Goethe, JW Von - West-East Divan (SUNY, 2010) PDF

West-East Divan
THE POEMS, WITH "NOTES AND ESSAYS":

GOETHE'S INTERCULTURAL DIALOGUES
by
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe
Divan translated, with Introduction and Commentary Poems
by
Martin Bidney
"Notes and Essays" translated
by
Martin Bidney and Peter Anton von Arnim
Volume II in the Series: East-West Bridge Builders
State University of New York Press

2010
Table of Contents
Dcdication 111
In Memoriam: Peter Anton von Arnim xxm
Sonnet to I\Iy Collaborator, Peter Anton von Al:nim,

and to :t\fy Mentor, Katharina J\'Iommsen, by Martin Bidney xx1v
Introduction xxv
117est-East Divan by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, translated by

l\Ioganni Nameh: Book of the Singer

(1) Twenty years I let pass by,... 1
(2) Hegira 1
(3) Blessing Pledges 3
(4) Freethought 4
(5) Talismans 5
(6) Four Gifts of Grace 6
(7) Confession 7
(8) Elements 7
(9) Create and Enliven 8
(10) Phenomenon 9
(11) Lovable 10
(12) Rift 11
(13) Past in Present 11
(14) Song and Image 12
(15) Audacity 13
(16) Rough and Ready 14
(17) The Living All 15
(18) Blessed Longing 16
(19) Height will reeds of cane fulfu,... 17
Hafis Nameh: Book oflhftz 18

(20) Spirit's like the bridegroom who... 18
(21) Sobric1uet 18
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MAIHIN BIDNEY
(22) Accusation 19
(23) Petwa 21
(24) The German ( >ffers Thanks 21
(25) f'etwa 22
(26) Unbounded 23
(27) Emulation 24
(28) l\'leasured rhythms charm us, after all; ... 24
(29) Open Secret 25
(30) Hint 25
(31) To Hafiz 26
Ushk Nameh: Book of Love 28

(32) Tell me true... 28
(33) Models 28
(34) One More Couple 29
(35) Primer 30
(36) Yes, it was the glancing eye... 30
(37) Warned 31
(38) Immersed 31
(39) Dubious 32
(40) Dearest! Bound in printed band, . . . 33
(41) Cold Comfort 33
(42) Contented 34
(43) Greeting 35
(44) Submission 36
(45) Unavoidable 36
(46) Secret 37
(47) Deep Secret 38
Tekfr.r. Narlleh: Book of Observations 39

(48) Hear the advice that the lyre will sound! ... 39
(49) Five Things 39
(50) Five Others 40
(51) Lovable the maiden-gaze that winks;.. . 40
(52) In flmrl Ntime!J there's a thought... 41
(51) If mar thl sm ith y you happen to be,... 41
(51) 1\ stranglr's gl'l'l'ting hold in high regard! 42
('i'l) Tht)' havl shanud you with your failings,.. . 42
('i() 1\larkl'l. charming us: "Come buy!" ... 43
{'1'/) 1-'ailltfulto ho ne sty - ... 44
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West-East Divan
(58) Worry not what entry gate... 44

(59) \Vhere did I come from? I could never say;... 45
(60) One thing after another, or... 46
(61) Deal with women indulgently!... 46
(62) Life is a joke that's fallen flat.... 47
(63) Our life is but a game of "Geese." ... 47
(64) "You claim the years have taken much away: ..." 48
(65) Find an expert - there's the test... 48
(66) The generous are cheated,... 49
(67) He that can command will praise... 49
(68) To Shah Shuja and Those Like Him 50
(69) Highest Favor SO
(70) Firdusi speaks: "0 world! how shameless and wicked are you! ... " 51
(71) Jalaloddin Rmni speaks: You'd linger in the world - it,
dreamlike, flees.... 51
(72) Zuleika speaks: In mirrors, beautiful am 1.... 52
Renj Nameh: Book of Anger 53

(73) "Where did you get it from?.. ". 53
(74) Not a rhymer can we fllld... 54
(75) If a person is cheerful, emits a glow,... 55
(76) True predominance, you'll feel,... 56
(77) Keep adhering to the good,... 57
(78) Things on names are never based.... 58
(79) "Mejnun means- I cannot claim .... " 59
(80) Have I ever counseled you... 60
(81) Wanderer's Peace ofivlind 60
(82) Who would from the world demand... 61
(83) Self-praising? A mistake, we feel;... 61
(84) 11U:nk you then, from mouth to ear... 62
(85) Whether it's German, English, or... 62
(86) Formerly when the Qur'an was cited... 63
(87) The Prophet speaks 64
(88) Timur speaks 64
Hikmet Nameh: Book of Proverbs 65

(89) With talismans will I tlus book bestrew.... 65
(90) From today and from tonight... 65
(91) People born in evil days... 65
(92) Why something is light... 66
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MAIHIN BIDNEY
(93) The sea is flowin ever,... 66

(94) Something, I fear, each hour is wrong.... 66
(95) Your fate is proving you, wise plan at root.... 67
(96) It's day - let man bestir himself, not shirk.... 67
(97) Why rail at the world ? It's made, it's there.... 67
(98) When the heavy-laden wail: ... 68
(99) "Clumsy, unwise- so high to set... " 68
(100) How splendid the heritage, never scant!.. . 68
(101) For love of good, good deeds to do- .. . 69
(102) Anvari claimed- a clever man, outstanding,... 69
(103) But why lament your foes?... 69
(104) No folly is harder to tolerate!. .. 70
(105) Were God a neighbor such as you... 70
(106) Admit it! Greatest and the best... 70
(107) Eve11rone wants to put on shows,... 71
(108) Pardon, Lord, our sin .... 71
(109) If envy wants to rend its prey,... 71
(110) To keep your self-respect,... 72
(111) The priestly orders dare berate, .. . 72
(112) To praise and name a hero great. .. 72
(113) Purely do good for love of good.... 73
(114) If you'd evade the most rapacious thief,... 73
(115) How does it happen? Everywhere... 73
(116) Don't let yourself be led astray... 74
(117) "Why does tmth seem gone for good- ..." 74
(118) Should your mind to the question go .. . 74
(119) When a spider once I killed,... 75
(120) "The night is dark, with God is light."... 75
(121) Colorful company!... 75
(122) A stiny man you're calling me- .. . 76
(123) Want me to show you all the land?... 76
(124) Silent, you're free of care: ... 76
(125) Master, two servants- well... 77
(126) You people, in peq1lexity... 77
(127) Why am I thanking Alhth? lie. . . 77
(128) I find it foolish, amllJUitl odd,.. . 78
(129) New in the world, a hmtSl" lll"'ll huild .... 78
(130) Within my home I'll let till" gulst. . . 78
(131) rviy home - I hope You likl it, Lord. 79
(132) Y ou're always safl, I'd say 79
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West-East Divan
(133) "How startling, what a marvel-feat,.. "

. 79
(134) Splendidly the Orient... 80
(135) "Why have you the ngbt hand made ... " 80
(136) If one to Mecca were to ride... 80
(137) Mud trampled long... 81
(138) Don't, worthy souls, your fate bewail:... 81
(139) "In writing thank-yous you're behind... " 81
(140) You must work for good repute... 82
(141) The flood of passion storms in vain ... 82
(142) Confidant 82
(143) It happens, but it none behooves: ... 83
(144) I'll tell you what I cannot stand: ... 83
Timur N ameh: Book of Timur 84

(145) Winter and Timur 84
(146) To Zuleika 85
Suleika Nameh: Book of Zuleika 86

(147) I was thinking, in the night,. .
. 86
(148) Invitation 86
(149) That a Joseph Zuleika delighted ... 87
(150) Now "Zuleika" is your name,... 87
(151) Hatem: Thieves occasion doesn't make. . . 88
(152) Zuleika: I, delighted in your love,... 89
(153) The lover won't go wide astray ... 89
(154) Ah, can it be - caressing you, and full... 90
(155) Suleika: Gold the ring my fmger left... 90
(156) Hatem: I'll decipher it, and clearly: ... 91
(157) Be act1uainted with men's gazes:... 91
(158) Ginkgo Biloba 92
(159) Zuleika: You've so many lyrics made,... 93
(160) Zuleika: The rising sun, a splendor shilling!... 94
(161) Come, darling, come! my cap needs winding well!... 94
(162) There's little that I long for, now;... 95
(163) Would I ever hesitate... 97
(164) The prettily written,... 97
(165) Love for love and hour for hour,... 99
(166) Zuleika: People, vassal, conqueror - ... 99
(167) Hatem: Colored cut-glass lantern lights... 100
(168) Hatem: Braids of hair, contain me, caught... 103
- i x-
Snnmt to My Collaborator, Peter Anton von Arnim,
nud to my Mentor, Katharina Mommsen
lr'liiJ I!Jc lim: t!f"/111/C !Jm,c k11own

NciJCI'IIIOIV 11ccd liiJC a/om.
In Goethe's Englished works about the lVliddle East

I pray that you may find what all of us had found
In the original- Hafisius unbound;
Sheherazade's own caravanserai, a feast
Among whose many splendid merits not the least

1\'Iay be the way he alters manner, mood, and theme-
Legend and pageantry, reality and dream-
Feeling Ulysses' freedom- prophet he, not priest.
Goethe, our guide, has been the bravest company

Both for himself and for the fact that us, all three,
He led upon a not-yet-ended odyssey,
Providing in the prose and wizard poeu'Y

The vast horizon of a grander amity:
To breathe a kindred singing wind, and hear, and see.
Introduction
f) arely might one feel so fully the meaning of the phrase "a book whose
' time has come." The volume you are holding in your hands will offer at
'-'
least three timely surprises. Readers worldwide know Johann Wolfgang von
Goethe as Germany's greatest poet and one of her fmest thinkers, and Fa11st
as one of the most lauded, oft-quoted wisdom books in the history of
literature. But despite unparalleled current American and European interest
in the culture of the Middle East, Goethe's Jl7est-East Divan and his accom
panying "Notes and Essays" have yet to attain the renown and readership
they merit. Few of my non-Germanist friends are aware that the two-part
work exists ("Goethe's poems about Arabia and Persia? And essays on
Islamif mlt11re?"). Startlingly, even after a hundred years, the ftrst edition of
the scholar-poet's pioneering book had not sold out. During the poet's life
time only a few intimate friends ever guessed how much the Divan and the
"Notes and Essays" meant to him. Yet although fine prefaces have been
written to the work by outstanding German commentators (and I will cite
some of these), it has yet to be widely read and relished as it should be, even in
German-speaking lands. Goethe's book is a pathbreaker, a boundary-crossing
intercultural poetic dialogue - one of the most notable and far-reaching
visions of East-West understanding achieved in modern times. The relative
neglect by critics and teachers is even more remarkable when we look at the
attractive style of the poems and prose: both are exuberant, often htunorous
and amusing. The depth of Goethe's writing proves more than compatible
with the charm of his lightness and wit.
The second surprise is that the Notes and Essqys, a book-length prose
supplement to the lyrical Divan, hasnever before appeared i11 E11glish, even
though here, too, we ftnd a mode of presentation that is not at all daunting
but pleasantly conversational, casual in its lively style, and engaging in its
varied subject matter. Goethe's talents as narrator and expositor make it a
vigorous, colorful text. He opens the book by likening himself to a
merchant displaying products "appealingly" and trying "in many ways" to
make them attractive to the buyer. He introduces the Islamic background of
f\:Iiddle Eastern culture from a poet's standpoint, with a particularly
engaging overview of medieval Persian poetry, always highlighting the
arresting detail. Here again we are led to invoke the idea of a book whose
time has come. Once a wider curiosity has been awakened in the West for
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MAIHIN BIDNEY
l\1iddlc Eastl'm culturl', as we find happening right now, the barriers of the
unfa mi li ar can hl lJIIickly broken down. We are now ready to visit the ca
ravansera i where the well-traveled merchant of literary treasures will lay out
his hy brid wares, while eagerly offering explanatory narratives.
One has to he a poet to translate poetry, and the need for a poet is
twofold in Goethe's intercultural dialogues in verse and prose, for even in
the "Notes and Essays" one effective enhancer of reader appeal is Goethe's
generosity in sprinkling the prose text with many original poems and
German translations of Arabian and Persian verse. I have sought to make
each English rendering form-faithful, keeping the rhythm and rhyme
schemes of the Goethean poems. These singable lyrics need to be made
musical works of word art in a new language. 1\lost important, the
ingratiating wit and lightness of tone should come across. (No other
English rendering of Goethe's Divan is currently in print; John Whaley's
translation, though at times offering precise word equivalents for the
German, lacks ease and humor, and the rhythm is often hobbled by metric
errors.) Goethe's poetic enthusiasm is infectious. And that leads to the third
unexpected feature of this book: my commentary to the Divali is written in
poems. To complement the rendering of Goethe's West-East verses, I've
created an interpretive "lyrical companion" to them in my anglophone
workshop. You could call this book a dialogic tra11slation. Grounded in the
research outlined in tlus introduction, the poem-commentary will show that
the appealingly rhytluned stanza patterns in the Divan are not museum
pieces. These melody-forms are live options for the poet today, particularly
if we enjoy the graceful ease conveyed in Goethe's use of them. I often
emulate Goethe's verse forms quite precisely in my conunent-lyrics; and on
occasion, too, I'll translate a related Goethe poem and write a verse "reply."
Whenever I choose other, non-Goethean, rhymed and metered strophe
patterns, I do my best to lend them, as well, sometlling of the melodic
lightness bundant in the German master's Divan.
It's worth dwelling for a moment on the theme of Goethean lightness,
ease, and grace. In "The Lightness of the Diva11" Karl Krolow writes:
Of the many things said and written about the West-East Divmt I
particularly recall a comment of Heinrich Heine: "The verses of the
Divan arc so light, so happy, so naturally breathed [bi1eha11cbt], so
l'thnlal, that one wonders how such a tiling was possible in
< ;nman." lmked, it is this light, lively, evident mastery of a speech
sc, IIIH"l'asingly kept in movement and therefore mobile, at once
llnting or gliding past and yet extremely compact, as solid as an
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West-East Divan
object, that is the flrst thing that strikes us when we read the Divali
poems. (Krolow 1991, 379)
l.ighlncss of this kind is the opposite of the simplistic or trivial. Rather,
The lightness, the serenity of the Divali poems is fmally to be found

in their concision, in this [...] playful art of encoding the lyrical,
which in however jocular a way has something of the mysterious or
spiritual about it. (Krolow 1991, 385)
As an example, Krolow chooses the quatrain employed as epigraph to Notes
fl/1(1 Essqys:
Poetry if you would know,

To its country you must go.
If the poet you would know,
To the poet's country go.
The light, unpretentious way of speaking shows the requirement of
coherence in the concise-poetic tone as also in the "ethereal" dic
tion that is employed here. A region is hidden; it is called "The
Land of Poetry," which here will always mean an area of harmonious
proportion, of ordered balance as of fantasy. It is a process that leads
from the one to the other, that indicates the one by the other, and
that encompasses everything from the individual poem to the entire
"plan," intention, and execution. (Krolow 1991, 381)
Twice we have heard Krolow use the word "ethereal" (aYhetisch], indicating
the impression of the timeless value of a compact, aphoristic utterance.
Even in the plainest phrasing, it will create the heightened, higher emotion
of scripture or wisdom literature ("something of the mysterious or spiritual
about it"). It is the well-pondered, naturally evolved, mature expression of a
philosophic poet in his sixties. And I would add that only in a form-true
rendering of such terse, proverb-like writing, permanent "wisdom litera
ture" spoken naturally and serenely as to thoughtful companions, can we
remain faithful to the Diva11 spirit (Bloom 2004).
Sadly, I write this preface alone, for my collaborator, Peter Anton von
Arnim, died on August 19, 2009. The spirit of tlus kindly, learned man, with
lus deep love and rich appreciation of Ivliddle Eastem and African culture,
deserves forever to be held in cherished memory. His contribution to the
preparing of the prose text of Goethe's "Notes and Essays" (along with
preliminary prose versions of some of the lyrics) has been invaluable. His
empathy for Goethe's text and themes was deepened by his admirable fluency
- xxvii -
MAIHIN BIDNEY
in Arabic. Reading his llwughtful "Afterword" to Katharina Ivfommscn's

Goethe mul der l.rla111, I have been heartened by von Arni.m's depiction of the
German sage as a herald of new possibilities for expanded openness to
changes in w orld cultmes through increased mutual understanding. His
attitude has influenced my thinking throughout this exhilarating venture.
Goethe's Divali is a journey of the spirit, and the "Notes and Essays"
are a part of that journey, making it crucial for the reader to have the
opportunity of accompanying him on the entire trip. J\[ax Rychner explains:
Like many poetic works since the Ocfyssv' and Divi11e Comec!J', the
Divali assumes the form of a journey. [From Vergil's Ae11eid,
another travel-narrative, the Divan borrows the epic structure
format of twelve "books." - J\'ffi) Already the young Goethe saw
himself as basically a wanderer: Will1elm Meister, Faust, Dorothea
move through the world; lphigenie and Tasso set forth. . . . Among
the autobiographic works, Trip to S1vitzerla11d, Italia11 ]ollnte_)',
Campaig11 i11 Fra11ce share to some degree the heightened feeling of
one who began with deprivation and has attained fullness. The
journey in the Diva11 leads from many places to a single point,
where all comes together: Orient and Occident, past and present,
personal and universal, sublime and ordinary, the serious and the
ironic, fulftlment and the "strange feeling" within it of a higher
longing, love and thought, poetry and prose. The "Notes and
Essays" belong to the collection of lyrics as the diastole to the
poetic systole; in that latter venture, Goethe tells of celebrated
travelers in the East and introduces the section on Bible criticism
dealing with the stressful wanderings of Israel after the exodus
from Egypt. (R.ychner xxv-xxvi)
Not only the encompassing breadth of Goethe's mind and heart but e(1ually
the fruitfQI interaction of poet and scholar in his integrated outlook may be
adequately approached only when the reader of English can savor the Divali
and "Notes and Essays" together. There is a pathos in the lonely plight of the
German West-East poet: systole and diastole, Divali and "Notes and Essays,"
are mun1al clarifiers that we today find powerful and cogent in their com
bined dfect. But, as noted, the first edition of Goethe's masterpiece had not
yet sold out after a cennuy It takes awhile for a major innovator to create the
tastl' hy which he can alone be judged, as Bach with his Brandenburg
colll'l'l'li, m lkethoven in the late ()Uartets. So Goethe, too, was obliged to
wail:
xxviii
West-East Divan
The souls that form a standard for the judgment of

The work of later ages' creativity
Need patience. Had he waited for a century,
Goethe would fllld the West-East testament of love
He'd published not sold out! The riddle rose above

Customers' comprehension. Undespairingly
He labored, though. A Noah, from a raging sea
He'd pray the "Notes and Essays" helped, a hopeful dove.
In his experimental Diva11 Goethe, the German, Western poet, becomes

a partly Persian, Eastern one as well, a thoroughly
f?ybtidized cultural figure, a
role the "Notes and Essays" are designed to clarify. For over fifty years Ka
tharina Mommsen has been disclosing the vast range and vivid particulari
ties of Goethe's two-part intercultural undertaking, unique of its kind
among poets of the era. One work of hers, in particular, will guide us: Goethe
tmd der Islan (Goethe a11d Islam, 2001), and I will cite, among others, Goethe
tmd die arabische Welt (Goethe a11d the Arab II7odd, 1988), which overlaps with it
in a number of ways. I will briefly review the chief themes of the Diva11 and
focus on a dozen highlights. Then I'll htive a quick tour of the "Notes and
Essays" to clarify the poet-scholar's main concerns. I conclude with remarks
on the value of both Divali and "Notes and Essays" for us now.
Given the provincialism narrowing the views of many prospective
readers, Goethe probably did not improve sales of the collection by coyly
acknowledging, at age 68, that the book's author did not wish to deny the
imputation that he was himself a :rviuslirn. But already at 23 he had written a
poem in praise of the Prophet Muhanunad (Gall7157). After s tudying the
Hebrew and Christian scriptures in the original languages as a youth, Goethe
became interested in the Qur'an under the influence of the philosopher of
history Johann Gottfried Herder. He shared Herder's high estimation of the
Islamic scripture's elevated style, which he would later call "astonishing"
(Gdl 22-4) even in its translations, of which Goethe studied many. ..\nd he
shared Herder's respect for :tvluhanunad as both poet and prophet (Gdl 43-
4). \Ve already find Qur'an echoes in Goethe's Giitz vo11 Berlichi11ge11, a youth
ful drama that Sir Walter Scott was to translate (Gdi 30-6).
Goethe's own widely-sensed charisma even tempted him, for a time, to
consider playing the role of "prophet," and he seriously thought through
the hazards of tlus option while planning a drama about Muhammad (Gdl
68-80). The most important poetic consequence of the project is the "Song
of :Cviuhanunad" noted above, where the Prophet is depicted as a river joyously
rushing to Gou the Father-Ocean. As Annemarie Schimmel tells us, the twen-
- xxix -
West-East Divan
by
Translated
by
Martin Bidney
Moganni Nameh
Book of the Singer
Twenty years I let pass by,

Relishing my destined lot;
Time that lent a pleasure high,
As when Barmccides had wrought.
Hegira
North and South and West- they shake!

Tluones are cracking, empires quake,
To the purer East, then, fly
Patriarchal air to try:
Loving, drinking, songs among,
Khizer's rill will make you young.
There, in what is pure and right,

Gencratiom I, with might,
Urge to depth of oribnn
Where they from the Lord would win
Earthly-worded Heaven-lore;
They will rack their brains no more.
-I-
West-East Dimn
\X-'here their fathers they respected,

Alien rule at length deflected,
Youthful limits I'll embrace:
Thought confined in faith-wide space;
Word still worthy to be heard
For it was the .rpokm word.
!\line with shepherd-lives will mesh

At oases that refresh
When with caravans I wander,
Coffee, shawls, and musk up yonder;
Every path I'll travel down
From the desert to the town.
As we ride the rocky way

Solace in your song will stay,
Haflz, when the leader will,
High on mule-back, music-thrill
Lend, that stars might wake in light
While the robbers quake in fright.
I'll in baths and taverns, too,

Holy HafiZ, think of you
If my Lovely lift her veil,
Fragrant hair shake, amber-pale:
Poet's lyric whispered loves
Heat with sweet the houri-doves.
If you envy him tlt.is joy

Or would spoil it for the boy,
Know that poet-words await
By the paradisal gate -
Softly knocking, they will sway,
Asking for Eternal Day.
- 2 -
Moganni Nameh - Book ofthe Singer
B lessing Pledges
Tme believers' talisman

Luck will gain: carnelian.
Onyx-mounted, hallowed, this
Consecrated lips may kiss.
Every ill it drives away,
Guards you everywhere you stay
If the graven word will say
Allah's name, which when you heed
Will be kindled love and deed.
Women, specially, raised high,
Talismans will edify.
For an amrllet divine

On a paper write a s ign .
Gems confine in narrow frame;
Here a wider space you'll claim.
Souls ma y write with piety
Longer verses and more free.
Shoulder hanging some prefer
- ,
Making them a scapular.
The plain inscription nothing more will hide;

Quite self-sufficient, n eeding nought beside.
\'Vhatever else behind the words may lie,
Candidly answer, "I, I said it- I."
BringAbraxas? No, a fright!

Odd, contorted form, that some
Craftsman made in madness glum ,
Thinking it the highest height.

Do I sound a bit absurd ?
That's "Abraxas," perfect word!
- 3-
West-East Dimn
A seal ri11gs tricky to design,

The highest meaning, littlest frame.
But should you the essential thing divine,
The word's engraved! -no guessing how it came.
Freethought
Let me get my saddle, don't need rest!

Stay in hut and tent, for you they're best!
I'll be riding footloose, free, and far;
And above my cap, many a star.
He set the stars, that you may guide

Your course, by land and sea;
That you may take delight beside,
,
Looking up, steadily.
- 4 -
Talismans
To God belongs the Orient!

To God belongs the Occident!
The Northern and the Southern lands,
Resting, tranquil, in His hands.
He, the Righteous, in His height

'ants, for everyone, what's right.
By His names, all hunJreJ, then,
LauJeJ be the LorJ! Amen.
Straying aims to faze the minJ,

Yet from error You tmbinJ.
\'<lhen I act, when I indite,
Lord, direct my steps aright.
Ev'n when I think of worldlr things

I gain a height with mind-quick wings.
The spirit earthly dust won't pulverize:
It's driving, Jriven, upward to the skies.
Two graces of competing kinds

One in the feat of breathing finJs.
Pressured, breathe in; breathe out refreshed:
How well is life-strength intenneshcd!
So thank the Lord when you are stressed,
And thank Him when He grants you rest.
- 5-
West-East Dimn
Four Gifts of Grace
That Arabs might traverse a wide

Terrain in happiness,
Four gracious aids the Lord applied,
The common gain to bless.
The turban, ft.rst, will finely show

No kingly crown compare;
A tent, to carry when you go -
For living everywhere;
A sword, that better will defend

Than cliff and lofty wall;
A helpful song to thrill a friend,
A maiden to enthrall.
I'll write a sung about the flow'rs

Upon her fragrant s hawl;
She knows her captivating pow'rs
And likes me most of all.
Flowers and fmits I will for you

On pleasant table set.
You want some moral lessons, too?
The freshest, you will get!
- 6 -
Confession
\'Vbat will resist being hid? A fl.re!

Daytime smoke will give it away,
Flames at night, getting huge, climb higher.
Further, what's harder to hide, I'd say,
Is love. No matter how l]uiet kept,
You'd see how light from the eyes outleapt.
Hardest to hide is a poem you write;
Folks don't put verse under bus hels right? ,
A poet who's sung a song, fresh-made,

Is filled with the notes that he knows won't fade.
Soon as he's written it, nice and new,
I le wants for the world to like it, too.
Reads it to everyone, loud, brigh t eyed - ,
Whether we're tortured or edified.
Elements
\Vhat have been the elements

That authentic song have fed
So the la)men love the sense,
Craftsmen, too, are comforted?
Love must be, above all things,

Here the theme the lyric sings:
ben it through our music rings,
Better far the tune it flings.
- 7 -
West-East Dimn
Then the glasses loud will clink,

Sparkle rubies of the wine:
Greeting all who love, or drink,
Garlands beckon, wreaths entwine.
Weapon-tones will be required

Anc.l the trumpet bravely sound:
Let, when joy's to flame inspired,
Heroes be in triumph crowned.
Hate, though, isn't justified:

Poets empathy need give.
'hat is ugly don't deride;
This, like beauty, too, let live.
Elements - these mighty four

Will the poet nobly mesh.
Haf!z-like, his folk the more
Piring up, he will refresh.
Create and Enliven
Jack Adam was an earthly clod

That God a man would make,
But certain things uncouth and odd
From mother-womb he'd take.
The Elohim into his nose

The best of spirits blew,
At which improved respect arose.
He sneezed- and that was new.
- 8 -
Moganni Nameh - Book of the Singer
\Vtth bones and limbs and head on top

He stayed half clod, not whole,
Till Noah for the needed drop
Had found the needed bowl.
The clump feels, right away, the swing,

Soon as he tastes the wet,
l\Iuch as the dough, when leavening,
In motion will be set.
So let us all your holy song

And model, Hafiz, heed:
With drink in clinking goblets strong,
To Heaven's temple lead!
Phenomenon
When to the wall of rain

Phoebus is wed
Rainbow's bright color-stain
Shines overhead.
Then in the haze I see

Once more a bow.
1ute it is, certainly;
Heavenly, though.
So, cheerful senior, you

Ought not to mope.
White is your hair, it's true;
Lwe is your hope.
-9-
West-East Dimn
Lovable
\Vhere's the color that could bind

Heav'n with brightness, height for me?
l\Iorn's gray mist will merely blind.
Looking hard, I cannot see.
l\Iaybe tents of a vizier

Built for women meant for love?
Rugs, the festal dar to cheer,
For the favored placed above?
White and red, when sprinkled, blent -

Nothing richer to display.
I low might Shiraz' wealth be lent
To our graying northern day?
I Hfiz! Poppies Persian-hom,

Wide extending, neighborly,
Putting war-god red to scorn,
Cover fields for us to see.
May the able ones be wise

Flower grace to raise each day:
We will pray for sunny skies
Brightening them on our way.
- 10-
Moganni Nameh -Book of the Singer
Rift
\\'hen on the stream-bank light

Cupid-flute's heard,
And on the field at right
Mars-trumpet's stirred,
That's where our eager ear
Fondly is drawn,
Yet by the sweet and clear
Falsely led on.
Flute-tones are ever full
Still in war-thunder.
l\lad!- it seems laughable
Is that a wonder?
Flute notes arc ravishing:
Raving, I'm crazed!
Drums in my skullbone ring!
Are you amazed?
Past in Present
Lily, rose, bedewed by dawn,

In the garden bloom nearby;
Friendly, wooded, farther on
Boldly climb the cliffs on high.
And with rounding forest nigh,
And with knightly castle-crown,
Summit-arc will guide the eye
To the valley, looking down.
- II -
West-East Dimn
Green aroma memory -

\'Vhen we suffered so from love:
Strings upon my psaltery
\X'ith the morning sun ray strove,
\'Vhen the hunter-songs undwimlling
Full in rounded tone were heeded,
Sound refreshing and enkindling,
As the heart-deeps wanted, needed.
So the woods forever grow;

Raise your spirit then with this:
\'Vhat rejoiced you long ago
Now enjoy in others' bliss!
No one then will us reprove
'That we care for self alone -
Now, wherever life will move,
Blending in the merry tone.
By our singing borne away,

We're with Hafiz, genial boy:
The perfection of the day
\X'ith enjoyers we'll enjoy.
Song and Image
Let the Grecian mold his clay

Into forms that glow,
That his delectation may
In his handcraft grow.
Greater pleasure may be lent:

Hold Euphrates' waves.
In the flowing element
I .ove what sways and laves.
- 12-
\'\-'hen I damp the spirit-brand,

Then a song may sound.
Poet, with creative hand,
Makes the water round.
Audacity
\Vhat's the healthy principle

Human life has shown?
People like a sound that's full -
Vibrant, rounded tone.
Down with all that halts the race!

Gloomy brooding - worst!
Lyric sin!,>ing? Second place!
Living - always ftrst.
Let the copper gong of life

Rumble through the soul!
Poets with their inner strife
Reconciled, are whole.
- 1 3-
West-East Dimn
Rough and Ready
Poetrr's high-spirited:
I am not to blame!
Heat your blood and free your head -
Then you'll be the same.
If I suffered, every hour,

Bitter misery,
1\lodest I, with waning pow'r,
!\lore than you, would be!
Nothing wrong with modesty

When a maiden flow'rs.
She'd be courted tenderly -
Fleeing coarser pow'rs.
1\Iodesty have lauded, too,

!\len I've counted wise:
Time, eternity in view,
They can well advise.
Poets, though, are spirited!

Be alone and write -
Let your mind by friends be fed
Lively-blooded, bright!
1\lonk without a cap or cowl,

Don't keep blabbing so!
You will make me want to howl,
Not be modest, no!
Hollow phrases, roundabout,

Music will betray.
With my shoes I ground them out,
Rubbed them all away.
- 14-
\'Vhen the poet's busy mill

Runs, do not imp ede!
Once you comprehend, you will
Pardon - paying heed.
The Living All
Dust - a comely element,

That in music well belongs,
Haf12, fo r your true love meant,
'hen you sing her charming songs.
Yes, her threshold dust a t dawn

.More than carpets will appeal -
Gold-sewn blossoms whereupon
l\Iahmud's eager minions kneel.
Clouds of dust the nimble wind

From her gate will whisk away.
Yet you love it more than twinned
Rose-oil, musk aroma-play.
In the shrouded, cloudy North

Dust of earth had been belied.
In the heat it's corning forth,
And I'm greatly gratified.
It's been long since well-loved gate s'

Hinges movec.l with eager will.
Heal, you rainstorm, one that waits:
Fragrance of the green instill!
- 15-
West-East Dimn
Now, when all the thunders roll,

Sky shines through where maelstroms moil;
'ild, the dust the storm-wind stole,
:Moistened, falls upon the soil.
Underlying life will spring -

Welling, blessed work of birth
In a greening - freshening
Vernal regions of the earth.
B lessed Longing
Tell it none, except the wise

(Lest the rabble cry, for shame!),
Living beings I will pri2e
\'Vho hut long for death by flame.
Cooling, after loving-night

\Xlhen you passed your life-seed on,
Alien feeling will alight
\Xlhen the candle's gleaming, calm.
Now no more are you surrounded

In the night by shadow-net;
Rather, new desire unbounded
Rends you, that you may beget.
Freedom from long effort granted,

Flown, you're held here fast, illumed,
And at last, by light enchanted,
Butterfly, you'll be consumed.
- 16 -
And until you learn the best,

This: Die, and become!
You are but a sullen guest,
Earth is dull and glum.
Height will reeds of cane fulfll,

Worlds the sweeter grow!
From my able writing quill
Let endearment flow.
- 17-
West-East Dimn
Hafis Nameh
Book of Hafiz
Spirit's like the bridegroom who

With the Word-bride rhymes.
That's the wedding we may view,
Prizing Haftz' lines.
Sobriquet
Poet
Tell me why, 1\[uhammad Shem

scddin, you are "Hdflz" to
Worthy folk.
HafiZ
For asking, you

!vlerit thanks. I answer, then:
Legacy of the Qur'an
I unaltered carry on
Hallowed in my memory
And, by acting piously,
Daily every injury
- 18 -
Hafts Nameh - Book ofHafiz
Ward away from me and those

'Who the Prophet-word and seed
Treasure and their duty heed.
So my name the people chose.
Poet
1-Hftz, it would seem to me

Titat I needn't yield to you:
Like another I will be
\Vhen I think as he would do.
We are quite alike, I see.
Taking in an image of
Value from the Book I love
As upon a cloth had He
Imabre of the Lord impressed -
I revived in quiet breast
(Quel.l.i.ng foe, denier, thief)
With the image of belief.
Accusation
\Xfhom are the devils watching, g-athered all

On desert sand, between a rock and wall?
Wait for a moment- look! - and they'll have grabbed -
To take to hell- the men they've lured and nabbed:

Slyest of liars and a crook- what gall!
Why is the poet there? \X'hy's he allowed

To sp end his time with that obnoxious crowd?
- 19 -
West-East Dimn
And - can he guess how such a person acts?

I Ie's all involved with madness, not with facts.
Knowing no limit, stuck with stubborn will
Spends all his tllnt: out in the wilds until
The rhyme-laments he wrote in sand piles spill
Into the wind and waft away;
Even what he himself will say
He doesn't understand, and doesn't care.
His songs are honored, though - and is that fair? -

When the Qur'an they plainly contradict!
You expert legal minds,yo11 tell us, then -
Such wisely pious, educated men -
Haven't we some convictions that restrict?
Haf1Z? - a scandal-writer, rousing rancor!

J'vlirza hurled souls to nowhere- doubters' canker!
\X'hat shall we do when no one has an anchor?
- 20 -
Hafts Nameh Book ofHafiz
-
Fe twa
HafLZ' lyric writings boldly show you

Truths enduring, flrm, uncontroverted.
Here and there, however, little items
Fall outside the bounds of the commandments.
If you'd walk secure, you must be able
Theriac and venom to distinguish.
Yet, with gladdened spirit to surrender
To the pure delight of noble action,
Meanwhile warding off, in thought well-pondered,
Thinj.,>S that only lead to endless torment,
Is the way mistakes may be avoided.
This was written by poor Ebusu'ud,
Be his sins by God in mercy pardoned.
The German Offers Thanks
Holy Ebusu'ud, yes, you've got it!

Here, the holiness the poet wanted;
For precisely to these little items
Found outside the bounds of the commandments
He, high-spirited, is heir apparent,
Ev'n in sorrow happy, moving freely.
Theriac and venom well may
Seem to take one form and then another.
Death's not in the latter, life the former.
For eternal innocence of conduct
Is the truer life, that so is proven
- 21-
West-East Dimn
As it injures no one but the doer.

So the poet, old, continues hoping
That, well-pleased, in Paradise the houris
Welcome him in blooming youth transfigured.
Holy Ebusu'ud, yes, you've got itl
Fe twa
The l'vlufti works of !vlisri had peruse d ,

One then another - till the lot were done -
Then prudently consigned them to the fire:
A finely written book, and quite destroyed.
Said the high judge, "Let anyone be burned
'ho speaks, believes like .Misri- he alone
The one exception to the penalty:
For Allah lent His gif t s to many a poet.
If in a sinful life he misapply them,
Let him see to it, making peace with God."
- 22-
Unbounded
That you can make no ending makes you great;

That you have no beginning is your fate.
Your song turns round, a star-vault heaven-frame;
Beginning, ending, evermore the same;
And the clear import of the middle part
Is present at the end, as at the start.
Of joys you are the truest poet-spring,

That wave on wave unnumbered up will fling;
Lips ever ready for a kiss,
From ardent breast a hymn that flows,
Throat eager for the drinker-bliss,
A kind, outpouring heart that glows.
Should the whole world to ruin sink,

Ilaflz, with you, with you alone
I'd vie! Desire and painful moan-
We'll share them both, we twins have grown!
To be like you in love, in drink-
l\Iy pride, my life in this be shown!
My song, your fire's unique to you!

You have united old and new.
- 23 -
West-East Dimn
Emulation
I'm hoping that I learn to write with ease

Using your rhyme-form, repetition, too.
First meaning, then the word I'll seek, to please;
Let any end-tone that returns to view
Deepen the meaning innovativdy.
No one more gifted at this feat than you.
For as the spark enkindling- rapidly -

Moscow, when horrid rising flames climbed round,
Aroused more wind, by heated winds blown free,
Then vanished, quelled, to higher star-hall bound,
From you came forth eternal glowing gold,
A German heart to liven and make bold.
I\1easured rhythms charm us, after all;

Talent loves the pleasure they prepare.
Yet how quickly they repel, appal,
Hollow mask, no blood, no meaning there.
Even cleverness will not enthrall
If it can't invent redeeming form,
Getting rid of a morbific nunn.
- 24 -
Open Secret
They've claimed you, holy Haftz,

A mystjc tongue command.
These men of words, however,
That word don't nnderstand.
They call you "mystic," thinking

Their nonsense-thought- for shamd
\Vhile impure wine they're drinking
And serving in your name.
But you're pure, and mystical!)'

Yet they cannot make it fit
That you're blest without an y piety!
And this they will not admit.
Hint
Correct are those I've chided, too:

A word can't bring all things to view -
That would defy poetic odds.
The word's a fan! Between the rods -
A glancing pair of comely eyes:
\X'ith fans, a gauze we will devise,
That even if it shade her face
The maiden-beauty we may trace.
Her eye! - that is the loveliest:
It lightnings into mine! I'm blest.
- 25 -
West-East Dimn
To Hafiz
What all desire, you well have known

And aptly understand;
For longing holds, from dust to throne,
All in an iron band.
So great the pain, then sudden cheer

Oppose it - who would dare?
The first man breaks his neck? No fear:
Forward the next will fare.
Pardon me, Master - don't demur

For my audacity.
The eye cannot but follow her,
Sweet wand'ring cypress tree.
Her walking foot like tendrils curves

And wantons with the ground.
Her breath, a breeze, caressing, swerves;
Her words light, cloudlike, sound.
Filled with presentiments you go

To view her curling hair.
In fullness dark brown ringlets flow,
Whisper in windy air.
And when you see her forehead, clear,

Your heart is comforted:
A bright, authentic song you hear,
1\Iak.ing your spirit's bed.
And when her lips so sweetly move

The soul such height attains,
You're free, yet would no longer rove
But lay you down in chains.
- 26 -
You breathe - your breath would not retum

But soul to soul would flee.
Entwined aromas make you yearn;
They bind, invisibly.
Yet when desire more strongly burns

The drinking-bowl's sublime:
Cupbearer leaves and then retums -
.\lways another time.
With lightning eye, a heart that quakes,

A lesson he would hear:
\Vhile wine your spirit lively makes,
Your teachings will endear.
He feel s a roominess of worlds,

A healing rule within,
A swd.J.ing breast, light down that curls:
His ma n life will begin.
-
And if no mystery remain

That heart and world may hold,
Love for the thinker you'll retain
\Vho could the sense unfold.
The royal refuge we've preferred -

Let's keep it ever near:
Say to the Shah a grateful word
And to the good vizier.
These things you know, and sing today,

Tomorrow sing, beguiled.
Your guidance aid us on our way
Through life, when rough or mild.
- 27 -
Ushk Nameh
The Book of Love
Tell me true
What my heart lit.
My heart's with you,
Treasure it.
Models
Hear: keep in mind

Six couples kind.
Word-image kindled; love-stirred, new:
Rustan and Rodawu.
Although unknown, they are not far:
Yussuf and Zuleik:i.
A love where none would win:
Ferhad and Shirin.
\'\-'holly devoted, ah!
Mejnun and Laila.
In old age loving saw
J amil his Buthaynah.
- 28 -
Ushk Nameh - The Book ofLo1e
Sweetest lovers' lark:

Solomon, Lady dark.
Think: all of the above,
.\nd you'll be strong in love.
One More Couple
Ah, love's a merit, ever great!

