quickly
Avoid or take special precautions in the vicinity of canal siphons, pumping intakes, bridge
piers, docks, locks, and dams.
The essence of boating safety is keeping out of trouble rather than getting out of trouble
after you get into it. The operator of the boat is responsible for knowing all equipment
requirements and safety procedures for the craft.
Some general boating safety guidelines are:
Distribute weight evenly when loading your boat.
Know emergency procedures and distress signals.
11-14 March 2009

In addition to the equipment required by law, carry a first aid kit, flashlight, distress flares,
paddle or oars, extra shear pins, bucket, extra anchor and plenty of anchor line, mooring
lines, a good tool kit, compass, reserve fuel and extra spark plugs, emergency water and
food, and a transistor radio capable of receiving on the marine band.
Call for weather report for the area you will be in prior to each trip. Beware of weather,
currents, and tide conditions.
Know and obey state and federal rules.
Leave a float plan.
Follow all safety precautions when fueling the craft. Portable fuel tanks should be lifted out
of the boat and placed on the dock to be fueled. Don't forget to secure the tank and wipe up
and wash down any spillage.
Pay attention to your boat's handling characteristics and know its capabilities for all types of
weather conditions.
Keep clear of fixed objects and watch out for overhead power lines.
Keep the boat in good condition.
11.3.5 Helicopters
Access to some of the remote stations, inaccessible by roads, requires the use of helicopters to
retrieve the recorded hydrological data, service and maintain these stations. In boarding the craft, do
abide all the safety regulations. Inform the pilot, exactly where the station location are sited and
obtain prior information on safe landing site for the craft and any foreseeable dangerous obstacles
such as electrical cables, marshes, sloping ground terrain etc. that may deprive the pilot from making
a safe landing.
In boarding the helicopters, safety care must be taken because it is an expensive and dangerous
machine that can kill if safety is not adhered properly. Danger exists because people do not
understand the potential hazards that are inherent on or near the helicopter.
This safety alert is to give you a basic understanding of where the potential dangers exist, and how
to work around helicopters safely and effectively. Knowing the proper protocols and safety
precautions prior to boarding a helicopter is required. Above all else the number one rule is to obey
the pilot at all times and to stay alert in and around the operational area of a helicopter. If in doubt,
ask your pilot. The pilot will provide clear and concise instructions to ensure a safe flight.
Planning the Flight
Inform and discuss with the pilot on the followings:
The flight mission and the flight plan.

Coordinate the mission/purpose with any other passengers.
Suitability of landing zones in the area.
Obstacles in the area of the landing zone (type, height, location, etc.)
March 2009 11-15

Type of terrain in the landing zone (sand, rocks, trees, swampy, bushy, etc.).
Slope of the landing zone (much over ten degrees is cause for concern).
Helicopter Landing Area
At a minimum, the touchdown zone (please refer figure 11.3) should be as follows:
During daylight hours 30m X 30m square

At night 40m X 40m square
The surface should be flat and firm, and free from debris that might blow up into the rotor
system.
DaylightHours
30mX30m
NightTimeHours
40mX40m
Figure 11.3 Landing Area Dimensions
As A Passenger You Will Be Expected To Know:
What is expected of you on the flight

How to embark and disembark
In-flight and ground procedures
Location and use of safety and survival equipment
Emergency procedures
On The Ground Preparation and Conduct:
Conduct/Request a tail-gate safety briefing. Every helicopter is different.

Discuss and predetermine the seating arrangements prior to boarding. Make sure the primary
observers have seats optimal for viewing
11-16 March 2009

Do not smoke within 30 meter of a helicopter and 150 meter of a fuel truck.
Stay well to the side of the helipad when the helicopter is arriving or departing
Secure your clothing, equipment, and headgear against rotor winds.
Protect your eyes against blown dust and particles.
Secure adequate hearing protection.
Keep the helipad clear.
Always stay clear of the helicopter's main and tail rotors.
Always obtain eye contact with the pilot when attempting to approach. Pointing first to yourself
then to the helicopter indicates you want to approach the craft. Dont approach until you get the
ok nod from the pilot.
A good rule of thumb is to approach from the pilot's 10 O'clock to 2 O'clock position.
Crowds should be kept 30 meter from the helicopter at all times.
Assure that all personal equipment is secure (i.e. no hats, umbrella and loose sheet cover that
can be blown away or up into the rotor system).
Helicopter Approach Zones
Figure 11.4 Approach helicopter between 10 and 2 oclock zone
If you can, wait until the rotors stop turning before boarding or embarking from the craft.
Never touch a helicopter without the specific permission of a crew member.
Approach and leave by the down slope side - for rotor clearance.
March 2009 11-17

Figure 11.5 Approach and leave by the down slope side for rotor clearance
Never throw items toward or out of helicopters.

Load cargo carefully and secure it against movement.
Ensure baggage compartment doors are properly closed and latched.
Secure seatbelts (and shoulder straps, if provided) while in flight.
Remain in your seat unless given permission to move.
Do not distract the pilot during takeoff, maneuvering or landing.
Read instructions on the operation of doors, emergency exits, and the location of the ELT
(emergency locator transmitter) and emergency equipment.
The pilot has the final say in any situation involving the safety of the crew, passengers, aircraft
or any aspect involving the helicopter's operation DURING AN EMERGENCY.
Check that any loose gear in the cabin is secured.
Wear helmet and approved floatation device if provided.
After An Emergency Landing
Wait for instructions to exit, or until rotor stops turning.