Its profit who could overrate?
You won't be rich or fill ed with might,
.\nd yet you'll reach a hero-height.
As of the Prophet men will tell,
We Asra, Wamik laud as well.
Little to say except the name
Of each - and yet they merit fame!
\Xt'hat they have done, to action moved,
Nobody knows. But that they loved
We know. To tell it ends our task
\X-'hcn you of \Vamik, Asra ask.
- 29 -
West-East Dimn
Primer
Book o f Books, the very oddest

Here- the Book of Love.
Alertly have I read it:
Of joy a few brief pages,
\'olumes filled with sorrow;
And then a part that deals with parting.
Rendezvous - a little chapter,
Frab>111entary.- Tomes on worry
Lengthened by the clarifers,
l\leasurdess, no end.
0 Nizami! - in the long nm,
Though, you found the right direction.
Unresolvable- who solves it?
Lovers being reunited.
Yes, it was the glancing eye

:\nd the mouth, the kissing lips,
Rounded body, slender hips,
As on green of Eden lie.
Was she there? Where did she go?
There! she gave - as off she sped -
Gave her sel f - surrendered, fled! -
Fettering my life in woe.
- 30-
Ushk Nameh - The Book ofLo,e
Warned
I've been caught in locks of hair,

Captured gladly, too.
These, friend I Iaftz, c ould ensnare
1\Ic as well as you.
;\h, but now to plaiting braids

Do the ladies turn:
Helmeted, they fence, fair maids,
As we lately learn.
Those who think the matter through

Won't take fright and run:
Heav chains we rightly rue,
y
Lighter ones are fun.
Immersed
So curly tressed the head, so round!

- -
\Vhenever I amid your rich-grown hair

Full-handed roamed, and wandered here and there,
Happy in heart, what depth ami health I found!
I'm kissing forehead, lips, and eyes, and brow -
Feel fresh - then wounded - don't know why or how.
My searching five-pronged comb - where should it stay?
Back to your hair, no more to s tray -
Even your ear enjoys the play.
Not merely skin, nor merely flesh -
- 31 -
West-East Dimn
Tender for jesting, loving-fresh!

So fondling, wandering away,
My happr hands in fine-rich hair
Forever up and down will fare .
Thus, Haf,J'OII have often done;
We but repeat what you'd begun.
Dubious
Of the em'rald shall I tell

That your finger nicely shows?
Though a word might serve us well,
Often - better - nought disclose.
I will say: the color's green

And enlivening the eye,
Yet - won't mention: scar and spleen
In that jewel. too, may lie.
Whoops, I've said it, truth not fleeing!

1\[ighty, why with pow'r so rife?
"So much peril in your being
As the emerald lends life."
- 32-
Ushk Nameh - The Book ofLo,e
Dearest! Bound in printed band,

Once-free tunes - immobile grown
That in purest heaven-land
Gladlv to and fro had flown!
Time, all other life denying,

These alone will stand above:
Every line shall be undying,
Everlasting as our love.
Cold Comfort
I wept and I sobbed at midnight -

You had gone - I sorrowed . . .
'!ben came the night-time phantoms,
And I felt embarrassed.
I said, "Night phantoms,
Weeping and sobbing
You finJ me here, whom once you
Swept over while he slept.
I am bereft of treasure.
'll1ink no worse of me now:
The one you called wise -
He's a fflicted with evil . . . "
The night-time phantoms -
- 33 -
West-East Dimn
Gaunt, their faces -

Wafted past,
Whether I am wise or foolish
Not caring in the least.
Contented
"What can you, fool, be thinking of?

You've won the girl over with simple love?
I cannot be happy - it saddens me:
She's merely a master of flattery."
Poet
Even with th at I'm gratified.

,
I have a reason, don't you see?

Love's a free gift - can't be denied -
What fitting tribute - flattery!
- 34 -
Ushk Nameh - The Book ofLole
Greeting
What an ecstatic feeling!

S trolling in the country -
\Vhere Hudhud comes across my path.

\X'hen I looked in the rock for mussels,
Petrified, of the ancient seas ,
I ludhud ran in front,

His crest unfolding;
Pree ning in a teasing way,
And jes ting over death -
He, the living.
"Hudhud," I said, "Indeed!
A beautiful bird are you.
So hurry, hoopoe!
Has ten to tell
My darling that I
Am hers forever.
Truly, yo u played -
For Solomon
And Sheba's queen -
The pander, long ago."
- 35 -
West-East Dimn
Submission
"Being consumed, and yet - so friendly!

You fret and grieve, but sing, so fey!"
Poet
Love, like an enemy, will rend me!

So in confession I will say:
I'm singing with a heavy heart.
Glance at the candles, that's their art:
Radiate while you waste away.
Love's pain demanded fitting place

Abandoned and bereft and waste;
l\ly blank and barren heart it faced
And nested in the empty space.
Unavoidable
\XIho will relluire on the meadow

Quiet, for birds, be the rule?
\XIho will instruct not to struggle
Sheep being sheared, but a fool?
- 36 -
Ushk Nameh - The Book ofLol'e
Am I unruly? \'\lhy blame me?

Cutters will ruffle mv wool.
Rougher behavior won't shame me
\'\'hen they dishevel and pull.
\'\.bo can prevent me from singing,

Loud, to the heavens above? -
Clouds, I'll confide in you, flinging
Cries: I am smitten with love!
Secret
People stop and, startled, look

At my darling's eyes.
I, well versed in lovers' book,
Know what this implies.
For it means: the one I love's

He and none beside.
So, good folk, your glance that roves
Need no farther glide.
True, she quickly looks around

\Vith peculiar pow'r -
Sih>nal to the one she's found:
Soon - the sweetest hour!
- 37 -
West-East Dimn
Deep Secret
"We, whom anecdotes would cheer,

Eagerly desire to hear:
\XII10 may be your dearest dear?
l\lany rivals need you fear?
You have fall'n in love , we see:

And we hope you'll favored be:
So devoted, though, is she?
Little probability... "
I can't stop you, worthy sirs

Seek her out! But hear my theme:
Striking is that might of hers!
Of her brilliance will you dream.
Shehabeddin, well you know,

Laid his cloak on Ararat:
No reproaches will we throw,
Knowing what he meant by that.
Near the royal throne, I say,

Or before vour loved one dear
If your name is mentioned, may
Tlus alone be grateful cheer!
So it dismal was and drear

That l\fejmin, when death was near,
Learned that Laila, ever dear,
Nevermore his name would hear.
- 38 -
Tekfir Nameh
Book of Observations
Hear the advice that the lyre will sound!

But it only works if your mind is clear:
The happiest word is doubtful found
\Vhen it goes awry in the listener's ear.
What sounds the lyre? Can't be denied:

The prettiest isn't the fines t bride.
But it's also true ('tween me and you)
It's good to have prettiest, finest, too.
Five Things
Five things flve others never let appear;

You, to my teaching lend an eager ear!
From the proud breast will friendship never spring;
The viler-minded nothing kindly bring;
A mischief maker greatness never gains;
Enviers care not for the poor man's pains;
In vain the liar hopes he'll be believed.
Hold fast to this; by no one be deceived.
- 39 -
West-East Dimn
Five Others
\'V'hat speeds up time for me?

Activity.
\Vhat makes life long, yet less?
Idleness.
'hat brings in debt?
Be patient yet.
!\lakes profit great?
Don't hesitate.
Earns reverence?
Self-defense.
Lovable the maiden-gaze that winks;

Kind the drinker's eye before he drinks;
Greeting of a master that commands;
Sunshine in the fall; onJ'OII light lands.
Kindlier than all - with mental eve
Picture this: a needy hand nearby
Raised to get a little b>ift - received
Gratefully by one whom)'OII relieved.
Greeting, gaze, and gain: to help to live -
View it truly - and you'll always give.
- 40 -
Tejkir Nameh -Book of Obsermtions
In Pend Ndmeh there's a thought

That your heart was author of:
One to whom a gift you've brought
.As another self you'll love.
Give by hand the welcome penny,
Don't amass a legacy.
Now's a time as fme as any,
Better than a memory.
If near the smithy you happen to be,

\Vho knows? - one day, when your horse needs care ...
A cottage in open field you see -

\Vho knows? - may be that your love lives there.
You meet a good-looking youth, and brave:
\Vho'll be the winner, you or he?
One thing I'll say of that vine you have:
It's an advantage, certainly.
Jus t keep alert to the world's concern
There's nothing further you need to learn.
- 41 -
West-East Dimn
A stranger's greeting hold in high regard!

Value it as a treasure from a friend.
Just a few words, and then a warm "Farewell!"
He's headed east, you to the west. But then,
\Vhen after many years your paths will cross
Quite unexpectedly, you'll shout for joy:
"It's him, there - that '$ the one!" - as if on land
And sea the many days of traveling,
The many roundings of the sun were nought.
Now you will trade your goods, and both will gain!
A former confidence, a latter bond.
Worth many thousands more - that kindly word.
In everyone who greets you, greet a friend.
They have shamed you with your failings,

And with blame regaled,
Grandly candid in their flailings
(Th'!)' have never failed!).
Had they lauded all your merits -
In a friendly way
Taught you - that would be more fair, it's
Better far, I'd say.
Then would not the ever best

Long be hid from me -
Rare the ones that pass the test:
They'd my tutors be.
- 42-
Tejkir Nameh - Book of Obse11'ations
Me, as pupil, they select

Prudently to teach.
Better penance these Elect
\X'hen we're failing preach.
l\!arkets, channing us: "Come buy!"

Knowledge, too, is puffed up high.
Look around with quid sigh:
See how love will edify.
Day and night you're occupied
Much to hear, for knowledge wide.
Listen by another door:
Deeper truth will be in store.
If what's right would enter in
Feel your rightful part in Him.
Love that burns with purity
Recognized by God will be.
- 43 -
West-East Dimn
faithful to honesty
Yet I had failed.
Over the years with
Impatience I quailed.
Valued, or valueless -
Which will it be?

"Hey, be a scalawag
Try it, and see!"
Nothing but miserr -
Dismal for me...

Then I thought: " Hon es ty
Back to the past!
Even in misery
That will stand fast."
Worry not what entry gate

Led you to the godly town;
Quiet in your place await
\Vhere you've lived and settled down.
Look about, and fmd the wise

And the mighrr in command.
Those are able to advise;
These will strengthen act and hand.
- 44 -
Tejkir Nameh - Book of Obsenations
Useful and at peace, if you

To the s tate arc faithful, true,
Know that none will hate you then:
You'll remain belov'd of men.
Loyalty the Prince will view

As an ever-living act:
Thus authentic is the new
As the well-established fact.
\'\'here did I come from? I could never say;

The way I entered, that I barely know.
And now ami here - a heaven-happy da y
The friendliest of meetings: Joy and Woe.
0 brightest fortune when the two are one!
How could they either laugh or cry - alone?
- 45 -
West-East Dimn
One thing after another, or

Before another... So
Eagerly, boldlr all the more
.\long the life-road go.
A certain progress you will lack
\Xlhen s topping, blooms to choose...
Horribly, though, what holds you back
Is being false! Refuse.
Deal with women indulgently!

With crooked rib did God create
\Voman - never could make it straight:
Breakable when you bend it, see?
Let it rest - it'll bend yet more.
Adam, troubles for you galore!
Deal with women indulgently:
It's no good when it's broken, see?
- 46 -
Tejkir Nameh - Book of Obsenations
Life is a joke that's fallen flat.

Some lack this and some lack that -
l\leek or greedy - sad to say_..
"Can" and "Luck" will a big role play.
"Bad luck" adds to the trouble there,
All bemoaning their load of care.
Till in the end the happy heir
Cannot-W.illnot away will bear.
Our life is but a game of "Geese."

The more you move ahead,
Closer the goal when efforts cease
(Regrettably, you're dead).
Too often, geese are foolish found

By those who don't speak true.
There! one's tuming his neck around
To turn me backward, too.
In th.is our world it's not the same,

bere everything's moving forward.
One s tumbles, falls - but you're not to blame
If you don't look back! Quite horrid.
- 47 -
West-East Dimn
"You claim the: yc:ars have: takc:n much away:

Authentic pleasure of the senses' play;
Remembering the dalliance loved the best
Not long ago - bold travel, little rest,
Over the countryside - can't stand it! Praise
Of honorable recognition, ways
Of showing bravery in daring action -
No hope! There's nothing granting satisfaction.
Does anything remain worth dreaming of?"
\Vhat stays will be enough: Idea, Love.
Find an expert - there's the test

That can show what way is best.
\Vhen you've plab>ued yoursdf and flailed,
He will know where you have failed.
He'll applaud - and with delight
Whc:n he finds you've got it right.
- 48 -
Tejldr Nameh - Book of Obsenations
The generous are cheated,

The pikers' wealth depleted,
The clever led astray,
The thinkers lose their way,
The rib>id is outflanked,
The credulous unthanked.
The s trength of lies relieve:
Let the deceived deceive!
He that can command will praise

And will be reproving you.
If your duty you would serve,
Take the one, the other too.
Though he'll laud a trivial act,

Chide you when you're at your best,
Be high-spirited, with tact:
In the end you'll pass the test.
!\Iighty ones, by God be led!

You n weak, too. Strong, only I le.
Act and suffer, as may be;
Ever s tay high-spirited.
- 49 -
West-East Dimn
To Shah Shuja and Those Like Him
l\.lid Transoxanian song

Of crowning praise
Our hymns are loud and strong
To laud your ways!
From every fear set free,
We live in you.
Live long! Your realm let be
Longe\a too!
Highest Favor
Quite untamed, as I was then,

I a master quickly found.
Many years had vanished when
I as well a mistress found.
As a trial wasn't spared
"!bey in me one loyal found,
And for me they kindly cared
As a treasure they had found.
None two masters ever fed
\X.'ho a finer fortune found.
Gladness ther have merited -
They rejoiced when I'd been found.
Lucky star my life has led
Since I both of them had found.
- 50 -
Tejldr Nameh - Book of Obsermtions
Firdusi speaks
"0 world! how shameless and wicked are you!

You feed, teach, and kill - aU the same when or which."
Yes, only one favored by Allah, 'tis true,
W'ill feed himself, teach himself - living, and rich.
But then,what is wealth but a swt that will warm?

A beggar will relish it; equally, we.
Let none of the wealthy antagonized be
A sweet-dreaming beggar bliss ever to harm.
Jalaloddin Rumi speaks
You'd linger in the world - it, dreamlike, flees.

Travel - but fa te will say what land one sees .
You can't hold back the heat, or keep the cold.

And all that blooms will rapidly get old.
- 51 -
West-East Dimn
Zuleika speaks
In mirrors, beautiful am I.
But fate will make me age, you say.
Unchanging, we - in Allah's eye:
Love Him in me - right now. Today.
- 52 -
Renj Nameh
Book of Anger
"Wbere did you get it from?

How could it ever come?
With life incitement dwindling
How did you find that kindling,
A final driving spark
Reviving in the dark?"
To you it needn't seem

A small or common gleam:
In bold, unmeasured motion
Upon the stellar ocean
There I was not forlorn
But feeling newly born.
The sheep in waves of white

Upon the hillside bright
Watched by an earnest guide
\'\bo served me food, beside -
\X.-'hat pleasing people these,
With peaceful husbandries!
In shudderings of night
A threat of sudden fight -
The camels' moaning drear
That pierced the sou the ear
The drovers rode unbowed
\1.-lw daily showed so proud.
- 53 -
West-East Dimn
We traveled high and wide,

More room on every side:
Drawn forward, ever led,
It yet appeared we fled.
Past armies, desert, we:
The blue, deliria! sea.
Not a rhymer can we find

But will think himsel f the best,
Every fiddler's deaf and blind
To the skill of all the rest.
Chiding, though, I'll set aside.

If to friends we honor give;
What will happen to our pride?
Can one live if others live?
That's the thinking in a house

11ere I doubted it was nice
\Vhen the people mixed up mouse
Dung and coriander spice.
Each a broom would like to he -

Clean the mental house at last!
But the sweepers cannot see
\X<'hat was broomlike in the past.
\X<11en the nations are divided

In reciprocal contempt,
That distinctions are elided
Is what no one ever dreamt.
- 54 -
Renj Nameh - Book ofAnger
Boasters boldly self-anointed

Such have mockc::d, by envy moved;
They ve been badly
' disappointed
\'Vlten the bragging valid proved.
If a p erson is cheerful, emits a glow,

Trouble comes from a neighbor.
The active one relishes life and labor
Some want to stone him, though.
And when, thereafter, he is dead,

Others are glad to spend,
To honor the needv life he led
With a monument at its end.
The crowd should take a little rest,

Measure their gain if they can:
I think by now it would serve them best
Quite to forget the man.
- 55 -
West-East Dimn
True predominance, you'll feel,

From the world can not be banned.
With the best I wish to deal:
Masters with an able hand.
True, the foolish and constrained

Ever were most violent,
And the half-men, narrow-aimed,
On our subjugation bent.
I've declared that I am free

From the fools as from the wise:
These showed equanimity,
Those their own woes might devise.
Thinking that, by love or might,

Finally we'd be united,
Sunny day they turned to night,
Phantom shadows wild incited.
I Iaftz, Ulrich Hutten too,

Warded off their foes who took
Symbol-cowls of brown or blue;
l\line like other Christians look.
"Name them, then - the enemy!"

No, we'll leave the matter there.
They, in our society,
Gave me quite enough to bear.
- 56 -
Keep adhering to the good,

Likely none will chide.
Doing what you think you should
Is a noble guide.
Even if you put a fence
Round your property,
I will trust to confidence,
Undeceived and free.
Folks are good, so I would say

Better yet would be,
Thinking: what another may
Do is not for me.
Travel cahnly and with grace,
None will call you foe;
Heading to a single place,
Best together go.
\Ve'll encounter here and there

.Much that may oppose.
\Vhen in love, what friends are fair?
Helpers? Don't need those.
l\!oney, honor, people would
Gather on their own;
Even wine (so loyal, good)
Discord will have sown.
Hafiz human fooleries

Helpfully explains,
Over sad s tupidities
Having racked his brains.
- 57 -
West-East Dimn
Little, doubtless, will it aid

Saying, "'orld, good-night!"
\X!hen you fmd your ain1s betrayed,
You can have a fight!
Things on names are never based.

Let them quietly unfold:
I love beauty, goodness placed,
Formed, as by the Lord, of old.
One I love - this love I need.

None I hate. If hate's required
That's a call that I can heed,
Hate en masse if so desired.
Yet if you would wisdom win,

Separate the good and bad;
What you found a splendor in,
Little rightness might have had.
You'll attain correctness by

Living in well-founded ways.
Gossiping so ti.nle will fly
Leads to hollowness and haze.
Let the weatherbeaten Rumbler

Parry wits with Herr Hair-Splitter;
Then the irritable Gnunbler,
Brilliant, mid his ilk will glitter.
- 58 -
'e've a need for novelty

Daily changing, more and more,
.\nJ we let distraction be
Devastation at the core.
This our Germans have preferred

In a new or ancient strain.
Hidden hear a little bird:
"Thus it was and will remain."
"l\Iejnun" means - I cannot claim

That it reai!J' meant "insane."
"l\fejnun" I myself would name.
Do not blame me, or complain.
\Xlhen my heart, in honesty,

Opens up to spare you pain,
Do not yell, "\'\.-'hat lunacy!
Get the rope, the stake, the chain!"
\'\'hen you've fettered them at last

(Clever people - in disgrace),
Held by stabbing nettles fas t,
Flaming shame in vain you'll face.
- 59 -
West-East Dimn
Have I ever counseled you

How your battle you should ftght?
Scolded, told you what to do
\Xlhen the tranq11il time was right?
Fishermen may peacefully

Throw a net without my aid.
Carpenters will sharpen T-
squares the hest. They've learned their trade.
You, however, claim to know

l\lore than I, who've often thought
"Nature's aid! - to this I owe
All that on my own I've wrought."
Have you felt an e'1ual strength?

Fine, apply it now, I ask!
Look into my works at length -
Learn it well: he knew his task.
Wanderer 's Peace of Mind
\X.'asted time, what's mean and base

Vainly to deride.
That a mighty ill we face
Cannot be denied.
- 60 -
Avarice it will command,

Aiding avid gain.
Morals are dis tor ted and
Arrogance will reign.
Wanderer! Such willful greed,

Would you still resist?
Pay the whirlwind-fllth no heed -
Let it turn and Nrist.
\'ho would from the world demand

What it, dreaming, lacks, delays,
Looking sidewise, backward, and
Slighting so the day of days?
.All its effort, eager will,
Limps the <1u.icker life behind.
What a vanished need might fill
Granted late today you flnd.
Self-praising? A mistake, we feel;

Doers of good all do it, though, we see.
But if their words the simple tmth reveal,
The good's the good - will always be.
- 61 -
West-East Dimn
Fools! - let the wise be glad to ponder

The wisdom of his attitude -
Leave him, a fool like you, to squander
The world's insipid gratitude.
Think you then, from mouth to ear

Genuine's the mental gain?
0 you fool! Tradition's mere
Spinning of the whimsied brain.
Wise the judb>rnent we've applied:

You in fetter-faith who rave
Reasoning alone can save,
\X'hich you long ago denied.
\'Vhether it's German, English, or

I talian, French we're born to speak,
A single thing makes people seek:
Our vanity's demanding more!
\Ve love no recob>nition by

A group of friends, or just by one,
Unless our pride it satisfy
And put our selfhood in the sun.
- 62 -
Let what's right the triumph gain

On the morrow from its friends
If today the bad attain
Fatne that place and favor lends.
\Vho the last three thousand years

Will not reckon with, appears
Living on from day to day
In a blind, benighted way.
Formerly when the Qur'an was cited

You'd name the sura. 'Twas thought the best
That !vluslims' piety not be slighted,
Their ethics lent respect and rest.
The newer dervishes haven't advanced:
Old-and-new chatter - endurance test!
Bafflement - every day enhanced:
0 Holy Qur'an! 0 Eternal Rest!
- 63 -
West-East Dimn
The Prophet speaks
Someone's peeved that Allah's gleam

Grants 1\luhanunad help and hope?
Let him fasten to a beam
In his hall a s turdy rope
And be hanged with knot well tied.
He will feel that wrath subside.
Tim ur speaks
Hjgh-spirited my warning storm!

Priests - you condemn mendaciously!
Had Allah wanted me a worm,
A worm He'd have created me.
- fi4 -
Hikmet Nameh
Book of Proverbs
With talismans will I this book bestrew.

So amplitude and balance there will be.
With a believing needle, prick - and see:
Everywhere is a helpful word for you.
From today and from tonight

Desire no more
Than yesterda y had brought to light.
People born in evil days

Even evil things will praise.
- 65 -
West-East Dimn
\Vhy something is light

He knows who invented it, getting it right.
The sea is flowing ever,

The land contains it never.
Something, I fear, each hour is wrong.

Life is short and the day is long .
The longing heart would wend away -

l\Iaybe to heaven, couldn't say;
Here, there, happy it cannot be -
Till from itself 'twould rather flee.
Fleeing to the beloved's breast

In heaven, unaware, 'twill rest;
Life's whirlwind rends it then away,
'While in one place it yet would stay;
\XIhatever's wanted, lost! One mle:
Stays till the end a self-made fool.
- 66 -
Hikmet Nameh - Book ofProlerbs
Your fate is proving you, wise plan at root.

It wants you a renouncer. Follow, mute.
It's day - let man bestir himself, not shirk.

The night will come when further none may work.
\X-'hy rail at the world? It's made, it's there.

The God of Creation took thoughtful care.
Your lot has been chosen, the mode is meet;
So, now you've begun it, the trip complete.
For sorrowing, worrying, nought will alter
But fling you off balance, and all will falter.
- 67 -
West-East Dimn
\Vhen the heavy-laden wail:

"Hope and help forever fail!"
Healing is effective, true,
With a friendly word from you.
"Clumsy, unwise - so high to set

Yourself when extra luck you get!"
The maiden didn't seem upset
But visited again, you bet.
How splendid the heritage, never scant!

Time is my wealth - and my field to plant.
- 68 -
Hikmet Nameh - Book ofPro1erbs
For love o f good, good deeds to do -

Into your blood instill it deep;
If children should dishearten you,
Goodness the grandchild's heart will keep.
i\nvari claimed - a clever man, oustllnding -

A knowledge of deep heart, high mind commanding:
"In every place and time, belov'd will be
Uprightness, judgment, flexibility."
But why lament your foes?

How could you ever make friends with those
For whom your nature, and mode of being ,
Rebuke in the silence their way of s eeing?
- 69 -
West-East Dimn
No folly is harder to tolerate!

A wise man's told by a fool:
When you do s omething tmly great,
l\lake modesty your rule.
Were God a neighbor such as you

Or - just as bad - like me,
Small honor would to us accrue.
He lets each person be.
Admit it! Greatest and the best

;\re poets of the East, not West.
But we have wholly equaled them
In hatred of our fellow men.
- 70 -
Hikmet Nameh - Book ofProl'erbs
Everyone wants to put on s hows,

For in our world that's how it goes.
I'd let a man be gross, God knows,
But only in a field he grows.
Pardon, Lord, our sin.

Wrens big voices win.
If envy wants to rend its prey,

Let it feed on its hunger, pray.
- 71 -
West-East Dimn
To keep your self-respect,

You'd best well-bristled be!
Though falcons prey dissect,
\'\1ild boars from beaks are free.
1be priestly orders dare berate,

\X'ho tried to foster fear?
\X'hat I have told them plain and s traight,
Oblique they'll never hear.
To praise and name a hero great

A man will love who's boldly fought.
Merit one can't evaluate
\'\bo heat and cold has suffered not.
- 72 -
Hikmet Nameh Book ofProwrbs
-
Purely do good for love of good.

Nothing of it will stay for you -
And even, maybe, if it could,

It won't stay with your children too.
If you'd evade the mos t rapacious thief,

Conceal your gold, departure, and belief.
How does it happen? Everywhere

We hear apt things, yet many - dumb!
Youth parrot elders' words with care
And think these from themselves have come.
- 73 -
West-East Dimn
Don't let yourself be led astray

Vainly to contradict.
The wise become ignorant when they
With the ignorant conflict.
''\X'hy docs tmth seem gone for good -

Hidden down in deepest ground?"
None see it at the time they should.

But if the tntth in time were found,
In plenitude it would appear,
Be gently felt and light and clear.
Should your mind to the (}Uestion go

How generosity might flow,
Your cakes onto the water throw:
\Xbo'll savor them you'll never know.
- 74 -
When a spider once I killed,

I was worried: was it right?
To partake of day's delight
\Ve were meant, as God had wille d.
"The night is dark, with God is light."

Why don't we have His kind of sight?
Colorful company!
God's table: here sit friend and enemy.
- 75 -
West-East Dimn
A stingy man you're calling me

Give what to squander, and you'll see.
Want me to show you all the land?

First on the roof you'll have to stand.
Silent, you're free of care:

Under the tonb>ue! - a man lies hiding there.
- 76 -
1\!as ter, two servants - well

His wealth will not be kept.
A house wherein two women dwell
Is never cleanly swept.
You people, in perplexity

Say merely, "Ipse dixit."
\'\tny man and wife, or he and she?
"Adam and Eve" will ftx it.
\Vhy am I thanking Allah? He

Knowledge and sorrow kept apart, for man.
Despair would flatten us if we
Could know disease the way the doctor can.
- 77 -
West-East Dimn
I fmd it foolish, and quite odd,

That s tubborn folk seek to deny:
If "Islam" means we all serve God,
We all in Islam live and die.
New in the world, a house he'll build.

He's gone - another lives there now
Who'll rearrange it anyhow.
Building goes on - the stir unstilled.
\'(/ithin my home I'll let the guest

Decry what seemed for years the best;
Don't ht- snrprist-d, thnngh, if, ontsidt-,
His little whims I won't abide.
- 78 -
Hikmet Nameh - Book ofPro,erbs
My home - I hope You like it, Lord

\'{'here I am living modestly.
A bigger one I might afford
'Ibe man inside would still be me.
You're always safe, I'd say

To you, the best belongs:
Two friends, all cares away;
Wine goblet, book of songs.
"How startling, what a marvel-feat,

With ugly Luqman's aid!"
The reed, the cane, is never sweet
Until the sugar's made.
- 79 -
West-East Dimn
Splendidly the Orient

Spread beyond the Middle Sea:
One who HafiZ love had lent
Calderon hears perfectly.
"Why have you the right hand made

Richly decked - unfittingly?"
Left for right may gifts unlade,
Need.ing more activity.
If one to Mecca were to ride

On Jesus' donkey, it would not
By this be deepened in its thought
But as a donkey still abide.
- 80 -
Mud trampled long

Gets broad, not s trong.
But if you pound it down with might

In solid form, you'll shape it right.
A sound analogy, I'd say,
Would be the brick they call pise.
Don't, worthy souls, your fate bewail:

\"Vho fails not, knows when others fail.
But one who fails may pass the test
Of seeing others at their best.
"In writing thank-yous you're behind

Schedule. Why not start?"
Trifles preoccupy your mind:
A gift lives in my heart.
- 81 -
West-East Dimn
You must work for good repute

And distinguish, as will suit.
Wanting more than tlus, corrupts.
The flood of passion storms in vain

The never con'l uered solid land. -
Poetic pearls thrown on the sand!
And that, for living, is a gain.
Confidant
l\lany petitions did you grant,

Even when harm to you was done;
The good man's wishes were but scant,
So litde risk you would have run.
Vizier
The good man's wishes were but scant;

Yet, had I given him that grant,
He would at once have been undone.
- 82 -
It happens, but it none behooves:

Truth to the realm of Error moves.
With him, she really feels at home.
\Vho'll chide her if she likes to roam?
But - Error wants to marry Tmth?
She'd battles have! - regret and ruth.
I'll tell you what I cannot stand:

So many talk and sing - disasters!
\'\'hat drives the lyric from the land?
The poetasters!
- 83 -
T imur Nameh
Book of Tfmur
Winter and Timur
Now, with mighty horror, Winter

Held them all surrounded. Spreading
Icy breath among the people,
He combined the rival windstreams
Into opposition harsh.
Over them he lent his weapons
To the storm frost-pointed, sharpened
Then came down to counsel Timur.
Shouting, threatening, he started:
"Act more slowly, gently, wretched
Tyrant, mustering inj ustice!
\Vill men's hearts continue being
Singed and burnt in further arson?
If of the accursed spirits
You are one, I am the other!
You are old, I too. The people
And the land we're paralyzing.
Mars, you are! And I am Saturn -
Malefactor constellations,
Horridest when they're combined.
If you kill off spirits, numbing
The surrounding air, my currents
Are yet colder than your coldest.
You torment the wildest armies,
Credulous, of thousand martyrs:
Fine! - in time be sure that I will
(I Ielp me, God!) far worse engender.
And, by God! I owe you nothing.
- 84 -
Timur Nameh - Book of Timur
Hear me, God! - what I am asking!

Yes, by God! from cold that's fatal
You, old man, won't be protected
By a fueplace with its coal-glow -
Not one flame-tongue in December."
To Zuleika
To be fondled by their fragrance

And to have your joy increase,
Thousand budding roses' flagrance,
Though yet glowing, had to cease.
To possess a tiny phial

0 f aroma so irnpearled
\X!i.th its finger-slender style
I fad required of us a world:
World of loving aspiration

That in fullness ever s trong
Breathed in Bulbul's ministration,
Avian soul-exciting song.
Should that torture then torment us
I f your pleasure it empow'red?

Had not Timur's rule portentous
Myriad worthy men devoured?
- 85 -
Suleika Nameh
Book of Zuleika
I was thinking, in the night,

That in sleep I saw the moon;
But when I awakened,
Unawaitedly the sun arose.
Invitation
Mustn't flee from pressing worry,

For the day to which you hurry
Won't be better than the present.
If you rest and ftnd it pleasant
Where I set the world aside
That it nigher might abide,
You may s tay with me and hide!
What's tomorrow? Now won't last.
Weak, the future, and the past
Or to pull, or hold me fast.
Then remain, my ever dear,
Friend so generous, come near!
- 86 -
Suleika Nameh - Book ofZuleika
That a Joseph Zuleika delighted

Required no art;
He was young; youth draws the heart.
He was handsome, had a true attraction
She had beautv: mun1al reaction.
But that you, for whom I have waited so long,
Send fiery, youthful love-looks bright,
And love me now, and will later delight
That's what my songs are made to praise,
And I'll call you "Zuleika" all my days.
Now "Zuleika" is your name:

Newly named must I then be!
\X1hen your lover you acclaim,
"Hatem" - that's who I will be.
If I thus am recognized
No presumption might it be.
\"<'ho as "George the Knight" is prized
No "Saint George" need claim to be.
"Hatem" Thai, most freely-giving,
I, the beggar, may not be.
"Hatem" T6grai, riches t-living
Of the bards, I'll never be.
Yet these both to keep in sight
Unimpeachable will be:
Taking, lending luck's delight
- 87 -
West-East Dimn
Will a satisfaction be.

Love we share by day or night
Gladsome paradise will he.
Hatem
Thieves occasion doesn't make

But itself commits a theft.
From my heart it dared to take
All the love that yet was left;
Turned it over then to you,

All my life had cared to gain;
Now, prepared, a pauper true,
Life from you I may attain.
Mercy I already feel

In your fie!)' jewel-gaze,
Fate renewed in worth and weal
That is mine, inyo11r embrace.
- 88 -
Zuleika
I, delighted in your love,

Blame not oppornmity.
As for what it robbed you of,
Sweeter thievery for me!
Anyway, what need to thieve?

Freely give rourself by choice!
I'd too eagerly believe
I had s tol'n you, and rejoice.
\'(/hat you've given me, so willing,

Brings a brilliance that allures.
Tranquil, rich, and life-fulfilling -
Glad, I grant it, it is yours.
Needn't joke - no alms, no harms;

Aren't we both enriched by this?
\'<-'hen I hold you in my arms
l\linc can equal any bliss .
The lover won't go wide astray

Ev'n when dis traught. I f mad Mejnun
And Laila came alive today,
They'd learn from me love's pathway soon.
- 89 -
West-East Dimn
Ah, can it be - caressing you, and full

O f pleasure, that a godly voice I hail?
The rose appears to me impossible,
And inconceivable the nightingale.
Suleika
Gold the ring my fmger left

On Euphrates while I sailed;
Slipped into a water-deft:
Lost your !,>i ft! - and n ought availed.
So my dream. At dawn of day

Through the tree, a lightning gleam!
Tell me, Poet; Prophet, say,
'X'hat's the meaning of the dream?
- 90 -
Hatem
I'll decipher it, and clearly:

I have noted frequently
That the Doge of Venice yearly
Has a wedding with the sea.
So the ring from off your fmgcr

The Euphrates, glad, would take:
Dream that sweetly bade to linger,
Hundred heaven-hymns to make!
I, who from the Indian Ocean

\Vent to Syria with awe,
Cheered by caravans in motion
Till the Sea of Reeds I saw -
Me you've married to your river

And the terrace and the grove:
To your spirit I'll deliver
Dedication, faith, and love.
Be acquainted with men's gazes:

One declares, "I love, I suffer!
I desire - in des p eration!"
l\laidens, you will know the others ...
None of that will ever help you -
And it nevermore will move me.
- 91 -
West-East Dimn
.
.-\h, but Hatem, love!, your glances
Lend the very day a radiance,
For they're saying, "I love that one
As I never loved another.
Roses I behold, and lilies,

.-\11 the gardens' charm and honor;
.Myrtle, violet, and cypress
Earth adorning in arousal.
\vbat an ornamental wonder,
An astonishing s urrounding,
I Iealing, livening, and blessing!
We can feel we're now recovered
.-\nd prepared again to suffer."
Then you looked upon Zuleika

And were healthy in your illness
And were ill in being healthy,
Looking round, and you were smiling
As you never smiled to others.
In your look, Zuleika heard the
Words eternal: "I love that one
As I never loved another."
Ginkgo Biloba
Here's a leaf the East, with favor,

To my garden would confide -
Tree with meanings we may savor,
To the wise a vital guide.
- 92 -
Do we spy one living being

That had split itself in two?
Is it t1vo things we arc seeing
That we yet united view?
To this 'luer-y quite revealing

I have found the right reply:
Won't my singing give the feeling
That both two and one am I?
Zuleika
You've so many lyrics made,

Poems here and there displayed,
Lovely script in careful hand,
Richly bound, gold edging, and
Every s troke and point complete,
!\fany books, alluring, sweet;
\Vhom have you been dreaming of?
Were they all a pledge of love?
Hatem
Yes, of pure and mighty glances

That a shining smile enhances,
And of teeth so blinding-bold,
Eyelash-arrow, serpent-hair,
Neck and bosom decked with care,
Perils here a thousandfold!
Many secrets might abide
That Zuleika prophesied.
- 93 -
West-East Dimn
Zuleika
The rising sun, a splendor shining!

The sickle-moon enclasped it round.
To solve the riddle, your divining
In tin1e the answer will have found!
Hatem
Yes, for the Sultan wedded them,

A world-pair - picked most fittingly
To emblcmize, in anadem,
The boldest nobles' company.
Our rapture it will image, too!

Myself ami you again I see:
You call me "sun," dear love; you do!
Come, sweetest moon, embracing me!
Come, darling, come! my cap needs winding well!

No one but you can twist my turban round.
Abbas, on hghest Persian throne, might tell:
His own more winsomely was never wound!
The turban - headband, ribbons flowing down,

Adorning Alexander's lofty brow -
It admirably served as royal crown
(So lesser emulators would allow).
- 94 -
Our Emperor's adorned with nuban, too.

They call it "crown" - forget about the name!
Jewels and pearls we mar delight to view,
But muslin looks much better, all the same.
And this one here, in silver stripes arrayed,

\X'ind it about my brow, love, tenderly.
\'-'hat then is majesty? It's ready-made:
\'(/hen you admire, I am as great as he.
There's little that I long for, now;

All the world's bounty pleases me.
This little, ev'n - a wonder how
The world yet lends, abundantly!
I in the tavern sit serene;

Serene at home, content, confined:
But soon I think o(yon - my dream
Filling my broadened, conqu'ring mind!
The empire-wealth of Tamerlane

Should serve you, his commanders hear:
Rubies from Badakshan you'd gain ,
Caspian turquoise rare and dear,
Dried fruit, and honey-sweet, for you,

Bokhara-granted, sunny land,
.And myriad loving lyrics, too,
On silken leaf of Samarkand.
- 95 -
West-East Dimn
And you elatedly would read

\'\'hat I from mighty H6rmuz write,
How all my global trade, indeed,
Shuttles and moves for your delight.
So in the Brahmin country can

A thousand fingers' work be stirred
That wool and silk from Hindus tan
From looms emerge as you've preferred.
To make my love resplendent pour

The mountain torrents of Bengal!
From sand and soil and quarry - more
Diamonds in your lap may fall.
\Vhen divers, brave to fmd a prize,

Pearl-treasures from the gulf will take,
So an assembly of the wise
The fmcst of arrangements make.
And let Bassora, last of these,

Incense and herb in fertile lands
And all whereby the world can please
Bring you in ample caravans.
Yet all these goods imperial

Would but, at best, confound the eyes:
Spirits, of highest liking full,
One in the other fmd their prize.
- 96 -
Would I ever hesitate

Balkh, Bokhara, Samarkand -
Baubled cities' favors great
To deliver to your hand?
Of the king I can't request

That to you he cities give!
He, though wise and mightiest
,
Knows not how by love we live.
King, be wiser! Gifts like ours

Ever lie beyond your powers!
l\faid like mine no wealth can buy:
Best - a beggar such as I.
The prettily written,

Splendidly gilded
Presurnptuous leaves !
Quietly smiling,
You've pardoned my boasting
( )ver your love,
l\Iy success - rour own doing! -
Forgiving my winning self-praise.
Self-praise! - a bad smell, to the jealous . . .