Assist others to evacuate well clear of the aircraft.
Remove first aid kit and other emergency equipment after no threat of fire.
Administer first aid if required.
Remove ELT, read instructions and activate.
Set up camp to be as comfortable as possible.
Make the site as conspicuous as possible from the air.
Stay near the aircraft - don't wander away from the site.
11-18 March 2009

When Flying Over Water
Listen carefully to the pilot's over water pre-flight briefing.

Wear a lifejacket and/or immersion suit.
Know seatbelt fastening, tightening, releasing procedures.
Know the location and operation of doors and emergency exits.
Know the location and operation of the ELT.
During an emergency
obey the pilot's ditching instructions.
assume brace position when advised by the pilot.
Wait for instructions to exit, or until rotor stops turning.
After a ditching
Establish a reference position.
Release seat belt.
Inflate lifejacket and life raft when clear of helicopter.
11.3.6 Safety Procedures When Working In Confined Space and Stilling Well
Figure 11.6 Example of the stilling well
The following sections provide safety procedures for working in confined space such as stilling well.
Potential Hazards
There are many hazards connected with entering Confined space such as stilling well. Some of the
most common hazards are:
Adverse Atmosphere
The confined space may contain flammable or poisonous gases or the atmosphere may be
deficient in oxygen. Forced ventilation may be necessary.
March 2009 11-19

Deteriorated Rungs
Stilling well steps rung may be corroded and not strong enough to support a man. It may be
difficult to inspect the rungs because of poor lighting. Use portable ladder when in doubt.
Unwanted Creatures and Insects
Presence of dangerous creatures and insects like snakes, monitor lizard, scorpions and wasp.
Falling Objects
Items placed near the well opening may fall and injure a worker in the well.
Sharp Edges
Sharp edges of items in or near a stilling well may cause cuts or bruises.
Planning
Advance planning should include arrangements for test equipment, tools, ventilating equipment,
protective clothing, portable ladders and safety harness. Time spent in the confined space should be
kept to a minimum.
Before workers enter a stilling well, tests should be made for explosive atmosphere, presence of
hydrogen sulfide, and oxygen deficiency. Combustible or toxic vapors may be heavier than air, so the
tests on the atmosphere must be run at least 3/4 of the way down the well. Whenever adverse
atmosphere is encountered, forced ventilation must be used to create safe conditions. After the
ventilating equipment has been operated for a few minutes, the atmosphere in the well should be
retested before anyone enters the well.
When explosive conditions are encountered, the ventilating blower should be placed upwind to
prevent igniting any gas that is emerging from the opening. When a gasoline engine blower is used,
it must be located so that exhaust fumes cannot enter the well. If testing equipment is not available,
the stilling well should be assumed to contain an unsafe atmosphere and forced ventilation must be
provided. It should never be assumed that a stilling well is safe just because there is no odor or the
well has been entered previously.
Use torchlight if necessary to check on any unwanted creatures that may lurk in the well.
Entering Stilling well
Persons who are entering stilling well If there is any doubt about the soundness of the stilling well
steps, use a portable ladder instead. A person should never enter unless he is wearing personal
safety equipment, including a safety harness and a hard hat. A person should be stationed at the
surface continuously while someone is working inside a stilling well. This is to provide any emergency
assistance in case the person in the well is injured.
Falling Objects
All loose items should be kept away from the well opening. This applies to hand tools as well as
stones, gravel and other objects.
11-20 March 2009

Other Precautions
Other precautions which should be taken when entering a stilling well are:
Wear a hard hat.
Wear coveralls or removable outer garment that can be readily removed when the work is
completed.
Wear boots or safety shoes.
Wear rubberized or waterproof gloves.
Wear a safety harness with a stout rope attached.
Do not smoke.
Avoid touching yourself above the collar until you have cleaned your hands.
11.3.7 Safety Procedures When Working At Height
When working at height (ex. Inspection and servicing antennae), be ready with the proper climbing
equipment. Ladders and scaffolding should be securely placed such that it does not slip or tilt and
fall. Use certified and approved safety harness and helmet. In areas where exposure to electrical
and ultra high frequency and microwave radio wave radiation are present, extra care and precaution
should be taken. In these environment, anti static gloves, and proper insulated boots must be worn.
When working at top, safety harness must be secured at independent, safe and strong support that
could withstand the human weight if a fall is to occur. Only personnel knowledgeable in the
installation and maintenance of antenna supporting structures, antenna systems and transmission
lines will perform the work operations.
March 2009 11-21

REFERENCE
[1] R. Imai, Health & Safety Alert US Wildlife Operations, Department of Fish and Game (DFG) and
the Office of Spill Prevention and Response (OSPR), 2004.
[2] D.K. Yobbi, T.H. Yorke and R.T. MYCYK, A Guide to Safe Field Operation, U.S. Geological Survey
Open-File Report, Tallahassee, Florida 1996, 95-777.
11-22 March 2009

CHAPTETR 12 EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES IN HYDROLOGICAL
OBSERVATIONS AND INSTRUMENTATION
Chapter 12 EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES IN HYDROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS AND INSTRUMENTATION
Table of Contents
Table of Contents ................................................................................................................ 12-i

List of Table ............................................................................................................... 12-ii
List of Figure ............................................................................................................... 12-ii
12.1 REMOTE SENSING FOR DISCHARGE MEASUREMENT ................................................... 12-1
12.2 DISCHARGE MEASUREMENT USING ADCP .................................................................. 12-1
12.3 VERTICAL ADCP ....................................................................................................... 12-1
12.4 HORIZONTAL ADCP .................................................................................................. 12-2
12.7 RAINFALL MEASUREMENT USING RADAR ................................................................... 12-9
12.7.1 Principle of Radar Rain Gauge...................................................................12-10
12.7.2 Radar Display...................................................................................................1210
12.7.3 Interpreting Rainfall From Radar Raingauge...................................................1211
12.7.4 Errors and Problems.........................................................................................1212
12.7.5 Weather Radar in Malaysia..............................................................................1214
12.7.6 Types of Radar Systems..................................................................................1215
12.7.7 Quantitative Precipitation Forecast..................................................................1216
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................. 12-18
March 2009 12-i

List of Table
12.1 Reflectivity and Rainfall Rate 12-12

12.2 Types of Weather Radars under the Malaysian Meteorological Service 12-15
12.3 Comparison of X-, C-, and S- Band Radar Systems 12-16
List of Figure
12.1 Horizontal ADCP with 3-cell measurement across river (plan view) 12-2
12.2 Areas in water column marked X actually covered by ADCP during discharge
measurement. 12-3
12.3 Unmeasured top and bottom by ADCP. 12-4
12.4 Measured and unmeasured areas ADCP. 12-4
12.5 ADCP vs. single current meters for current profiling 12-5
12.6 Moving boat method using ADCP showing multiple velocity profiles acquired as boat
transects across. 12-5
12.7 Top two pictures show event loggers while the bottom two are multi-channel data
loggers. 12-6
12.8 Departments SCADA and telemetry flood forecasting and early 12-9
12.9 Radar Scanning of Rainfall 12-9
12.10 Radar Detects Objects in the Atmostphere 12-10
12.11 2 PPI Radar Displays from Kota Bahru Radar Station 12-10
12.12 Radar Uses Elevation Angle, Azimuth Angle and Distance D to Locate Position of
Target 12-11
12.13(a) Error in Radar Detection of Rain 12-12
12.13(b) ErrorinRadarDetectioninRain 1213
12.14 Weather Radar Stations in Malaysia 12-14
12-ii March 2009

12 EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES IN HYDROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS AND

INSTRUMENTATION
12.1 REMOTE SENSING FOR DISCHARGE MEASUREMENT
The United States Geological Survey and the University of Washington collaborated on a series of
initial experiments on the Lewis, Toutle, and Cowlitz Rivers during September 2000 and a detailed
experiment on the Cowlitz River during May 2001 to determine the feasibility of using helicopter-
mounted radar to measure river discharge. Surface velocities were measured using a pulsed Doppler
radar, and river depth was measured using ground-penetrating radar. Both radars were mounted on a
helicopter and flown over the rivers in a series of approximately 1-minute passes at heights of 215
m. Surface velocities were converted to mean velocities, and horizontal registration of both velocity
and depth measurements enabled the calculation of river discharge. The magnitude of the uncertainty
in velocity and depth indicate that the method error is in the range of 5 percent. The results of this
experiment indicate that helicopter-mounted radar can make the rapid, accurate discharge
measurements that are needed in remote locations and during regional floods.
12.2 DISCHARGE MEASUREMENT USING ADCP
Acoustic Doppler Current Profilers or ADCPs are currently part of the new generation of velocity-
measuring instruments used from the deep ocean to estuaries and even shallow streams. It can also
measure flow rates in open channels using the velocity-area method. Recent breakthrough in
broadband acoustic technology, both firmware and software has allowed the industry to create and
develop many variations of ADCP, allowing discharge measurements to be made from numerous
perspectives.
Being more advanced than an acoustic current meter, ADCPs, depending on the frequency employed
are able to measure the average speed and direction of the flow in the water column in bins or cell
sizes as small as 5 cm. An ADCP can be deployed from a look-up or look-down position (also known
as vertical ADCP) or even side-looking (horizontal ADCP).
12.3 VERTICAL ADCP
Conventional ADCPs measure velocities in a look-up or down position, usually from a stationary
location. Some models such as the StreamPro (www.rdinstruments.com), Qliner (www.nortek-as.com)
and RiverCat (www.sontek.com) are mounted on small remote-controlled crafts or tethered rafts or
catamarans and pulled from one discrete gauging point to another across a bridge. Water depth is
also measured by the ADCP viz bottom tracking while positioning is done by a survey-grade GPS.
State-of-the-art hydrometry software allows the user to input measurement parameters such as
depth-cell size, maximum profiling depth, averaging interval etc. for automated total discharge output
immediately at the end of each run.. Other more advanced models such as the Rio Grande
(www.rdinstruments.com), River Surveyor (www.sontek.com), and the FQ ADCP series
(www.linkquest.com) can be deployed from a moving boat and give out real-time discharge rate via a
PC as the vessel traverses the channel.
March 2009 12-1

12.4 HORIZONTAL ADCP
Horizontal ADCPs or H-ADCP are a take off from their vertical counterpart with the former deployed
on a side-looking approach across a channel. By employing three beams (Fig 12.1) which measure
velocities at three different depths and locations across the channel, an average velocity is computed
and multiplied with the cross-sectional area (previously surveyed) of the channel to yield the
discharge rate. When regularly calibrated with the rating curve, the velocity index (VI) can also be
depended to provide the discharge rate, Q on a real-time basis. The assumption is that as the water
level rises and flow increases, the respective average velocities at these three depth cells shall also
elevate accordingly. By continuing to change the positions of the three depth cells all across the river
during different stage levels over a period of time, a comprehensive VI for low to high flow events is
derived. This VI can also be used as part of a real-time monitoring and telemetry system in providing
early warning to flood-prone areas.
Models available include the Channel Master (www.rdinstruments.com), EasyQ (www.nortekusa.com)