Fragrant to friendship -
And much to mv taste!
- 97 -
West-East Dimn
Joy in our being is great,

Greater our joy in all Being,
When you, Zuleika,
Reward me, exuberant,
Toss me your passion
As throwing a ball
That I catch -
And throw back
My whole love-hallowed self
That is a moment!
Later, they tear me away:
Now the Frank, now the Armenian.
But days will it take,

Even years, till I newly acquire
Your thousandfold poured-out abundance,
Unravel the colorful threads of my luck,
In myriad ways interlaced
By you, 0 Zuleika.
Now here, in retun1,

Poetical pearls
Born of your passion
In me - mighty surging
Threw on the desolate
Shore of our life -
Charmingly chosen
With delicate fingers,
Threaded in jeweler's
Golden adornment
Place on your neck,
On your breast!
Raindrops of Allah,
Humble, in mussel-shell ripened.
- 98 -
Love for love and hour for hour,

Word for word and glance for glance,
Kiss for kiss, your lips' true flower,
Breath for breath, shared hearts enhance.
As at eve, so on the morrow;
Yet within my songs you fed
Still a sweet and hidden sorrow -
Joseph-grace I'd like to borrow
To your beauty to appeal.
Zulcika
People, vassal, conqueror -

They in every age agree:
Highest good, that all prefer,
Is our personality.
Any life is good to lead

\Vhen you stay yourself. No bar:
You can lose the world, indeed,
If you're true to what you are.
Hatem
l\faybe. That's what people say...

I am on another track.
Only by Zuleika may
Joy arrive that leaves no lack.
- 99 -
West-East Dimn
If she lavish love on me,

I beome a worthwhile "1."
Then she's gone, and instan tly
Lost, abandoned! Self, goodbye!
That would be the end, you see

Yet my fate I've changed to blessing:
I be come - and eagerly! -
One she's presently caressing.
Rabbi? No, there's no allure

In a role I'd not prefer;
Firdusi, l\lotanabbi - sure!
Or possibly the Emperor.
Hatem
Colored cu t gl ass lantern lights

-
Round the goldsmith's counter play

Maidens' beauty love ihnites
Round the poet growing gray.
Maiden
You Zuleika praise again!

Such make us the sufferers:
She gets poems, we get pain;
Enviable fate is hers.
Even if she ugly were,

so fme!
You have painted her
Though ts of Jamil
must occur,
\Vho Buthayna deemed divine.
- 1 00 -
But because we're pretty, too,

Painted we would hope to be!
Make it cheap, and you'll accme
Gains galore, we guarantee.
Hatem
Come, brunette, let's try, we'll see:
Small combs, large - the braids in place -
Decorate your purity
.As the dome the mosque will grace.
You, the blonde, as well, are so

Fine in all your traits and ways
It is not too far to go
You as minaret to praise.
You, in back! your eyes, astray,

Split your vision-field in two.
Mastered well! - that double view
Yet I'd better keep away ...
One lid half-obscures an eye,

Hiding so the shining star.
There's the second standing by
G lancing at a rogue not far.
\Vhen the first with lig ht attacks,

Comes the other eye to heal.
Glad a man will never feel
\X-1to that double favor lacks.
All the maidens might I praise,

.All the maidens might I love:
None, as high as them I raise,
Can my Lady stand above.
- 101 -
West-East Dimn
l\laiden
Glad will bard a servant be

For it grants him mastery;
\Vha t will please beyond all things
Is if now his maiden sings.
Is she capable of song

That upon our lips is strong?
For it will restrain our praise
If her might in hiding sways.
Hatem
\x.-bo could guess what she fulfr.lls?

\Xt'here her depth of strength may rest?
Self-felt song rill overspills;
-
Self- ma de lyric - hers - the best!
Could you poet-ladies tell? -

None her likeness here may own,
For she sings to please me well...
You but love yourselves alone!
Maiden
It's a houri you have shown -

Just a fevered dream, indeed.
Fine! - but kindly leave alone
laids whom flattery'd mislead.
- 1 02 -
Suleika Nameh -Book ofZuleika
Hatem
Braids of hair, contain me, caugh t

In the fair encircling face!
Serpentine, with lady-grace -
I, to counter them, have nought.
Nothing but my heartened pow'r

Swells in youthful meadow high;
Under snow and cloudy s how'r,
Etna, raging, meets your eye.
You made blush, rose-dawning flirter,

i\[ountain peaks' austere retreat.
Once again arousing... Hatem -
Breath of spring and summer's heat.
Cupboy, here! A bottle, pray!

Plus the goblet she'll require!
Ashes fUlding. she will say,
"He had burned for me in ftrc."
Zuleika
You I'll never lose, in truth.

I .ove will lend your love more pow'r.
You may use, to grace my youth,
1\lighty passion, every hour.
It is flatt'ring to my drive
\Vhen the folk my poet praise.
Love will keep us all alive;
Life of life - our spirit-rays.
- 1 03 -
West-East Dimn
AUow your sweet, your ruby lips

No importunity to curse.
What good the pain of love that grips,
But to get weU? - not worse!
\Vhen from your love you're riven, rent,

As Orient from Occident,
The heart is through the desert sent -
Our guide no matter where we are.
Baghdad - for lovers - can't be far!
Though it may feel itself complete -

Your fragile world I see,
These clear, wide eyes, they gleam to greet;
1bat heart - it beats for me!
- 1 04 -
The senses are too multiple, I fmd!

They oveiWhdm - what pleasure then for me?
For when I see you, deaf I'd wish to be,
And when I hear you, blind.
Though far away, you're yet so near!

Then, unawaited torment's here.
But when your voice I hear once more,
Again you're with me, as before.
How to remain serene,

Far from the day and light?
Don't want to drink. To dream,
f\laybe, and try to write ...
\X!hen she enthralled my will,

Nothing remained to say.
But as the tongue was still,
Mute is my pen todar.
- 1 05 -
West-East Dimn
So - go ahead, my dear,
The go b let quickly fill !
Keep me in mind, you hear?
It's well you know my will.
\X.'hcn you're on my mind

Comes the cupboy kind:
"\XIhy so quiet, sir?
What you wisely tell
Now to hear as well
Saki would prefer."
'When I'm resting, laid

Under cypress shade,
Peaceful, too, he lies.
Calm in s till surround,
Deep, my thought, and sound,
Solomonic, wise.
- 1 06 -
Book of Zuleika
This book I'd like to fasten, tie up tight;

It would be quickly done, just like the rest.
But how could briefer line and leaf be best
\Xlhcn lovers' madness mind leads out of sight?
\Xlhat ample branching clusters

Of wonders, Love, are seen!
Plump fruit Abundance musters
\Vith prickly skin and green.
Longwhile they've hung, well-rounded,

Quiet, and unaware;
The boughs with fruit unbounded
Patiently shake in air.
Yet ripening within

Full swells the kernel brown,
..Air-freedom wants to win
The yellow sunlight-crown.
And so the shell will bw-st:

The fruit is falling. Too,
The songs I have rehearsed
Fall in a heap for you.
- 1 07 -
West-East Dimn
Zuleika
\Xt'here the merry fountains stand

\X11ile the water-threadings p layed ,
Couldn't say why I delayed.
Ah, but from your writing hand -
1\ly initials, curving, true!
Down I looked, bes tirreJ by you.
Where the channel's ending here

Of the tree-lined avenue
Up I look, to pierce the blue,
Then look down - and see what's dear:
My initials, sweet to view. . .
Stay, beloved, ever true!
Hatem
Let the water, springing, swelling,

And the cypress tell you tme:
From Zuleika, to Zuleika,
I am coming, going , too.
Zuleika
Barely do I have you back,

Sing, and kiss, and nothing lack -
Yet you're brooding, inward turning:
W11 r the troubled, worried yearning?
- 1 08 -
Hatem
Ah, Zuleika, shall I say?
\X'ho would praise, laments today!
You had s ung my songs to me,
Ever fresh, repeatedly -
How can I these new ones laud?

Ther intrude, so aren't th ey flawed?
Not by Haflz, nor Nizami,
Not by Saadi, nor by Jami.
Fathers' so ngs , in mem'ry found,

Every syllable and sound -
These can not be lost, forlorn;

Yours are all but newly born -
All invented yes terday!

I lave rou then been led astray?
'When you breathe a udacious ly
Airs of alien shape to me,
Can they so enliven you,

Loving, move in such a hue,
Tempting into unio n true,
As ''D' harmonies would do?
Zuleika
Hatem had been so long away

I learned to make new tunes each day:
My songs you always greatly praised
New proof, our separation raised!
So how could they be strange to you?
They are Zulcika's and - yours, too!
- 1 09 -
West-East Dimn
They say that Bahramgur invented rhyme;

Pure driving spirit, uttered with delight.
Dilaram soon, belov'd in happy time,
l\lirrored the word and sound and sang them right.
,\nd so, Beloved, you for me were hid

To bring the rhyme of pleasing love to view,
That I great Bahramgur, the Sassanid,
Need never envy, for I have it, too.
You waked this book in me, you gave it me;

Full-hearted, ardent, everything I'd said
Your gladsome life re-echoed avidly,
So gaze to gaze and rhyme to rhyme are led.
Loud let it sound for you, though far away.

Tone, echo gone, the word will reach you s till.
Is it not like the star-thrown sky-array?
Or love, transfgured in a higher will?
First and last, your lips and heart,

Being of my soul a part,
And your gaze, your voice to hear,
Daily made you more than dear.
Yesterday appeared the last,

Light and fire put out and past.
Every jest - that laughing lilt
All-too-dear, and filled with guilt.
- 1 10 -
Suleika Nameli - Book ofZuleika
Till the will of Allah please

To unite us once again,
Sun, moon, world my heart won't ease
But occasion be for pain.
Zuleika
What's the meaning of the stirring?

\"(!'hat's the east wind heralding?
With its wings refreshing, whirring,
Cooling, soothing heart-wounds' sting.
Wtth the dust it plays, caressing,

\Xlhirls it up in lightsome cloud,
Driving, safe, to vineyard-blessing
Newly vital insect-crowd.
1\Wdens lightened solar glowing

\X!hile it cools my heated cheek,
Kissing vines while fleeing, flowing
Fiddward to the season-peak.
To a whisper soft I hearken,

l\Iyriad greetings from a friend;
And before the hillocks darken,
Myriad kisses will it send.
Forward, onward well you wander!

Serve your friends and those that grieve.
Near the glowing mountains yonder
Soon I'll ftnd him . I believe.
- I l l -
West-East Dimn
Ah, the heart-borne tidings true,

Breath of love, new-freshened from
Longed-for lips will come to you,
Only from his breath can come.
A Sight on High
The sun, Greek Helios, we see

Ride gleaming up the highway-sky;
The world to conquer, certainly,
He looks below, around, on high.
He sees the beauteous goddess cry,

Cloud-daughter, child of heavenkind;
In her, all shin.ing seems to lie.
To the serener places blind,
He sinks, in pain that never ends;

And yet more fully flow her tears.
To light her grief, delight he sends;
Each pearl he with a kiss endears.
And now she feels the glance's power,

And yet, unflinching, looks above.
Pearls will transfigured be - to flower
In each, his image! - mirrored love.
And thus, enwreathed in hue and bow,

Serenely gleams her beaming face;
Drawn to her, he himself will go -
Yet will he not attain that place.
- 1 12 -
So, daunted by assailing fate,

Are you, my love - withdrawing, pale.
Ev'n were I Helios the Great,
\\'hat would mr chariot avail?
Echo
It sounded wondrous when the bard

J .ikened himself to emperor and sun.
Yet he concealed the grieving faces marred
\Vhen in the darksome night he'll come.
Caught in the shredded cloud,

The purest blue sank into black away;
Haggard and pale my cheeks! - I'm bowed;
And tears, come from my heart, are gray.
Leave me not so - to dark, to pain! -

You, all-beloved, face of moon at night,
lVIy phosphorus, my candle-flame,
0 you my sun, 0 you mr light.
- 1 13 -
West-East Dimn
Zuleika
Oh how, West Wind, those rain-wet wings

I envy you, in desolation -
Messenger who the missive brings

Of how I pine, in separation.
The moving of your wing appears,

Wakes in the breast a longing, still;
Flower and eye and wood and hill
Arc by your breathing bathed in tears.
And yet - your wafting, mild and soft -

Cooling my hurt and fevered eyes!
I'd long have died of woe, did o ft
l\ly hope to see him not arise.
To my beloved hasten, graced:

Calmingly speaking to his heart,
Conceal the grief that I have faced,
And hide my pain, the searing smart.
Say to him only, quietly,

That in his love alone I live,
That life and love will both, for me,
With bliss again his nearness give.
- 1 14 -
Reunited
Can it be? :tvfy gleaming star,

Pressed against my heart a1,rain!
Dark! - to he apart, afar -
Dread abysm filled with pain!
You - of every impulse glad
Sweet and darling counterpart!
Thinking back - when we were sad -
I\Jade me shiver - painful start!
\'\11en the world in deepest ground

Lay in God's eternal breast,
Forming, He an order found
(Never will His making rest);
Came the word then: "Let it be!"
Next - a wail of misery! -
\Vhen the All, force wholly free,
Broke into reality.
Light awoke! The Dark, made shy,

Parted, pulled itself away.
Then the elements would fly;
Separating, none would stay.
\'{'ild, in fierce and dreamlike race,
Each would seek to he unbound -
Rigid, in unending space,
Reft of lon1,>ing, reft of sound.
\11 was empty, mute and wan;
God discovered solitude!

Then he made the crimson dawn,
Grief with mercy-warmth endued -
Play, for spirits long withdrawn,
Resonant and many-hued -
Introducing, thereupon,
Love! to sun reclusive mood.
- 115 -
West-East Dimn
Now with striving, and in haste,

Natures, fitted, would combine;
Vision, feeling, turning, faced
Never-measured life divine.
Seizing we in s tride may take
If controlled and well contained.
Allah no more world need make;
We His forming force have gained!
So, with moming-crimson wing

To your lips I gladly sped;
Myriad seals the night would bring,
Starbright, strengthen what we said.
Paragons on earth are we
Both in joy and sorrow sore.
.And a second "Let it be!"
Will dissever us no more.
Full-Moon Night
1\fistress, tell me, why the whispers?

\'(!hat the thought that moved your lips?
You are ever murmuring,
Sweet as wine in little sips!
Think that with rour talking-sisters
You'll another couple bring?
"Kiss, I want to kiss, I told you."
- 1 16 -
See! In doubtful darkness, bold,

Blossom glowing branches' edges,
Glad, down-show'ring s tar on s tar;
Emeralding through the hedges
Gem-fire sparkling thousandfold;
Yet your soul from all is far.
Far, your darling now will test,

As do you, the bitter-sweet
Feeling - woe and brilliance bles t.
As you'd vowed, each other greet
When the moon is full and high.
Here's the moment - see? - the best!
Code
0 diplomats, allow
Your help receptively
Potentates aiding - how
Kindly and cleverly!
Let hidden cipher-sending
The world keep busy till
Imbalance have an ending
\''\!h en we have learned good will.
- 1 17 -
West-East Dimn
Here from my Lady sweet

Has come a code that's fit -
Cipher I gladly greet,
For she invented it! -
Domain that she can fill,
Abundant, with her spell,
With fair and faithful will,
Such as we both know well.
Innumerable blooms
Frame colorful lx)Ull uet:
Angelic mood illumes
A crowded house today.
With motley feathers free
The winds the heaven sow;
On song-resounding sea
Aromas calm and go.
It is the double-writing
Of lofty drive, in marrow
Of life itself a smiting
With arrow a fter arrow.
The secret I selected
Is pious custom true;
Kept quiet, well protected,
Let it be used by you.
Reflection
I've somehow ac'1uired a mirror

And like to look. 'Twould seem
:rvly imperial order is clearer -
A star with a double gleam.
- 1 18 -
Yet not by ego blinded

Do I so enjoy tlus view;
I'm very sociable-minded,
And that will apply here, too.
\X'hen I stand before that pane

In my house of a widower,
To lighten my grief, I gain
l\ly beloved - the face of her!
I guickly turn round, and again
She's gone, whom I just had seen.
So I look in my songs, and then
She's there, where she'd always been.
More comely the lines arise

And - truer to my mood -
Though critics my flight despise
Are with daily gain endued.
Her richly bordered face -
!\lade grander, lovelier
By the gold-scrolled roses' grace
In an azure frame for her.
Zuleika
Innermost contentment: how,

Song, I fed the depth of you! -
Full of love - announcing now:
I am by his side. So true
- 1 19 -
West-East Dimn
That he always thinks of me! -

And the blessing of his love:
l\lessages, though distant, he
Knowing sends to me, for of
You my heart's the faithful mirror,

Friend! - wherein yourself you saw;
Like my breast, where you, none dearer
Kiss on kiss impressed with awe.
Sweetest lines, and purely true,

Fetter me in empathy! -
Bodying the love by you
Clad in verse's clarity.
World-mirror leave to Alexander.

What can it show? That, here and there,
Quiet nations that Conunander
!\loved, uprooted, ftlled with care.
Then let no alien s truggle move you!

Sing what you always sang so well.
Think: I am living, and I love you,
And me, at least, you might compel.
- 1 20 -
The world entire is fme to look upon;

The grandeur-world of poets, though, outstanding.
On motley, bright, or silver-gray, or wan
Land-tract by day and night, there's light expanding .
. .
futdiant to me is all: may 't thus remain!

So glasses of my love today make plain.
You in a thousand fonns yourself may hide,

Yet, All-Beloved, I acknowledge you.
Covered with magic veil you may abide,
..\11-Present One, yet I acknowledge you.
In young, pure s triving of the cypress trees,

All-Beauteous-Grown, s traight I acknowledge you;
\\-'hen the pure channel-waters flow with ease,
Then, All-Alluring, I acknowledge you.
\'\-'hen climbing high the water-jet outspreads,

All-Playful, gladly I acknowledge you;
\Vhen clouds, reshaping, raise their heaven-heads,
,\11-Ivlanifold, there I acknowledge you.
On veil bcflow'rcd with meadow-tapestry,

All-Color-Starry, I acknowledge you;
\'hen myriad grasping ivy-anns I see,
0 All-Surrounding, I acknowledge you.
- 121 -
West-East Dimn
\X-'hen morning kindles on the hills and downs,

All-Clear, Serene, I greeting send to you;
And when, above, the heaven softly rounds,
All-Heart-Expanding, I am breathing you.
\X-'hat I with outer sense and inner know,

You All-Instructive, I but know through you;
And when through Allah's hundred namt:s I go,
From every one - an echo-name for you.
- 1 22 -
Saki Nameh
Book of the Cupbearer
Yes - I went to the tavern, too, and sat

Talked to the rest of them - all that.
They haggled, shouted, gabbed about today
Happy or sad - whatever came their way.
I sat and gave my deeper feelings play;
Thought quickly of my darling: does she love?
That bothers me - what I know nothing ofl
I love her if there ever was a true
Heart that was ardent, faithful - slavish, too...
\Vhere were the s tylus, parchment? I would show
All of it caught - that's how it was! - just sol
Alone, just me.

And what could better be?
Drinking wine
Alone - quite flue.
No obligation, free -
I\ly thoughts may wander by their own design.
- 1 23 -
West-East Dimn
l\fulei, the thief, the skillful cheat,

Drunken, still keeps that writing neat.
Is the Qur'an from eternity?

That, I will not ask.
l\light the Qur'an created be?
No answer - a thankless task.
That it the Book of Books need be
My Muslim faith made clear to me.
That wine is from eternity

This, I question not.
That it might a pre-angel creation be
l\fay also well be taught.
The drinker - whatever the case mar be -
Looks God in the face - the freer he!
- 1 24 -
Saki Nameh -Book ofthe Cupbearer
Drunk is what all o f us OI(P,ht to be!

Youth's being drunk without wine, you see?
If age can drink itself back to youth,
That's wonder-virtue, too, in truth.
Dear life brings worry all the time -
A worry-breaker is the vine.
All right - no more investigation!

The rule about wine is renunciation.
But yet, if you s till would dmnken be
!\lake it of highest quality.
To drink bad wine is heresy
Made twice as bad, it seems to me!
"So long as you're sober

There's no delight.
Becoming more mellow,
You know what's right.
But then there's the question
Of 'extra' drink -
I'm curious, I Iaftz,
\'\'hat)'OII might think."
- 1 25 -
West-East Dimn
"A middling opinion

I'm thinking of.
If you're no drinker,
You shouldn't love.
But drinking isn't
Enough, I think.
If you're no lover
You s houldn't drink."
Zuleika
Why in the world are you so - unkind?
Hatem
The body's a prison where I'm confmed!

The spirit was put in this binding gloom,
Deceived into having no elbow room.
And should she but try to escape the pains,
They tie up the prison itself in chains.
And that's why the darling's in danger twice,
And that's why her conduct is not so nice.
- 1 26 -
Saki Nameh - Book of the Cupbearer
Well, if the body's a dismal jail,

Why does the prison's thirst not fail?
The spirit's content in a pleasant cell
And would gladly stay sober enough, as well -
B ut all of a sudden - a flask of wine,
And another, another - all right, it's time! -
Spirit can't stand it any more
And she smashes the bottles against the door.
To the Waiter
Don't set the wine-jug down, you boor,

In front of my nose, so crassly there!
And give your manners a bit more care,
Or vintage "eleven" will be impure.
- 1 27 -
West-East Dimn
To the Cupbearer
You charming boy, come right inside:

\hy do you stand at the entry there?
You'll be my cupbearer! - at my side
And every wine will be fme and fair.
Cupbearer speaks
Yo11, there , with the light brown curls,

Go away, you scheming l\1iss!
Master thanks me when I serve,
And my fo rehead gets a kiss.
You, though, I would have to bet,

Couldn't be co nt en t with this...
Overeager cheeks and breasts
\Xlearily will he dismiss .
Do you think you're fooling me

'hen you leave, ashamed? I'll lie
On the threshold and awake
'Xhen I feel you gliding by.
- 1 28 -
Folks have, regarJing drunkenness,

Found fault with us before
And are, about our drunkenness,
Ready to say much more.
Generally, a drunkenness
Will down you till the dawn.
But here, at night my drunkenness
,
Hunted me, on and on.

It is my lover-drunkenness
That plagues unmercied makes;
From day to night, from night to day
Dismays a heart that <Juakes,
A heart, that in a drunkenness
Of swelling singing plays -
Of that, no sober drunkenness
Can wanted warning raise.
Love-, song-, and 'Wine-made drunkenness
\Vhether by day or night -
Ah, the divinest dnmkenness
Will plague me - and delight!
You little rascal!

I'm staying aware
That is what matters.
And that's why your company
- 1 29 -
West-East Dimn
Gladdens me so,
You darling of darlings -
Although I am drunk.
Crack of dawn - already, we

A tavern riot had todav!
Host, girls, torches - crowds in glee
Shouted insults, hagglings, hey!
Shrilling fifers, drummers' beat,
It was a madhouse play.
But I was happy - love is sweet
Of course I had to stay.
Those who chide me like to say

I am blind to moral rules.
Yet I 've wisely kept awa}'
Pulpit 'l uarrds, warring schools.
- 1 30 -
Cupbearer
\Xt11at a condition! Sir, so late

Crawling out of your room - sad state!
"Bidamag buden," says the Persian;
"Hangover" - the German version.
Poet
Leave me please, devoted boy,

Every pleasure's doomed to fail:
Sunshine, roses - don't enjoy -
Or the tuneful nightingale.
Cupbearer
That's where I may lend some aid;

I've a clue - no time to waste:
Here - fresh almonds! You'll be made
Happy! Wme - just try the taste!
Then, some air - the terrace! - you

Fresher breezes will imbue.
\X'hile I look into your eyes
I would like a kiss, my prize!
Look! the world is not a cave!

Rich in birds that nesting play
Rose aroma, oil - we crave
Bulbul, too, as yesterday.
- 13 1 -
West-East Dimn
That vile trollop,

A temptress,
"World," they call her -
She swindled me
As aU the others:
Took away Faith,
Then Hope,
Now she wants
To grab Love!
But I snatched it away.
To secure forever
The treasure I'd saved,
Dividing it wisely
Between Zuleika and Saki -
Each of the two
Kept busy competing
For maximum profit.
I'm richer than ever!
I've got my Faith back!
Belief in her Love;
He, with a goblet, grants me
A glorious feeling of NotP.
So who needs Hope, then?
- 1 32 -
Saki Nameh - Book ofthe Cupbearer
Cupbearer
You have eaten well, I feel;

Even more, today, you've drunk.
Bits from the completed meal -
Safelv in a basin sunk.
Look, a "little swan" we call it;

Well-fed guests quite like such things.
l\fy own swan, I know, is hungry,
On the wave, with outstretched wings.
Si.t1!,>1 ng swans arc widely known,

Though, to sound before they die.
Let me miss the music-moan
That declares your end is nigh.
Cupbearer
In the market, praises rmg:

"Ah! great bard!" - they're proud of you.
I delight to hear you s in g,
Listen when you re silent, too.

'
But my love is yet more dear

\'<'hen a mcm'ry kiss I wi.t1.
\Vords go by and disappear.
yet your gift rcmams within.
- 1 33 -
West-East Dimn
Rhyme on rhyme - you have no peer;

Best - deep thinking, silently.
You can sing while others hear -
With your cupboy, quiet be.
Poet
Cupboy, come! Another cup!
Cupbearer
You've already drunken up.

They'll insult you when you're drunk.
Poet
Have you ever seen me sunk?
Cupbearer
Look, 1\luhanunad banned it.
Poet
Darling!
No one's list'ning, let me tell...
Cupbearer
I won't pester you with questions;

\Vhen you speak I listen well.
- 1 34 -
Saki Nameli - Book ofthe Cupbearer
Poet
Hear! Let .Muslims, all the rest,

Be soberly prostrated -
He, in zeal the holiest,
:\lone intoxicated.
Saki
Think, sir, during drunken larks

I low you spray a foaming glow!
Crackling lightning, thousand sparks -
No idea where they'll go_
\Vh.en your fis t the table hits,

l\Ionks in corners I can see,
Thought concealers, hypocrites;
You speak open-heartedlr!
Tell me why we young ones, though,

Not from any error free,
\X'eak in virrue, too, may grow
Wiser than the old can be.
You know all that's in the sky

.\ml that on the earth is housed,
Yet no tumult do you try
Hiding when your heart's aroused.
- 1 35 -
West-East Dimn
Ha tem
Yes, dear boy, that's why, you see,

Young and wise you'd better stay.
Heaven gave us poetry
That, in world-life, will betray.
First, be lulled in mystery,

Then, speak freely, nights and days.
Silent, poets cannot be.
Poetry itself betrays.
Sum mer Night
Poet
Now the sun has gone to rest,

Yet it glitters in the west.
All that brilliant shimmer vast -
Wish I knew how long 'twould last.
Cupbearer
If you want, sir, I will stay,

\Vait outside the tent here, too.
If the night defeat the day,
I will soon be telling you.
For to look, I know, you love

At unendingness above
\Vhen the flamings in the blue,
Praising, one another view.
- 1 36 -
.\nd the brightest will but say,

I am sluning where I 'm placed.
If to give you greater day
God had willed, you'd so be graced.
For the Lord it all is fine

Since, of all, He is the best;
Birds asleep, by kind design,
In a big or little nest.
One is anchored on a bough;

Cypress branch will gently bend,
Dangled when the wind will sough,
Till the vapor-dew descend.
That is what you've taught to me,

Said as well as I can say;
l1at I've heard devotedly
From the heart won't flow away.
I'll be owl-like, looking forth,

On the terrace vigil keep,
Till the s tar-twins of the north
Turn about while people sleep.
:\nd the midnight will appear

1en you rise to early <.:heer;
It will be a sight of fire
\Vhen we two the All admire!
Poet
In tlus fragrant garden bright

Bulbul's trilling through the night:
You'd be long obliged to wait
Till the night-song grew so great.
- 1 37 -
West-East Dimn
For it's in this time of Flora

(So her o ld Hellenic name)
Fair abandoned red Aurora
Is for Hesperus aflame.
Look around! she's coming, quickly,

Over wide and blooming fields:
Light is strewn about so thickly
Ah, the night to brightness yields!
And on light and rosy sole

To her love, behind the sun,
In bewilderment she's run,
Breathing hard - elusive goal!
Go - of sons the loveliest

Far inside, and shut the door;
You, so handsome, all the more
:1\light be lured like I lesper blest.
Cupbearer
(sleepily)
Deep the wisdom you have lent:

God's in even element.
This you taugh t so lovably!
How I love your love for me.
- 1 38 -
Saki Nameh -Book ofthe Cupbearer
Hatem
\X'hat well-earned sleep! 'Twere best he slept...
To me, your teacher-friend, you've lent
What you, kind youth, might well have kept
(So young to know what old age meant).
A healthy wholeness now can fill
Your limbs, and all your soul renew:
I'm drinking, but I'm quiet, still...
Postpone the joy that wakes, with you.
- 1 39 -
Mathai Nameh
Book of Parables
From sky to wilding sea the droplet sank

In fear: th e flooding gulf stnack mightily.
But God repaid believing modesty:
That drop with lasting pow'r He'd thank.
A mussel shell, a home divine:
And now - eternal fame and praise -
On royal crown - the pcarlr rays
With kindly gaze and mildenc::d shine.
Bulbul's night-notes through the shower

To the throne of Allah rose;
To reward her well for those,
Golden cage would be her bower.
Prison is the body when
She may feel herself confmed,
But when rightlr tuned in mind,
Soul will sing and sing again.
- 1 40 -
Mathai Nameh - Book ofParables
Believing in Miracles
Once I had shattered a lovely bowl

And felt in sheer despair
Clumsiness', hastiness' ho pe less role:
"Begone to the devils' lair!"
At ftrst I raged then I wept poor soul,
, ,
While gathering shards galore.

This grieved the Lord, and he made it whole,
As good as it was before.
The pearl that away from the mussel ran,

f\lost lovely, nobly b orn ,
To the jeweler, that worthy man,

Comp la in ed , " I am most forlorn!
If you bore a hole, my be aute ous all
Will be ruined, broken, stained
.\ nd with sisters (prison to appall),
For the worse, toge th er c h ained! "
"I aim to pro fit - well you know

,\nd you'll have to p ardon me.
How can I make a necklace-row
If I can't quite horrid be?"
- 141 -
West-East Dimn
I look with a pleasurable surprise:

A peacock plume in a Koran lies;
Welcome, within that holy place,
An earthly shape with heaven-b.-race.
Here, as when luminaries burn,
God's greatness in little we may learn
'Where He that all the worlds surveyed
The impress of His eye hath laid
And lightsome down so comely made,
Never a king in splendid state
That majesty might emulate.
Humbly love what fame will come
And you will merit halidom.
An emperor had two chancellors,

One for taking, one to spend.
Fonner a well-filled hand prefers,
Latter found emptiness, no end.
The spender died. King couldn't know
To whom the spending job should go:
Before he could rightly look around,
Unbounded wealth the taker'd found.
No room to move, gold lay about;
Nothing was ever given out.
- 1 42 -
Mathai Nameh - Book ofParables
The emperor saw, with some alarm,

\Vhat had engendered all the harm.
The windfall he would treasure now:
\X'ho needs a spender, anyhow?
Said to the kettle the newer pot,

"\Vhy've you that black belly go t?"
"From cooking-use it comes to us,
And you, smooth drop, for all your fuss -
Your pride will fail, you'll flnd.

Your handle has a shining face.
But do not rise above your place -
Just glance at your behind."
All the people, big and small,

Spin flne webs, and I mean all,
\Vhile they, with pointed claw, as flt,
Prettily in the middle sit.
And should a broom by chance intrude,
The spinner will cry, "Unheard ofl Rude!
Highest of palaces - trashed! How crude!"
- 1 43 -
West-East Dimn
From heav'n descending, Jesus brought

Eternal G ospel, holy writ.
Night, day, disciples heard, and thought:
A godly word, great strength in it.
Returning then, he took it back.
They'd felt it deeply, though, and well;
.\nd each one wrote, no gap or lack,
\'\'hat he had heard the teacher tell.
They differed. \'\'hat that means, one sees:
They differed in abilities.
And so the Christians, one can say,
Will differ till the Judgment Day.
It Is Good
One moonlit night in Paradise

Jehovah found, in slumber Jeep,
Adam. Behold! he gently lies
With Eve, who'd also fall'n asleep.
There, in the limits earth affords -
The best inventions of the Lord's.
"Good!!!" He proclaimed, with praise-filled heart,
And would not readily depart.
No wonder, then, we are entranced

\X'hen freshly eye in eye's enhanced;
Our souls seem to have gone - so far
To be with Him \'\IJ.1ose thoughts we are.
And if He call us, that's our task,
- 1 44 -
Mathai Nameh Book ofParables
-
But only - b o th at once! I ask.

Within my arms you softly rest:
Of all the thoughts of God, the best.
- 1 45 -
Parsi Nameh
Book of the Parsi
Legacy of Ancient Persian Faith
Friends, what legacy to you should come

From the poor, departing, pious one
Nourished by disciples patiently,
That h.is end-time fostered, honored be?
Often, when we saw the monarch ride,

Decked in gold, and gold on every side
(Gems by him and every magnate shown
Jewels, heaven-hailstones thickly sown),
Did you ever envy him that fire?

Or were you, unsated, gazing higher,
\Vhen the sun on morning pinion rose,
Numberless the hilltops to disclose,
Bowlike, of Darnawend? Who'd restrain

Sight? I felt, I felt - oh, it was plain
Myriad times! - so many life-days, s trong,
I by shining Sun was borne along
To acknowledge God on sk.iey throne,

Lord of Source-life Him to name alone,
Honor one who merited high gaze -
.\nd to wander on his light-filled ways.
But, a fiery circling done for good,

I in final darkness blinded s tood,
Struck my breast, my freshened body bowed,
Forehead first, to earth, to praise him proud.
- 1 46 -
Parsi Nameh - Book ofthe Parsi
Let there be a sacred legacy

Left to brothers' will and memory:
Heal!)' service eve1)' dq) maintained
No more revelation need be framed.
Every baby pious hands will raise,

That one tum him to the solar blaze;
Body, soul immerse and bathe in fire!
Grace of every morning wiU inspire.
Let the live help those who've died. Not least,

Cover up the carcass of a beast
(Soil, and rocks). And if you can succeed,
Cover all impurities, indeed.
Dig your field in pure and pleasant land

That the Sun may gleam on working hand;
And, in planting, put your trees in rows;
That's how order flourishes and grows.
Also water in canals will he

Ever pure, and always flowing free;
Zendemd, from hill- spring risen pure,
Stream kept clean, will downward so endure.
Not to weaken water's gentle fall,

Clean a ditch efficiently, and all
Reeds and rushes, little vermin, odd
Salamanders empty from the sod!
If you keep the earth and water pure,

Sun, in breezes gleaming, will allure,
\X'here, on being served so worthily,
Weal for pious lives he'll oversee.
You, by labors upon labors tried,

Be consoled, for all is purified;
l\Ian may want, as priest if he would like,
God's own image from the stone to strike.
- 1 47 -
West-East Dimn
Fire alight you see, of gladness full,

Night is bright, and limbs are flexible.
Over hearth- fire energies that dance
Juices richen from the meats and plants.
\'(!hen you bring the wood, I'm glad indeed:

From the sun of earth, you bear the seed;
Plucking pambeh, you may say (and bless)
It's a wick, and bears a holiness.
If you in that lamp-flre burning bright,

Pious, recognize the Higher Light,
No ill fate will halt you when you pray
To the Throne of God at dawning day.
Of our lives behold th' Imperial Seal,

Our ami angels' godl mirror. Peel
That what stems from solar hymning here
There is gathered up in sphere on sphere.
Now away from Zenderud I'll tend,

Beat my wings, and fly to Damawend,
Greet the sun that dawning light will lend,
And from to you from there a blessing send.
\X'hen a man the earth will treasure

That the sun illumes with life,
In the grapevine taking pleasure
\1Vhich is crying at the knife
(For she knows her brew of juices,
Cooking well, the world to cheer,
[any energies unlooses,
- 1 48 -
Parsi NamelJ - Book of the Parsi
But will choke some folk, I fear),

He'll be thankful to the heat
That our fertile world has filled.
!VIumble drunks on stumbling feet;
Temp'rate singing men - unstille d.
- 1 49 -
Chuld Nameh
Book of Paradise
Foretaste
The faithful Muslim tells of Paradise

As if he'd visited that very place:
For the Qur'an's depiction and advice
A doctrine o ffer of tha t heaven grace - .
And ye t the Prophet who the

, Book has given,
Our weakness and our defect seeking out,
Can see, despite the curses thunder-riven,
Our faith is oft embittered by our doubt.
He therefore lent me from the heaven-spaces

A young example to renew my youth;
Down wending she e n fetteri.ng enlaces
,
l\ly neck - no sweeter mesh - e mb race in truth.

,
Upon my lap, against my heart I hold

My heaven-angel! I am saved from care -
In Paradise my faith is brrowing bold!
Forever I could wish to kiss her there.
- 1 50 -
Chuld Nameh - Book ofParadise
Authorized Men
A fter the Battle of Badr, under a starry sky
Muhammad speaks
Let the enemies bemoan their dead:

These will not return, for all their tears.
Don't regret our brothers' fall. Instead,
Know: they wander over yonder spheres.
For the planets, the elated seven,

Open metal doors; adoring, wait.. .
Bravely friends in radiant forms of Heaven

Knock upon the Paradisal gate . ..
Joy-filled, more than hoped for, they will find

Brilliance touched upon my winged flight
\'V'hen my wonder-horse, with lightning kind,
I through heavens led on wonder-night.
Wisdom-tree on tree, like cypress soaring,

Gold-graced apples lifting high indeed,
Trees of life their shadows wide outpouring ,
Cover arbor flowers, herb al mead .
Now a sweeter wind-breath from the east

Brings the host of maidens heavenly.
With your eyes you may begin the feast;
Gaze alone will sate you pleasantly.
What you have achieved, they seek to learn:

Bloody stmggle, for a mighty plan?
Coming here, a hero's name you cam,
Yet - what kind? They'll fathom what they can.
- 151 -
West-East Dimn
By yo ur wounds they readily discover

Clear memorials of worth attained.
Fortune, rank are gone, yet nought will cover
Wounds that in defense of faith were gained.
Garden tents they take you to, and bowers

Rich in pillars lit with jewels bright;
To the noble vine's refming powers
They with friendly sip the guest invite.
Youth! You're welcome here as more than youth!