and Argonaut SL (www.sontek.com).
Blanking
Cell size Cell 1
Cell 2
Cell 3
Figure 12.1 Horizontal ADCP with 3-cell measurement across river (plan view)
The drawback of deploying an ADCP, both vertical and horizontal for velocity and flow measurement
is the blanking distance or the blind spot where the mass of water flowing in the space closest to the
sensor head and also to the riverbed is immeasurable. The size of the blanking distance from the
sensor head commensurate with the ADCPs frequency with a typical 1000 kHz ADCP having a blind
spot of approximately 30 cm while the blanking distant from the river bottom would be 0.05 d.
Therefore a look-down ADCP will not be able to measure the velocity between the water surface to its
submerged sensor head plus the blanking distance. For example an ADCP which has a blanking
distance of 30 cm and is submerged another 30 cm below the water surface will not yield any velocity
data for the first 60 cm. Thus users will have to extrapolate the measured velocity profile to the
water surface and the riverbed using the following equation:
Vy/Va = (y/a)1/n (12.1)
12-2 March 2009

In addition when used in a moving boat approach to gauging, the ADCP will not be able to measure
velocities at the edge of both banks. Figs. 12.2 12.4 show the measurable area for discharge by the
ADCP and also the immeasurable areas where discharge will have to be extrapolated. Nevertheless,
the advantages of employing ADCPs for flow measurements greatly outweigh those of a conventional
current meter. The ADCP measures the average velocity for many depth cells which would
incidentally require as many single current meters for the same job (Figure 12.5) In addition
conventional current meter only measures the velocity at one fixed point in the water column. This
method has proven to be very advantageous when used in very wide rivers and during flooding
events where gauging with cableways etc. were found to be futile. Furthermore, the time taken to
complete a single discharge measurement using an ADCP with moving boat is normally one third of
that consumed using a conventional cableway. Figure 12.6 shows a moving boat method using ADCP
for real-time gauging. The real-time discharge, Q is calculated by the ADCP software at the end of
each transect run.
t op l ayer
bot t om l ayer
mi ddl el ayer
sub- sect i on cel l
edge
t0 t1 tk t k+1 tm
st ar t end
di s. di s.
Figure 12.2 Areas in water column marked X actually covered by ADCP during discharge
measurement.
March 2009 12-3

Figure 12.3 Unmeasured top and bottom by ADCP.
Top estimate
Triangular
Shore estimate
Vertical
Shore
estimate
Bottom estimate
Figure 12.4 Measured and unmeasured areas ADCP.
12-4 March 2009

Current Velocity Vector

Depth cells
11
10 Depth
Cell
9
8 Averages Vector Within
Complete Depth Cell Area
7
6
5
4
3
2 Measures Current Only at a
1 Localized Point in the Area
Moored Line of
Moored Line of
ADCP
Standard
St d dCueent
C t Meter
M t s
Figure 12.5 ADCP vs. single current meters for current profiling
Distance = 33 m
0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.8 1.0 1.0
0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.6 0.8 0.8 1.0 1.0 Depth
0.1 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.7 0.9 0.9
0.3 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.54 0.5 0.7 0.7
0.2 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.5
0.2 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2 0.2

Q ENSEMBLE = 28.2 m3/s
Q = 84.9 m3/s
Figure 12.6 Moving boat method using ADCP showing multiple velocity profiles acquired as boat
transects across.

March 2009 12-5

Data Logger
A data logger is an electronic device that records data over time and is usually integrated to a built in
instrument or sensor or connected to single or multiple external instruments and sensors. Thus they
are also called single channel or multiple channel data loggers. Another type of data logger works on
pulsed voltage inputs and thus known as an event logger. The event logger is normaly useed to
record the number of tips in a rainfall tipping bucket, hence recording the amount of rain. Most of the
commercially available event loggers are generally very small, consume very little power (battery
powered), equipped with a microprocessor, internal memory for data storage. Most of these event
loggers interface with a notebook PC or PDA and utilize software to program the logger, view and
analyze the collected data while bigger data loggers have a local interface device (keypad, LCD) and
can be used as a stand-alone device (Figure 12.7).
Hobo Mini Log
Datalogger Ver Hyrologger RF14
Figure 12.7 Top two pictures show event loggers while the bottom two are multi-channel data
loggers.
Data loggers vary between general purpose types for a range of measurement applications to very
specific devices for measuring in one environment only. The higher end data loggers usually have
multiple channels and are programmable while the more affordable models are just static, single
channel machines with only a limited number of changeable parameters. The reliability and flexibility
of the new generation of data loggers plus their ease of maintenance have made many chart
recorders obsolete in many applications.
12-6 March 2009

One of the primary benefits of using data loggers is the ability to automatically collect data on a 24-
hour basis at a pre-programmed interval. Upon activation, data loggers are typically deployed and left
unattended to measure and record information for the duration of the monitoring period. This allows
for a comprehensive, long term trends of the environmental conditions being monitored such as
weather, water level, rainfall etc. The newest of data loggers can serve web pages, allowing
numerous people to monitor a system remotely.
Standardisation of protocols and data formats has always been an issue but is now being resolved in
the growing industry and XML is increasingly being adopted for data exchange. The development of
the Semantic Web is anticipated to accelerate this trend. Several protocols have been standardised
including a smart protocol, SDI-12 exists that allows some instrumentation to be connected to a
variety of data loggers. The use of this standard has not gained much acceptance outside the
environmental industry in the U.S. SDI-12 also supports multi drop instruments. Other datalogging
companies support the MODBUS communication standard, which is more commonly utilized and
accepted in Malaysia.. Another multi drop protocol which is now starting to become more widely used
is based upon Canbus (ISO 11898). Some data loggers though utilize a flexible scripting environment
to adapt themselves to various non-standard protocols.
All data loggers have stand-alone memory that is used to store acquired data. Sometimes this
memory is very large to accommodate many days, or even months, of unattended recording. This
memory may be battery-backed static random access memory, flash memory or EEPROM. Given the
extended recording times of data loggers, they typically feature a time- and date-stamping
mechanism to ensure that each recorded data value is associated with a date and time of acquisition.
As such, data loggers typically carry built-in real-time clocks whose inherent drift can be an important
consideration when choosing between data loggers.
The unattended and remote nature of many data logger applications implies the need in some
applications to operate from a DC power source, such as a battery. Solar power may be used to
supplement these power sources. These constraints have generally led the data logger industry to
ensure that the devices they market are extremely power efficient relative to computers. This
unattended nature also dictates that data loggers must be extremely reliable.
For ease of data retrieval and also in some cases where constant or real-time feedback is critical,
many data loggers are equipped to serve as remote terminal units or RTUs and are easily integrated
into a telemery system. The role of RTUs in a telemetry system is further discussed in the following
section.
Data Communication Systems
In many scenarios, quick and timely receipt of data or warning has made a difference between life
and death. In mitigating natural catastrophes e.g. tsunami, earthquake, hurricanes, flood etc. the
installation of telemetry systems to relay early warning has helped save many lives.
The key components in many telemetry systems are the RTU (Remote Terminal Unit), SCADA system
(Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition) and communication protocol and physical communication
network. The RTU is normally a reasonably advanced data logger responsible for acquiring the data
from the field measuring equipment and sensors. It prepares (and in some cases interprets) the data
from the equipment and formats this data according to a communication protocol, ready for
transmission on a physical communication medium. RTUs may acquire their information through
electrical signals connected to the RTU or from other intelligent devices via a serial data connection.
RTUs may also perform local control functions. The communication protocol is the language used in
the transmitting and receiving of data messages on the physical network.
March 2009 12-7

A protocol identifies the sender, the recipient, the meaning of the data in the message including
verification information to ensure the complete message arrives and that it is error free. Both the
transmitter and receiver of the data message must use the same protocol or handshake in order
that both understand the data message.
The communication network provides the physical means for the transfer of information (message
data) from an RTU to a SCADA system, from an RTU to another RTU, and in some architecture
between multiple SCADA systems. There is a large number of communication network technologies
used with telemetry. Choice of communication network is critical to the operation of a telemetry
system and can be a costly aspect of a telemetry system.
A SCADA system is made up of one or more computers, providing an interface to the physical
communication network (and hence to the RTUs), and an operator interface to the data derived from
RTUs. This data is interpreted, stored for subsequent retrieval, analysed and transferred to other
computer systems. A SCADA system often provides a control interface for sending data to RTUs. This
can be by way of operator commands, pre-programmed commands reactive to data from RTUs, or
just information received from other computer systems.
The physical communication component can be in the form as simple as a UHF or VHF radio or a fixed
telephone line (PSTN) to the state-of-the art satellite communication package e.g. Immarsat-C, Aces.
Many hydrological stations worldwide rely on GSM and GPRS technology to relay data to their
respective headquarters and/or operation room while for very remotely located sites satellite
communication is used instead. For instance the Department uses GSM for data telemetry both in
rural and urban areas where coverage is available and GPRS for updating their Infobanjir website
from the master station. UHF and VHF are used in remote areas and data is transmitted via series of
repeater/relay stations and finally to the master station. Other states use both Streamyx and PSTN to
update the same website which provides for early flood warning. Immarsat-C is used to send data
from the remote and challenging stations located in Sabah. IPVPN or leased line provides intranet
connection between state departments and headquarters and also with their research arm in Ampang.
The IPVPN is also used to connect the master station from G. Ledang to the state department office in
Johor Bahru. At present most if not all State offices and the Department headquarters and research
arm in Ampang have access to the internet via wireless system or Wi-Fi. Figure 12.8 depicts a typical
Department SCADA and telemetry flood forecasting and early warning network system for the whole
country.
Continuous power supply is always a challenge when installing a telemetry system as the consumption
is significantly higher than the level required to run the field devices and RTUs e.g. datalogger.
Therefore, due consideration should be given towards choosing the right type of power supply module
for the telemetry. For very remote and inaccessible areas (except by helicopters) where site visits can
be costly, a solar power panel is usually integrated into the system. Care must be taken though to
ensure that the panel is large enough to recharge the DC battery even on a cloudy day. Routine
maintenance activities include checking the battery power level, cleaning the battery terminals of
oxidants and the solar panel from debris, dirt and animal droppings.
Anytime radio communication is used in a telemetry system there is a high probability of the system
being struck by lightning. Therefore adequate steps have to be taken to ensure that the design of the
telemetry and SCADA systems incorporate highly reliable lightning protection design and materials.
12-8 March 2009

Cha
apter 12 EMER
RGING TECHN
NOLOGIES IN HYDROLOGIC
CAL OBSERVAT
TIONS AND IN
NSTRUMENTA
ATION
Figure 12.8
1 Departm
ments SCADA A and teleme
etry flood forrecasting and
d early
warnning networkk system for the whole coountry.
12.7 SUREMENT USING RAD