Every outline in the light made clear:
If you love one specially, in truth,
She'll be " fttst among your houris dear."
Yet the most delightful will not please

Even such condign grandiloquence.
She will sp ea k unenvying, with ease,
,
Telling of the splendors of her friends :
Each one leads you to the others' meal -

Sweet, outs tanding all and planned with care.
,
Many women, tranquil house - you'll feel

Eden had been worth the winning there!
Savor, then, the peaceful Eden joy

Nothing takes away, nor aught would alter.
These unwearied maidens never cloy;
Wine like this - clear mind will never falter.
- 1 52 -
Chuld Nameh -Book ofParadise
Thus I filled you in on litde things -
Showed the l\luslim widening holy wings;

Paradise of men, faith hero-kings,
Well-equipped with what the spirit hrings.
Chosen Women
\Vomen nothing need forgo,

Hope let purest faith declare;
Yet of only four we know
Certainly who entered there.
First, Zulei.ka, light of earth

Seeking Joseph-delectation,
Now in Eden bliss-rebirth
Gleaming gem: renunciation.
Then, the ever-blessed maid

For the heathen's healing born:
She, in bitter grief betrayed,
Saw her son on cross forlorn.
Next, l\Juhammad's wife and aide

Brought him splendor from above
And a testament she made:
One Lord God, one spousal love .
- 1 53 -
West-East Dimn
Fatima's kind, guileless role:

Daughter, wife - no flaw she had;
Purest, her angelic soul
Honey-golden b eau ty clad.
These the four we view in grace:

\XIho with lady-praise will please
l\lerits, in that Eden-place,
Heaven-favor, too, from these.
Adm ittance
Houri
By the gate of Paradise

I'm the one on guard today.
\XIhat to do? I can't surmise:
You're a doubtful case, I'd say !
Have you sure and certain ties

To our l\luslim doctrine dear?
Have you fought? Or otherwise
l\lerited admittance here?
Are you of that hero throng?

Show me, then , the wounds you bear,
Worthy of a lauding song,
And your entry I 'll prepare.
Poet
No more quibbling or delay!
Go ahead and let me in:
I was human. That's to say:
Yes, a fghter I have been.
- 1 54 -
Here -look hard, and you will see

(Gazing,pene trate my breast!)
Life-wounds' long malignity,
Love wounds pass ion, rcft of rest.
- '
Yet I sang, believingly,

That my dear to me was true -
World, wha tever it may be,
Filled with love, and grateful, too.
With resplendent beauties I

So engaged that now my name ,
By the darling hearts held high,

Triumphs in a tender flame.
No unworthy man am I!
Give that gentle hand to me:
On those fingers, by and by,
I will count . . . eternity1
Resonance
Houri
\'\!hereI'd often wait,

When first I spoke to you,
I'd watch and !,'liard the ga te ,
As told to do.
But then I heard - so odd! - a rus tling -
Syllable, tone - what busy bustling! -

Somebody wanted in!
But no one came close - and I couldn't hear -
- 1 55 -
West-East Dimn
The sound was too faint, it would disappear!

It had the feeling of a song you'd made -
I well recall - that memory won't fade.
Poet
Ever Beloved! - tenderly

You in your grace remember me.
A ll tones in earthly mode and air
That s trength prepare
Desire to rise, up high to go!
Heaps of them perish there below.
Others with spirit-raising wings
Like the Buraq that the Prophet brings,
Will fly and, fluting, wait
There by the gate.
If friends hear the music in heaven play,

They ought to take note in a friendly way,
Strengthen the echo throughout the skies,
The tone let downward race -
And stipulate
That in any case
\'\'hoever mar come will get a prize
For the melody he had giv'n.
So both worlds gain, the earth and heav'n.
Let them reward him well,

In a kind, compliant way
And with them gladly let him dwell -
Good souls contented stay.
But you are meant for me -
We're sharing the peace of eternity:

Guarding the gate is not for you!
A "single" sister - she will do.
- 1 56 -
Poet
Your love, your kiss - delight me so!
I will not probe the mysteries;
But - did you ever (tell me, please!)
Partake of earthly days?
It seemed - so many ways -
I'd swear - and I could prove it, too
You were "Zuleika" - say it's true!
Houri
\Ve're made of purest elements -
From water, flre, and earth, and air
Directly. Vapors drawn - from there
Below - our nature won't befriend.
And so we never will descend;
But when you rise to rest, with you
We always fmd enough to do.
For when the faithful came, you see

(The ones the Prophet had commended),
To claim their Paradise, then we
1\hde sure to be, as he intended,
\'\-'ith such a comely charm endued
As even angels hadn't viewed.
First, second, third - surprise! they had

Their prior favorites, each lad.
Sad paragons, not worth the fuss,
Yet they loved them far more than us.
Cheer, wit, and charm - we showed no lack.
The Muslims wanted to go back!
Now we, the highborn, heavenly,

On tlus ill-conduct well might frown.
Incited to conspiracy,
- 157 -
West-East Dimn
We talked the problem up and down.

Through heaven as the Prophet went,
We sought to tell our discontent;
\XIhen heading back, he thought it best
The winged steed should get some rest -
Then he was with us for awhile!

Though friendly, grave, in prophet-style,
He uttered some instruction brief,
\X/hich lent resentment no relief.
That we his purpose might attain
We had to take no little pain
Your thoughts to think, both small and great;
Your prior loves to emulate.
Our self-love had to disappear.

(We rubbed our heads behind the ear.)
Well, in Eternal Life, we thought,
Best to accept what God hath wrought. . .
Each man now sees what he has seen.

What happened happens now (his dream!).
We'll be a blond or a brunette;
We have our moods and whims (you bet!),
And shiftv little tricks and winks -
Each man is right at home, he thinks.
We s tay so lively, fresh, the lad
Is quickly taken in; he's glad.
To rou, though - free, good-humored, dear

I paradisally appear.
My looks and kisses would beguile
Even if not Zuleika-style.
Yet, being sweet exceedingly,
She peifect!J resembled mel
Poet
You blind me with your heaven-hue,
\Vhether your words be false or true;
Enough, I love! as you've divined.
- 1 58 -
Not to neglect your duty, too,

To please a German glad are you:
A houri speaks in rhymes entwined!
Houri
Yes,)'Ott, rhyme too! is my advice.

Just as your spirit impulse lends.
We, kindly here in Paradise,
Incline to word and deed that sense c01runends .
-\nimals, too, are welcome when they're nice,
Being obedient and faithful friends.

Ev'n on rough words no irked reproach we throw;
We feel, what's coming from the heart,
What from a freshened spring will start,
In Paradise may freely flow.
Houri
Again your counting finger I'm

Noticing: how much eon-time
Have we been dwelling together here?
Poet
Well .. .l'd rather not tell you, dear!

So varied is the freshened bliss -
An ever chastely bridal kiss!
If every minute lends a thrill,
\X/hv s hould I ask - when the time stands still?
- 1 59 -
West-East Dimn
Houri
Absent in mind, you're not yet "here":
I've noticed that you were aWf!)', my dear.
You entered the World-All and, free of fear,
The Depth of the Heaven - to disappear.
But now to your darling pay heed, as well:
Haven't you fm..ished that song, pray tell?
Recall how it sounded - beside the gate?
How? Well, forget it, I just can't wait!
If songs to Zu/eika you sing for me,
ThJ'll he your best, for eternity.
Favored Animals
Four animals were promised they

In Paradise might dwell:
There the eternal year and day
W'i th saints they're spending well.
The donkey is the ftrst of them,

He comes with lively stride,
For Jesus to Jerusalem
Upon his back would ride.
Half shy, the wolf the Prophet had

By stem commandment led:
"Don't snatch the poor man's lamb - that's bad -
The rich man's grab instead."
- 1 60 -
Now, tail a-wagging, merry, brave,

By kindly master kept,
The dog that in the Seven's cave
Long faithfully had slept.
Beside the Lord, a cat, caressed,

Abu Hurayra's, purrs.
The holy Prophet, stroking, blest
A friend he yet prefers.
Higher and Highest
Wonder-things if we would teach

None should criticize, or chide:
Clarity if you would reach,
Seek within, where depths abide.
Then you'll surely come to know:

.Man, with selfhood well in view,
Far to save his "I" will go,
As below, in Heaven, too.
.And my darling "I'' requires

l\Iany kinds of comfort there:
Bliss requiting earth-desires
Our Eternity won't spare.
Beauteous garden-bloom will please,

Flower, fm.it, and pretty child
\Ve have known delights like these;
Higher joys can not be mild!
- 161 -
West-East Dimn
Young and old, that all my friends

There be gathered might be nice;
Speaking German pleasure lends:
Statruner words of Paradise.
Every dialect you'll hear,

Human, angel language kind;
\Vith a hidden grarrunar we're
Finding poppy, rose declined.
Now we also into sight's

Rhetoric might wholly wend
And to heavenly delights
Far above all tone ascend.
Yet, that tone and pitch escape

\Vords may well be evident:
Morr decisiveb to shape
Life transfigured, strength is lent.
For the senses five thereby

Paradise provides with ease:
There will be, for such as I,
But one sense for all of these.
So more lightly will I go

Higher through eternal spheres:
God's perfusing \Vord will show
Pure and livened, what endears.
Binding strivings high above,

Endings never need we fear:
\Ve'll adore Eternal Love
\Vhen we, soaring, disappear.
- 1 62 -
Chuld Nameh Book ofParadise
-
Seven Sleepers
Courtiers six and highly favored,

Fled before the ruler's anger,
\Vho as god would fain be honored
But as god had proved a failure:
Came a fly - the king was hindered
From enjoying tasty morsels.
Servants, shooing with their fanning,

Failed, and there's the fly, remaining,
Pes tering and stin!,>ing, wand'ring;
All at table arc confounded.
Look, it's coming back, the spiteful
Emissary of the fly-god!
"Now," the boys at court are asking,

"Should a god by flies be hampered?
Should a god be eating, drinking,
J us t as we do? No, the One that
:Made the sun, the moon created,
And the star-glow vault of heaven
He is God. Let's go!" The tender,
Lightly shod and costumed court-boys,
By a shepherd led, arc hidden
\'(lith him in a cave, a hollow.
Comes the shepherd-dog, unyielding,
Driv'n away, foot badly broken,
Keen on staying with the master;
By the hiding ones befriended,
He and they arc sleep-protected.
Now the prince whom they're escaping,

Love-offended, ponders vengeance:
Sword and burning he renounces
But with bricks and lime is blocking
Up the entrance to the hollow.
- 1 63 -
West-East Dimn
Yet the boys continue sleeping,

And the angel, their defender,
Stands before God's throne, reporting:
"To the right and to the left the
Bodies I have gently shifted,
So their limbs, the young and lovely,
Won't by fetid mist be injured.
Cracks I 've made within the cave-rock,
So the sun when setting, rising,
Youthful cheeks will be renewing
While the boys are happy, sleeping."
There, on forepaws newly healthy,
Slumber, too, the Jog will relish.
Years go by, more years advancing:

Now the buys, at length awaking,
See the wall, the long-corrupted,
Totally collapsed, decaying.
And Yamblika says, the flnest
And maturest of the comrades,
(\Vhile the shepherd, fearful, wavers):
"I will go and get some breakfast -
Risk my life, and try this gold-piece!"
Ephesus, fur many years now,

Lauds the doctrine of the prophet
Jesus. (Peace upon him, Holy.)
Then he ran, and found the gateway,

Tower, turret, all looked different;
Then into the nearest bake shop
Hurried, turned, some bread to purchase.
"Rascal!" cried the baker, "have you
Found, my boy, perhaps a treasure?
Give! The gold-piece has betrayed you!
I want half - a bit of penance!"
And they haggle. Then the problem

C,omes before the king, who wants to
Split the gold, as did the baker.
- 1 64 -
Now a miracle a hundred

Signs reveal, with each one clearer.
At the palace he had helped to
Build, behold - his rights' protection!
Hollowed pillar, penetrated,
Leads to designated treasure.
Then the generations gather,
0 ffering their varied counsel.
Proud and stately, handsome forebear,
Stands Yamblika, youth renewing.
He, ancestral, hears the telling
O f his children and the grandsons
Ry great-grandchildren encircled
(fhese a people boldly-mannered)
Him, the youngest, all acclaiming.
Here's a token, more than others,
That completes the demons tration:
He has character! - conftrtning
Personality for comrades.
To the hollow he's returning

While the king and people lead him.
Not to king, nor to the people
Will the chosen one be coming:
For the seven, who for ages
(Eight, of course, the dog included)
From the world were separated
Gabriel's unfathomed power
Has, to God alone compliant,
Into Paradise admitted,
And the wall closed up entirely.
- 1 65 -
West-East Dimn
Good Night
Lay ye down, my lovely hymns,

On my people's bosom bowed!
And within a musky cloud
Gabriel protect the limbs
Of the weary, pleasantly,
So that, fresh and hale and fit,
Glad and ever kindly, he
Rising rocky cliff may split,
\Valking Paradise's way;
Heroes of the olden day
Willingly with hun will stay;
\Vhere the lovely, ever new,
Yet will grow, with no decay,
For the multitude to view.
Ev'n the little dog, the true,
Join the masters daily may.
- 1 66 -
Unpublished by Goethe
\Vho knows himself and others well

No longer may ignore:
Occident and Orient dwell
Separately no more.
'Twixt two worlds I love the way

Back and forth a man may sway;
So between the East and West
Moving to and fro's the best.
Haftz, next to you to be

\Vhat a fancy, mad!
Yet on sea-wave rapidly
See the ship rush, glad,
Feel the sail a-swelling high,
Wander proud and brave
Though, if ocean strikes, 'twill lie
Rotting on the wave.
Light and swift in song-desire
\Vaves, cool-welling, flow,
Seething in a rising f1re;
Swallowed, I, in glow!
But, in me, a dark will swell,
Boldness it will give.
- 1 67 -
West-East Dimn
I on land had known, as well,

How to love and live!
They've been attemp ting now for fifty years

To mirror me, reshape, mis-emulate.
I thought, they test what you can tolerate
Here in your fatherland - so it appears.
You, in your time, have gone quite mad with wild

Demonic throngs whom youthful genius cheers;
Then, you came gently, with advancing years,
Nearer unto the wise, the godly-mild.
Can't I use what likeness I

\'<'ish, to build a bridge?
God's life-likeness I espy:
Gnat or fly or midge.
Can't I use what likeness I

Wish - whatever lives?
God in my beloved's eye
Godly likeness gives.
- 1 68 -
Unpublished by Goethe
Sweetest child, a pearly row,

Trying but to find a way,
I to you had lent, to show
\'hat my lamp-wick love would say.
'ith an emblem, though, you come

That's Abraxas-likc, a sign
Void, to me, of halidom,
Lacking anrthing divine.
All this modern foolery -

Fit for Shiraz, the bazaar!
Can I laud rigidity?
'ood-bar crossed on wooden bar?
'Twas the Lord of sky and star

Abraham as Father chose
Moses, in the desert far,
Through the One to greatness grows.
David, ev'n with all his sins

(Crimes he might but ill afford)
Truly absolution wins:
"I've been faithful to One Lord."
Jesus purely, thoughtful, awed,

Felt One God, when all was still.
Who'd make Jesus into God
Would but pain his holy will.
Right it seems, and bright as sun -

'hat Muhammad knew so well;
Through the concept of the One
All the world could he compel.
- 1 69 -
West-East Dimn
If you so unwisely choose

Homage to that thing to pay,
This perhaps we might excuse:
Many others think that way.
Yet we see that women - six

Turn ev'n Solomon aside
And in awful worship-tricks
Doctrine of their gods provide,
Isis' hom, Anubis' jaw

Offering to Jews to laud.
Shall I serve as God, with awe,
Such a sorry wooden gaud?!
Yet I'd not seem better, more,

Than I'd be if closely eyed:
Solomon his God forswore;
I my deity denied.
Burden of a renegade
Let me lighten in a kiss:
Vitzli-Putzli would have made,
For)'OIIr heart, a charm of bliss.
Let me weep! embraced by night,

In endless waste land.
Camels rest, the drivers too.
Planning, the Armenian keeps quiet vigil.
But I, standing by him, reckon the miles
That keep me from Zuleika, reirnagine
The frustrating, distancing meanders.
- 1 70 -
Let me weep! it is no disgrace.

It's good for men to weep.
Achilles wept for Briseis!
Xerxes bewept his undefeated army;
Over his sel f-slain beloved
Alexander wept.
Let me weep, tears enliven the dust.
,-\lread y the air feels fragrant.
Why won't he send

(fhe cavalry captain)
An emissary
From day to day?
I las plenty of horses,
And skill in writing;
In Arab script or
The Persian system,
Well could indite
On silken pages.
I, in his place,
Would write, and quickly.
The patient will not,

Can not recover
From sweet of sorrow.
She, who with tidings
Come from her loved one
Would heal, is ill .
- 171 -
West-East Dimn
No longer on silken leaf

Do I write symmetric rhymes;
No more do I enfold them
In golden scrollings;
\'<-bat for srufting sand are designated
The wind wafts over, yet the strength remains,
Finn to the center of the earth,
Bound to the soil.
And the wanderer will come,
The lover, and encounter
Trus place, and he'll quiver
Through all his limbs.
"Here, before me, lived a lover.
\Vas it Mcjnun, the tender?
Ferhad, the forceful? Jamil, the enduring?
Or one of those myriad
Sad-and-happy others?
He loved! I love, as he did!
I sense him!"
Ah but Zuleika, you rest

On the tender pillow
That I prepared, adorned for you.
You, as well, feel your limbs quiver.
"It's the one who's calling me, Hatem .
.And so I call)'oll, 0 Hatem, Hatem!"
- 1 72 -
N OTES AND ES SAYS F O R A BETTER
U N D E R S TA ND I NG O F THE
WES T-EAS T DIVAN
by
Transla ted
by
Martin Sidney and Peter Anton von Arnim

Notes and Essays for a Better
Understanding of the West-East Divan
Poetry if you would know,

To its country you must go;
(1) INTRODUCTION
"To everything there is a season!" According to this dictum, whose

meaning we learn to appreciate more and more the longer we live, there is a
time to keep silent and a time to speak. I am opting for the latter now. If doing
and acting are proper to ymmger years, it is contemplation and communication
that suit the later ones.
I sent the writings of my early years into the world without a preface,
without even indicating what they were intended for. I did that because I
tn1sted that the nation would sooner or later make use of what I had offered.
Thus, many of my works succeeded in having an immediate impact, while
others, not equally accessible or striking, needed several years to attain
recognition. But now that this time has gone by, a second and third
generation are repaying me double and triple for the wrongs done me by
earlier contemporaries.
But this time I would like to see to it that nothing should s top my little
book from making a good immediate impression. So I decided to clarify,
explain, and illustrate, in every way I could think of, what would help
readers attain immediate comprehension, even if they had little familiarity
with the Orient. People will not need my supplement, of course, if they are
already versed in the history and literature of this remarkable part of the
world. Instead, they will quickly picture the springs and brooks whose en
livening water I have diverted onto my flower-beds.
What I would like best, though, is to be regarded as a traveler who will
be worth hearing if he eagerly assimilates the ways of life of a s trange
country, tries to appropriate its forms of speech, and learns how to share
views and comprehend customs . He will be forgiven if he succeeds only in
- 1 75 -
Notes & Essays
part, if he still continues to he identifuble as a fore4,>ner because of a distinctive

accent or a re sis tant inflexibility in his national character. It is in this sense that
readers may pardon my little book. J udicious people will be forgiving because
they understand. Amateurs, less distracted by my shortcomings mar accept ,
v:ithoul bias what is offered.

Also, to let his countrymen enjoy more readily whatever he brings
back, the traveler takes on the role of a merchant who displays his goods
appealingly and tries in many ways to make them pleasing. Readers will not
object to a variety o f verbal presentations: stating, describing, or praising.
To begin with, I would like to make it clear that in regard to morality
and aesthetics I have made it my duty to keep this work within everyone s '
grasp. So I use the plainest language the easiest, most understandable cadences
,
of my vernacular, and only distantly allude to phrasings by which the Oriental

tries to please through artificiality and mannerisms.
But understanding may be hindered by many unavoidable foreign
words that are obscure because they refer to specific objects, matters of
faith, opinions, traditions, fables, and customs. I have made it my next obliga
tion to explain these by taking into account needs that were made apparent by
questions and objections raised by German li"teners and readers. .:\n index will
note both the page where an obscure passage occurs and the place where I
explain it [Goethe's brief index is not included here. - I\lB]. Each
explanation is made within a speci fic context, so rather than scattered notes
the reader will fmd an integrated text. Though lightly and loosely handled, it
can still provide a clarifying overview.
I hope my efforts in accomplishing the project will please the reader. I
am entitled to that hope, for now that so many things from the Orient are
being truly integrated into our language, it may well be worthwhile to draw
attentjon to that area from which so much of greatness, beauty, and ex
cellence has reached our country over the centuries, and from which we
may hope for more each day.
(2) HEBREWS
In every country, native poetry is the first of its kind. It underlies all the
succeeding varieties. 'lbe more freshly and naturally it comes to the fore,
the more happily will later epochs evolve.
As we are speaking about Oriental poetry, it becomes imperative to
mention the Bible as the most ancient collec tion. A large part of the Old
- 1 76 -
Hebrell's
Testament is written in a lofty spirit, with enthusiasm, and belongs to the

realm of poetry.
If I now vividly recollect the time when [Johann Gottfried) Herder
[ 1 744-1 803) and [Johann Gottfried] Eichhom [ 1 752-1 827J enlightened me
on this topic personally, I recall a sublime delight, comparable to a pure
Oriental sunrise. \Vhat these men bequeathed to me can only be hinted at,
an d I will be forgiven for my haste in passing by such treasures.
As an example we may think of the Book of Ruth. \'{'bile pursuing its
lofty goal of providing a ki ng of Israel with reputable, interes ting forebears,
it can be regarded at the same time as the most lovely small, well-unified
work handed down to us in an epic and idyllic form.
Next, I will dwell for a moment on the Song of Songs, the most tender,
inimitable expression of passionate, E,>raceful love that has been transmitted
to us. Certainly we deplore the fact that poems thrown together as frag
ments and piled one on top of the other afford us no full, pure enjoyment. But
we still take pleasure in transporting ourselves into the circwnstances of the
poets' life. A mild breeze of the loveliest region of Canaan wafts through the
work - intimate mstic settings, wine production, garden plants and spices,
something of urban constriction, but then a royal court with splendors in
the background. The main theme, though, is still the ardent a ffection of
youthful hearts that seek, fUld, repel, and attract each other, in a variety of
very simple circumstances.
Several times I thought of singling out a few things from this lovely
confusion and arranging them. But it is precisely the enigmatic, inscmtable
nature of these few pages that lends them grace and distinction. How often
have well-thinking, orderly minds been enticed to formulate or impose some
kind of plausible organizing plan, while the next reader is still confronted with
the same task.
In a similar way the Book of Ruth has already exerted irresistible charm
upon many a well-disposed man who has succumbed to the illusion that
events depicted with invaluable concision could gain something from a
more detailed, roundabout treatment.
And thus, in book a fter book, the Book of all Books mar demonstrate
that it has been given to us in order that we, as in a second world, may test
ourselves by it and get lost in it, be enlightened through it and educate
ourselves with it.
- 1 77 -
Notes & Essays
(3) ARABS
With a people farther east, the Arabs, we fJ.nd splendid treasures in the
(eighth-century compilation] mu 'allaqat. These are songs of praise that were
crowned with victory in poetic competitions - poems arising before the
time of 1vluhammad [570---632], written in golden letters, and hung on the
gates of the temple in l\Iecca. They point to a nomadic, catde-raising, war
like nation, made insecure by the mutual conflict of several tribes. Featured
here are a fum attachment to one's fellow clansmen, ambition, bravery, and
an insatiable thirst fur revenge, mitigated by love-pangs, good will, and self
sacrifice - all without limit. These poems give us an adequate idea of the
high culture of the tribesmen of Qoraish. Muharrunad himself emerged
among them. But he threw over them a somber religious veil that was to
s hroud any prospect of purer developments.
The value of these exquisite poems, seven in number, is yet heightened
by the fact that the greatest diversity prevails throughout the sequence. We
cannot give a briefer and more accurate account of this variety than by
inserting an evocation of their character by the insightful [Sir \Vtlliam] Jones
(1 746-1794). "The poem of Amralkais is soft, joyful, lustrous, delicate, var
ied and graceful. The one of Tarafa - bold, excited, bouncing, and yet
interwoven with some gaiety. The poem of Zoheir - sharp, serious, chaste,
full of moral corrunandments ami serious maxims. Lebid's poetry is light,
amorous, refined, delicate. It recalls Virgil's second eclogue, for he com
plains about the pride and arrogance of the beloved and takes the occasion
to enumerate his virtues and praise his tribe to the skies. The sung of
Anlara shows itself proud, ominous, striking, magnificent, but not without
beauty in the descriptions and images. Amru is impetuous, sublime, vain
glorious; Hare full of wisdom, discernment, and dignity. The latter two ap
pear also as poetic-political polemics, delivered before an audience of Arabs
in order to appease the destructive hatred of two clans" [Poes. Asia!. Com
ment. 72).
As I have surely aroused the reader now to read or reread these poems,
I will add here another one, from r.fuhanunad's time, and fully .in the san1e
vein. One could describe its character as gloomy or even sinister, glowing,
vindictive, and replete with vengeance.
- 1 78 -
Arabs
[Ascribed to Ta'abbata Sharran)
1
In the ravine, on the path,
Someone lies slain
Upon whose blood
No dew is dripping.
2
:\ heavy burden he left me -
And departed;
Truly this burden
I will bear.
3
"I leir of my vengeance:
The sister's son,
The warlike,
The irreconcilable:
4
:Mute, exuiling venom,
Silent like the viper,
A serpent spitting poison .
...\gainst it no charm avails."
5
Violent word spread among us
Of a great, mighty disaster;
Even the most powerful
\X!ould have been overwhdmeu.
6
Fortune has plundered me,
I Ianning the friendly one,
None of whose guests
Were ever hurt.
- 1 79 -
Notes & Essays
7
He was the sun's heat
On a cold day;
And when Sirius bumed,
A shade, a cooling.
8
He was lean-limbed,
Not a complainer,
Moist of palm,
Audacious and vehement.
9
With a steadfast mind
He pursued his goal -
Until he rested;
Then rested, too, the steadiness.
10
He was the rain of a cloud,
Distributing gifts;
But, when attacking,
An angry lion.
11
Stately before his people -
\X'ith black hair, long garment;
When raiding the enemy,
A haggard wolf.
12
He dispensed two flavors,
Honey and wormwood.
A dish of these flavors
Evenrone tasted.
- 1 80 -
Arabs
13
Terrible, he rode a lone,
Accompanied by none,
Only a sword of Yemen,
Adorned with notches .
14
At noon we young warriors
Began our expedition,
Traveled through the night
Floating doud s without rest.
15
Eve ryone was a sword,
By swords b>irded round -
Ripped from t he sheath,
A light ni ng flash.
16
They s ipped the spirit of sleep ,
But when they nodded
We struck them,
And the y were gone.
17
We took c omple te revenge;
From the two tribes
But few escaped,
Few indeed.
18
And the Hudhaylis, to destro y him,
Would break his lance,
Because he, with his lance,
Had shattered fludhayl.
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19
O n a rough place o f rest
They laid him ,
By a jagged rock, where even camels

Shattered their hooves.
20
\'Vhen morning hailed him there,
At the gloomy site, murdered,
He had been robbed,
The booty stolen.
21
But now they've been killed b y m e -
The Hudhaylis, with deep wounds.
Bad luck doesn't wear me down,
It wears itself down.
22
The thirst of the spear was quenched
With a first draught;
It was not forbidden
To drink again, again.
23
Now the wine denied
Is once again allowed;
With much hard work
Did I win permission.
24
To sword and spear
And horse I extended
The privilege
Now common to all.
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Arabs
25
Hand me the drinking-cup then,
0 Sawad ben Amrd
My body, for my uncle's sake,
Is an open wound.
26
And to Hudhayl have we handed
The chalice of death,
\X'hose effect is wretchedness,
Blindness, humiliation.
27
The hyenas were laughing
Over the Hudhaylis' death;
You could see wolves,
Their faces shining.
28
The noblest vultures came flying,
They walked from corpse to corpse,
And from the meal in surfeit
They were unable to soar.
Little is needed for us to reach an understanding of t his poem. The

grandeur of character, the earnestness, the righteous cruelty of the action
are the marrow of the poetry. lbe flrst two staru:as give a clear exposition.
In the third and the fourth the dead man speaks and imposes upon his relatives
the burden of revenge. The fifth and the sixth are linked by their meaning to the
ftrst stanzas; they appear lyrically transposed. The movement from the
seventh to the thirteenth elevates the slain one, so we may feel the
greatness of his loss. From the fourteenth through the sixteenth stam:a the
expedition against the enemies is portrayed; the eighteenth leads back again;
the nineteenth and twentieth could come right after the ftrst two s tanzas.
The twentr-ftrst and twenty-second could be placed a fter the seventeenth;
then follows the flush of victory and enjoyment of the banquet. The
conclusion, though, is the horrible delight of seeing vanquished enemies
lying before us and left as food for hyenas and vultures.
Most remarkable is the fact that in tlus poem the pure prose of the ac
tion becomes poetic through the transposition of events. By that means,
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Notes & Essays
and because the poem lacks nearly all outward embellishment, its gravity is
heightened. Anyone making his way deeply into it will see the events that
have occurred, from beginning to end, building up before him in imagina
tion.
(4) TRANSITION
If we now tum to a peaceful, civilized people, the Persians - since it
was their poetry that initially prompted me to write this work - we must
go hack to the earliest times so we can understand the more recent period.
It will always remain remarkable to the historian that no matter how often a
land has been conquered by enemies - subjugated, even destroyed - a
certain core quality of the nation always survives in its character, and all of a
sudden a well-known popular feature reappears.
From this standpoint it may be enjoyable to hear about the ancient
Persians, and so to striJe on to the present day with a more assured and
freer step.
(5) ANCIENT PERSIANS
The ancient Parsis' worship of God was gronnded in the contemplation

of nature. Adoring the Creator, they nrrned to the rising sun as the most
striking of all magnificent phenomena. Here they believed they had caught
sight of the throne of God, surrounded by the radiance of angels.
Everyone, even the lowliest, could make the glory of this uplifting service
come alive for himself each day. The poor man issued from his hut, the
warrior from his tent, and the most relib>ious of all duties was fulfille d. The
newborn child was given the baptism of fire in solar rays. .All day long,
throughout his life, the Parsi would see himself accompanied by that primary
star in all his actions. TI1e moon and stars illumined the night, likewise
unatta.inaule, l.Jeluuging tu i.ufiu.ity. Dut theu the fire s tuut.1 ever uy ones side,
lightening, warming, as best it could. To pray in the presence of that emissary,
to bow down before what was felt to be infmite, became a pleasant, pious
duty. There is nothing purer than a cheerful sunrise. Fires had to be kindled
and tended with the same neat cleanliness if they were to be, and to remain,
holy reminders of the sun.
Zoroaster [or Zarathustra, tenth to eleventh century BCE) was apparently
the first to transform the noble, pure natural religion into an elaborate
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Ancient Persians
cult. Mental prayer, which includes and excludes all rdi-,rions and pervades
the moral conduct of only a few people who have been blessed by God,
evolves with the majority merely as a transiently ardent, blissful moment of
feeling. \Vhen it fades away, the individual, returned to himself, unsatisfied
and idle, inunediatdy falls back into the most tedious boredom.
To fill this void meticulously with ceremonials, consecrations, and
expiations, with comings and goings, with inclinations and bows, i.;; the duty
and privilege of the priestly guild, who in the course of centuries have
fragmented their occupation into countless trivialities. Drawing a quick
summarizing line between the first childlike, happy adoration of the rising
sun and the insane rites of the Gucbers [a now obsolete term for Zoroastri
ans], as practiced by them yet today in India, we may perceive in the one
case a youthful nation rising from sleep to meet the sunrise, and in the
other a dreary people who try to kill ordinary boredom with pious boredom.
But we shoulu not forget that ancient Parsis Jid not venerate only fire.
Their religion is based throughout on the dignity of all elemental procla.imers
of God's presence and might. Hence the pious fear of sullying water, air, or
soil. Such a reverence for everything natural that surrounds the human
being leads to every civil virtue: attentiveness, neatness , diligence are
encouraged and fostered. Here was the basis of the national culture. Just
as they would not pollute a river, so they dug their canals with care to save
water and keep it clean. From controlled water circulation sprang the fertility
of the country, so that during that era of empire ten times more hmu was
plowed. They carried out with utmost diligence whatever work the sWl
would smile upon. Hut above all else they cultivated the vine, the sun's true
child.
Their strange way of burying the dead derives from the same exaggerated
endeavor not to pollute pure clements. The police of the cities worked
according to these tenets. Keeping the streets clean was a religious concern.
Even today, when the Guebers are a banished, repudiated, despised people
and fmd their lodgings, at best, in suburban <1uarters of ill repute, a dying
member of that faith will bequeath a sum of money so that one street or
another of the capital may he thoroughly cleansed at once. Such a lively
practical worship of God made possible that incredible population to which
history bears witness.
A religion as tender as this, based on God's omnipresence in his works
of the sensory world, is bound to have a distinct influence on moral conduct.
Consider their main commands and interdicts: thou shalt not lie, not incur
debts, not be ungrateful! Every ethicist and ascetic can readily elaborate
on the fruitfulness of these teachings. The first prohibition really contains
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Notes & Essays
the other two and all the rest, which in fact originate in nothing other than
the need to combat falsehood and infidelity. Thus the devil may be des
ignated in the Orient as none other than the etemal liar.
Since this religion leads, however, to contemplation, it could easily bring
on a sofUless, just as the long, wide cloaks seem to indicate something
feminine. Yet in the Zoroastrians' morals and constirution the opposite
tendency was equally s trong. They carried weapons, even in peacetime and
in social life, and practiced their use in every possible way. The most deft,
fierce horse-riding was common. So their games, notably polo on long
racetracks, kept them spry, strong, agile. A relentless conscription would
make them all heroes at the first hint from the Icing.
Let us look back at their way of conceiving God. Initially, public worship
was limited to a few fires and so was all the more reverent. But then an
exalted priesthood gradually multiplied and so augmented the number of
sacred fires. lbe tendency of this close-knit priesdy power to revolt occasionally
against the secular authority lies in the nature of their always incompatible
relationship. Not to mention that the false Smerdis [d. 522 BCE), who usut:ped
the kingdom, had been a magus, elevated and supported for some time by
his fellows - so we encounter now and then magi who become alarming
to the rulers.
Scattered by Alexander's invasion, out of favor with his Parthian
successors, then given prominence again and brought together by the
Sassanids, the magi proved alwars finn in their principles and resisted any
ruler who hindered them. Thus they obstructed in all possible ways the
union of Khusrau [reigned 592-628J with the beautiful Shirin, a Christian.
They were displaced forever by the Arabs and driven away to India,
with whoever remained of them or of their spiritual kindred in Persia despi.,ed
and reviled wttil this very day - now tolerated, now persecuted, according to
the whims of the rulers. Yet their religion still maintains itself here and
there in its primary purity, even in miserable corners, as I have tried to
convey in my poem, "Testament of the old Parsi" [ParJi 1\lameh, AlA 1 1 . 1 .2,
l l l ff; see poem 228, "Legacy of Ancient Persian Faith," p. 1 46).
I t is beyond question that over a long time we have come to owe much
to thi" religion, and that in it lay the possibility of a higher culrure which
has spread over the western parts of the eastern world. It is no doubt ex
tremely difficult to give an adequate idea of how and whence that culrure
spread. Many cities, centers of life, lay scattered i.n various reb>ions; but for
me the most admirable fact is that the fatal proximity of the Indian idolatry
was unable to affect them. Since the cities of Balkh and Bamian lay so near
each other, it remains astonishing to see in the latter the maddest idols of
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Ancient Persians
gigantic si?.e being crafted and worshiped, while in the former the temples
to pure flre sutvived, huge monas teries of this faith arose, and the mubads
[ priests] assembled in great numbers. How splendid the founding of such
institutions must have been mar be evidenced by the extraordinary men
who emergeu. Among their posterity were the family of the Barmecides
[descendants of Barmak, eighth century], who excelled for so long as influen
tial sta tesmen, until at last, as would happen to a somewhat kindred dynasty
in our time [French royalty, Old Regime], they were rooted out and driven
away.
(6) GOVERNANCE
If the philosopher constructs for himself a natural, international, and

cons titutional law based on principles, the friend of history inquires what
human legal circumstances and associations might have been like. We find
that in the most ancient Orient all sovereignty can be derived from the right
to declare war. This privilege lies, like all the others, initially in the will and
passion of the people. \X.11en a clan member is injured, masses of people are
at once moved, unbidden, to take revenge on the offender. But the crowd
cannot guide itself in its actions. So it confers leadership in the fght upon a
single person, whether for one military expedition only or for many, and it
does tlus on the basis of election, custom, or habit. To the capable man it
grants the dangerous post for a lifetime, and perhaps fmally also to his
descendants. In this way the individual, by demonstrating his ability to con
duct a war, acquires the right to declare war.
From this right further derives the warrant to summon, command, and
compel all citizens to battle - citizens who may be viewed as in any case
pugnacious and combative. Conscription always had to be merciless if it
was to prove fair and effective. The first Darius [reigm.-'<.1 522-486 BCE] prepares
for war abrainst a suspect neighbor; his innumerable subjc.:cts heed the signal. .An
old man must give up his three sons; he asks that the youngest be exempted
from the campaign; the king sends back the lad, cut to pieces. Here, then,
the right to decide on life and death has been proclaimed. In the battle itself
no questioning is tolerated: think how often an entire section of t he army is
vainly sacrificed in an arbitrary and inept manner, and nobody calls the
leader to account.
In martial nations, however, this same state of affairs extends to in
clude the brief periods of peace. Around the king there is always war, and
no one's life at court is secure. In addition, the taxes the war had made
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Notes & Essays
necessary continue to be levied. That is why Darius Codomannus [reigned

336-330 BCE) pmdently fixed regular tributes instead of voluntary contri
butions. Based on this principle, with this constitution, the Persian mon
archy rose to the highest degree of power and happiness, but it was fmallr
mn aground by the ambition of a neighboring, small, fragmented nation.
(7) HISTORY
The Persians, after extraordinary princes had consolidated their armed

forces into a single unit and had raised the flexibility of the masses to the
highest level, proved dangerous even to distant peoples, and all the more so
to the ones nearby .
-\11 were overcome: only the Greeks, at odds among themselves but
united against the numerous enemy who advanced several times, developed
a model spirit of sacrifice, the first and last virtue containing all the others.
A respite was gained, so that, in the same measure as the Persian power was
disintegrating internally, Philip of Macedonia [382-336 BCE) was able to
Notes & Essays
Persians and appropriated the realm.