RAINFALL MEAS DAR
Whilst the rain gauuge is the acccepted tech hnique for measuring
m oint rainfall, many appliccations in
po
ogy needs arreal rainfall estimates.
hydrolo e R
Rainfall variattion with are
ea can be quite high espe ecially for
the loca
alized thund
derstorm type e of rainfall. The monso oonal type off rainfall expperienced by
y the east
coast states
s in Peninsular Malayysia and parrts of Sarawa ak and Sabah during the e north-east monsoon
monthss is more wid
despread and d more evenlly distributed d.
Rainfalll varies with area and it is expensive e to have a network

n of point
p rainfall stations suffficient for
detectin
ng areal disttribution of rainfall accu urately. Certaain types off radar are kknown to be e able to
detect areal
a distribu
ution of rainffall and they are also call radar rain gauges.
g
RADAR R stands for Radio

R Detecttion And Ran
nging. Radarr can be useed to scan th
he area around it and
rainfall droplets afffect the echhoes receive thereby inddirectly dete
ecting rainfalll distribution
n (Figure
12.9)
Figure 12.9 Radar Scann

ning of Rainfa
all
March 2009
2 12-9
12.7.1 Principle of Radar Rain Gauge
A radar emits electromagnetic pulse. This pulse hits a target (raindrops) and is scattered (see Figure
12.10). Some energy is reflected towards antenna as echo and the strength and position of echo is
utilized to determine the intensity and location of rainfall.
Figure 12.10 Radar Detects Objects in the Atmostphere

Including Rain Droplets from Radio Signals Reflected
12.7.2 Radar Display
A typical radar display is the plan position indicator (PPI) as shown in Figure 12.11. Water droplets
within the range of the rotating scanner will detect echoes reflected from raindrops and the strength
of the echo is used as a measure of rainfall intensity. Echoes are also emitted by buildings, hills
within the range of the scan.
8/12/20036:30p.m 8/12/20038:30p.m
Figure 12.11 2 PPI Radar Displays from Kota Bahru Radar Station
during the 2003 Flood in Kelantan (source: MMD)
The PPI displays radar data in a map like format with the radar at the centre. The distance to target
is given by range marks/range rings. The direction to target is shown by the position of echo relative
to the radar.
12-10 March 2009

12.7.3 Interpreting Rainfall From Radar Raingauge
Radar uses three basic parameters to detect the target location as shown in Figure 12.12
azimuth
elevation angle
angle
ground
PlanView
Distancetotarget,D(determinedby
timelagbetweentransmittingand
receivingofradiosignals
Figure 12.12 Radar Uses Elevation Angle, Azimuth Angle and Distance D to Locate Position of Target
Number of drops per unit volume and size of drops is correlated to the reflectivity of the echo.
Rainfall intensity (mm/hr) is related to the reflectivity (dBZ) of the echo and the relationship is known
as the Z-R relationship
The general form of this relationship is
z = a Rb (12.2)
where z = radar reflectivity in mm6/m3

R = rainfall rate in mm/hr
Malaysian meteorological radar department uses standard Marshall-Palmer relationship for

estimating rainfall rates
z =200 R 1.6 (12.2)
A simple guideline on the interpretation of rainfall rate (mm/h) with respect to reflectivity
(dBZ) is given in Table 2.1
March 2009 12-11

Table 12.1 Reflectivity and Rainfall Rate
Reflectivity Rain rate

Comments
(dBZ) (mm/h)
Significant but mostly non-
10 ~0.2
precipitating clouds
20 ~1 Drizzle, very light rain
30 ~3 Light rain
40 ~10 Moderate rain, showers
Heavy rain, thundershowers,
50 ~50
some hail possible
Extremely heavy rain, severe
60 ~200
thunderstorm, hail likely
12.7.4 Errors and Problems
The various errors and problems associated with measurement of rainfall using radar are as
illustrated in Figures 12.13(a) to 12.13(b).
Radar beam above cloud and misses

rain beneath the cloud
Radar beam blocked by terrain

(hills,building)
Figure 12.13(a) Error in Radar Detection of Rain
12-12 March 2009

Radar beam bents due to refraction

cause by variation in air density.
Beam will return ground echoes

Radar beam lose power due to

absorption by rain from nearer storm
and underestimates the rain of storm
further away
Figure 12.13(b) Error in Radar Detection of Rain
March 2009 12-13

12.7.5 Weather Radar in Malaysia
The Malaysian Meteorological Service maintains weather radar stations in Malaysia, 7 in Peninsular
and 4 in Sabah/Sarawak (see Figure 12.14)
Peninsular Malaysia East Malaysia
Kluang Kuching
Subang Bintulu
Butterwoth Kota Kinabalu
Alor Setar Sandakan
Kuantan
Kota Bharu
KLIA*
* KLIA-Kuala Lumpur International Airport, Sepang
Figure 12.14 Weather Radar Stations in Malaysia
12-14 March 2009

Table 12.2 Types of Weather Radars under the Malaysian Meteorological Service
Wavelength Frequency
Location No. Band
(cm) (MHz)
Peninsular Malaysia 7 S 10 cm 2707-2900
East Malaysia 4 C 5.5cm 5500-5700
All 7 radar stations in peninsular Malaysia use S-band while the other 4 in East Malaysia use C-band.
All radar stations maintained by Malaysian Meteorological Department and all of them are supplied
by Enterprise Electronic Corporation (EEC) except for KLIA station.
Radar for KLIA station is a Doppler S-band by Mitsubishi radar division. This radar uses the SIGMET
display system from U.S.A.
12.7.6 Types of Radar Systems
The important aspects in selecting a radar system are the operating frequency and the transmitter
type. Weather radars are commonly designated with X, C and S band with each one of them having
different frequency range. In terms of operation, the occurrence of heavy rainfall event in Malaysia
make the X band with shorter wavelength unsuitable since it is prone to severe attenuation (radar
beam losing too much power). The use of longer wavelength is necessary to overcome the problem
of severe radar beam attenuation but it increase the hardware cost. S-band is most suitable in
overcoming the disadvantage of severe attenuation by X-band radar and to a lesser degree
attenuation suffered by C band radar. S-band radars have sufficiently long wavelength to keep
attenuation due to tropical rainfall in Malaysia to minimal levels. Apart from this, X-band radars are
normally used outside tropical regions to resolve fine structure in precipitation systems and for short
range measurements.
For hydrological applications, the type of weather radar to select should be considered. There are
two basic types of weather radar which is conventional pulse radar for rainfall intensity measurement
and Doppler radar capable of wind measurement. In terms of data that can be derived, the Doppler
radar provide much more advanced measurement of precipitation characteristics compared to
conventional pulsed radar by measuring the radial velocity of precipitation targets. But nowadays
most weather radar have incorporated hardware that can support Doppler measurement. In
measuring precipitation intensity, the conventional pulsed radar system is pretty much reliable. But
to consider advanced radar technology nowadays, it is advisable to incorporate the Doppler system
since the incremental cost is not large and Doppler system can provide a host of useful data that can
support quantitative precipitation forecast (QPF).
Transmitter plays an important role in radar performance whereby it determines the capability of
radar to transmit stable radar signal. Generally there are two types of transmitter in use in weather
radar systems which are klystron or magnetron. Klystron generates very stable frequency radar
waves compared to magnetron. Note that the stable frequency is preferred in precipitation motion
measurement.
March 2009 12-15

Table 12.3 Comparison of X-, C-, and S- Band Radar Systems
X-Band C-Band S-Band
Frequency (GHz) 8-12 4-8 2-4
Wavelength (cm) 2.5-4 4-8 8-15

Useful Range
50 km 200km 300km
(diameter)
Attenuation (for
100mm/hour 2.5 0.2 0.03
rainfall),dB/km
Short range local Medium-range Networked long
warning radar warning radar range warning radar
Application (used in cloud (used in (used in tropical
physics/marine temperate country in cyclone
navigation) country area)
12.7.7 Quantitative Precipitation Forecast
Quantitative precipitation forecast (QPF) methods using radar data benefit from the ability of
weather radar to provide rainfall data with high spatial and temporal resolution. Areas of application
are thunderstorm warnings for aviation as well as precipitation forecasts for hydrological models to
prevent damage to human life and property.
To make the best use of QPF methods for providing input to hydrological models the technical
aspects of radar measurements have to be reviewed. Difficulties encountered when using weather
radar operationally for hydrological application are:
radar system may be obsolete and therefore not eligible for automatic operation
continuous measurements not possible
the quantitative estimate of precipitation may lack the needed precision because of technical
limits of the radar method, e.g. poor visibility in regions of interest
A quality control and correction is therefore necessary using radar data in QPF methods.
Nonetheless, we should not forget the advantages of radar for hydrological applications: providing 1)
automatic estimates of data with high spatial and temporal resolution for operational application,
which are quickly accessible, 2) continuous data that reflect the structure of precipitation, measuring
the variation of rainfall pattern in time and space, and 3) a detailed history of rainfall over the radar
range.
To forecast the motion of radar echoes, their speed and direction of displacement has to be
determined. Many radar-based QPF methods use tracking algorithms based on pattern recognition,
either determining the echo motion applying cross correlation or tracking particular features of the
radar echo. Problems with tracking algorithms are mainly caused by small-scale variations of the
radar echo pattern, e.g. caused by orographical impacts. A further approach to advert radar echoes
is using winds from the steering level, which can be provided by numerical weather prediction model
outputs or Doppler radar measurements.
Cross correlation is used to determine the overall motion of radar echoes. Similar patterns of radar
echoes are detected by comparing tracking areas in consecutive scans. The best fit between the
tracking areas is found by optimizing the correlation coefficient.
12-16 March 2009