The Persians had made themselves not only alarming but extremely
odious to the Greek nation by simultaneously warring against the government
and against public worship. Devoted to a religion in which the heavenly
bodies, fire, and the other elements were venerated as divine beings out in
the open, they thought it quite reprehensible to see gods confined to
habitations and worshiped under a roof. So they burned and destroyed
temples, thereby creating the very monuments that made them hated
forever, for the Greeks decided in their wisdom that they would never rc-crcct
the ruins out of the rubble, but let them ominously lie there to incite future
revenge. 'fl1e Greeks brought to Persian soil their intention to repay the
injuries inflicted on their religious worship. Many an atrocity can rhus be
explained, and the same justifying tactic is employed to excuse the burning
of Persepolis.
The religious practices of the magi - who, admittedly far altered from
their earlier simplicity, already required temples and monasteries - were
sinUlarly abolished; and the mabri were chased out and scattered, though a
great many of them still secretly organized and retained their convictions
and religious services in hope of better tinles. Their patience was sorely
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History
tried. \X.-'hen, upon Alexander's death, the short-lived autocracy collapsed

and the realm fell apart, the Parthians took hold of the region we arc
speaking of. The language, customs, and religion of the Greeks took root
among them. Five hundred years were to pass over the ashes of the ancient
temples and altars. But under them the sacred ftre continually smoldered.
So at the bebrinning of the third century A.D., when the Sassan.ids, professing
again the old religion, reinstituted the earlier rite of worship, they immediately
found a number of magi and mubads, who on and across the boundary
with India had survived in secret and maintained their convictions. The
ancient Persian language was reinstated, the Greek language superseded,
and the base for a particular nationality was re-established. Here then we
fmd in the space of four hundred years the mythological prehistory of
Persia, restored to a certain degree through poetic and prose accounts. The
radiant dawn of Persian prehistory continues to delight us, and a variety of
characters and events may awaken great interest.
According to what we hear about plastic arts and architecture in this
epoch, however, they were merely a matter o f pomp and glory, brrandeur
and magnitude and deformed figures. How could it be otherwise? They had
to derive their art from the Western world, which had already been so
deeply degraded. I myself own a signet ring of Shapur the First [ca. 241-
272], an onyx, evidently carved by a \Vestem artist o f that time, perhaps a
prisoner of war. \Vould the seal-carver of the conquering Sassan.ids have
been more skilled than the seal-carver of the conquered Emperor Valentinian
[321-375]? What the coins of that time looked like is unfortunately all too
well known to us. In the same way, through the efforts of knowledgeable
writers, the poetic fairytalc quality of those remaining monuments was
reduced, by and by, to historical prose. Here we clearly grasp, once again,
that a people may stand at a high moral-religious level, surround itself with
splendor and pomp, and yet be counted among the barbarians with regard
to the arts.
Similarly, if we want to appreciate Oriental and especially Persian
poetry of the following period and not overestimate it to our own later
annoyance and embarrassment, we must properly consider where, after all,
truly worthy poetry could actually be found in those days.
Very little seems to have s trayed from the \X.-'est to even the nearest
East. But India was observed with particular interest. To Persian venerators
of ftrc and the other dements, the insanely monstrous religion of India was
no more acceptable than an abstruse Indian philosophy was to a Persian
man of the world. Persians only tuok from India what all humanity values
- writings that bear witness to worldly wisdom. They assigned the fables
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Notes & Essays
of Bidpai the highest value, though in doing so they were already destroying
a future poetry at its very foundation. At the same time they acquired from
India the game of chess, which in connection with Persian worldly wisdom
is perfectly suited to kill all poetical sensibility. If we take all this into
account, we will admire and extol the later Persian poets, who, as soon as
favorable conditions arose, were able to strive against so many adversities,
to evade them, perhaps even to overcome them.
The neamess of Byzantium, the wars with the \Xlestem emperors, and
the resulting mutual relationships fmally brought forth a mixture, with the
Christian religion wedging itself between the religions of the ancient
Persians, not without resistance from the mubads and religious
custodians of that region. So we can understand how many irritations
arose. Even the great misfortune that befell the excellent prince Khusrau
Panriz originated merely because the lovable, charming Shirin held fast to
her Christian faith .
..\11 of this, even if considered only perfunctorily, obliges us to admit
that the goals and methods of the Sassanids (226-65 1 ] merit every praise,
though they were not strong enough to survive when surrounded by
enemies on all sides in a highly turbulent period. After strong resistance,
they were subjugated by the Arabs, whom 1\fuhammad had united and
raised to the most alarming power.
(8) MUHAMMAD l570-632J
Since in these reflections I either deliberately take the standpoint of

poetry as point of departure or retum to it anyway, it will be helpful to
speak flrst of all about the extraordinary Muhanunad, who vehemently
afflnned that he was a prophet not a poet, and that his Qur'an was to be
viewed as divine law rather than a book written by a mortal for instruction
or pleasure. To indicate more clearly the difference between a poet and a
prophet, I would say: both are seized and enkindled by one god, but the
poet expends the enjoyable gift bestowed upon him in order to produce
pleasure, to attain honor, or at least a comfortable life, by what he produces.
He neglects all other purposes, seeking to be versatile, and to prove himself
unconfined in his convictions and artistic production. In contrast, the
prophet has one purpose in mind, and to attain it he uses the simplest
means. He wants to proclaim some teaching and to gather people around it,
as one would rally them round a banner. To achieve this it is only requisite
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Muhammad
that the world believe. The prophet must therefore become and remain
monotonous. For one does not believe in the manifold, one discen1s it.
The entire content of the Qur'an, to say much in few words, is found
at the beJ.,>itming of the second sura: "There is no doubt in this book. It is
instruction for the pious, who hold the mys teries ofjaith for true, observe
the specific times of prtl)er, and distribute alms from what we have bes towed
upon them; who believe in the revelation which has been sent down to the
prophets prior to you, and have a definite certainty of the future life: these
are guided by their Lord and shall be happy and blessed. As for unbelievers,
it is all the same to them whether you warn them or not; they will not
believe anyway. God has sealed their hearts and ears. A darkness shrouds
their face, and they will suffer grave punishment" [Sale/ Arnold Koran p. 3].
In this way the Qur'an repeats itself sura for sura. Belief and unbelief
are divided into the upper and the lower sphere. Heaven and hell are
intended, respectively, for those professing the belief and those denying it.
Closer designations of what is commanded and forbidden, legends from
the Jewish and Christian religions, elaborations of all kinds, numberless
tautologies and repetitions form the body of this holy book, which, whenever
I approach it, repels me always anew, but then attracts me, astonishes me, and
in the end elicits my admiration.
\'\'hy it must therefore be of the greatest importance to every historian
I will explain in the words of an excellent man: "The main purpose of the
Qur'an seems to have been to unite the adherents of the three different
religions that were prominent in the populous Arabia of that time - living
mostly mixed together at random and roving about without shepherd and
guide, since the major part of them wen: idolators and the others either
Jews or Christians of a highly erroneous and heretical belief - to unite
these groups in the recognition and veneration of the one eternal and
invisible God, through whose omnipotence aU things arc created and those
which have not been can be created; of the most ahnighty Sovereign, Judboe,
and Lord of aU lords, conft.rming this hy certain laws and the external signs
of ceremonies, instituted partly in olden times and partly in new, and which
through the representation of both temporal and eternal rewards and
punishments were enjoined upon them, and to induce them all to obey
Muhammad, as the prophet and messenger o f God, who after the repeated
remembrances, promises, and menaces of prior times was at length to
spread ami conft.rm God's true religion on earth by force of arms, in order
to be acknowlt:Jged as the high priest, bishop, or pope in spiritual matters,
as well as the highes t prince in worldly affairs" !Golius, qtd. in Sale/ Arnold
Koran, "Introduction," p. 79].
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Notes & Essays
I f we bear tlus conviction firmly in mind, we cannot blame the Muslim

for calling the time before Muhammad the time of ignorance, and for being
thoroughly persuaded that only with Islam do enlightenment and wisdom
begin. In compliance with the content and purpose of the Qur'an, the style
is austere, grand, fearsome, and in places tn.Jly sublime. Thus one nail drives
another, and no one should wonder about the great impact of this book.
That is why true believers declare it uncreated, eternal along with God.
Nevertheless there were as tute minds who acknowledged that there had
been a better kind of poetry and writing in former times, and they claimed
that if God had not been pleased to reveal His will at once through
Muhammad anJ so to provide definitive legal guidance, the Arabs would
gradually have reached this level by themselves - even a higher one - and
would have developed purer concepts in a pure language.
Others, more audacious, claimed that Muhammad had corrupted their
language and literature, so that it will never recover. But the boldest among
them, a witty poet, was daring enough to assert that everything Muhammad
had said, he too would have said, and better; he even assembled a number
of sectarians around himself. He was therefore given the sobriquet
Motanabbi, (9 1 5/6-965], the name by which we know him, and which
means "the one who would like to play the prophet."
Muslim criticism finds in the Qur'an many a l}uestion. Some passages
quoted in earlier times can now no longer be found in it. Other statements,
mutually contradictory, abrogate one another. Additional flaws appear of
the sort that cannot be avoided in written traditions. Nevertheless, this
book will remain highly effective to all eternity insofar as it was desibmcd to
be thoroughly practical and to suit the needs of a nation that bases its fame
on ancient traditions and adheres to inherited customs.
In his aversion against poetry Muhammad appears quite consistent in
banning all fairrtales. These games of a frivolous imagination vacillating
between reality and fantasy and setting forth the improbable as something
true and beyond doubt were very well suited to Oriental sensuality, gentle
leisure, and comfortable indolence. Such aery creations, floating above
a wondrous ground, had become endlessly abundant at the time of the
Sassanids, as attested by the loosely organized Thousa11d a11d 011e Nights. Their
distinctive character is that they have no moral purpose and therefore lead a
person not inward but rather outside himself into nnconditioned open
endedness. It was precisely the opposite of this mentality that Muhanunad
wanted to advance. Note how he succeeds in transforming the traditions of
the Old Testament and events befalling patriarchal families into legends. True,
these rest on an unconditional faith in God, an unwavering obedience,
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Muhammad
and thus L><}uall) on an Islam rsurrender to God). With e ffective thoroughness

l\[uharmnad can increasingly proclaim and enjoin the need for trust,
obedience, and faith in God. In achieving this, he habitually indulges in a
kind of fairr tale writing, though it always serves his goals. I f we judge his
s tories of Noah, Abraham, and Joseph in this context, we will truly admire
him.
(9) CALIPHS
Returning to my main topic, I note again that the Sassanids ruled for
about four hundred years, perhaps in the end not with their previous
authority and glory. But they might have sun.._ived even longer if the power
of the Arabs had not so increased that no older governance could resist
them. Soon after Muhammad, the dynasty that had kept ancient Persian
religion alive and had spread an uncommon level of culture perished under
Omar rreigncd 634-644) .
The Arabs immediately pounced upon all books they considered
needless or harmful. They ravaged all monuments of literature; the merest
traces of them were barely able reach us. The Arabic language that was
immediatdy introduced prevented any re-establishment of what could be
called national. But here too the culture of those who had been conquered
eventually overcame the rudeness of the conquerors. Muslim victors relished
the love of pomp, the pleasing customs, and the poetic fragments of
the vanquished. So until today that era still remains famous as the most
brilliant epoch, the time of the Barmecides' in fluence in Baghdad. These,
coming from Balkh, not monks themselves but patrons and guardians of
huge monasteries and institutions of learning, preserved the holy flre of
poetry and rhetoric and commanded a high s tanding even in the political
sphere through their worldly wisdom and magnanimity. The era of the
Barmecides therefore proverbially stands for a period of local learning and
activity filled with life - a period such that, once gone, it might hopefully
spring up a!,_>ain elsewhere under like circumstances.
But the Caliphate, too, was of short duration: the huge realm survived
barely four hundred years. The more distant governors gradually became
more and more independent, recognizing the Caliphs as at most a spiritual
authority with the power to dis tribute titles and religious revenues.
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Notes & Essays
(10) PRELIMINARY OBSERVATION
No one denies the impact climate has on the formation of the human
body and physical traits, but we sometimes fail to remember that varied
forms o f government produce equally varied moral climates, in which the
character develops in varying ways. I am not speaking now of the masses
but rather of significant, distinguished ftgures.
A republic fos ters the development of great and happy personalities
capable of calm and pure activity. If the republic rises into an aris tocracy,
dignified, effective, assiduous men arise, admirable as commanders and as
subordinates. If a nation falls into anarchy, daring men at once become
prominent, men without respect for morals, ready to act violently at any
moment, viewing moderation with horror. In contrast, despotism creates
great characters: prudent, placid supervision, rigorous activity, firmness,
determination - all 'lualities required in serving a despot - develop in
capable spirits and procure for them the primary positions in the government,
where they are trained to become mlers themselves. Such officials arose
under Alexander the Great [356--323 BCE), and after his early death his
generals succeeded him immediately as kings. The Caliphs were in charge of
a gigantic realm, the administration of which they had to delegate to
governors, whose power and independence increased in proportion as the
authority of the highest ruler waned. Such an excellent man, who knew how
to establish and to merit his own realm, is the one I need to speak of now,
so as to acquaint you with the bases for the newer Persian poetry and the
beginnings of its meaningful life.
(1 1) MAHMUD OF GHAZNA [971 ?-1 030)
1\fahmud's father had founded a strong govcn1ment in the mountains

facing India. \Vhile the caliphs sank to nothingness in the plains of the
Euphrates, Mahmud continued his father's work and made himself famous
like Alexander and Frederick [the Great, 1 7 1 2-1 786]. He lets a caliph
maintain a kind of spiritual authority that he is willing to acknowledge to
some degree for his own advantage. But first of all he expands his regime,
and he presses into India with great strength and uncommon good fortune.
As the most zealous 11uslim he proves himself w1tiringly earnest in
spreading his faith and destroying idolatry. Belief in the One God is always
heartening insofar as it urges the human being to reflect on the unity of its
own self. Nearer to the believer stands the national prophet, who demands
- 1 94 -
Mahmud of Gha::na
only d evotio n formalities, and injunctions to spread a religion which, like

,
all religions, will leave room for innwnerable exegeses and misinterpretations
by varied sects and factions, yet remains ever the same.
Such a simple worship of God had to stand in harshest contradiction
to Indian idolatry: And it aroused opposition and conflict, even bloody
wars of extirpation. Zeal for destmction and conversion was further
heightened by the gain of countless treasures. Gigantic, grotesque images,
whose hollow bodies had been found filled with gold and jewels, w ere
dismembered and smashed to pave thresholds of Muslim sanctuaries. Even
now the Indian monstrosities are hated hy everyone of sincere feeling. How
hideous must they have appeared to the Muslim who abhors iconographic
rcprcscn ta tions!
It will not be wholly out of place here to remark that the basic merit of
any religion can only be judged after centuries by its consequences. The
Jewish religion will alwars spread a certain rigid obstinacy but at the same
time a frank wisdom and a lively activity. Islam does not release its adherent
from a dulling narrowness, since, commanding no arduous duties, it bestows
on him within this limit everything he can wish for, yet at the same rime, in
anticipation of the future, it instils and sustains in him bravery and a religiou s
patriotism.
The Indian teachings were useless from their very origin, and so at
present their several thousand gods, none of them subordinate but all equally
and unconditionally powerful. increase the confusion of the contingencies o f
life, encourage the absurdity of every passion, and favor the madness of
vices as if they were the high est stage of holiness and bliss.
But even a purer polytheism like those of the Greeks and Romans was
obliged, on its own false path, finally to lose its adherents and its very self.
On the other hand, the highest praise is due to the Christian religion, whose
pure, noble origin is continually conf1nned by the fact that after the greatest
aberrations in which it was involved by unenlightened people, it suddenly
emerges again and again in its ftrs t lov ely distinctiveness, as a mission, a
familial co mm uni ty and brotherhood, and an invigoration for human
ethical needs.
If we approve of rvlahmud's iconoclastic zeal, we will not begrudge him
the inftnite treasures he gained at the same time but will revere especially in
him the founder of Persian poetry and higher culture. Of Persian [actually
Turk.ic] descent, he did not allow himself to be drawn into the narrowness
of the Arabs. He felt s trongly that the fairest ground for religion was to be
found in nationality. This rests upon poetry, which transmits to us the most
- 1 95 -
Notes & Essays
ancient history in wondrous images, then gradually emerges into clarity,

seamlessly joining the past to the present.
With these thoughts in mind we arrive at the tenth century of our era.
Let us take a look at the higher culture which, regardless of its exclusive
religion, continually pressed in upon the Orient. Here were assembled,
almost agains t the will of the wild and weak rulers, the legacies of Greek
ami Roman accomplishments and of so many inventive Christians whose
distinctive attairunents had been rejected by the church, which also, like
Islam, was aiming at one single unified belief.
Yet two large branches of human knowledge and activity attained a
freer activity!
I\Iedicine is supposed to heal the infttmities of the microcosm, and
astronomy to interpret what the heavens might flatter or threaten us with
in the future. Medicine had to pay homage to nature, astronomy to
mathematics, so both were highly commended and well maintained.
To be part of an administrative body under despotic rulers would always be
dangerous, even with the greatest vigilance and alertness. i\ custodian of the
chancellery needed as much courage to move into the "divan" or council room
as a hero into battle. The one was no more certain than the other to see his
home and hearth again.
Traveling merchants always brought an increase in treasures and
knowledge. The interior of the country, from the Euphrates to the Indus,
presented a world of objects of its own. i\ mass of peoples ftghting against
one another, rulers having either been banished themselves or driven out
others, illu strated far too often a startling shift from victory to submission,
from sovere>n ty to servitude, and led gifted men to entertain the saduest
ruminations over the ureamlike evanescence of worldly things.
We must keep in mind all of this and even more, including the broadest
range of unending fragmentations and sudden restorations, if we are to be
fair to the poets who followed, especially the Persians. Everyone will admit
that the conditions I have described can by no means be thought conducive
to a poe t s nurture, growth, and flourishing. I regard even the noble
'
achievement of the Persian poets of the ftts t era as problematic. Nor

should they be measured by the highest standard. While reading, we must
often indulge them and, after reading, often pardon.
- 1 96 -
(12) POET-KINGS
1\fany poets gathered a t !\fahmud's court. It is said that four hundred

practiced their craft there. And as everything in the Orient has to be
subordinated to serve higher demands, so the prince appointed a poet
prince, who was supp o sed to test, judge, and encourage poets to compose
in ways suited to each one's talent. This positio n would have to be called
o ne of the choicest at court. The poet-prince was the minister of all
scholarly historical-poetical activities. He meted out favors to underlings.
And when he accompanied the court, he brought such a great entourage,
such a majestic cortege, that one might well have taken him for a vizier.
(1 3) TRADITIONS
Anyone who considers how to transmit to future generations i.nfomution

about events that immediately concern himself will need to feel comfortable
with contemporary happenings, to sense their outsta nding value. So
ftrs t of all he consolidates in his memory what he has heard from his
forebears and hands it down in wondrous wrappings, for oral transmission
will always amplify narrations in a fairytale fashion. But if the art of writing
has been invented, if a people attains priority in the us c of writing, the
resulting chronicles will continue to retain poetic rhythm when the poetry
o f imat-,rination ami feeling has long since disappeared l11e latest age
.
p rovide s us with detailed memorials and autobiographies under \rarious

gwses.
In the Orient, too, we fmd very early documents with a meaningful
view of the world. Even if our holy books were only later laid down in written
form, they were occasioned by ancient transmissions and can only be regarded
with the highest gratitude. I low much, at any moment, must have arisen in the
Middle East, as we may call Persia and its surroundings, surviving despite all
devastation and dispersal! For if it is good farming teclmilJUe not to hand over
huge stretches of land to one owner but rather to divide them among
several, then this same condition also aids prese rvation \Vhat perish es in
.
one place can survive in an o t her ; what is driven out of this corner can flee
to that one.
In this way, n o twith s ta nd ing all destruction and devastation, many
tra nscripts from earlier times mus t have survived, which from one epoch
to another were partly co pied, partly renewed. Thus we fmd that und er
Ya z degerd [III, reigned 632-651 J, the last Sassanid, a history of the realm
- 1 97 -
Notes & Essays
was written, proba bly pieced together from old chronicles, like the ones
that Ahasuerus, in the Book of Esther, already had read to him on s leepless
nights. Copies of a work entitled Bas/an l\.Tameh have survived because four
hundred years later a revision of it was undertaken under .Mansur I [reigned
961-976], from the house of the Samanids, though it remained uncompleted,
and the dynasty was swallowed up by the Ghaznavids. :Mahmud, howeve r,
the second sovereign of the above named clan, is animated b y the same
predilection, and allocates seven parts of the Bas/an Nameh among seven
court poets. Ansari [1006-1 088], who succeeds in gratifying his master the
most, is named poet-king and allotted the task of revising the whole But .
he, comfort-loving and prudent enough, fmds ways to delay the business
and may well have been quietly looking around to fmd someone to take it
over.
(1 4) FIRDUSI
Dies 1 030
The important epoch of Persian poetry which we now arc reaching

offers a chance to consider how major world events only unfold when certain
tendencies, concepts, and intentions, sown or scattered individually, here and
there, without connection, bestir themselves and quietly, continually b>row
until at length, sooner or later, a general cooperation takes place. It is
remarkable that at the same time as a p owerful prince was intent on re storing
a folk and tribal literature, the son of a gardener in Tus simultaneously
acquired a copy of the Bas/an Nameh and eagerly dedicated Ius amiable inborn
talent to such studies.
Intending to complain about the local governor because of some
ill-treatment, he goes to the court and vainly tries for a long while to
make his way to the ruler Ansari and through the latter's intercession to
attain his p utp o se . Finally, a fortunate, deeply meaningful rhymed couplet,
spoken on the spur of the moment, allows him to meet the poet king, who,
-
placing trust in his talent, reconunends him and secures for him the charge
of a great work. Firdusi begins the Shah Nameh under favorable circum
s tances. At the beginning he is to some extent ade q ua tely rewarded, but
after thirty years of work the royal gift no longer corres ponds to his
expectations in any way. Embittered, he leaves the court and dies at the
very moment when the king remembers him favorably once again.
fahmud outlives him by barely a year, during which time Firdusi's aged
master Essedi finishes writing the .Jhab Nameh.
- 1 98 -
Firdusi
This work is an important, serious, mphic-his toric founding work of

the nation. It preserves the origins, lives, and works of ancient heroes. It
makes references to both the earlier and later past, which is why, finally, the
factual hiaory increasingly takes prominence, whereas the fables earlier on
transmit many an ancient traditional truth only in veiled form.
In general, Pirdusi appears to have been superbly qualified for the task:
he passionately held fast to what was ancient and national and also, with
regard to language, sought to reattain an earlier purity and skill . He banned
Arabic words and paid special attention to the old Pehlevi.
(1 5) ANVARI
Dies 1 1 52
He studied in Tus, a town celebrated for important educational institutions

and even suspected of being too highly cultured. \X'hen, sitting by the door of
a lecture room, he saw a great man tiding by with his entourage and pomp,
yet heard to hi amazement that the man was a court poet, he decided to
reach the same height of advancement. A poem written overnight, winning
him the favor of the prince, has been left to us.
In this and several other pieces of poetry that have been transmitted, a
cheerful s pirit, gifted with unfailing tact and a sharp, happy perspicuity,
gazes out. He conunands an incalculable amount of material. He lives in the
present, and as he shifts at once from s tudent to courtier, he becomes a free
encomiast, finding that there is no better art than to delight his companions
with praise. He adorns viziers, noble and beautiful women, poets, and
musicians with his panegyrics and knows how to offer each one something
attractive from his wide world of resources.
So I cannot consider it fair that after so many centuries he is faulted for
the circumstances in which he lived and exercised his talent. What would
become of a poet if there were no high-ranking, powerful, clever, busy,
attractive, and skilled individuals whose merits could help him lift himself
up? Like the vine on the elm tree, like the ivy on the wall, it is upon them
that he climbs, refreshing eyes and mind. Should one reprove a jeweler who
spends his life using the gemstones of the East and \Vest Indies for the
glorious adornment of excellent men? Should he be told to take up the
admittedly practical trade of paving roads instead?
But as fully as our poet was at ease with the earth, he was ruined by the
sky. The people had been alarmed by his momentous prediction that on a
particular day a gigantic storm would devastate the country. It did not come
- 1 99 -
Notes & Essays
true. The Shah himself could not rescue his favorite from the general anger
of the court and the city. He fled. Even in a distant province it was only the
resolute character of a friendly governor that protected him.
Yet we may sr.ill vindicate the honor of astrolob'Y if we assume that the
coming together of so many planets within one zodiac sign would point to
the coming of Jenghiz Khan, who wrought more ravages in Persia than any
gale could muster.
(1 6) NIZAMI
Dies 1 1 80
A sensitive, lllghly gifted mind, who, as Firdusi had exhausted all the
traditional stories of heroes, chose the most channing exchanges of intimate
love as subject matter for his poems. l-Ie presents i\Iejnun and Laila [seventh
century] , Khusrau and Shirin, loving pairs destined for each other by
intuition, skill, nature, habit, inclination, and passion; fl11ly
ll in each other's
good graces; but then parted by caprice, obstinacy, contingency, necessity,
and force, then just as oddly brought together again, and yet finally, in one
way or another, torn apart and separated.
These ma terials and their treatment arouse an ideal longing. Nowhere
do we find satisfaction. Grace is abundant, multiplicity infmite. Also in his
other poems, devoted to directly moral purposes, the same channing clarity
breathes forth. Whatever ambiguity we may encounter, he always leads it
into the realm of practicality and fmds the best solution to every riddle in
an ethical form of activity.
Fittingly for his tranquil occupation, he led a quiet life under the Sdjuks
[or Saljuqs ca. 1 038-1 1 52] and was buried in his hometown of Ganja.
(1 7) JALALODDIN RUMI
Dies 1 262
Seeking relief from vexing tensions with the sultan, Jalaloddin's father
moves away from Balkh, and the boy accompanies him on the long
journey. On the way to :Mecca they meet [Ferideddin] Attar [1 1 42-1 220],
who presents the boy with a book of divine secrets and ignites in him a
desire for sacred studies.
- 200 -
Jalaloddin Rumi
I lere we must note this much: the true poet is called upon to grasp the
splendor of the world and therefore will always be more inclined to praise
than to blame. Consec1uently, he seeks to fUld the most worthy topic and,
when he has exhausted everything, at length prefers to use his talent to
praise and glorify God. This urge is most congenial to the Oriental, for he
tends always toward exuberance ami believes that he glimpses it in utmost
plenitude in contemplating the Divinity, so that in each of his poetic realizations
no one may blame him for excess.
The so-called .t\luslim rosary, in which the name Allah is exalted with
ninety-nine qualities, exemplifies such a litany of praise and glory Affirmative
.
and negative attributes indicate the most incomprehensible being: the

worshiper marvels and resignedly reassures himself. And while the se<.war
poet assigns the perfections he has in mind to ideal persons, the poet devoted
to God takes refuge in the impersonal being that has permeated everything
for all eternity.
Thus Attar withdrew into contemplation, and Jalaloddin, a pure young
man, who also had j us t moved away from the prince and the capital city,
was all the more ready to be aroused to more profound studies.
Now, after completing pilgrimages, he crosses Asia !\linor with his
father. They remain in !conium [today's Konya, Turkey]. There they teach,
are pursued, driven out, reinstated. And there they lie buried with one of
their most faithful teaching colleagues. l'vfeanwhile, Jenghiz Khan [1 1 62-
1 227] had conquered Persia without touching their peaceful abode.
After the above introduction, n o one will blame the great poet if he
directs his thought to the ahstmse. His works appear somewhat motley: he
uses little stories, fairytales, parables, legends, anecdotes, exempla,
problems, to make more accessible the mys terious teachings he himself
cannot clearly account for. Instruction and edification are his aim, yet on
the whole he seeks, through the doctrine of unity, if not to fulf.t.l then
somehow to resolve all longing, and to indicate that in the Divine Being
everything will be ultimately submerged and transflbrured.
(1 8) SAADI
Dies 1 29 1 , aged 1 02
Born in Shiraz, he studies in Baghdad, and misfornme in love destines

him as a young man to the unsettled life of a dervish. Fifteen times he goes
on pilgrimage to 'lecca. In his wanderings he reaches India and J\sia Minor
and as a prisoner of the Crusaders even reaches the West. He survives
- 20 1 -
Notes & Essays
wondrous adventures and gains a fine knowledge of countries and

people. After thirty years he withdraws, revises his works, and makes them
known. I fe lives and works within a wide range of experience and is rich in
anecdotes, which he adorns with adages and verses. To instruct the reader
and the listener is his ultimate purpose.
Very secluded in Shiraz, he lives to the age of one hundred and two,
and he is buried there. The descendants of Jenghiz had made Iran their
own realm, where people lived peacefully.
(1 9) HAFIZ
Dies 1 389
Recall from the second half of the previous century how among the
Protestants of Germany one might encounter not only clergymen but
laymen as well who had acquainted themselves with the Holy Scriptures to
the point where, like living concordances, they were well prepared to
specify, for every saying, where one could find it and in what connection.
They knew the most important passages by heart, keeping them ever ready
for any application. Such men necessarily accumulated great learning from
this practice because the memory, always occupied with worthy objects,
preserved for feeling and judgement fresh material to be enjoyed and
applied. They were called bibeljesl [well grounded in scripture], and this
appellation conveyed an outstanding worthiness and an unequivocal
recommendation.
\Vhat arose among us Christians from natural disposition and good will
was a duty with the Ivluslims. I f a brother in faith ean1ed the greatest met-it
in reproducing a copy of the Qur'an or in having it copied, it was no less a
merit to learn it by heart so tha t on any occasion one might quote the
appropriate passages, to promote edification or to s ettle a dispute. Such
persons were given the honorary title Haft and this remained with our
poet as the principal name to designate hin1.
Yet soon after its genesis, the Qur'an became an object of interminable
commentaries, eliciting sophisticated hairsplitting. The book stirred the mind
of everyone who read it. In finitely diverse opinions and mad combina
tions arose, and even the most unreasonable associations of aU kinds
were tried out. A truly intelligent, sensible man had to make every effort
to return to the original, pure text, ami they did so. That is why in the
history of Islam we find interpretation, application, and practice often
worthy of admiration.
- 202 -
Haft:
It was for such a

skill that the finest poetic talent was trained and
educated. The entire Qur'an b elonged to him, and no religious edifice
founded on it was a secret to h i m He himself says:
.
"Due to the Qur'an alone

Is whatever I've achieved." [t-.li.m 43, 39; Hammer 2, 223]
In his hometown Shiraz, to which he limited himself, he taugh t as a

dervish, sufi, and sheikh, well liked and highly regarded by the Muzaffar
family and th eir connections. He was occupied with theological and
grammatical works and rallied a large number of disciples.
To these serious studies, involving the holding of a teaching post, his
poems s tand in total contradiction, which might be resolved, however, if we
say: the poet must not bdieve in and live
everything he expresses, least of all
the poet who, hom in a later
period, gets into complicated circumstances
requiring him to assume a rhetorical di s guis e and to present what
contemporaries want to hear. That was the case with I Iafiz. For just as a
teller of fairytales does not believe in the magical happenings he narrates
but only thinks of how to animare them in whatever way will give his
hearers the most pleasure, so too the lyrical poet has no need to affirm in
his own practice what he invokes to delight and flatter singers and readers,
high and low. It seems our poet did not set a great value on the songs that
flow so smoothly: disciples collected them only after his death.
I will say but little about these poems: one should enjoy them and bring
oneself into h a rmony with them. A tempered, yet upwelling vi ta l ity streams
from each. Unassurningly h app y and judicious within limits, taking part in
the fullness of the world, looking into the m ys teries of the Divinity from
afar, but also at one poin t rejecting religious practice as well as sensual
pleasure, the one as much the o th er - so in general this kind of poetry,
whatever it appears to promote and teach, must above all maintain a
skeptical mobility.
(20) JAMI
Dies 1494, aged 82
]ami ga the rs the whole harvest of previous efforts.

the He sums up
religious, philosophical, scientific, and prosaic-poe tical culture. He has
the great advantage of being born 23 years after Hafiz' death and of fmd ing
as a young man an en tirely open field before him. The b>reatest clarity and
tact are in his possession. Now he attempts and accomplishes everything,
- 203 -
Notes & Essays
appearing both sensual and spiritual at the same time. lbe splendor of the
real world and of the world of poetry lies before him , and he moves
between them. Mysticism held no appeal for him . But because he would
not have filled the sphere of national interest without it, he gave a historical
account of all the follies through which, in stages, the human being, caught
in his earthly existence, intends to come closer to the Divinity ami fmally to
become one with it. In this process, however, fmally nothing but unnatural,
perverse, monstrous figures come to light. For what else does the mystic do
but creep past problems, or shove them aside if that can be managed?
(21) OVERVIEW
From historians' very neatly arranged sequence of the first seven

Roman kings, people have tended to conclude that this history was cleverly
and intentionally invented. I leave that question undecided. In contrast, I
want to observe that the seven poets whom Persians consider the best, and
who appeared within a period of five hundred years, really do stand in an
ethical-poetic relation to each other which might equally appear to have
been fabricated if the works they left behind had not demonstrated their
real existence.
If we further examine this constellation of seven stars to the best of
our ability at this great distance in time, we find that they all possessed a
fertile talent that renewed itself continually. Through this, they saw
themselves lifted above the majority of very capable men and above the
large number of mediocre, everyday talents. But in fact they had also
chanced to come into a particular period and situation where they could
happily gather a great harvest and would weaken for some time the impact
of equally talented successors, until once again an interval would pass when
nature might reveal new treasures to the poet.
\'V'ith tlus in mind, I will sum up the main points about those I have
surveyed:
PirdlfSi [940?- 1 020?] pioneered the presentation of all prior national

and imperial events, preserved in either legendary or lustorical form, so that
the only thing left for a successor was reference and conunent, but no fresh
treatment and presentation.
Anvari [eleventh century] held fas t to the present. As radiant and
splendid as nature appeared to him, rich in joy and gifts, he observed in
addition the court of the Shah. To link both worlds and their advantages
- 204 -
Oleniell'
with the most delightful words was a duty and a pleasure. None equaled
him in this.
Nizami [1 1 41-1209) grasped with friendly force everything available in
his vicinity in the form of legends of love and semi-miracles -\!ready in the
.
Qur'an a hint had been given of how, for one's own purposes, very ancient
traditions, laconically transmitted, could be treated, elaborated, and made
delightful when developed in detail.
]ala/oddin Rltmi [1207-1 273] feels uneasy on the problematic ground of
reality and seeks to solve the riddles of inner and outer phenomena in a
spiritual, spirited way. Thus, his works pose new riddles, requiring new
solutions and commentaries. He finally feels the urge to flee into the
doctrine of unity, where all that finally remains is the either comforting or
discomforting zero. But then how could any kind of communication, poetic
or prosaic, ever succeed? Fortunately,
Saadi [ca. 1210-1290], the excellent, was driven out into the wide world,
swamped with boundless particulars of empirical reality. But he knows how to
h>ain something from all of it. He feel'\ the need for composure, convincing
himself that it is his duty to teach, and thus he has become fruitful and
beneficial for us of the West.
Ht:ifiz [ca. 1 320-1 389], a great, cheerful talent, content in rejecting
everything that men desire, pushing aside everything they might not want to
do without, and still appearing always as the happy brother of such people.
He can only be properly appreciated in his own national and temporal circle.
But as soon as he has been grasped, he remains a winning companion for
one's life - so that even now, unconsciously more than consciously, camel
and mule drivers sing him to themselves, by no means because of the
content, which he himself u--illfully fragmented, but on account of the mood
he effuses, eternally pure and pleasant. \Vho then could succeed him, as
everything else had already been anticipated by his predecessors? Who
but -
]ami [1414-1492], the equal of anything that happened to him or
around him . Since he bound all of this together in sheaves, reproduced,
renewed, expanded it, and combined with the greatest clarity within himself
the virtues and failings of his predecessors, nothing was left to the poets of
the following era but to be like him (insofar as poetry did not worsen). And
that is how things remained for three centuries. In this connection I want
to note onl y one more thing: if sooner or later the art of drama had
achieved a breakthrough, and if a poet had been able to excel in that genre,
the entire history of literature would have taken a djffercnt course.
- 205 -
Notes & Essays
I f I have dared to portray five hundred years of Persian poetry and

rhetoric in only these few remarks, I have done so in the hope (to put it in
the words of Quintillian [ca. 35--c a . 1 00], our ancient master) that it will be
accepted by my friends in the same way that we are allowed to use round
numbers - not for the sake of precision, but for convenience' sake, to
offer an approximate, general idea.
(22) G ENERAL OBSERVATIONS
The fertility and diverse range of the Persian poets arises from the
immeasurable breadth of the outer world presented and its infinite
wealth. A public life continually bestirred, where all objects have equal
value, moves before our imagination. That is why their comparisons are
often, for us, so very striking and disagreeable. Without a second thought
they connect the noblest with the basest images, a practice we cannot easily
get used to.
But let me state it frankly: a real man about town, who breathes freely
in the practical world, has no aesthetic sensibility and no taste; he is content
with reality in acting, enjoying, contemplating - and similarly in poetry.
And if the Oriental, in order to create a s trange effect, rhymes the
seemingly unrhymcablc, the German reader, who might well encounter
similar things, should not look askance at it.
The confusion that arises from such productions in the imagination
may be compared to what happens when we go through an Oriental bazaar
or a European fair. Not always are the most cosdy and the cheapest wares
widely separated in space. They mix before our eyes, and often we behold
also the barrels, boxes, and sacks in which they had been transported.
Similarly, in a market for fruits or vegetables we see not only herbs and
roots and fruits, but also here and there all manner of refuse, peels, and
s talks.
Furthermore, it costs the Oriental poet nothing to raise us from earth
to heaven and from there to let us fall again, or vice versa. From the carcass
of a rotting dog Nizami knows how to draw an ethical observation that
amazes and edifies us.
As J esus wandered through the world

He passed, one day, a marketp lace;
.Along the path, a dead dog lay,
Dragged to a nearby house's door.
A group stood by the carrion
- 206 -
General Obsenations
As vultures round cadavers crowd.