The distance between the tracking area and the time lag of the scans determine the displacement
vector. There have been various extensions to the basic idea such as adding a geometric algorithm
to provide a possibility to detect merging and splitting cells.
The most common approach to feature tracking is the mass centroid method, deriving the
displacement vector between consecutive radar scans from the distance of the mass centres of two
corresponding radar echoes. The centres are assumed to be representative for individual convective
cells or storms. Thus, the mass centroid method provides detailed information about cell tracks and
characteristics.
Current operational QPF systems using radar tracking algorithms are mainly based on three-
dimensional data sets and partly aim to combine both approaches. The TITAN algorithm
(Thunderstorm Identification, Tracking, Analysis and Nowcasting in operational use at the
Malaysian Meteorological Service) uses a mass centroid method to identify storms considered as
three-dimensional entities.
The main limiting factor to intensity forecasts are initiation and dissipation of precipitation pattern as
well as local effects like orography. A common approach to forecast intensity and echo size trends
are weighted or unweighted fits of past developments of radar echo. Researchers have included the
individual development of cells into a QPF technique to forecast the motion of precipitation areas by
applying a nonlinear extrapolation to the intensity and echo size forecast (e.g. increase echo size for
15 minutes then decrease). Linear extrapolation achieved the best results. 30 minutes are
supposedly the most appropriate time interval for fitting the extrapolation scheme on the basis that a
trend has to be established for a developing cell. The TITAN algorithm applies a weighted linear fit of
storm history for the storm size forecast.
Statistical and case study-oriented comparisons of QPF schemes demonstrated during the first World
Weather Research Programme Forecast Demonstration Project (FDP), held in Sydney, Australia
during 2000, served to confirm many of earlier reported findings regarding QPF algorithm design and
performance. With a few notable exceptions, QPF algorithms based upon the linear extrapolation of
observed motion were generally superior to more sophisticated, nonlinear QPF methods. Centroid
trackers (TITAN) were most reliable in convective scenarios and are therefore highly recommended
for use in tropical regions. During widespread, stratiform rain events, the pattern matching
extrapolators were superior to centroid trackers and wind advection techniques.
There is some limited case study and statistical evidence from FDP to support the use of more
sophisticated, nonlinear QPF algorithms. Wilson et al. demonstrate the advantages of combining
linear extrapolation with algorithms designed to predict convective initiation, growth, and decay in a
QPF scheme called Auto-nowcaster. Ebert et al. show that the application of a nonlinear scheme
(called Spectral Prognosis) designed to smooth precipitation features at a rate consistent with
observed temporal persistence tends to produce a nowcast that is superior to linear extrapolation in
terms of root mean square error.
QPF is relatively new technology and despite claims by many agencies and suppliers that QPF is
successfully adopted, we cannot find quantitative evidence as to the degree of improvement or the
accuracy of QPF. Most statements on the reliability of QPFs are qualitative in nature. In all fairness,
it is noted that there are difficulties in trying to quantify the effectiveness of QPF such as:
QPF can be of short range and longer range. Short range forecasts, typically up to 3hrs, are
also called nowcasts. They are generally more accurate than longer range forecasts.
March 2009 12-17

The nature of precipitation system and its motion. The mesoscale convective system is large
scale phenomena and has a long lifespan making it easier to track and less susceptible to
local variations. Single cell thunderstorms cover small areas and have short lifespan making
it difficult to track and forecast.
In any case radar hardware nowadays normally comes with Doppler capability which can provide
data in support of QPF and the additional costs of Doppler enabled radar is marginally higher
compared to radar without Doppler capability.
REFERENCES
[1] Klein, G.S., Yufit, G.A. & Shkurko, V.K., A new moving boat method for the measurement of
discharge in large rivers, 1993.
[2] McCuen, R.H., Hydrologic Design and Analysis; Prentice Hall, New Jersey, 1998, 814 pages.
[3] Riggs, H.C., A simplified slope-area method for estimation flood discharges in natural channels,
Journal Research US Geological Survey, 4(3), 1976.
12-18 March 2009

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GOVERNMENT OF MALAYSIA

Volume 4 Hydrology and

Jabatan Pengairan dan Saliran Malaysia

Dato Ir. Hj. Ahmad Husaini bin Sulaiman,

March 2009 iii

Amend Page Date of Amend Page Date of

DAD Depth; Area; Duration Curves

A-Frame The portable steel contraption which allows for a

ACM An acronym for acoustic current meter. It is a

Acoustic method A means to measure velocity (and flow) using

An advanced generation of acoustic current

Backwater A rise in stage produced by an obstruction in the

Bank, right or left The margin of a channel as viewed facing

Bench mark A permanent, fixed reference point for which the

March 2009 vii

Broad-crested weir A weir of such crest length in the direction of flow

Cableway Consist of a pair of suspension cables strung

Control The condition downstream from a gauging station

Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation (CPR) Is an emergency medical procedure for a victim

Crest gauge A gauge, usually vertical, used to indicate a peak

Critical flow The flow in which specific energy (depth of flow

Cross section of a stream A specified vertical plane through a stream

Current meter Instrument to measure discretely velocity of

viii March 2009

Digital counter Is an electronic device that records data over time

Digital counter A counting device to record the number of

Discharge coefficient A coefficient in the discharge equation, in general

Discharge, Q The volume of liquid flowing through a cross

Discharge measurement The determination of the rate of discharge at a

Double-drum winch A winch with two drums, one of which controls

Energy slope Refers to the slope between the upstream and

Flood mark A trace of any kind left by a flood on the banks,

Flow The movement of water in a channel without

Flume A specially shaped open channel flow section that

Fluorometer An optically-based instrument used in detecting

Gauge correction Any correction that must be applied to the gauge

Gauge datum The elevation of the zero of the gauge

Gauging station Also referred to as river discharge station.

Gauging winch Refers to specially designed winches mechanical

Hydraulic jump The sudden passage of water in an open channel

Inclined gauge; ramp gauge A gauge on a slope, generally graduated directly

Inspection Inspectorial works carried out twice yearly on

Level check The procedure followed to determine the

Manual gauge A non-recording type of gauge from which

Moving boat method Refers to a gauging technique where a boat

Observations The practice to ensure that the entries are

Panel The area at a vertical defined by the depth at that

Peak stage The maximum instantaneous stage during a given

Pless system An improved technique devised by Russians to the

xii March 2009

Remote sensing Is the science of deriving information about the

Rhodamine WT dye A water soluble dye, red in color used as a tracer

River Stage Station A location, temporary or otherwise where records

River Discharge Station The complete installation at a measuring site

SCADA or Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition

Shift A change in the station control which alters the

Slope-area method An indirect method of peak discharge estimation

Sounding The operation of measuring the depth from the

Staff gauge A manual gauge consisting of a graduated plate

Stage A general term used to describe the height of a

March 2009 xiii

Stage-discharge relation A curve, equation or table which expresses the

Station control Refers to the physical features, natural or