And one said: "That offensive smell
Will utterly wipe out my brain."
And one: "It's more than I can take.
'W'hat graves reject brings dreadful luck."
So each one sang, to his own tune,
The dead dog's body to disdain.
But now, when it was Jesus' turn,
He spoke, without reviling, kind,
In his warmhearted way, he said:
"The teeth are white as any pearls."
I fearing the words, the people felt,
Like glowing mussels, burning hot.
[Makhzan al asrdr chap. 1 0; Hammer,
-
&dekii11sle Persiens p. 325]

Everyone feels affected when the loving as well as ingenious prophet,
in his very particular way, demands forbearance and indulgence. How
powerfully he can lead the restless crowd back to itself, to be ashamed of
the spuming and cursing, and to view disregarded merit with recognition,
perhaps even envy! Every bystander now thinks of his own teeth. Beautiful
teeth are strongly appealing everywhere, especially in the Orient, as a gift of
God. A rotting creature becomes, through what still remains perfect in it,
an object of admiration and of the most pious meditation.
Not quite as obvious and penetrating, for us, is the excellent comparison
with which the parable closes. So I '\\--:ill take care to explain it.
In regions lacking lime deposits, mussel shells are used to prepare an
indispensable building material. Placed in layers between parched twigs, it is
burned through by the ignited flame. The observer cannot help but feel
that these beings, nourishing themselves and growing in the ocean when
alive, and having enjoyed the common pleasure of existence in their own
way only a short while before, now surely are not burnt but, thoroughly
annealed, fully retain their form, although all the life in them has been
driven out. Let us now assume that night falls and that, to the observer's
eye, these organic remnants really appear to glow. There can then be no
more glorious image of a deep, secret torment of the soul brought before
our eyes. Anyone who wants to get a perfect view of this should ask a
chemist to subject oyster shells to phosphorescent heat. He will then agree
with me that a seething, hot emotion that penetrates a human being when a
just reproach hits him unexpectedly amidst the arrogance of a comfortable
self-conceit could not be conveyed with greater terror.
- 207 -
Notes & EsSO)'S
Such comparisons could be found by the hundreds. They presuppose

the most immediate observation of what is natural and real, and yet they
awaken at the same time a highly ethical concept based on pure, cultivated
feeling.
Most valuable, within tlus limitless breadth of the poets' attentiveness
to the smallest detail, is the sharp, loving look that seeks to abstract from a
significant object its peculiarity. They have many a poetic "still life" that
may take its place next to those of the best Dutch artists and even, in the
ethical sense, excel them. As a result of this inclination and ability they
cannot free themselves from certain favorite objects: no Persian poet
tires of presenting the lamp as blinding, the candle as shining. That is
precisely the origin of the monotony for which they are reproached. But,
looked at closely, the natural objects become a surrogate for mythology:
rose and nightingale occupy the place of Apollo and Daphne. Considering
what they lacked - they had no theatre, no pictorial art - their poetical
talent was not inferior to any other from time immemorial. In this regard
we will be obliged, as friends of their distinctive world, to admire them
more and more.
(23) BROADEST OBSERVATIONS
The most outstanding characteris tic o f oriental poetry is what we

Germans call Geist [spirit], the predominance of superior guidance. It
unifies all other qualities, without any of them standing out by asserting a
particular prerogative. Spirit belongs chiefly to old age or to an ahring epoch
of the world. An overview of global affairs, irony, a free use of one's
abilities - these arc what we fmd in all poets of the Orient. Conclusion
and premise are presented to us at once. That is why we see such a high
value placed on an improvised word. Poets of spirit have all objects present
before them and relate the most distant things easily to one another. Hence
they come close to what we call wit. But wit does not stand so high, for it is
selfish and complacent - traits from which spirit remains completely free,
and for that reason it can and must be called genius-like.
But not only the poet enjoys such merits; the whole nation is brillia n t,
as becomes evident from innumerable anecdotes. One witty word infuriates
a prince, another one appeases him. Inclination and passion dwell in the
same element of words: thus, Bahramgur and Dilaram invent rhyme; J amil
and Buthayna remain passionately bound to each other into extreme old
age. The whole history of Persian poetry teems with such examples.
- 208 -
Broadest Obsenations
I f we bear in mind that during the time o f Muhammad, Nushirwan

[531-579], one of the last Sassanids, ordered the fables of Bid p ai and the
game of chess to be brought from India at enormous expense, then the
state of such an epoch is entirely apparent. Judging by what has been trans
mitted to us, these p oets c om p e te with one another in worldly wisdom and
in attaining a freer view of earthly affairs. That is why four centuries later,
even in the first, b es t epoch of Persian poetry, no p erfec tly pure naivete
could possibly be found. The wide range of circumspection required from
the poet, the increased knowledge, the conditions at cou rt and in war - all
of this d em anded great self-awareness.
(24) NE\VER AND NEWEST
Following the ways of J ami and his time, s ucceeding poets would more
and more mix poetry and prose, so that to all kinds of writing only one
style was applied . His tory, poetry, philosophy, official documents and
letters - all is delivered in the same manner, and things go on like that for
three centuries. Luckily, I can offer an example of what shows the most
novelty.
When the Persian a mbas s ador, AJitza Ab11f Hassan Khan [b. 1 776],
stayed in St. Pe ters b urg, he was askeJ for a few lines of his handwriting. He
was kind enough to write a page, and here I will insert the translation:
Traveling through the whole world, for a long while I visited

many people. Every comer provided me with some benefit, every
s ta lk with a wheat ear. But for all that I have never seen a pla ce
comparable to this city nor to its beautiful houris. l\Iay the bless
ings of God rest upon it for ever!
How well did that merchant speak who had fallen among
robbers pointing their arrows at him! "A king who stifles trade
closes the gate of well-being in th e face of his army. \Vould any
judicious man visit a coun tr y with that kind o f reputation? If you
want to earn a good name, you should treat merchants and envoys
with respect. Those who are great will treat travellers well, to gain a
good name. The country that doesn't protect foreigners will soon
perish. Be a friend to strangers and travelers, for they are to be
considereJ a means to acquire a good name. Be ho spi table respect ,
- 209 -
Notes & Essays
those passing by, beware of being unjust to them." One who

follows that envoy's advice will surely derive advantage from it.
We arc told that Omar ibn Abdel-Aziz was a mighty king. At
night, filled with humility and submission, he turned his face to the
throne of the Creator and said: "0 Lord! Great th.i.tlb>S hast thou
entn1sted to the hand of thy weak servant. For the sake of the
glory of the pure and holy ones of thy kingdom, grant me justice
and equity, save me from the wickedness of the people. I fear lest
the heart of someone innocent be afflicted and the curse of the
oppressed come down upon my neck. A king should always
remember the rule and presence of the highest being, the transiem:y
of worldly things. Let him consider that the crown passes from a
worthy to an unworthy head, and not let himself be tempted into
arrogance. For a king who becomes haughty, despising friend and
neighbor, cannot prosper long on his throne. One should never
let oneself be puffed up by the glory of a few days. The world
resembles a ftre lit on one's way: whoever takes what is needed to
illumine his path will suffer no harm, but the one who takes
more burns himself."
Wltt:n Plato was asked how he had been living in this world, he
replied:
"I entered it in pain, my life was a continual astonish ment, I

leave it reluctantly, and nothing have I learned but that I
know nothing." Keep away from one who intends to
undertake something and is ignorant, from a devout person
who is uninstructed: you mar compare them both to a
donkey that turns the mill without knowing why. The
s aber is nice to look at, but its e ffects are unpleasant. A
well-meaning man obliges foreigners, but a wicked man
alienates himself from his fellows. A king said to a certain
Bchlul, "Give me advice." The latter replied: "Don't envy a
miser, an unjust judge, a wealtl1y man who does not know
how to set his house in order, an open-handed man who
squanders his money, or a scholar who lacks judb>mcnt. You
acquire in the world either a good or a bad name. So it is
possible to choose between the two. :\nd since everyone is
going to die, happy the one who preferred the fame of
virtue."
- 210 -
Ne11 er and Ne!l'est
These lines were written, following the request of a friend, in

the year 1 231 o f the Hegira, the day of Jumadi al-thani, accordin g
to the Christian era on May . . . 1 8 1 6, by M.irza Ab11l Hassan K.han,
from Shira during his stay in the cap ital St. Petersburg as Envo y
Extraordinary of I lis l\lajesty of Persia Fath 'Ali Shah Qajar. He
hopes that an i1,>norant man who undertook to write a few lines will
be graci ous ly pardoned.
As is clear from the foregoing, for three centuries a certain prose

poetry was maintained, and the official style of letters remains, publicly and
in priva te a ffairs, always the same. So, too, we learn that in most recent
times at the Persian court there are s till poets who transmit the events of
the day - everything the emperor undertakes and all that ha ppens - in
the form of rhymed verse, neatly written down for a s p ecially app oin ted
archivist. Hence it appears that in the immutable Orient since the time of
Ahasuerus, who had such chronicles read to him on sleepless nights, no
further change has taken place.
I n ot e incidentally, that such a reading is done in a certain s tyle of
,
declamation, recited empha tically in a rising and falling tone, said to

rese m b le closely the way French tragedies are de cla imed. This can be
imagined all the more readilr as the Persian binary verses offer a contrast
like that o f the two halves of the alexandrine line.
Thi" pers is tence might be the reason why, after eight centuries, Persians
s till love, esteem, and venerate their poems. I myself have witnessed an
Oriental contemplating and treating a s plendidly bound and preserved
ma nu scrip t of the lvfethnewi with as much reverence as if it were the Qur'an.
(25) DOUBTS
But Persian poetry and what resembles it will neve r be received by the
Occidental as entirely pure, with complete ease - a fact we need to be
aware of if we are not to be suddenly disturbed in our e njoymen t.
Yet it is not religio n that keeps us at a distance from that poetic art.
The unity of God, submission to his will, mediation through a prophet - all
of tlus coincides more or less with our own beliefs, with our conceptions.
Our holy scriptures are similarly rooted there, even if only in a legendary
form .
We are already long since acquainted with the fairytales of that region -
the fables, parables, anecdotes, witty and jesting sp eeche s Their mysticism
.
should also appeal to us; at least it would deserve to do so, because of a
- 211 -
Notes & Essays
deep and thoroughgoing seriousness, comparable to ours. But such feeling, in

most recent times, if looked at closdy, turns out to express onlr a spineless
and inept yearning. The way it parodies itself is illustrated in the following
verses:
Eternal thirst alone avails me

After thirst.
[Eichendorff, Ahnung tmd Gegmwarl 2 Kap. 1 2)
(26) DESPOTISM
But what never will enter the mind of an Occidental is spiritual and
physical submissiveness to one's master and overlord, which is derived
from time inunemorial when kings took the place of God. In the Old
Testament we read without particular astonishment about a man and a
woman prostrating themselves before a priest or hero and worshiping
them, for these worshipers are accustomed to doing the same before
Elohim. What at ft.rst arose from a natural pious feeling transformed itself
later into a complicated court etiquette. 1be kowtow, a thrice-repeated
threefold prostration, is derived from this. How many Western legations at
Eastern courts have failed in that ceremony - and Persian poetry, in
general, cannot be well received by us if we do not make such matters clear.
What Occidental is able to tolerate the idea that the Oriental not only
hits his head nine times on the ground but even throws it away anywhere at
all to serve some goal or purpose?
Polo, with ball and mallet s haring a major role, repeatedly takes on
renewed, even quite personal, interest in the eyes o f the ruler and the
people. But if the poet lays his head as a ball on the mallet-path of the shah
so that the prince mar take notice of it and, with the mallet of his favor,
dispatch it to further happiness, tht:n we cannot and will not follow him,
either in our imagination or in our feelings. For this is how it goes:
How long, without a hand or foot,

Will you be polo ball of fate?
A hundred paths you'll overleap,
Yet won't escape the mallet blows.
On the Shah's path lay down your head,
And maybe he will notice you.
[J ami, Rosenkrantz der Gmchten 1 6. Knoten 6 ff.;
Hammer, Redekiinsle Persiens p. 325]
- 212 -
Despotism
And further:
None can mirror happiness
Save the single lucky face
That was rubbed into the dust
By the hoofbeats of this horse.
[Hafis Dal 1 2: 9; Hanuner 1: 224]
Yet not only before the sultan, but equally he fore the beloved does one
humble oneself - ami even more frequently:
l\Iy face was lying on the way,
He took no step to pass it by.
By your pathway's dust
0 my tent of hope!
And by your foot soles' dust,
Than water more desired!
[Hafis Dal 1 7: 1 ; Hammer 1: 232]
The one who crushes underfoot
My skull into the dust,
An emperor I'll call him,
\Vhenever he returns.
[Hafis Dal 1 26: 9; H anuner 1 : 395]
From this we clearly see that one simile means as little as another - first
applied on a worthy occasion, then used and abused more and more often.
So Hafiz says in a truly farcical manner:
l\.-ly head amid the road dust

The inn host owns.
[Hafts Dal 50: 3; Hammer 1 : 278]
:\ deeper sn1dy would possibly conflllTl the supposition that earlier poets
employed such expressions with more modesty, and that only later ones,
treading the same ground and using the same language, finally descended to
such abuses, not even in all seriousness, but taking them parcx.lically, until the
tropes deviated so far from their object that no connection can be imabrined
or felt any longer.
And so we close with the lovely lines of Anvari, who, gracefully and
becomingly, venerates a worthy poet of his time:
For the judicious the lyrics of Shuja are dishes delightful.
Hundreds of birds, much as I, settle on them with desire.
- 213 -
Notes & Essays
Go, kiss the ground at the feet of my lord, humble poem, and tell him:
You, the time's virtue today, are virtue's own epoch as well.
!Hammer, Redekiinsle Persiens 9 1 ]
(27) OBJECTION
To add some clarity about the relationship of despots to their subjects

and to what extent it is still a hwnane one, and possibly to reassure ourselves
regarding the servile practices of the poets, I would like to insert here a
passage or two which will offer testimony about how people who know
historr and the world have judged this matter. A judicious Englishman
expresses himself in the following way:
Absolute power, which is, in Europe, softened by the usages and

the knowledge of a civilized age into a moderate government, has,
among the nations of Asia, always the same character, and follows
nearly the same course. The few shades of distinction that do exist
depend chiefly upon the personal disposition and power of the
despot, and often more upon the latter than the former. For no
country can he happy or prosperous if exposed to continual war;
and for the earliest period this appears to have been the state of
every eastern kingdom whose ruler was not powerful. It follows
that the greatest happiness the mass of the population can obtain
under such a government must have its source in the power and
fame of the monarch; and the comparative ble s sings which his
subjects enjoy form the substantial ground of their pride in such
rulers. We must not, therefore, attribute the flattery they receive
solely to base and venal motives. Unaware of the value of liberty,
and ignorant of all other forms of government, they naturally prize
that state in which they find they have most security and pleasure.
And they are not only content but proud to humble themselves
before one exalted man, when in the mah>n.itude of his power ther
see a refuge and protection from more intolerable and oppressive
evils. [John 1\falcolrn, HisiOfJ' of Persia l , p. 3 1 3]
Likewise a German critic offers an intelligent, knowledgeable assessment, as

follows:
Though admiring the sublime buoyancy of the laudatory poets of

that epoch, the author at the same time rightly reproves the m.inds
that waste their energy in exuberant panegyrics and deplores the
- 214 -
Objection
generally res ul ting degrauation of their perso nal dihmity. It must be

noted, however, that in the total edifice of art of a truly poetic
pe op le built with multifarious adornment in high est perfec tio n
, ,
panegyrical poetry is as essential as the satirical sort, cons ti tu ting

only its opposi te The resolution of this conflict is then to be
.
found either in moral poetry - a quiet judge of human virtues and

defects, a guide to inner calm - or in the epic poem, which with
imp a rtia l aud aci ty places the noblest human excellence alongsiue the
common way of life which then is no longer reproved, but accepted
as contributing to an integral whole. Epic poetry resolves the two
opposites by uniting them in a pure picture of human e xi st en ce .
For if epic poetry corresponds to human nature and testifies to

its sublime origins in grasping with enthusiasm the nobility of
human action and the higher perfections allowing a renewal of the
inn er life, then similarly the praise of the might and power revealed
in princes is a magnificent phenomenon in the realm of poetry and
has only fallen into decline among us because (a good reason!)
those who had dedicated themselves to such praise were for the
most part not poets but cheap s ycopha n ts. Yet who, listening to
Calderon praising his king, carried along by the bold sweep of hio;
imagination, would ever be inclined to think in a dis approving way
about the alleged venality of panegyric? \'\-110 has ever been willing
to s hie ld his heart against Pindar's victory anthems? Although in
that period the despotic nature of Persian rule may have found its
counttrpart in a vulgar wors hip of force by the majority of those
who sang the p rai se of princes, nonetheless, through the concept
of a trans figured power which it has engendered in noble minds,
that power has evoked poems worthy of posterity's admiration.
And insofar as those poets arc worthy of that admiration still
today, so are those princes in whom we find a genuine respect for
the di6>1tity of the human being and for the arts that celebrate their
memory. Anvari, Khaqani, Zahir-e Fat}abi and Akhsikati are the
panegyrical poets of that period whose works, even now, are read
with Jelight in the Orient, their noble names sltielded from any
revilement. A proof of how close the endeavor of the panegyric
poet comes to the highest demand by which a human being can be
c ha llenged is the sudden ni
tra s tion that one of these panegyric
poets, Smtcyis, has made to religious poetry. From someone praising
Ius prince he became a singer filled with enthusiasm for none but
God and eternal perfection, having now learned to fmd, in the
- 215 -
Notes & Essays
world beyond, the concept of the sublime that he had earlier been
content to seek in this life alone. latthaus von Collin, ]ahrbiicher
der Lterat11r 1 , Wien 1 8 1 8, 1 5]
(28) ADDENDUM
The views of these two serious, thoughtful men will lead us to be lenient
in our judgement about Persian poets and encomiasts because they confirm
our previous remark: in dangerous times everything in national governance
depends on the capacity of the prince not only to protect his subjects but
also to lead them personally against the enemy. For tlus truth, confmned
right up to the present, there are age-old examples to be found. As one of
these, I would invoke the imperial constitution that God bestowed on the
people of Israel with its unanimous consent at the moment when it
demanded to have a king once and for all. Here I quote this constitution
verbatim, although nowadays it may certainly seem a bit odd:
And Samuel told all the words of the Lord unto the people that
asked of him a king: This will be the manner of the king that shall
reign over you: He will take your sons, ami appoint them for
himself, for his chariots, and to be his horsemen; and some shall
run before his chariots. And he will appoint him captains over
thousands, and captains over fifties; and will set them to car his
ground, and to reap his harvest, and to make his instnunents of war,
and instruments of his chariots. And he will take your daughters to
be confectionaries, and to be cooks, and to be bakers. And he will
take your fields, and your vineyards, and your oliveyards, even the
best of them, ami give them to his servants. And he will take the
tenth of your seed, and of your vineyards, and give to his officers,
and to his servants. And he will take your menservants, and your
maidservants, and your goodliest young men, and your donkeys,
and put them to his work. He will take the tenth of your sheep: and
ye shall be his servants. [ I Sam. 8: 1 0-5]
When Samuel wants to warn the people that such an agreement is dubious
and tries to dissuade them from at-,rreeing to it, they shout Wlani.mous': "Nay;
but we will have a Icing over us; that we also may be like all the other nations;
and that our Icing may judb>e us, and go out before u.._ , and ftght our battles" [I
Sam. 8 : 1 9-20] .
In tlus sense the Persian speaks:
- 2 16
Addendum
\'\lith sword and wisdom he embraces, guards the land;

Embracing and protecting ones are in God's hand.
[Hanuner, &dekiiiiSie Persiens p. 245]
In fact, while judging the different forms of government one usually fails
to take sufficiently into accmmt that in all of them. whatever they may be
called, freedom and serfdom are two coexisting poles. If the power is in one
hand, the crowd is submissive; if the power is v.rith the crowd, the individual
L'i at a disadvantage. 11tis goes on through various stages until somewhere,
though only for a brief time, an equilibrium may be found. Fur the historian
this is no secret, but in troubled moments of life one cannot see it clearly.
Hence we never hear more talk about freedom than when one party wants
to subdue another and nothing else is intended but to ensure that power,
sway, and property should pass from one to the other. Freedom is the faint
watchword of secret plotters, the loud-voiced battle-cry of public revolu
tionaries, even the slogan of despotism itself, as it leads the subjugated masses
against the enemy and promises to liberate them from foreign oppression for
all time.
(29) COUNTEREFFECT
Such a captious general consideration, however, is not what I want to

indulge in, hut rather to return to the Orient and see how human nature,
which 'vill always remain impregnable, resi'its extreme pressure. In the Orient
we find everywhere that in their love of liberty and autonomy individuals
maintain themselves in equilibrium against the omnipotence of an autocrat.
They are slaves, hut not subdued; they take unheard of liberties. Selecting
an example from ancient times, let us join an evening banquet in the tent of
Alexander, where 'e fmd him with his men in vivid, passionate, even fierce
verbal exchanges.
Clitus, Alexander's foster brother, playmate, and then fellow soldier,
loses two brothers in the war, saves the life of the king, and proves an
outstanding general. a faithful governor of major provinces. He cannot
approve of the monarch's arrogated divinity. He has seen him growing up
and has known him in need of service and help. f Ie might be cultivating an
inner bilious grudge, perhaps overrating his own merits.
The talk at .Alexander's table may always have been of great significance.
All the guests were able, cultivated men, all born in the period of the
highest oratorical brilliance in Greece. Usually, while sober, they would
deliberately or casually select important problems and assert them with
- 217 -
Notes & Essays
more or less conscious oratorical sophistry against each other. But when
everyone defended the faction he was attached to, when drunkenness and
passion were mutually heightened, in the end violent scenes were bound to
occur. In this way we come to suspect that the conflagration of Pcrsepolis
was not simply sparked by crude, absurd reveling but flared up from the
kind of table talk in which one faction asserted that once the Persians had
been defeated they should be treated with indulgence, while the other group,
recalling to everyone's memory the ruthlessness of the Asians' destruction of
Greek temples, incensed the general madness to inebt1ated fury and reduced
the ancient royal monuments to ashes. The participation of women, who
are always the most vehement, most irreconcilable enemies of the enemies,
renders my supposition more likely still .
Should some doubt remain about this, we are all the more certain of what
caused a deadly conflict at the banquet we have been di<>cussing. History
[Curtius Rufus VIII 3, 22 ff.] has preserved it for us. For it was the ever
recurring struggle between old age and youth. The old, on whose side Clitus
was arguing, could claim for themselves a conclusive chain of exploits
which, in faithfulness to king and country and to the goal set forth, they
had accomplished with unrelenting effort and wisdom. The youth, it is true,
took for granted that all of this had happened, that much had been done,
and that the borders of India had really been reached. But they argued
that much had still to be done, o ffered to equal those achievements, and,
promising a brillia nt future, they succeeded in dinuning the splendor of
past actions. That the king took this side is quite natural as, for him, what
had happened was no longer worth speaking o f. In opposition to this,
Clitus displayed the inilignation he had previously kept hidden and repeated
in the presence of the king slanders which, spoken behind his back, had
already come to the ears of the prince. Alexander reacted with admirable
restraint but unfortunately held back for too long. Clitus broke out into
loathsome utterances until the king sprang to his feet and was supported by
those next to him, who dragged Clitus away. Clitus, however, in a frenzy,
comes back with new abuses; and Alexander, seizing a guard's spear,
knocks Clitus to the ground.
\XIhat happened afterward is not relevant here; I will only mention that
the bitter complaint of the desperate king contained the consideration that
from now on he was going to live in seclusion like an animal in the forest
because no one, in his presence, would dare to express himself freely This
.
utterance, whether we attribute it to the king or only to the historian [VIII

2, 7]. conftrms what I had suggested earlier.
- 218 -
Countereffect
Even in the past century it was still possible to contradict the emperor
of Persia impudently at a banquet. But finally the rash dinner guest would
he dragged away by the feet and im.leed right past the prince, in the hope
that the latter might kindly confer a pardon. If not, out with him! - and a
free-for-all!
Tmstworthy historians have favored us with anecdotes of the infinitely
s tubborn and refractory ways favorites behaved towards the emperor.
The monarch is like des tiny, inexorable, but he is defied. H ot tempered -
c haracters lapse into a kind of madness, of which the most peculiar

examples could be cited.
:rvloderate, firm, logical personalities submit to the supreme power from
which everything flows - blessing and pain - in order to live and work in
their own ways. But the poet, above all, has every reason to dedicate himself to
the most exalted person who appreciates his talent. At coun, in conversations
with the great, a cosmopolitan view opens up to him, and he needs this to attain
a wealth of subject matter. Here lies not only an excuse hut a justification for
flattery as befits the panegyrist, who does his job bes t
, by enriching himself
with abundant subject matter to adorn princes and viziers, maidens and
youth s, prophets and saints, and even at last, overladen with praise like a
human sovereign, the divinity itself.
We also laud our Western poet when he accumulates a world of en
hancement and splendo r to glorify the image of his beloved.
(30) INTERPOL\TION
The reflectiveness of the poet relates mainly to form; subject matter is

given to him more than generously by the world, and content springs
spontaneously from the abundance of his heart. Unco nsciously subject
,
matter and co ntent meet, and in the end you cannot tell to whom thio; wealth
truly belongs.
But form, although it is specifically rooted in individual genius, wants
to be discerned, to be thoughtfully considered. Tlus is where reflection is
required, so that form su bject matter, and content mutually adapt and
,
interpenetrate .
The poet holds much too high a place for him to engage in partisanship.
Serenity and awareness are the beautiful gifts for which he thanks the creator:
awareness, so he will not be terrified by what is frightening; serenity, so he
will know how to represent everything in a satisfying way.
- 219 -
Notes & Essays
(3 1) BASIC ELEMENTS OF ORIENTAL POETRY
In the Arabic language one cannot flnd many word roots and stems
that do not refer to the camel, tht: horse, and the sht:ep, if not directly, then
with slight changes or transformations. This primal expression of naturt:
and life may not he callt:d merely metaphoric or tropological. Everything an
indiv-idual t:xprt:sses with natural freedom is related to life, yet the Arab is as
intimately related to the camel and the horse as the body is to the soul.
Nothing can happen to him that would not equally affect these creatures and
link their being and acting with his in a vivid way. Think of the domestic and
wild animals that come before the eyes of the freely roving Bedouin: one will
encounter these, too, in all walks of life. Proceeding in this way and paying
heed to all the other visible objects - mountain and desert, rocks and
plain, trees, herbs, flowers, river and sea and the many-starred ftrmament
- one will discover that anything reminds the Oriental of any other thing.
So, just as he is accustomed to connect the most distantly related objects,
so, by means of minor changes in the letters and syllables of words, he
unhesitatingly derives contradictory ideas. Here we can see that the language
is already productive in itself - rhetorically insofar as it adapts to one's
thought, and poetically insofar as it appeal<> to one's imagination.
If we started from the first, indispensable primal tropes or metaphors
and proceeded to designate more liberal and audacious ones wttil we arrived
finally at the most daring and arbitrary, or even, beyond that, at the clumsily
conventional and fatuous, we would complete an overall survey of the basic
elements of Oriental poetic art. But we could easily confirm that what we
call taste, namely the separation of the proper from the improper, does not
come into question in this kind of literature. Its virtues cannot be separated
from its defects: they are interrelated and spring from each other, and you
have to accept them without carping and haggling. Nothing is more
unendurable than the way !Johann Jakob] Reiske (1 7 1 6-- 1 774] and !Johann
David] Michaelis ( 1 7 1 7-1791 J first praise those poets to the skies, then treat
them as silly schoolboys.
Yet it is equally clear that the earliest poets, who lived close to the natural
source of impressions and fonned their language in poetic creation, must
have had eminent advantages. Those who arrive in a thoroughly cultivated
period, in complicated circumstances, show indeed the same striving but
eventually lose the scent of what is right and commendable. For if they
snatch at ever more distant tropes, the result is pure nonsense. At best, what
remains is the most general rubric under which the objects might possibly
- 220 -
Basic Elements
be summarized, the sort of concept that abolishes all imagery and hence
poetry itself.
(32) TRANSITION FROM TROPES TO SIMILES
Since everything said so far is likewise valid for related similes, our
assertion may be corroborated with some examples.
You see the huntsman, waking up in the open field , who compares the
rising sun to a falcon.
Once at-,tain, finn-footed, here am 1:
Life and actjon penetrate my breast.
See the broad-wing'd golden falcon fly,
Hovering above hls azure nest.
[H a fi s Dal 1 97; Hammer 1: 443]
Or, in an even more splendid way, to a lion:

Daybreak turned into a wider light:
Glad again, at once, my heart and head,
Since that shy gazelle, the quiet night ,
From the morning lion's menace fled.

[Diez, Dmkwiirdigkeilen 2: 727]
How much must Marco Polo [ 1 254?-1 324?] have admired such similes - he
who had seen all tlus and more!
Incessandy we see the poet playing with curls:
There are more than fifty fish-hooks
Hidden in your curly hair
[Hafis Dal 1 35: 29; Hammer 1 : 1 07)
is addressed in the most pleasing way to a beautiful head rich in curls; the
imagination does not mind fancying the hair-tips as hooks of a sort. Yet
when the poet says that he is entangled in s omeo ne s hair [Hafis Ja, 27: 1 3;
'
I Iammcr 2: 396], this dues nut really appeal to us. :\nd if, beyond that, it is
said about the Sultan:
In your ringlets' bonds the foe's
Neck has lain ensnared
[Hafis Lam 9: 27; Hammer 2: 1 46)
- 22 1 -
Notes & Essays
then the imagination is provided with either a repugnant image or none at

all.
It mar still he tolerable to be murdered by rye/ashes, but to be impaled
on eyelashes cannot please us. Further, if eyelashes, compared to brooms,
sweep the stars down from the sky, we feel tlus is becoming preposterous.
The forehead of the beautiful woman as a smoothing-stone for the heart; the
heart of the lover as glacial drift, carried away and rounded off by a flood of
tears - such witty rather than sensitive ventures wring from us a friendly
smile.
It can be called lughly i.ngetlious, however, if the poet wants the
enenlies of the Shah to be treated like tmt equipment:
May they forever like splinters be split - be they ripped up like rags!
Even like nails, be hammered down! and like pickets, stuck!
!Anvari, "An Sultan tvfelekschah"; Hammer, Redekiinste
Persims p. 90)
I lere you see the poet at llt:adquarters, enV1ston111g the steadily repeated
mounting and dismantling of a tent.
From these few examples, wlllc h could be multiplied ad injinit11m, it
becomes evident that no dividing line can be drawn between what we might
think praiseworthy and reprehensible, because their virtues are, strictly
speaking, the blossoms of their defects. If we want to acquire an insight into
all these works of splendid spirits, then we will have to orientalize ourselves;
the Orient will not come to meet us. And although translations are highly
welcome to allure and introduce us, it is obvious from our observations
that in tills kind of literature it is language as language which plays the main
role. \Vho would not want to acquaint llimself with these treasures at their
source?
Taking into account that poetic technique necessarily has the greatest
influence on any kind of poetic production, we will find here, too, that the
verses of the Orientals in rhymed couplets demand a parallelism which,
instead of concentrating the mind, distracts it insofar as the rhymes point
to entirely disparate objects. In this way their poems gain the appearance of
an improvisation with specified end-rhymes, but to create something
excellent in that s tyle the most outstanding talents are relJlUred. How
rigorous a judgement the nation has passed in this regard can be seen from
the fact that in the course of five centuries it has recognized only seven
poets as supreme.
- 222 -
(33) ADMONITION
Everything I have said so far can very well he offered as testimony for
my best intentions toward Oriental poetic art. So I may dare to approach
per.;ons who are favored with a closer, even an inunediate knowledb>e of these
areas, with an admonition that will not disavow my purpose of averting all
possible damage from such a good cause.
\Ve aU make judgements e a sier for ourselves by using comparisons, but
this, at the same time, makes things more difficult. For since a comparison
carried too far is a lame one, a comparative judgment turns out to be all the
more inappropriate the more closely it is scrutinized. I d o not want to go
too far a field but will state briefly only th is : if the superb [Sir William] Jones
[ 1 746-1 794] compares the Oriental poets to the Romans ami Greeks [Poes.
Asia!. Comment. 2 ff.], he has his reasons: his position in England and the
classical critics there forced him to do so. Educated in the strict classical
school himself, he umler.;tood 'Juite well the exclusive prej udice that nothing
was of value unless it had come down to us from Rome and Athens. He
knew, es te emed loved his Orient and wanted to introduce, really to smuggle,
,
its creations into Old England, something that was possible in no other way
than umler the hallmark of antiquity. All that is nowadays utterly needless,
even harmful. We are able to appreciate the poetic art of the Orientals; we
see in them the highest merit. But they should be compared with each
other. We must honor them in their own right by forgetting that there once
were Greeks and Romans.
Nobody should be blamed who, when reading Hafiz [fourteenth
century], is reminded of Horace (65-8 BCE] . Regarding this matter, an
expert has given an admirable explanation, so that the connection has been
s ummed up and done with once for all. He says:
The sinlllariry between Haftz and Horace in their views of life is
striking and may be explai ned only by the sinUlarity of the epochs
in which the two poets lived, when - all s ecurity of civil life
having been destroyed - man was confined to a fleeting enjoy
ment of life, as if seizing it in passing. [1\fatthaus von Collin, 22]
One thing I earnestly request, however, is not to compare Firdusi [ca.
940-ca. 1020] with Homer. The former must lose in every respect, with
regard to subject matter, form, and trea tmen t . If you want to satisfy
yourself about this, compare the terrible monotony of the seven adventures
of Isfendiar to the twenty-third song of the Iliad, where at the obs equies of
Patroklos the most varied prizes are won by the most dissimilar heroes in
- 223 -
Notes & Essays
the most different ways. Through such comparisons,

have we Germans not
done the greatest harm to our marvelous Nibdungs? As highly appealing as
they are when we integrate ourselves properly into their sphere and welcome
everything with trust and gratitude, that is exactly how strange they appear if
we measure them by a yardsti ck we ought never to use for them.
Even for a single auth or, who has written many and varied things for a
long time, the same is true. Let us leave it to the common, clumsy crowd to
commend, select, and spurn by making comparisons. In contrast, the
teachers of the nation must begin with a s tandpoint where a clear and
co mp re he nsive overview will promote a pure, unhampered judgemen t.
(34) COMPARISON
Since I have just rejected any comp a risons in judging writers, it may
seem strange if immedia tely after that I sp eak about a case where I find it
permissible. I hope, though, to be allowed this excep tio n, inasmuch as the
thought is not really tnine but someone else's.
A man who has penetrated the breadth, height and depth of the Orient
considers that no German author has come closer to the Eastern poe ts and
other writers than Jean Paul Richter [1 763- 1 825]. This statement see med to
be too important not to exatnine carefully. I can also clarify it all the more
readily since all I need is to refer to what has been spelled out above.
The works of Jean Paul, particularly if we look at the personality behind
them, tes ti fy to a judicious, far-sighted, sensible, well-instmcted, cultivated,
ami at the same time benevolent and pious mind. An intellect like his will
look around in his world, eagerly and boldly, in a truly Oriental manner.
This sort of mind creates the strangest relationships, connecting what is
incompatible, but in such a way that a secret e thical thread weaves th rough ,
lending the whole a certain unity.
Having indicated, a while back, the natural elements from which the
earliest and best poets of the Orient formed their works , I will now cla rify
matters by no ting t hat, if they were active in a fresh and simple region, Jean
Paul on the other hand has to live and work in a polished, over-sophisticated,
deformed, intricate world and so has been obliged to master the strangest
elements. To illustrate in outline the contrast between the surroundings of a
Bedouin and those of our author, I will extract from some of his pages the
most significant expressions:
Barrier treaty, newspaper "e

xtras," cardinals, special recess, billiards,
beer mugs, imperial benches, session chairs, plenipotentiary, enthu-
- 224 -
Compmison
siasm, scepter queue, half-lenj.,>th portrait, S<.juirrcl cage, stock specu

lator, mudlark, incognito, colloquia, canonical billiard-bag, plaster cast,
promotion, foundry boy, naturali7.ation docwncnt, Pentecost program,
masonic, hand-puppetry, amputee, supemumerary, jewelry booth,
Sabbath walk, etc. [He.rpems, 10. "Hundspoststag"]
Since all these expressions are known to an educated German reader or
can be known through an encyclopedia, just as to the Oriental the outer world is
known tluough commercial caravans or pilgrimages, we may boldly regard a
similar mentality as justified in employing the same literary procedures within a
completely different context.
So if we concede to our estimable, prolific writer that as he is living in
later days, in order to be inventive in his era he has to allude in the most
varied manner to conditions which are infinitely intertwined and scattered
through art, science, technology, politics, and negotiations and damages in
war and in peace, then we are confident that we have sufficiently confirmed
the Oriental character which has been attributed to him.
There is one difference, however, between a poetical and a prosaic proce
dure, which I want to stress. Verse meter, parallelism, syllable count, rhyme,
which seem to put the b>reatest obs tacles in the way of the poet, prove to be
to his greatest advantage if he success fully Wlties the puzzle-knots imposed
on him or which he imposes on himself. We pardon him the boldest
metaphor on account of an unexpected rhyme, and we delight in the
adeptness of the poet, maintained amid such constraints.
ll1e prose writer, in contrast, has his elbows totally free and is responsible
for any temet-ity he permits himself: everything that could offend taste is
charged to his account. But since in prose writing, as shown above, one
cannot separate the proper from the improper, everything depends on the
individual who undertakes the venture. If it is somebody like Jean Paul, a
worthy talent, a man of dignity, the reader is immediately reconciled:
everything is permitted and welcome. You feel at ease in the neighborhood of
that amiable man; his feeling comes across. He arouses our imagination; he
flatters our weaknesses and reinforces our strengths.
You exercise your own wit in trying to solve the riddles set in a strange
way. In and behind a multifarious and checkered world, just as behind
another kind of charade, you enjoy finding entertainment, excitement,
emotion, even edification.
This is roughly what was needed to justify my comparison. I wanted to
express conformity and difference as briefly as possible even though a text
like his could seduce us into endless interpretive commentary.
- 225 -
Notes & Essays
(35) TAKING CARE
Anyone who considers words and expressions to be sacred testimonies

and does not want them to be possibly brought into rapid, immediate
circulation like small coins or paper money, but rather to be interchanged in
intellectual trade and traffic as true value indicators, cannot be blamed for
pointing out that conventional expressions, to which nobody takes exception
anymore, nonetheless exercise a harmful influence, obscure our views, distort
our conceptions, and lead entire discplines in a wrong direction.
Of this kind might well be the established practice of using the heading
art of rbelonc as a general rubric under which poetry and prose are supposed
to be subsumed, juxtaposed, and then appropriately subdivided.
Poetry, considered purely and truly, is neither discourse nor art. It is
not discoune because for its perfection it requires rhythm, song, movement
of the body, and play of the features. It is not art because everything is based
on one's natural temperament, which may be regulated but not disturbed by
artis tic deliberations. Poetry will always remain the expression of an inspired,
heightened genius, without goal or purpose.
The art of rhetoric, however, in its proper meaning, is a discourse and
an art. It is based on a distinct, measured, passionate disco11rse and is an arl,
artful, in every sense. It pursues its purposes and is a contrived dissimulation
from bcgimling to end. By being classified under a rubric that we censure,
poetry is degraded. Aligned with, if not subordinated to, the art of rhetoric,
poetry diverts both the latter's name and dignity.
This naming or categorizing has certainly won approval and gained
ground, for highly valuable poetry books prominently bear the label of
rhetoric, and it is hard to break this habit. But such a procedure s tems
from the fact that in the classifying of the arts the artist is not asked for
advice. For the literary critic, poetic works are encountered first in print;
they lie before him as books that he is called upon to arrange and classify.
(36) POETICAL GENllliS
Allegory, ballad, cantata, didactic poem, drama, elegy, epigram, epistle,

epic, fable, heroic poem, idyll, narrative, novel, ode, parody, romance,
s a tire.
If you wanted to classify methodically these poetical genres, which I
have arranged in [German] alphabetical order, and more of the kind, you
would encounter great difficulties, not easily put aside. If you look at the
- 226 -
Poetical Genres
rubrics above more closely, you will find that they are labeled in some cases
according to external criteria, in others according to the content, but only
rarely according to an essential form. You will quickly notice that some o f
them can be coordinated, others subordinated one to another. For enjoyment
and pleasure, each one tlligh t have an existence and an effect of its own; but
if for didactic and his torical purposes a more rational arrangement is
re<-]uired, then it is worthwhile to look for one. I submit the following for
examina tion.
(37) NATURAL FORMS OF POETRY
There are only three natural forms of poetry: the clearly narrated kind,
the sort generated by enthusiasm, and the type that presents direct personal
action: epic, !;ric, and drama. These three modes of poetry can work together
or separately. They can often be found jointly even in the shortest poem, and
precisely through this compression into the smallest space they engender the
most admirable creations, as we can notice clearly in the ballads of all nations.
In early Greek tragedy we see all three of them united as equals, and only
after a certain period of time do they separate. So long as the chorus plays
the primary role, lyricism ranks at the top. \"ben the chorus becomes more
of a spectator, the other two become more prominent. Finally, when the
action is reduced to personal and domestic life, the chorus is felt to be
unwieldy and burdensome. In French tragedy the exposition is epic, the
middle part dramatic, and the fifth act, which ends passionately and
enthusiastically, can he called lyrical.
The Homeric heroic poem is purely epic. The rhapsode always pre
dominates. \Vhat happens is told by him: no one he has not previously
permitted to speak, no one whose statement or account he has not
announced, is allowed to open his mouth. Interrupted dialogues, the most
beautiful enhancement of drama, are nut tolerated.
But let us now hear a modem extemporizer treat a historic subject in
the public market. For clarity, he will first narrate and then, to raise people's
interest, speak as a participant in the action, and fmally blaze up in enthusiasm
and enrapture people's minds - so marvelously can these elements
become entwined and the poetic genres be varied ad injiml11m. That is why it
is so hard to find an organizing system enabling us to arrange them side by
side or in sequence. But we can benefit to some extent by putting the three
main elements in a circle facing each other and then searching for models
where each single element predominates. Then we may collect examples
- 22 7 -
Notes & Essays
that tend to the one or the other side , until fmally all three appear united
and the circle is closeJ.
In this way we attain a beautiful view not only of the poetic genres but
equally of the traits of varied nations and their tastes in consecutive epochs.
And although this method may be more useful for one's own instruction,
entertainment, and balanced evaluation than for teaching others, it might be
possible to work out a set of categories to present contingent outward
forms anJ at the same time these internally coherent primal oribrins in a
comprehensible arrangement. Yet this attemp t will always be as difficult as
the endeavor in natural science to uncover the relationship between the
outer marks of minerals and plants and their inner components so as to
form a mental picture of a natural order.
(38) ADDENDUM
It is highly remarkable that Persian poetic art does not include drama.
HaJ a dramatic poet been enabled to arise, their whole literature would
have gained an altered outlook. lbe Persian nation is inclined to rest; it
likes to be told stories - hence the numberless fairytales and the limitless
poems. Oriental life is in any case not communicative in itself. Despotism
docs not favor dialogues, and we find all sorts of objections to rulers' wills
or edicts coming forth only in quotations from the Qur'an and from well
known poets - a recourse presupposing a clever mentality and a broad,
deep, logical training. But the fact that Orientals cannot dispense with
conversational forms of literature any more than any other people is
witnessed by the admiration they have for the fables of Bidpai and for their
copies, imitations, and continuations. The conversations of birds by
Ferideddin Attar similarly offer the most beautiful example.
(39) BIBLIOrvL\.NCY
A person trapped every day in gloom and looking for a brighter future
grasps eagerly at chance happenings for any kind of prophetic intimation.
Indecisive, he finds rescue in a resolve to submit to the dictate of the drawn
lot. Of tlus kind is the widely used oracle in which you pose a question to
some prominent book by inserting a needle between its pages. Reopetilng the
volume, you faithfullr scrutinize the passage marked. In earlier years I was
closely ac'luainted with people who in tllis way confidently sought advice
- 228 -
Bibliomancy
from the Bible, the (devotional] Treasure Ctuket, or similar edifying books
and thus often found consolation, even support for their whole life.
In the Orient we also find this habitual practice. It is callcd faL Ha fiz
received such an honor immediately after his death. \XIhen the orthodox
did not want to have him buried ceremonially, people inquired directly o f
his poems. \'\'h en the marked passage mentioned the tomb the pilgrims
were going to venerate one day, they concluded that he had to be buried
honorably. I also allude to this custom and hope that the same honor may be
bestowed on my little book.
(40) EXCHANGING FLO\X,'ERS AND SYMBOLS
So as not to think too highlr of the so-called language of flowers or

always to expect something heartfelt from it, we should take counsel from
experts. Not only are meanings given to single flowers so a bouquet will offer
a secret message, but it is not flowers alone that form the words and letters
for such a mute dialogue. Rather, everything visible and portable is used in
the same way.
But how that happens so as to bring about a change in feelings and
thoughts can only be imagined if we bear in mind the principal features of
Oriental poetry: far-reaching view of all objects in the world, ease with rhyme,
but then additionally a certain pleasurable popular tendency to pose riddles,
which at the same time nurtures a skill in solving them - something that will
be evident to anyone whose talent is in<.:lined toward charades, logograms and
the like.
In this connection I must note: when a lover sends an object of any
kind to the beloved, the recipient must first name the object, then figure
out what rhymes with it, and lastly choose among many possible rhymes
the one that might suit the current situation. It is all too obvious that this
demands emotional guesswork. An example may clarify the matter, so let us
work through the following short romance in such a correspondence:
Through deeds of love the watchers could

Confirm their love for aye.
How we each other understood
Is what we'll now betray.
Let others try the bright design
That gave us joy tonight.
The d:ukened lamp - let's make it s hine
To lend the lovers light.
- 229 -
Notes & Essays
Those who can love as we and heed

Ways to unblock the ear,
Find it a simple thing indeed
To rhyme, as will appear.
We sent each other notes to read:
The messages were clear.
Amaranth A flame to dance.

Rue Spy? Who?
Tiger hair Bold fighter there.
Hair of gazelle But where, pray tell?
Hairs in a cluster See the luster.
Chalk Balk.
Straw I bum with awe.
Grape bunches Good hunches.
Coral pin You can win.
Almond seed Yes indeed.
Turnip l\lake me bum up.
Carrot !\locking parrot.
Onion food But why brood?
Grapes of green What's that mean?
Grapes, dark blue Trust- in you?
Couch-grass Teasing lass.
Carnation Enervation?
Narcissus You'll miss us.
Violet A while yet.
Cherry Crushing - very.
Raven feather Us - together.
Budgerigar I'll take you far.
Chestnut fruits \X1e need roots.
Lead-metal Let's settle.
Rosy hue Joy died too.
Silken gown Let me down.
Bean Spared, serene.
Marjoram Feeling glwn.
Blue Not meant for you.
Grapevine You're mine.
Berry Ward off - scary.
Figs Keep still - no jigs.
Gold I'm kind though bold.
230 -
Exchanging Flowers and Symbols
Leather Write with a feather.

Paper sheet I'm yours, my sweet.
Ox-eye d a isy Write me, lazy.
Dame's violet I'll get it yet.
A thread Softly tread.
Bouquet At home today.
Enwind Me you will fmd.
1\lyrtle-leaf Need relief.
J a smine Let me in.
Balm **** on a cushion, calm.
Cypress stick Forget it, quick.
Blossoming bean Fickleness seen.
Lime Rogue-boy mine.
Coal **** take your soul.
I fJamil and Buthayna had

Not such communication,
How could her name, so fresh and glad,
Be said with such elation?
The foregoing distinctive means of conununication may very easily be

carried out between lively persons mutually attracted. \'Vhen the miml
beJ.,>"ins to move in this direction, it performs miracles . For proof, I select
one anecdote among many:
Two lovers undertake a pleasure trip of several miles and spend a happy
day together. On the way back they entertain themselves by setting each other
charades. Very soon each lover not only solves every one of these at the
moment it leaves the other's mouth but ultimately, by immediate divination,
each will guess and pronounce the word the other is thinking of and is on
the point of trans forming into a word riddle.
Today, if you speak about such a thing and confmn it, you need not
fear ridicule, for such psychological phenomena do not even approach what
"organic magnetism" has brought to light.
(41) CODE
There is another way of conununicating, however, which is clever and

affectionate! If in the previous instance hearing and wit were involved, this
tin1e it is a tenderly loving aesthetic sense, on a par with the highest poetry.
- 23 1 -
Notes & Essays
In the Orient people would leam the Qur'an by heart, so playing lightly
on words in suras and verses enabled the experienced to create a mutual
understanding. \Ve have witnessed the same in Germany, where fifty years
ago our education was directed at grounding every child in scripture: they
would not only learn major verses by heart but acquire at the same time an
adequate knowledge of the rest. Some people showed great skill in applying
verses from the Holy Scripture to anything that happened and in using the
Bible in their conversation. Out of this grew, undeniably, the wittiest and
most gracious replies, as still today certain standard phrases, always applicable,
occur here and there in ordillary speech.
Likewise we use classical sayings to inrucate or express a feeling or an
event as something continually recurring.
Fifty years ago, when we as young people admired our native poets, we
would also refresh our memory through their writings and grant them the
most beautiful approval by expressing our thoughts through their select,
refined words, thereby admitting that they had known better than we how
to unfold our most intimate feelings.
But, to come to my main point, let us recall a well known, yet still secret
method of communicating through codes: if two individuals agree on a book
whose page and line numbers they \vill refer to in their letters, the sender can
be sure the recipient will readily detect the meaning.
The kind of song I put in the "code" category is intended to indicate
such an arrangement. Two lovers agree to choose the poems of Hafiz as
the instrument for their exchange of feelings; they each designate the page
and the line that embody their present state of mind. In this way songs are
composed, with thoughts most beautifully expressed. l\Iagnificent passages
scattered in the pages of the invaluable poet are bound together through
passion and feeling. Inclination and choice lend the whole an i.tmer life. \nd,
though separated, the lovers find themselves comforted in their resignation as
they adorn their b>tief \\-ith the pearls of his words.
To open my heart
To you I long.
To hear from yours -
For that I long;
The world so sadly
Looks at me!
Only my friend
In my heart now lives,
No hint of the trace
Of a foe it gives.
- 232 -
Code
Brighter than sunrise -
.A resolution!
Starting today,
I'll devote my life
To serving only
The one I love.
I think of him -
My heart is bleeding.
I have no power -
( >nly to love him,
Duly in secret,
'hatever happens! -
Want to embrace him! -
Yet I cannot.
(42) A FUTURE DIV.AN
.At one time certain publications used to be circulated in Germany as

mmmscripts for friends. If you think this odd, bear in mind that ultimately
every book is written solely for sympathizers, friends, admirers of the
author. I would particularly like to place my Divali in this category, the
present edition being incomplete. In earlier years I would have held it back
for some time, but now I fmd it more advantageous to put it together myself
rather than leave the task to posterity as Hafiz did. For the very fact that thi
little book appears as I was currently able to present it makes me want to
complete it eventually in proper form. I will indicate, book by book, what
might possibly s till be hoped for in this regard.
Book ojthe Poet. This part, as it nnw stands, puts forth with enthusiasm
the lively impressions that some objects and phenomena produce on our
senses and our mind, and it hints at my closer connections to the Orient. If
I continue in the same way, the pleasant garden may be adorned in the
most charming manner. But its layout will be most delightfully extended if I
do not merely deal with myself and act on my ourn behalf but also offer
thanks to my respected benefactors and friends, so as to remember the living
with cordial words, and to recall the deceased with honor.
Here one has to bear in mind, however, that the Oriental dash and
buoyancy in this amply and even exorbitantly laudatory poetry may perhaps
not appeal to the feelings of a \Vesterner. \X'e, by contrast, move along
boldly and freely, without resorting to hyperbole, for in fact only a pure,
- 233 -
Notes & Essays
truly felt poetry can possibly express the authentic merits of outstanding
men, whose perfection can be righdy appraised only when they have passed
away, when their peculiarities no longer disturb us while the effectiveness
of their actions yet comes daily and hourly to the fore. A short while ago I
had the chance to make good, in my fashion, part of my indebtedness at a
majestic celebration in the presence of a mo st worthy l\lajesty [the Masque
Processional of 1 8 1 8 for Empress Mother Maria Fyodorovna in \Veimar;
see l\-LA 1 1 . 1 . 1 , 321-359] .
Book of Hafiz If all who use the Arabic language and tongues related to
it are alread y born and raised as poets, one can imagine that from such a
narion innumerable excellent minds will emerge. If such a people, after five
hundred years, concede the first rank to seven poets only, we are truly
obliged to accept that dicmm with respect. Yet, at the same time, we may
be allowed to investigate the real reasons for the preference.
To solve this problem to the extent of my ability may again be left to a
fumre Divan. for, to speak only of Hafiz, admiration and liking for him grow
the more one comes to know him . He has the most chee rful temperament,
great learning, a free facility, and the pure conviction that you pleas e people
only when you sing for them what they like to hear and can hear with ease
and comfort, making it possible, once in a while, for you to let something
heavy, difficult, or unwelcome slip in. If experts will to some extent
recognize in the following song the image of Hafiz, the Westerner will be
especially pleased for having made the attempt to portray him:
To Hafiz
\XIhat all desire, you well have known

And apd understand:
For longing holds, from dust to throne,
All in an iron band.
So great the pain, then sudden cheer -

Oppose it - who would dare?
The first man breaks his neck? No fear:
Forward the next will fare.
Pardon me, Master - don't demur

For my a udacity:
The eye cannot but follow her,
Sweet wand'ri.ng cypress rree.
- 234 -
A Future Dimn
Her walking foot like tendrils curves

And wantons with the ground.
Her breath, a breeze, caressing, swerves;
I l er words light, cloudlike, sound.
Filled with presentiments you go

To glimpse her curling hair.
In fullness dark-brown ringlets flow,
\'V'hisper in windy air.
:\nd when you see her forehead clear,

Your heart is comforted:
A bright, authentic song you hear,
Making your spirit's bed.
Ami when her lips so sweetly move

The soul such height attains,
You're free, yet would no longer rove
But lay you clown in chains.
You breathe - your breath would not retum

But soul to soul would flee.
'inding aromas make you ream;
They bind, invisibly.
Yet when desire more s trongly bums,

The drinking-bowl's sublime:
Cupbearer leaves and then returns -
..-\lways another time.
\'\lith lightning eye, a heart that quakes -
A lesson he would hear:

\'<'hen wine your spirit lively makes,
Your teachings will endear.
I Ie feels a roominess of worlds,

A healing rule within,
A swelling breast, light down that curls:
His man-life will begin.
And if no mystery remain

That heart anc.I world may hold,
Love for the thinker you'll retain
That might the sense unfold.
- 235 -
Notes & Essays
The royal refuge we've preferred -

Let's keep it ever near:
Say to the Shah a grateful word
And to the good vizier.
These things you know, and sing today,

Tomorrow sing, beguiled.
Your guidance hdp us on our way
Through life, when rough or mild.
The Book ofLove would swdl considerablr if the six loving pairs were to
appear more distinctly, with their joys and sufferings, and if additional lovers
emerged more or less clearly from the obscure past. Wamik and Asra for
example, of whom nothing is known but their names, could be introduced in
the following way:
One !\lore Couple
Yes, love's a merit, truly great!

I ts profit who could overrate?
You won't be rich or filled with might
But like the greatest heroes bright.
Of Wamik, Asra, faithfully
\Ve'll speak, as of a prophecy. -
Not only speak but also name:
Let all who hear this lend them fame.
\Vha t they have done, to action moved,
Nobody knows. But that they loved
We know. To tell it ends our task
When you of Wamik, Asra ask.
Tlus book is no less suited for symbolic digressions, which in the field
of the Orient one can hardly do without. A great mind, not content with what
is shown him, considers everything presented to the senses as a mwrunery,
behind which a higher spiritual life is hiding in a waggish-will ful way, to
blandish and attract us into nobler regions. If the poet proceeds here with
consciousness and measure, you can value that, enjoy it, and test your wings
for a more determined flight.
The Book of Observations expands every day for one who is at home in
the Orient. Everything there is observation, which vacillates between the
sensuous and the suprasensory without settling on one or the other. 1bis
contemplation to which we are invited is of a very special kind, not only di
rected at our sagacity, though tl1e latter makes the strongest demands, but
- 236 -
A Future Dnan
also guided to those points where the s tranges t problems of our earthly life
s tand plain and pitiless before us, and we are compelled to bow our knees
before chance, before a providence and its unfathomable decrees, and to
pronounce unconditional resignation as the highest political-moral-religious
law.
Book ofAnger. If the other books have a chance to grow, the same right
may well be granted to this one. Delightful, amiable, sensible supplements
should ftrs t be brought together before outbursts of anger can be tolerated.
A general human benevolence, a helpful inclination to leniency, links
heaven to earth and offers human beings the paradise they have been
accorded. In contrast, anger is always egotistic. It dwells on demands that
cannot be met. It is arrogant, repugnant, and pleases no one, scarcely even
people seized by the same feeling. But a person cannot always refrain from
such explosions. I n fact, one even does well in seeking to vent rage in this
way, especially if aroused by an activity hindered or obs tructed. My book
would already have been far stronger and richer by now had I not, to avoid
discord, put many such items aside. I would like to note, in this connection,
that utterances which for the moment seem questionable but will later be
accepted with amusement and good will as harmless have been saved for
publication in future years under the heading paralipomena.
I utilize this opportunity, however, to talk about arrogance, and ftrst of
all about the way it is manifested in the Orient. The ruler himself is the one
who primarily arrogates everything and seems to exclude everyone else. All
are at his disposal, he commands himself, nobody commands him, and his
own will power creates the rest of the world, so that he can compare him
self to the sun, indeed to the universe. Strikingly, though, precisely for this
reason he is obliged to choose a co-regent to assist him in such a boundless
field, even simply to keep him on the throne of the world. It is the poet
who acts with him and on his behalf, and elevates him above all mortals. I f
many talented people come together at court, h e appoints among them a
poet-king, proving he recogruzes the highest talent as his equal. But in this
way the poet is encouraged, even inveigled to think of himself as highly as
of the prince, namely as co-possessor of the highest privileges and per
quisites. He is confirmed in this through the innumerable gifts he gets, the
wealth he amasses, and the influence he wields. He even gets so caught up
in this mode of thinking that any shortfall in his expectations may drive
him mad. An carlier inJication from the emperor leads Firdusi to expect
sixty thousand gold coins for his Shah Nameh. Instead he is given only sixty
thousand silver coins, just while he happens to be taking a bath. He divides
the sum into three parts, b>iving one to the errand boy, one to the bath
- 237 -
Notes & Essays
attendant, and the third to the cupbearer. Then, with a few defamatory
lines, at one stroke he annihilates all the praise he had lavished on the Shah
for many years. He flees, hides, refuses to recant, and transmits his hatred
to his kin. So his sister equally scorns and rejects a considerable gift that the
Shah (who in the meantime had been reconciled) had sent to her, but which
unluckily arrived only after her brother's death.
If I wanted to dilate further on this, I would say that from the throne
through all the social levels down to the dervish at the corner of the street,
we ftnd people brimful of worldly or spiritual haughtiness, which at the
slightest incident will immediately let loose a violent outburst.
Regarding thi. moral defect, if it ought to be considered as such, there is
a s trange attitude in the \Vest. Modesty is basically a social virtue, indicating
refined education. It is an outward self-denial, which, being founded on great
inward value, is regarded as the loftiest trait in a person. And so we hear
that outs tanding people are praised chiefly for their modesty, with no
special regard for their other qualities. But modesty, always linked to pretense,
is a kind of flattery that i all the more effective when it pleases another
person in an unobtrusive way, since it will not disconcert him in his cozy
amour propre. Yet whatever we call good society is based on increasing
self-denial. Social relations would tend toward zero unless our talent
developed to the point where we could flatter the other person's vanity
by gratifing our own at the same time.
But I would like to reconcile my compatriots to my presumptions. In
the Divali a certain boastfulness cannot be omitted if the Oriental character
is to be fairly expressed.
I have not tended to indulge in unpleasant assertiveness toward the
upper classes. My fortunate situation exempted me from a s truggle with
despotism. To be sure, all the world chimes in with whatever accolades I
may have bestowed on my princely sovereigns. The august personalities I
had been associated with have won general praise and continue to be
praised. So I might even be faulted for not making the laudatory part of my
Divan rich enough.
Yet so far as the Book of1nger is concerned, some of it might he found
objectionable. Every angry man makes it all too clear that his expectations
have not been fulfilled, his merits not acknowledged. So, too, with me. I am
not restrained from above, but, so to speak, from below and from the side.
Spokesmen of an intrusive, often vapid, often malicious crowd hamper my
activity. At ftrst I arm himself with pride and irritability, but then, tried and
pressed too hard, I feel strong enough to fight my way through.
- 238 -
A Future Dnan
But grant me this: I know how to miti!,>'a te some of my presumptuous

claims by transferring them at last, feelingly and skillfully, to my beloved. I
humble, indeed annihilate myself before her. For that, the reader's heart
and nund will give me credit.
The Book of Aphorisms should expand more than any of the others. It
Book of Observatiofls and Book ofA11ger. Oriental aphor
relates closely to the
isms preserve the distinctive quality of the whole poetic art in that they very

often refer to sensuous, visible obj cts. Many can be called laonic parables.
For those of the West, this genre will remain the most difficult one because
our environment presents itself as dry, regular, and prosaic. But Old German
proverbs, where the meaning i transformed into a parable, may serve here as
our model.
The Book of Timur would actually still need to be worked out, and
maybe some years will have to pass before too close an interpretation of
terrifying world events would no longer hinder us from viewing them in a
sublimated way. Their tragedy might be lightened if we decided to allow
occasional appearances of the whimsical Nasreddin Khodja [thirteenth
century), who was the compa1uon, in trek and tent, of Timur [or Tamerlane,
1 335-1405], that dreadful devastator of the world. Happy hours and a free
mind will take us far along our chosen path. I will include here a model of
the little tales passed down to us.
Timur was an ugly man, with a blind eye and a lame foot. One day
when Nasreddin was with him, Tirnur was scratching Ius head because it
was time for a shave, and he ordered the barber to be summoned. After the
head had been shaved, the barber, as usual, handed Tirnur the mirror. \Vhat
Tirnur saw in that mirror was so ugly he s tarted to cry. Nasreddin, too,
began weeping, and so they wept for a few hours. Then some companions
cheered up Timur and entertained him with strange stories to make him
forget everything. Timur stopped crying. K.hodja didn't stop but began
weeping all the more strongly. Finally Timur spoke to K.hodja: "Liten! I
looked in the mirror and saw I was very ugly. I was deeply saddened because I
am not only the emperor but have great wealth and many female slaves, and
I'm s till so ugly - that's what I 've been crying about. But why do you
continue weeping?" N asredd.in answered: "If after a single glance into the
mirror you absolutely couldn't bear the sight of yourself and had to cry
over it, how can we keep from tears when we have to look at your face
night and day? I f we don't weep, then who should be weeping? That is why
I wept." T.i.rnur was beside himself with laughter.
Book of Ztdeika. This book, the most extensive in the whole collection,
might well be considered complete. The scent and spirit of the passion
- 239 -
Notes & Essays
wafting through it do not readily come back. At least, their return must be
awaited, like a good vintage year, in hope and humility.
I may, however, make a few remarks about my behavior. Following the
example of many an Oriental predecessor I keep myself at a distance from
the sultan. As a modest detvish I may even compare myself to a prince, for
the true beggar is said to be a kind of king. Poverty engenders temerity. !vly
determination not to recognize worldly goods and their value, not to ask
for them or to ask for only little, produces a feeling of ease and freedom
from care. Instead of worriedly seeking possessions, I imagine giving away
lands and treasures, and I make fun of the man who has really owned ami
lost them. I have in fact admitted a voluntary poverty, but only so as to
come forward all the more proudly, since there is a sweetheart who is
nonetheless devoted and attentive to me.
But I pride myself on an even greater deficiency: the bloom of my
youth has withered away. I adorn my age, my grey hair, with the love of
Zuleika, not obtrusively like a fop - no! - but sure of her returning my
love. She, the spirited one, knows how to value the spirit which ripens
youth early and rejuvenates age.
Book ofthe Cupbeaf'fr. Neither intemperate propensity for half-illicit wine
drinking nor delicacy of feeling for the beauty of an adolescent could be
omitted from the Divan. But the latter had to be treated in all purity, in
accordance with our morals .
The mutual inclination between younger and older individuals funda
mentally points to a truly pedagogic relationship. A child's passionate inclination
toward an aged man is not really a rare phenomenon, but rarely is it made use
of. Here one should notice the relationship of a brrandson to his grandfather,
and of the late-born heir to the surprised and tender father. It is in this
relation that children's intelligence can develop. They are attentive to the
dignity, experience, and authority of the elder. Pure-born souls feel a need
for a respectful liking: the old person's affections are captured and held
fast. If youth feels and employs its preponderance to achieve innocent aims
and satisfy childlike needs, charm reconciles us to an early archness. Most
touching, however, is a growing awareness in the youngs ter who, stirred by
the elevated spirit of the old person, feels an amazement which lets him
foresee that something of the kind could happen to him as well. I planned
to hint at such beautiful relationships in Book of the Cupbeaf'fr and presently
to explain them further. Yet Saadi has preserved examples whose delicacy,
acknowledged by all, reveals the most perfect understanding.
Here is what he tells in Rose Cardell [5: 1 6):
- 240 -
A Future Dimn
In the year when Muhammad Khovarezm Shah made peace

with the king of l<hata, I entered the cathedral mosque of Kashgar,
which, as you know, includes a school, and saw an extremely hand
some, graceful boy He was holding in his hand a book of Arabic
.
grammar, for he wanted to learn that language purely and thor

oughly . He read aloud, specifically, th e example of a rule: Daraba
Zaidrm Amran: "Zaid struck, or defeated, Amru." Zaidun is the
nominative and A.tn1"an is the accusative. (I"he two names stand
here for a general indication of two opponents, as we might say
"Tom, Dick, and Harry.") After he had repeated these words several
times to commit them to memory, I said, ''\Vhy? If Khovarezm and
Khata have finally made peace, should Zaid and Amru continue to
wage war against each other?" The boy smiled graciously and asked
where I was born. And when I replied, "The soil of Shiraz," he
asked, being fond of the Persian language, "\\'hat do you remember
of the compositions of Saadi?"
I answered, "As your temperament has devoted itself to grammar
out of the love of pure language, so love for you has wholly enticed
my heart. The form of your nature has blotted out the form of my
intellect." He looked at me attentively as if he wanted to find out
whether I was quoting the words of the poet or expressing my own
feelings. But I continued: "Like Zaid, you have captivated the heart
of a lover in your snare. I would like to be your companion, but you
are unwilling and hostile to me, like Zaid to Amru." Yet he replied,
in modest embarrassment, with lines o f my own p oems , and I had
the advantage of being able to tell him the most beautiful things in
the same manner, and so for some days we were continually engaged
in graceful conversations. But when the court was preparing for a
new journey and we were getting ready to leave early in the morning,
one of my companions told him, "That is Saadi hin1self, whom you
had asked about."
The boy came running to me, acting quite friendly in all
deference toward me, wishing tha t he had got to know me
before, and said, "\X'hy didn t you want to reveal yourself to me all
'
those days and tell me, 'I am Saaili,' so I might pay you due honor as
best I could and humble myself before your feet in service?" But I
replied, "Looking at you, I was not able to pronounce the words
'I am he': my heart burst open toward you like a rose beginning
to bloom." He further asked whether it might not be possible for
me to s p end more days in this country so he could learn from me
- 24 1 -
Notes & Essays
about art and science. :But I replied, "It cannot be. For I sec here
excellent men sitting between high mountains, while, for my part, I
am pleased and contented in having nothing but a cave in this
world, and staying there." After that he seemed to me a bit sad, so I
asked why he didn't go into the city where he could free his heart
from the bonds of melancholy and live more cheerfully. He replied,
"One sees lovely and graceful things there. But the streets are
muddy and slippery. Even elephants might s twnble and fall. And
so, in viewing bad examples, I might fail to stand on my feet."
Having spoken thus, we kissed each other's heads and faces, and
parted. So what the poet says came true: "In parting, those who
love are each like an apple; one cheek pressing on the other turns
red from desire and life; the second one, pale from sorrow and
sickness."
Elsewhere the same poet tells [5: 17):
\XIhen I was young I maintained a sincere and durable friendship
with a yOlmg man like myself. To my eyes, his face belonged to the
heavenly realm that magnetized our prayers. Being with him was the
greatest gain in all my life's activities. I hold that no earthly mortal,
perhaps only an angel in heaven, could el)Ual him in beauty of form,
sincerity, and uprightness. Having enjoyed such a friendship I took
an oath, and it would seem wrong to me if after his death I were to
bestow my love on someone else. It happened that suddenly his
foot was caught in the snare of his destiny, hastening him to the
grave. I kept him company sitting and lying on his tomb, holding
vigil for many days, and composed a good many songs of grief on
his loss and our separation. lbese will always remain moving for
me and others.
Book of Parables. Although 'estern nations have appropriated many
things from the wealth of the Orient, one still might find here many an
item to be gleaned, as the following will reveal.
Parables, like other poetic genres of the Orient related to proper conduct,
can be rightly divided into three categories: ethical, moral, and ascetic. The
first group contains events and indications related to human beings as such
and their circumstances, without explicit afftrmations of what is good or
bad. But the second group does affirm this contrast and offers the hearer a
judicious choice. The third, however, adds a further constraint: here the
moral suggestion becomes corrunand and law. To these categories a fourth
may be added: parables that depict the miraculous guidings and acts of
- 242 -
A Future Dimn
providence that emanate from unfathomable, imponderable decrees of God,

teadung and confinning what is properly speaking Islam, unconditioned
"surrender" to the will of God, the conviction that no one can evade his
des tiny. We may add a fifth kind that would need to be called mys tical: it
drives the human being from a prior state of anxiety and depression to a
unity with God already in this life, and to a temporary renouncing of goods
whose eventual loss would cause pain. By keeping separate the different
purposes of contrasting categories of Oriental uses of imagery, we will gain
a great advantage. !\fixing them up will confuse every issue when we look
for a moral application 'llrhere there is none while overlooking a deeper
intention elewhere. Striking examples of all the varied groupings would make
the Book of Parables interesting and instructive. I leave to the dic;cerning reader
the task of categorizing the ones so far provided.
Book of the J>arsi. Numerous distractions have prevented me from
presenting in its full poetic range the Persian reverence for sun and flre,
a phenomenon that may seem abstract but yet is so energetically effective.
There is a rich supply of material to choose from. May I be granted the
opportunity to compensate happily for what has been onUtted.
Book of Paradise. This area of IslanUc faith has many beautiful places,
paradises within Paradise, where one would like to stroll or even settle.
Levity and gravity are thus intertwined here in a lovely way, and a transfigured
everyday life lends us wings to reach higher and higher levds. And what
should prevent the poet from mounting the nU!aculous horse of Muhammad
and whirling up through all the heavens? \"Vhy should he not devoutly
celebrate that holy night when the Qur'an was brought down complete from
on high? Here is an abundance yet to be attained.
(43) STUDIES IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
After flattering myself with the sweet hope that in the sequel I 'W-ill be
able to amplify both the Divan and the appended explanations, I am leafing
through my prelinUnary studies which, unused and unfinished, are heaped
up before me as so many loose leaves . There I find a treatise, written
twenty-five years ago, referring to still older papers and s tudies.
From my biographic essays my friends might well recall that I have
dedicated a lot of time and attention to the First Book of Moses and
strolled in the paradises of the Orient during manr a youthful day. But I
also devoted diligent, eager study to the historical writings that followed it.
The last four books of Moses obliged me to conduct careful investigations,
- 24 3 -
Notes & Essays
and all their strange results are contained in the following treatise. Let
them have a place here. For as all my wanderings in the Orient have been
occasioned by the Holy Scriptures, so I always return to them as the most
refreshing rills. \Vhen they become turbid here and there or hide awhile
under the earth, immediately afterward they pour forth, pure and fresh, like
spring water.
(44) ISRAEL IN THE DESERT
"Now there arose up a new king over Egypt, which knew not Joseph"
[Ex. 1: 8] . .i\s the ruler, so too the people had lost the memory of their
benefactor. To the Israelites, the names of their forefathers seem to ring
faintly like time-honored sounds from afar. A fter four hundred years the
little family had increased tremendously. The promise given to their great
ancestor in such improbable circumstances had been fulfilled. But what was
the good of that? It is precisely this larger number that raises the suspicions
of the majority. 'They try to harass, frighten, molest, extenninate them. As much
as their stubborn nature resists, the Israelites well foresee their complete
destruction. Formerly free shepherd folk, they are now obliged to build
perdurable cities with their own hands. Located within the country and at
the borders, these towns are clearly intended to become their dungeons and
jails.
Before we go further and work our way through these oddly, even
unsatisfyingly edited books, we have to ask what will remain the basis, the
primary substance of the four last books of Moses as we try to remember the
main points while passing over some of the others.
The true, unique, and deepest theme of world and human history, the
one to which all others are subordinated, remains the conflict between
unbelief and faith. All the epochs when faith rules, in whatever form, are
splendid, heartening, and fertile for contemporaries and posterity. But all
the eras when unbelief, in whatever form, maintains a miserable victory, even
if they temporarily boast an apparent splendor, vanish before posterity. No
one wants the torment of admitting what has been fruitless.
If the First Book of Moses picntres the triumph of faith, the next four
books have unbelief as their theme. Unbelief does not challenge and attack
faith, which in fact has not yet shown itself in greatest plenitude. Instead, it
meanlr obstructs it, step by step. Through the bestowal of benefits, and more
often yet by abject punishments, unbelief is not cured, not rooted out,
but only temporarily placated. I t continues its crawling gait so effectively
- 244 -
Israel in the Desert
that a great, noble project undertaken on the basis of magnificent promi'>es

at the behest of a reliable national god threatens to collap s e right at the start
and in any case can never be achieved in its fullness.
I f the unwieldy nature of this content, the bewildering elusiveness (at
least at first glance) of the basic thread nmning through the whole, makes us
uncomfortable and annoyed, the Books of Moses are made utterly unpal
atable by a deeply saddening, un intellih>ible mode of editing. We s ee the
hi'>torical narrative obstructed everywhere by the interpolation of innumerable
laws. \Ve ca1mot detect the real cause and purpose of most of these, or why they
have been offered at a particular moment, or, if they they originated later, why
they are invoked and inserted here. In such a vast carnpa4-,m , in h erently
encumbered with so many obstacles, we canno t understand
w h y anyone
would try so deliberately and pe d an tically
to pile up the religious baggage
of ceremonies, m a king any progress imm e a surably more difficult. It is
incomprehensible why laws for the future, which is still wh olly suspended
in mid-air, are being pronounced at a time when every day, every hour is
lacking in word and deed and when the commander-in-chief, who ought to
stay on his feet, repeatedly prostrates himself to beg for mercies and punish
ments from above - both dispensed only in a random, scattered way. Like
the distraught people, we lose sight of the main goal.
In order to find my way through tha t labyrint h I took pain s to isolate
,
meticulou s ly for analysis whatever is, properly speaking, a narrative,

whether presented as history, fable, or both together (poetry). First I separa ted
the narrative component from whatever was taugh t and commanded. Under
the "tching" rubric I placed what would be appropriate to all countries, to all
moral human beings. Under the heading of "commands" I included what
concerns the people of Israel in particular and binds it together. I hardly dare
to judge how far I succeeded in do ing this since right now I am not in a
pos i tion to t ake up those studies again but on ly to bring together from
earlier and later papers what will h elp make my point. I want to draw the
reader's attention to two things. The fttst is the way this strange expedition
unfolds from the personality of the commander, who at the start does not
appear in the most favorable light. The second factor is my h yp oth e sis that
the expedition did not take forty but s ca rcely two years. This latter
consideration will justify and restore to honor the commander whose conduct
we earlier had reason to blame. And at the same time it will salvage, and nearly
restore in its initial purity, the honor of the national god notwithstanding the
int:l}uity of his harshness, which is even more unpleasant than the sn1bbonU1ess
of a people.
- 245 -
Notes & Essays
So let us first recall the people of Israel in Egypt, in whose great affliction
the latest posterity is called on to participate. Among these people, from the
violent tribe of Levi, arose a violent man marked by a vigorous sense of
what is right and wrong. He appears worthy of his fierce forebears, whose
progenitor exclaims: "Simeon and Levi are brt:thren; instruments of cruelty
are in their habitations. 0 my soul, come not thou into their secret; unto
their assembly, tnine honour, be not thou united: for in their anger they
slew a man, and in their selfwill they digged down a wall. Cursed be their
anger, for it was fierce; and their wrath, for it was cruel: I will divide them
in J acob, and scatter them in Israel" [Gen. 49: 5-7] .
Joses presents himself in quite the same way. He secretly slays the
Egyptian who maltreats an Israelite. His patriotic assassination is discovered,
and he mus t flee. There is no reason to ask about the education of one who
has committed such an act and presented himself as purely a man of nature.
He is supposed to have been favored as a boy by a princess and to have
been educated at court, but nothing has had any effect on him. A splendid,
strong man, he has remained crude in all circumstances. In his exile, too we
fmd him a vigorous, curt, taciturn man, unskilled in conununication. His
daring fist gains him the favor of a princely Midianite priest, who immediately
takes him in as one of the family. There he gets to know the desert, where
later on he will perform the burdensome duty of a conunander-in-chief.
And now, most important, let us glance at the :Midianites, among
whom Moses now finds himself. We must recognize them as a b>reat nation,
who like all nomadic and trading people, with diversified tribal activities
and a wide range of mobility, seem greater than they are. \X/c find the
l\lidian.ites at 11t. Horeb, on the western side of a small gulf, and then
heading toward Moab and the Arnon. Earlier we found them as traders
traveling in a caravan from Canaan to Egrpt.
Among such an educated people 11oses now lives but, once again, as a
separate, reticent shepherd. In the saddest of circumstances for an excellent
man not born for thinking and reflecting but keen on action, we sec him
lonely in the desert, his mind constantly preoccupied with the dest.iny of his
people, always turned to the god of his ancestors. Ill at ease, he feels the
effects of exile from a land which, though not the land of his fathers, is still
the land of his people. Though too weak to use his fists in promoting tllis great
affair, he cannot devise a plan, and even if he could, he lacks the capacity for any
negotiation, any coherent oral performance that might show his personal
qualities to advantage. In such circwutances, it would not be at all surprising
for such a strong nature to consume itself.
- 246 -
He can derive some comfort through contact with his own people,
maintained br caravans going to and fro. After many a doubt he resolves to
return and to become the savior of the people. His brother Aaron comes to
meet him, and he learns that popular tmrest has peaked. Now both brothers
can make bold to face the king as representatives. But the monarch proves
disinclined to let a multitude leave so easily and and regain their old
indept.mlence, now that over the course of centuries they have advanced
from shepherding to a-,>riculture, craftsmanship, and the arts, a massive labor
force available, at the very least, to erect huge monuments and build new
cities and fortresses.
So the request is turned down. As public calamities invade the
country the same request is raised ever more urgently and refused ever
more adamantly. But the abritated Hebraic people, now in sight of the
hereditary homeland an age-old tradition had promised, and thus filled with
the hope of independence and self-governance, will not acknowledge any
further duties. Under cover of a general festivity they wheedle the neigh
bors out of their gold and silver vessels, and just at the moment when the
Eb'TPtians believe the Israelites to be occupied with harmless banquets, a
"Sicilian vespers" in reverse is brought about. The stranger murders the
native, the guest murders the host. A cruel policy dictates that only the
ftrstborn be killed, so as to stimulate the selfishness of later-horns in a land
where one's hirthright brings so many privileges. Instant vengeance is
evaded by a hurried flight. 'lbe stratagem succeeds; the murderers are
banished, not punished. Only later docs the king assemble an army. But the
horsemen and chariots armed with scythes, otherwise so terrifying to the
infantry, fight on swampy ground in unequal contest against the light and
lightly armed rearguard. These lighter forces were probably the same
detennined, fearless band who had already gained practice through their
earlier bold exploit of widespread killing. Their cruelty will make it
impossible for us not to recognize them again later.
A well-armed military and popular expedition so well equipped for attack
and defense alike was able to choose more than one way to the Promised
Land. The seaside route, passing through Gaza, was unsuited to caravans
and might be dangerous on account of the well-armed, bellicose inhabi
tants. A second itinerary, though longer, seemed to offer more security and
greater advantages: it went along the Red Sea to Sinai. From there again one
had two routes to choose from. The ftrst, leading more directly to the
desired destination, stretched along a little bay through the country of the
l\lid.ianites and l\foabites to the river Jordan. The second, across the desert,
pointed toward Kadesh. The land of Edam was on the left if you took
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Notes & Essays
the fus t option, on the right if you chose the second. It was the fust one
that Moses had probably planned to take, but he seems to have been
induced to adopt the second by the clever l\Iidianites. In a little while I intend
to show the likelihood of this, but first I need to bring out the apprehensive
mood evoked by the way the circumstances of the expedition are depicted.
Ihe serene night sky, glowing with innumerable stars, to which
Abraham's attention was called by his god, no longer spreads a golden canopy
above us. Rather than emulate the serenity of heavenly lights, a numberless
people move ill-humored in a gloomy wasteland. All phenomena that might
afford cheer have vanished; only fue-flames emerge in every nook and
cranny. The Lord, who in a burning bush had sununoned Moses, now
moves before the masses in turbid glowing smoke, which by day can be
regarded as a column of clouds, by night as a meteoric fire. Lightning and
thunder threaten from the darkened peak of Sinai, and at seemingly minor
offenses flames burst out of the ground and consume the outer parts of the
camp. Food and drink repeatedly fall short, and the desire of the disgruntled
people to turn back becomes all the more anxious the less their guide shows
any substantial ability to help himself.
Already early, even before the expedition reaches Sinai, Jethro comes to
meet his son-in-law, hrinbring daughter and grandson, who had been kept safe
in the father's tent during the times of hardship. Jethro proves himself a
prudent man. A people like the 1\lidianites, who can move freely wherever
they wish and exer<.:ise their powers as they will, must be more educated than
those who have lived under a foreign yoke in perpetual conflict with
themselves and their circumstances. How much more elevated would be the
perspective of a leader of these freer people than that of a taciturn,
melancholy man, who feels born to act and rule, but to whom nature has
denied the means for such a perilous venture.
Moses could not rise to the idea that a ruler need not be present
everywhere or do everything himself. On the contrary, by personally
intervening he makes his leadership bitter and burdensome. Jethro makes
the point clear for the fust time and then helps him organize the people
and appoint subordinate authorities, something he should have been able to
think of on his own.
Yet Jethro may have been taking into account not only the welfare of
his son-in-law and the Israelites but also his own potential benefit and that
of the 11idianites. Moses, whom he had once taken in as a refugee and had
until recently included among his servants and bondsmen, Jethro now
encounters at the head of a great mass of people who have left their
- 248 -
p revious dwelling place, are looking for a new one, and spread terror
wherever they go.
Now to a man of in sigh t it would be no secret that the most direct
route for the children of Israel would lead right through the territories of the
l\liclian.ites and that everywhere they went their expedition would encounter
Midian.ite herds, settlements, and well-organized towns. The p olicy principles
of such an emigrating people are no secret; they are based on the right of
conquest. Emigrants cannot relocate without resistance, and in every
resistance they sec an injustice. \Vl10evcr defends his property is an enemy
to be unsparingly eliminated.
We need no special .insight to realize what prospect would confront any
pe op le exposed to such a downrush of clouds of locusts. This fact may
well lead us to suppose that, when advising his son-in-law Moses, J ethro
discredited the best, most direct route and instead p ersua de d him to
proceed across the desert. This view is further supported by the fact that
Hobab will not budge from the side of his brother-in-law until he sees him
go in the recommended direction and even accompanies him farther so as
to turn the whole exp edition away from the settlements of the l\lidianites.
The trek began only in the fourteenth month after the exodus from
Egypt. At one point on the way, the people suffered a great plague in
punishment for lewdness. They called the area Tombs ofthe L-e1vd Then they
moved to Hazeroth and camped further in the desert of Paratr. No one
doubts that they covered this distance. They were now already close to the
goal of their journey. But they s till faced the mountains separating the land
of Canaan from the desert. They decided to send out scouts and in the
meantime advanced to &desh. That is where the scouts returned, bringing
news of the splendor of the country but also, unluckily, of the ferocity of the
inhabitants. Again sad discord rose, and the struggle of faith with unbelief
began anew.
Unfortunately, Moses had even less talent as a commander than as a
ruler. Already during the strife against the Amalekites he withdrew to the
mountain to pray, while Joshua at the head of the army finally wrested
from the enemy a victory whose likelihood had for a long while seemed
doubtful. Now at Ka d es h the troops found themselves once more in a
dubious position. J oshua and Caleb, bravest of the twelve delegates,
counsel attack, confidently declaring they will win the land. But meanwhile
an exaggerated description of anncd tribes of J,>iants arouses terror. TI1e
intimidated anny refuses to move. AJ,>ain 1\foses is at a loss. First he challenges
them, but then he, too, begins to fear an attack. He proposes to move to the
east. A committed contingent of the army may have judged it unworthy to
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Notes & Essays
abandon, at this long-desired ju n cture a serious plan to which so much

,
exhaus ting effort had alre ady been de vote d . Th e y rally and march to the
mountain. But Moses stays behind, and the ark is not moved. So it is not
appropriate for either Joshua or Caleb to stand at the head of the bolder
troops. In short, the high-handed, unsupported vanguard is beaten.
Impatience grows. The people's disple asure , which has alre ady erupted so
many times, and the repeated mutinies in which even Aaron and .Miriam
participated break out, all the more violently this time, and testify again to
how little Moses was equal to his great vocation. It was clear to everyone
and confirmed beyond a doubt by the testimony of Caleb that at this poin t
it would be p ossible, in fact indispensable, to penetrate into the land of
Canaan, to take possession of H ebron and the grove of Mamre, to conquer
the holy tomb of Abraham, and by so doing to secure for the whole
enterprise a goal, a point of defense, and an organizing center. In contrast,
what disadvantages would accrue for the unfortunate people if it were
suddenly decided that the plan Jethro had proposed (not wholly d.isi.nterested
but not wholly treacherous either) must be impiously given up!
The second year after the exodus from Egypt was not yet over, and
one could envision oneself in possession o f the most beautiful part of th e
desired land before year s end (already late enough). But the inhabitants,
'
watchful, had put a stop to progress, and where to turn now? The soldiers
had advanced far enough to the north and now were asked to march eas t
simply in o rd e r to go in the direction they could have taken from the
start. But p re cis ely here in the east lay the land of Edom, surrounded by
mountains. The men requested entry, but the clever Edom.ites refused
categorically. To fight one's way through was not advisable. They had to
choose a detour leading past the Edom.ite mountains on the left, and here
the journey proceeded more or less without hindrance. They needed only
a few stops - Oboth, Ijim - to reach the brook Sared, the first to pour
its waters into the Dead Sea, and then move farther to the Amon.
Meanwhile l\liriam had died, and Aaron had disappeared shortly after the
rebellion against Moses.
From the brook Arnon onwards they had better fortune than before.
For the second time the people saw themselves close to the realization of
their wishes in an area with few obs tacles. Here they might massively forge
ahead to s ubdue, destroy, and expel the people who had refused them
entry. Advancing farther, they attacked the i\lidianites, Moabites, and
.\morites in their most attractive territories. The l\lidianites were annihilat
ed - exactly what Jethro had so carefully tried to avoid. The left bank of
the Jordan was taken, and some impatient tribes wert: allowed to settle.
- 2 50 -
Israel ;n the Desert
Once again laws were made, orders ven in the traditional way; and the
people hesitated to cross the Jordan. \X'hile these things were happening
!\loses himself disappeared as Aaron had done. After tolerating the rule of a
narrow-minded man for some years, Joshua and Caleb might well have
deemed it proper to put an end to that regime and to send him out next,
following the many unfortunate scouts he had delegated, thereby bringing the
affair to a close and putting themselves ft.nnly in possession of the entire right
bank of the Jordan and the lands it contained.
My account may be accep ted as a lively and coherent narrative of an
important enterprise, but it will not immediately cam trust and appproval
because it shows the expedition achieving its aim in a short time, whereas
the explicit letter of Holy Scripture depicts a proc es s lasting many years. So
I need to explain why I think I am entitled to such a major deviation. To
accomplish this I ask you to reflect on the terrain that a mass of people had
to cross and on the amount of time a caravan would need for such a march.
Consider in this context what has been handed down to us.
I will put aside the march from the Red Sea to the Sinai together with
everything that happened in the vicinity of the mountain. I will mention
only that a great mass of people set out from the foot of 1\ft. Sinai on the
twentieth day of the second month in the second year of the exodus from
Egypt. From there to the desert of Paran they had only fo rty miles to go,
which a loaded caravan covers reasonably in five d ays. Give the whole
column time for each day's travel and enough days of rest. Let it have an
additional rest stop. \Vith all allowances made, they could come to the
des tined area within twelve days, a view in accord with the Bible and with
common opinion. It is here that the emissaries are dispatched. The whole
mass of people advances only a short distance farther to Kadesh, where
the delegates return fo rty days later. Then, after an ill-advised attempt a t
bat tle, negotiations begin with the Edomites. Give this parley a s much time
as you want; it probably will not extend to more than thirty days. 1be
Edomites bluntly refuse entry. For Israel it was in no way advisable to res t
for long in such a perilous situation: if the Canaanites in the north, in
alliance with the Edomites in the east, had sallied forth from their
mountains, Israel would have been in a bad position.
The narrative does not pause here, either. Immediately the decision is
made to march around the mountains of Edom. Now the expedition
around the mountains of Edom, at flrSt directed south, then north, up to
the river of .Arnon, will once again not even cover forty miles. If you add
the forty days when they mourned the death of Aaron, we will still have six
months of the second year for any kinJ of slowing down and hesitating and
- 25 1 -
Notes & Essays
for the marches that will bring the children of Israel happily to the Jordan.
But what then becomes of the remaining thirty-eight years?
These have created a good deal of trouble for conunentators, as have
the forty-five way stations, including fifteen about which the narrative says
nothing ( placed in an index, though, they have given geographers plentr of
pain). Now the interpolated sites are related in a lucky legendary way to the
superfluous years. Sixteen sites of which nothing is known and thirty-eight
years about which nothing is heard give us a fme chance to go astray with
the children of Israel in the wilderness.
I will correlate the way stations of the story that are noteworthy because
of what occurred there to the way stations in the index, so that we can
distinguish between sites with empty names and those with historical
content.
Way Stations of the Children of Israel in the Wilderness

Story sites Index sites
(Bks. of Moses 2, 3, 4, 5) (Bk. 4, Ch. 33)
Rameses.
Sukkoth.
Etham.
Hahiroth. Hahiruth. Migdol.
Through the sea.
l\lara, desert of Sur. !\lara, desert of Etham.
Eli.m. Elim, 1 2 springs.
At the sea.
Desert of Sin. Desert of Sin.
Daphka.
Alus.
Raphidi.m. Raphidi.m.
Desert of Sinai. Desert of Sinai.
Tombs of the Lewd. Tombs of the Lewd.
Hazeroth. Hazeroth.
Rithma.
Kadesh in Paran. Rimmon Parez.
Libna.
Rissa.
Kehelata.
Mountains of Sapher.
Harada.
Makeheloth.
252 -
Tahath.
Tharah.
1\lithka.
l lasmona.
1\loseroth.
Bnejaekon.
I lorgidgad.
Jathbatha.
Abrona.
Ezeon-Gaber.
Kadesh, desert of Zin. Kadesh, desert of Zin.
1\It. I Ior, frontier of Edom. 1\It. Hor, frontier of Edom.
Zalmona.
Phunon.
Oboth. Oboth.
Ijim.
Dibon Gad.
Almon Diblathaim.
Mountains of Abarim. Mountains of Abarim, Nebo.
Brook Sared.
Amon on this side.
l\:lathana.
N ahaliel.
Bamoth.
;\'fountain of Pisgah.
Jahzah.
Heshbon.
Sihon.
Bashan.
:VIoabite fields at Jordan. Moabite fields at Jordan.
Now what we have to notice above all is that while the story leads us
irrunediately from Hazcroth to Kadesh, the index after Hazeroth leaves out
Kadesh and mentions it only after the inserted list of names that follow
Ezeon-Gaber, so it brings the desert of Zin into contact with the little arm
of the Arabian Gulf. Commentators have not known what to make of this.
Some of them assume two places called Kadesh while others, the majority,
assume only one, and they are doubtless right.
The story as I have fastidiously pruned it of all interpolations speaks of
a Kadesh in the desert of Paran and immediately afterward of a Kadesh in
the desert of Zin. From the first one the emissaries arc dispatched, and
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Notes & Essays
from the second one the whole mass of people marches away after the
Edomites have denied passage through their land. From this it becomes
self-evident that it is the same site, for the intended march through Edam
was a consequence of the failed attempt to penetrate into the land of
Canaan. Other passages make clear that the two repeatedly mentioned deserts
border each other - Zi.t1 lying more to the north, Paran to the south - and
that Kadesh was situated in an oasis as a resting place between the two
deserts.
No one would have ever come up with the idea of two places named
Kadesh if not for the embarrassment of having to keep the children of
Israel moving through the desert for forty years. But those who assume
only one Kadesh and still want to account for the forty years' march and
the inserted way stations are even worse off. Especially if they have to trace
the march on a map, they cannot envision a technique sufficiently peculiar
to demonstrate the inlpossible. For the eye is a better judge of incongruity
than any in ner sense. [Nicolas] Sanson [1 600-1 667] inserts the fourteen
spurious stops between Sinai and Kadesh. Here he cannot draw enough
z igz ags on his map, and still each station is only two miles distant from the
one before it, a stretch of land that is not even enough to make such a
monstrous military worm move on.
How well-populated and built-up must this desert be, where every two
miles we find, if not towns and villages, at least way stations with names!
\X1hat an advantage for the commander and his men! But this desert wealth
quickly becomes fatal to the geographer. From Kadesh he finds only five
stations to Ezeon-Gaber, yet on the way back to Kadesh, where the armies
have to return, he unluckily finds none. So he puts some strange towns
which are not even mentioned in that list along the route of the marchers,
as in earlier eras one might conceal the emptiness of certain places on a
map by drawing in some elephants. [Augustin] Calmet [1 672-1757] knows
how to save the sit1.1ation by creating crisscross roads: he puts some of
the redundant sites nearer the t-..fediterranean Sea, makes Hazeroth and
Moseroth into one site, and through extravagant leaps manages to bring his
people fmally to the Arnon. fF.dward) lf7d/ [1 667-1 727], who assumes two
Kadeshes, distorts the layout of the land beyond measure. [Jean-Baptiste]
Nolin [1 657-1 725] has the caravan dance a polonaise bringing it back to the
Red Sea with Sinai northward behind it. It is inlpossible to show less
inlagination, perspective, precision, or judgment than do these pious,
uprigh t men.
But when we scrutinize the matter, it appears highly probable that the
redundant index of the sites was interpolated in order to save the problem-
- 254 -
atic forty ye a rs .For the text that we minutely follow in our account [Deut.
2:1 ff.] says this:beaten by the Canaanites ami refused passage through the
land of Edom, as the people moved toward Ezeon-Gaber, th ey p as sed the
land of the Edomites on the way to Sea of Reeds. From this arose the error
of a ss uming that they went to the Sea of Reeds after Ezeon-Gaber (which
at that time probably did not yet exis t, al though the text speaks of moving
around the mountains of Seir on the roa d mentioned). But to s ay "on t he
way to the Sea of Reeds" need not imply that they ever reached it: we migh t
say "The driver is taking the road to Leip zig" without meaning he is
necessarily going all the way to Leipzig. And if we have now eliminated the
s up erfluous sites, we will probably succeed also with the superfluous years.
\Ve know that the chronology of the Old Testament is artificial, that the
whole chrunolob'Y was p red ete rmin ed to amount to precis ely forty-nine
years, and that in order to create such mystically calculated epochs, many
historical numbers would have had to he altered. And where could thirty
six to thirty-eight years that had gone missing from a cycle be more easily
interp ola ted than in an era shrouded in so much darkness and allegedly
spent in some unknown desert spot?
So without even touching on chronology, the most difficult of all
s tudies , I want here to consider shortly, in favor of my hypo thesis , the
poetical part of it. Several numbers, which may be called round, sacred,
srmbolic, or poetica l , appear in the Bible as well as in other archaic
scriptures. The number seven seems Jcilicated to action, work, and Jeed.
The number forty seems allotted to con templation and expectation, but
particularly to seclu sion . The deluge that was intended to s epara te Noah
ami his family from the rest of the world swells for forty da ys . After the
waters have remained long e nough , they flow away for for ty days. For the
same period of time Noah keep s the door of the ark bolted. For an e(1ual
period !\loses stays twice on Mt. Sinai, each tim e seq ues tered from the
people. The emissaries remain just as long in Canaan, and sinlllarly the
whole people, after th e same number of wearisome years of being kept
apart from other nations, will in the end have confl.rmed and sanctified an
equal space of time. Even to the New Testament the significa nce of tlus
number is transmitted in i ts full value: Christ remains forty days in the
desert, awaiting the Temp ter.
If I have succeeded in redu cing the time the children of Israel spent
wandering from Sinai to the Jorda n (even willie pos s ibly overemp hasizing
the vacillating, unlikely d ela y s) , getting rid of so many futile years and
fruitless way s t ations , I will also (despi te reservations I have been obliged to
no te) have restored the commander-in-chief to his full merit. Further: the
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Notes & Essays
way God appears in those books will no longer be as oppressive as before.

He has seemed quite dreadful and horrid throughout. Already in the Books
of Joshua and Judges, and even further on, a purer patriarchal relationship
emerges. The God of Abraham, too, appears in friendly fashion before his
people. But the God of !\loses has for some time filled us with horror and
disgust. To clarify this I will merely say: as the man, so his God. Now then,
some final words on the character of Moses!
Someone might object: ''With great audacity you have denied in an
extraordinary man the qualities he has been valued for, those of a govemor
and of a commander-in-chief. So what made him outstanding? \XIhat
qualified him for such an important calling? \XIhat gives him the temerity to
press on in his duties in spite of intemal and external dis;tdvantages if he
lacks those principal requirements and indispensable talents that you, with
unheard of insolence, deny him?" :rvfy answer: it is not talents or skills for
one thing or another that make the ma11 of action. It is the personality that
everything depends on. Character is based on personality, not on talents.
Talents may be accessory to a person's character; it is not accessory to
them. For everything is dispensable to him except himself. So I readily
admit that the personality of !\loses, from the first assassination through all
the subsequent cruelties to his final disappearance, b>ives a highly remark
able and dignified picture of a man driven by his nature to the greatest
deeds. But of course such a picture is thoroughly distorted if we see a
s trong man of laconic speech and prompt action stumble around for forty
years, without either sense or necessity, together with an inunense mass of
people in such a small area and in direct view of his intended goal. Simply
by shortening the war and the time he spends I have mitigated everything
derogatory that I had dared to say about him and have raised him to his
rightful place.
So I have nothing more to do than repeat what I started with. No harm
is done to the I loly Scriptures, as little as to any other tradition, if we treat
them from a critical perspective, disclosing where they contradict each
other and how often an original, better text has been concealed, even
disfigured, by subsequent additions, interpolations, and accommodations.
The internal, inherent, original, and essential value emerges all the more
alive and pure, and it is this that everyone, consciously or unconsciously,
looks for, seizes upon, and spiritually profits from, disregarding and forget
ting, if not discarding, all the rest.
- 256 -
Summary Review:
Second Y(;ar of the !-.larch
Rests on Sinai 1 1\Ionth 20 days
Travel to Kadesh 5 "
Days of rest 5 "
Stop because of Miriam's illness 7 "
Emissaries' absence 40 "
Negotiation with the Edomites 30 "
March to the Amon 5 "
Days of rest 5 "
Mourning of Aaron 40 "
Total 1 57 days
So, all together six months. From this it clearly follows that even when we
take hesitations, halts, and episodes of opposition into account as much as
we want, the march will have reached the Jordan well before the end of the
second year.
(45) FURTHER ASSISTANCE
If the Holy Scriptures evoke the original circumstances and the gradual
development of an important nation, and if men like (Johann David]
i\1ichaelis [1 7 1 7-1791], [Johann Gottfried] Eichhorn (1752-1827], [Heinrich
Eberhard Gottlob] Paulus (1761-1 85 1], and (Arnold Hermann Ludwig]
Heeren [1760-1 842] show yet more of what is natural and immediate in
those traditions than we would be able to discover, we will learn most
about recent times and present-day conditions in this area from the travel
books and related documents that a number of Westerners who have
penetrated to the East (not without hardship, enjoyment, and danger) have
brought back, imparting splendid instruction. From these I will note briefly
a few of the men through whose eyes I have assiduously attempted, for
many years, to view those remote, unfamiliar topics.
(46) PILGRIMAGES AND CRUSADES
TI1e innumerable descriptions of these are no doubt instructive, too, in

their way. But as regards the true condition of the Orient they confuse our
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Notes & Essays
imagination more than they help it. The one-sidedness of the Christian
hostile view limits us through its own limitations, which in more recent
times widen only to a relative degree, as we are gradually getting to know
the military exploits better through Oriental sources. But we continue to
owe a debt of gratitude to all the lively pilgrims and cmsaders. To their
religious enthusiasm and their strong, untiring opposition to Eastern
intrusion we owe the protection and preservation of European cultural
conditions.
(47) l\1ARCO POLO [ca. 1 254-ca. 1 324J
Tlus outstanding man stands naturally at the top. His voyage takes
place in the second half of the thirteenth century. He travels to the most
distant East, showing us the most exotic situations, whose nearly fairytale
li.ke appearance induces wonder and astonishment. I f particulars do not
come immediately into focus, the compact narration of this wide-ranging
wanderer is superbly suited to arouse in us the feeling of the inftn.ite, of the
colossal. We find ourselves at the court of Kublai Khan [1 2 1 5-1 294], who
as Jengh.iz' successor mlcd over boundless regions. bat shall we think of
the extent of a realm where it is said, "Persia is a great province consisting
of nine kingdoms" [ 1 . Ch. 1 3] and everything else is measured on such a
scale? Correspondingly inunense is the royal residence in the north of China,
the castle of the Khan, a city within the city. I Iere are gathered incalculable
treasures and weapons, public servants, soldiers, and courtiers - all
repeatedly invited to banquets along with their wives. Equally impressive is
our stay in the countryside, with arrangements favoring all kinds of
pleasures, in particular an army of hunters, a widespread delight in hunting.
Tamed leopards; trained falcons, the hunters' most active companions; un
countable booty in heaps. All year long gifts are offered and received. Gold
and silver, jewels, pearls, all sorts of precious objects are at the disposition
of the king and his favorites, while the remaining nllllions of subjects have
to settle for the exchange of mock coins.
I f we accompany the traveler from the capital on a journey, with all the
suburbs we cannot tell where the city ends. We are overwhelmed by houses
and houses, villages and villages, and along the magnificent river a row of
resorts - all in a day's travel, and many such days.
The traveler now moves to other areas, at the Emperor's behest. He
leads us through vast deserts, then to districts abundant in herds, up to
mountain ranges, s howing us men of wondrous appearance and customs.
- 258 -
Marco Polo
He lets us look over ice and snow, offering a final glance at the eternal
p olarnight. Then s uddenly, as on a magic mantle, he floats us down onto
the Indian penin s ula. Ceylon lies beneath us, Madagascar, Java. Our sight is
bewildered on s tra ngely named islands, yet everywhere he infonns us about
human figures and customs, about la nds c a p es, trees, plants and animals, in
enough detail to certify the truth of his views, al though many a thing may
seem fairytale-like. I have had to be content here with a general impression,
for no notes or annotations proved available to s upp lement my earlier
studies.
(48) JOHN OF MANDEVILLE

[or Montevilla , fourteenth century]
His voyage starts in the year 1 320, and its narrative has come down to
us as a popular book, unfortunately much modified. \Ve may grant that the
author has traveled widely, has seen much and seen it well, and has also
described it correc tly . But then he chooses not o nly to "plow with an
s tra nge calf" but to insert old and new legends making even the truth lose
credi bility . In its a l tering forms - with the La tin original first translated
into Low German and then into H igh Gennan - the little book s u ffers
from a c c u m u l a t e d distortions of the names. The translator also allows
himself omissions and insertions, as our !Joseph von] Corm [1 776-1 848]
indicates in a worthy public atio n on German folkloric books [60]. Such
factors have hampered the enjoymen t and lessed the utility of this
imp ortan t work.
(49) PIETRO DELLA VALLE [1586-1 652]
From an age- old Roman line age able to trace its ped igree back to the
noble familie s of the republic, Pietro della Valle was born in the year 1 586, at
a time when all the reahns of Europe enjoyed a high spiritual culture. In
Italy !Torquato] Tasso 11 544-1 595] was sti.ll alive, though in a sad s tate; but
his poems powe r fully influenced outs tanding minds. Verse craft had spread
so far that improvisers flourished and no young man with a lively mind
would will ingly pass up the chance to express himself in rhyme. Language
study, grammar, oratory, and the art of style were treated thoroughly, so the
you th grew up c are fully schooled in all these accomplishments.
- 259 -
Notes & Essays
Ivlilitary exercises on foot and on horseback, the noble arts of fencing

and riding, served daily to develop physical power and the strength of
character intimately linked to it. The savage exploits of earlier crusades had
now been refmcd to an art of warfare and chivalrous conduct enhanced by
gallantry. \Ve observe the young man as he pays court, chiefly in verse, to
several beauties but faces deep dismay when one of them, whom he had
thought to make his own, binding himself to her in earnest, sets him aside
and yields to someone hardly worthy. His pain is boundless, and to give
vent to his feelings he resolves to march in pilgrim garb to the Holy Land.
In the year 1614 he reaches Constantinople, where his noble, engaging
character wins him the fmest reception. As with his former studies, he
throws himself inunediately into learning Oriental languages, attains an
overview of Turkish literature and of the manners and customs of the
country, and then leaves for Egypt, an early departure lamented by his new
made friends. He utilizes the time spent in Egypt to seek out, with the
greatest determination, traces of the ancient world in the newer one. From
Cairo he marches to l\1t. Sinai to venerate the tomb of Saint Catherine and
comes back, as if on a pleasure jaunt, to the Egyptian capital. Departing
from there a second time, after sixteen days he reaches Jerusalem, a hint to
our imagination about the true measure of the distance between the two
cities. There, worshiping at the Holy Tomb, he implores the Savior, as
earlier he had begged St. Catherine, to be delivered from his passion. The
scales fall from his eyes: what a fool he has been to regard this hitherto
adored woman as the only one meriting homage! His rejection of the
feminine sex has vanished. He looks for a spouse and writes to his friends,
whom he hopes to see again soon, to flnd one worthy.
He has visited and prayed at all the holy places, aided in this by the
recommendations of his friends in Constantinople, in particular Capighi.
appointed to be his companion. Aware of these benefits, he now continues
his travels and reaches Damascus, then Aleppo, where he dresses in the
Syrian manner and grows a beard. There he faces an important adventure
that will determine his fate. He is joined by a traveler who never tires of
telling about the lovable beauty of a young Georgian Cluistian who is
staying with her family in Baghdad. In truly Oriental fas hion, della Valle
falls in love with an image made of words, and now eagerly seeks it. Her
presence augments his inclination and desire. He knows how to win over
the mother; the father, too, is persuaded. But they yield only with reluc
tance to his impetuous passion; to let their lovely daughter go appears too
great a sacrifice. Finally he marries her and so gains the greatest treasure for
his life and travels. True, he began his pilgrimage with the knowledge and
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Pietro della Valle
leaming of a nobleman; in observing everything related to human beings he

is attentive and fortunate, and he has been on Ius best behavior with
everyone. Yet he lacks the knowledge of nature, a field of study confmed in
that era to a narrow circle of eamest researchers. So he can only imperfectly
satisfy the behests of his friends, who want reports about plants and types
of wood. But the beautiful l\Iaani, an amiablt: family doctor, is able to give a
full account of roots, herbs, and flowers and how they grow; of resins,
balms, oils, seeds, and woods as introduced by trade. She enriches her
husband's observation according to the manner of the country.
More important still are the implications of this muon for his activity in
life and travel. l\laaru, though perfectly feminine, shows a resolute charac
ter, equal to all contingencies. She fears no danger but rather seeks it and
behaves nobly and calmly everywhere. Riding a horse the way men do,
knowing how to tame it and drive it on, she is a continually lively, cheerful
comparuon. Equally important is her adroitness in relating to women. I Ier
husband is well received, treated, and entertained by the men while she
conducts herself properly with their wives.
But now the young couple enjoy a type o f good fortune not yet known
to them when they were traveling through the Turkish empire. They come
to Persia in the thirtieth year of the reign of Abbas the Second [ 1 633-1 666],
who like Peter [1 672-1 725] and Frederick [1 7 1 2-1 786] merits the name of
"the Great." Acceding to the throne after a menaced, anxious youth, he
realizes right away that he must widen the borders of Ius empire to protect
it and secure his dominion of the realm by all available means. At the same
time his overall planning principle was to restock the depopulated empire
with foreigners and to enliven and facilitate commerce with the help of
public roads and guest-houses. Tite major earnings and benefits are
expended on imme nse structures. Isfahan, prestigious capital, is dotted with
palaces and gardens, caravanserais and houses for royal guests. He builds a
suburb for Armenians, who endlessly show their gratitude by trading for
both their own and the royal account, being clever enough to pay the prince
back at the same time with profit and tribute. A suburb for Georgians and
another for ftre-venerating Parsis enlarge the city, which at length spreads
as wide as our new empire centers. Roman Catholic priests, particularly
Carmelites, are welcomed and protected. This is less the case with Greek
Orthodoxy, which being under the protection of the Turks, seems to
belong to the common enemy of Europe and Asia.
For more than a rear della Valle has stayed in Isfahan, actively using his
time to gather precise information about all the circumstances and rela
tionships of the people. How lively his descriptions! How accurate his
- 26 1 -
Notes & Essays
information! Finally, a fter having enjoyed every thing to the full, he lack s
only the culmination of the enterprise: personal acquaintance with the
emperor he so highly admires, an understanding of how the court, the
combat troops, and the army function.
In the land of :Mazenderan, on the southern coast of the Caspian Sea,
an area admi t te dly swampy and unhealthy, the active, restless prince builds
a great city called ferhabad and decrees that it be populated. Close by he
builds for his own use many a country estate on the heights of an amphi
theatrical basin, not very far from his adversaries, the Russians and Turks,
in a locale protected by mountain ridges. That is where he usually resides,
and deiL'l Valle goes to see him. He comes with 1\laani, is well received, is
presented to the king after a circumspect, prudent Oriental hesitation, wins
the royal favor, and gains entry to banquets and drinking parties where he is
above a ll obliged to b>ive an account of the E uropean cons titution, customs,
and religion to the well informed, inquisitive Prince.
In the Orient in general, but especially in Persia a certain naivete and
,
innocence are to be found through all ranks reaching up to the vicinity of

the throne. True, at the upper level a resolu te formality is shown at audi
ences, banquets and so on. But soon there develops in the imperial circle a
bit of the freedom of carnival, which is highly amusing. If the emperor goes
walking in gardens and kiosks, no one is allowed to wear boots while s t and
ing on the catpet where the court are assembled. A Tartar prince arrives; his
boots a rc being pulled off. Unaccustomed to stand on one foot only, he
begins to lose his balance. The emperor himself now comes and holds him
till the boots are o ff. Toward evening the emperor stands in a circle of the
court, and golden bowls filled with wine are pa s sed around, many of
moderate weight hut some, with a reinforced bottom, so he avy that the
uninformed guest is liable to spill the wine or even to the great
-
amusement of the sovereign and his initiates drop the cup al toget her.
-
The d ri n ki ng is don e in a circle until anyone no longer able to stand on his

feet is taken away or steals away opportunely on his own ini tia tive At the .
end of the festivity no respects are paid to the emperor: the guests leave,
one after the other, until the ruler remains alone, listening for a while to
melancholy music, until he, too, fmally withdraws to rest. Even more
curious tales arc told of the harem, where women tickle th eir ruler, tussle
with him, and try to bring him down onto the catpet, while he, amidst great
laugh t er can only
, counter this with grumbling.
\Vhen we hear such amusing things about relationships within the
imperial harem, we must not think the prince and his council or diva11
remained idle or negligent It was . not a restless mind alone that aroused
262 -
Pietro della Valle
Abbas the Great to build a second capital by the Caspian Sea. Ferhabad was
not only favorably situated for the pleasures of hunting and holding court
but also protected by a chain of mountains close enough to the frontier so
that the empt'ror was able to hear in time about the movements of the
Russians and the Turks, his arch-enemies, and to take suitable measures.
From the Russians there was at the moment nothing to be feared; their
inner imperial stronghold, wrt>cked by usurpers and mock-princes, had no
solid foundation. The Turks on the other side had already been subdued
twelve years earlier by the emperor in a battle with such a lucky outcome
that he had no longer anything to fear from that quarter but was even
continuing to acquire large land areas. Yet a proper peace ht'tween such
neighbors had never been secured. Isola ted provocations, public demon
s trations, awakened both parties to permanent vigilance.
Presently, Abbas realizes he must prepare more seriously for war. In
the most time-honored style he assembles his entire military host on the
plains of Azerbaidjan. Everywhere in his divisions people press forward, on
horseback or on foot, with the most diverse weaponry - an unending
procession. Like emigrants, each man takes along his wife, children, and
luggage. Della Valle, too, leads his lovely wife l'vlaani and her women, on
horseback ami in a sedan chair, toward the army and the court. The
emperor lauds him for this; he is proving to be a respectable man.
\Vhcn an entire people sets itself in motion as a body, nothing must be
lacking that they might need at home. So merchants and traders of all kinds
march along with them and set up a temporary bazaar, counting on good
sales. That is why the imperial camp is always likened to a city, where such
e ffective policing and law enforcement are in force that no one, at the risk
of crud penalties, may forage or commandeer, still less plunder. Items big
and small must be paid for in cash. Not only do the towns on the way
provide plentiful stock, but food and supplies unfailingly come from
provinces near and far.
But what strategic or tactical operations can be expected of such an
organized disorder? Especially when we learn that all popular, tribal, and
military groups are mixed together in combat, without a particular man
designated to s tand in front, at the side, or in the rear, but with everything
done randomly, in confusion, we see why a lucky victory can so easily be
abruptly altered and a single battle lost can for many years determine the
fate of an empire.
This time, however, it does not come to such a terrible hand-to-hand
fighting or armed conflict. True, they pass through the mountains with
inconceivable hardship. But they hesitate, withdraw, are even ready to
263 -
Notes & Essays
destroy their own towns to let the enemy perish in devastated regions.
Panicked alarm and empty tidings of victory alternate chaotically. Terms of
peace insolently declined or proudly refused, pretended desire to fight,
deceitful hesitation - all these flrs t delay and then favor the peace. So at
the conunand and threats of the emperor, everyone goes home without
delay, subject to no further need or peril save what he has suffered already
from the journey and the crowd.
We again fmd della Valle in Kasbin in the vicinity of the court, dissatis
fl.ed that the expedition against the Turks had come to such an early end.
We need to consider hUn not merely as a curious traveler, an adventurer
driven by circumstance; he rather maintains his own goals, which he con
tinues to pursue. Persia was then properly a country for foreigners. The
longtime liberality of Abbas had attracted many an alert spirit. It was not
yet the time of formal embassies. Bold, abrile voyagers asserted themselves.
[Sir Anthony] Sherley [or Shirley, 1 565- 1 635?], an Englishman, had earlier
effectively appointed himself mediator between East and West. So, too,
della Valle, independent, wealthy, c.listinb'l.lls hed, well-educated, reconunended,
finds entry at court and tries to incite hostility against the Turks. He is driven
by the same Christian compassion that inspired the first crusaders. He had
seen the ill-treatment of pious pilgrims at the Holy Tomb and had hi.Jnself
suffered to a degree. All western nations wanted to see Constantinople
harassed from the east. But Abbas does not trust the Christians, who,
thinking of their own advantage, had not offereu him timely aiu. Now he
has come to an agreement with the Turks. But della Valle does not give up
and seeks to create a union of Persia with the Cossacks of the Black Sea.
He comes back to Is fa han with the aim of settling there and promoting the
Roman Catholic religion. He enlists his wife's relatives, then still more
Chris tians from Georgia. He auopts a Georgian orphan, stays with the
Carmelites, and has in minu nothing less than to receive from the emperor
a re!,Ji.on in which to found a new Rome.
Now the emperor himself again appears in Isfahan, and ambassadors
from all parts of the world arrive in throngs. The ruler on horseback, in the
largest square, in the presence of his soldiers, the most respectable servants,
and foreign Uignitaries (the most notable ones with their suite also on
horseback), gives official audiences in goou humor. Gifts are presented,
gorgeously displayed, yet soon afterward arrogantly disdained and Jewishly
commercializeu, so the l\fajesty continually vacill ates between the highest
and the lowest. Now secretly enclosed within his harem, now appearing
before the eyes of all and involved in all public affairs, the emperor shows
hi.Jnself in tireless, willful activity.
264 -
Pietro della Valle
\Ve notice, too, throughout all tlus a particular liberal-mindedness in

religious affairs. It is only forbidden to convert a l\Ioslem to Christianity.
But conversions to Islam, which the emperor had earlier favored, no longer
give him pleasure. In other matters all the people are allowed to believe and
undertake what they want. For example, right now the Armenians are
observing their feast of the baptism of the cross, which they solemnly
celebrate in their splendid suburb traversed by the river Zcndemd. Not
only does the emperor want to attend this function with a great retinue,
even here he cannot help giving orders and directions. First he speaks with
the priests to flnd out what they arc about to do, then he gallops to and fro,
rides hack ami forth, and commands in precise tones that the procession
observe calm and order, as if he were Jealing with his warriors. A fter the
ceremony he calls together the priests and other drn.itaries and talks with
them about many religious opinions and customs. But this liberty in
approaching persons of another faith Joes not apply only to the emperor; it
is enjoyed by Shiites in general. These auherents of Ali [599?-66 1], who was
ousted from the caliphate and then assassinated when he had regained it,
can in many ways be regarded as the oppressed members of the Islamic
religion. Their hatred is therefore mainly directed against the Smmiles, who
additionally accord consideration and reverence to the Caliphs that ruled
between Muhanunad and Ali. The Turks arc devoted to this faith. A
political as well as religious schism divides the two groups . The Shiites hate
to the utmost their own fellow believers who think differently, while they
arc indifferent to members of other denominations, to whom ther grant a
favorable reception more readily than to their internal adversaries.
But also - bad enough! - even this liberality suffers from the
influence of imperial arbitrariness! To populate or depopulate an empire are
options equally acceptable to the despotic will. Abbas, roving about
disguised in the countryside, hears the disdainful speech of some Armenian
women and feels so terribly offended that he inflicts the cruelest
punishments on the male inhabitants of the village. Terror and mourning
spread on the banks of the Zende.rud. The suburb Khalfa, at flrst filled with
joy at the participation of the emperor in their celebration, sinks into deep
sorrow.
I empathize with the feelings of great nations which have been
alternately elevated and degraded by despotism. I admire the high level of
security and wealth to wluch Abbas by his own will has raised the empire
while conferring on the state a stability such that only after ninety years
were weakness, foolishness, and irrationality able to ruin the country. But I
must also inilicate the other side of this imposing image.
- 265 -
Notes & Essays
As every autocracy rejects all influence and has to preserve the person
ality of the ruler in the most complete security, it follows that the despot
must continually suspect treason, anticipate danger, and fear violence from
all sides, for he confums his lofty position only through violence. He is
therefore jealous of eve ryone else who inspires respect and confidence,
s hows brilliant ability, amasses treasures, and seems to compete with him in
his activity. The heir apparent must give rise to the deepest suspicion. I t
takes magnanimity for a royal father t o regard without envy a son t o whom
nature in a little while will irrevocably assign all possessions and acquisitions.
The son, for his part, is obliged to be noble and well-behaved, to show good
taste, moderate his hopes, hide his desire, and not anticipate destiny even in
appearance. And yet! - where is human nature so pure and great, so
calmly te m porizing so willingly active under forced conditions that the
,
father will not complain about the son, the son about the father? Even if
they both were angel-pure, sycophants would stand between them.
Imprudence becomes a crime; appearance, proof. I low many examples
docs history provide! 1bink only of the grievous family labyrinth in which
King Herod was entangled. Not only did his family keep him in s teadily
imminent danger, but a child singled out by prophecy aroused concern that
brought on widespread c ruelty shortly before the king's death.
That is what also happened to Abbas the Great. Sons and grandsons
became suspects, and they aroused suspicion. One, innocent, was assassinated;
another one, half-guilty, blinded. lbe latter said, "You have taken light not
from me but from the empire."
To this regrettable defect is inevitably added another, engendering even
more random acts of violence and crimes. Everyone is govemed by habit.
Yet, restricted br external conditions, people behave moderately, and tlus
moderation becomes a habit. Just the opposite happens with the despot: an
unrestricted will becomes enlarged and, if no warnings are given, expands
indefinitely. \Ve find here the solution of the riddle of how a laudable young
prince, whose first years of rule have been blessed, eventually develops into a
tyrant, to the distress of the world and the ruin of his fanllly, who frequently
are forced to deliver themselves hom agony by violence.
Unfortunately, our inborn striving for the absolute, though it fosters all
virtues, will become dreadful in its effect if joined by sensual blandishments.
From this develops the worst hypertrophy of will, which luckily dissolves, in
the end, into complete munbness. I speak of the excessive use of wine,
which, instandy bursting the boundary of a thoughtful fairness and equity,
something even the tyrant, as a human being, cannot deny altogether,
brings about unlimited disaster. We may apply what has been said of
- 266 -
Pieho della Valle
Abbas the Great, who in his fifty years' rule raised himself to become the
only unconditional will of his widely populated realm. Of a liberal nature,
sociable and good-humored, he was led astray through suspicion, vexation
and, worst of all , by an ill-conceived love of justice. He was further aroused
by impetuous drinking and, not to overstate the matter, tormented and
brought to despair by a disdainful, incurable physical illness. We may
conclude that those who put an end to such a dreadful earthly phenomenon
merit pardon if not approval. \Ve therefore praise as blessed those educated
nations whose monarch governs himself by a noble ethical awareness.
Happy the moderate, regulated governments that their mlers themselves
have reason to love and promote. Such a goverrunent will spare the ruler
many a responsibility and much cause for regret.
Not only the prince, hut everyone who through confidence, favor, or
arrogance partakes of the highest power will be in danger of overstepping
the circle that law, custom, humanism, awareness, religion, and birth have
drawn aroWld the human race for its happiness and trust. Let ministers and
favorites, representatives of the people and the people themselves, take care
not to be carried away by the whirlpool of absolute will power, drawing
themselves and others irrevocably to des truction.
Returning to our voyager, we find him in an uncomfortable position.
With all his love for the Orient, della Valle must have come to feel he is
living in a land where it is impossible to think about plans and results, and
where even with the mightiest will power and the most diligent activity no
new Rome could be built. Not even family ties suffice to keep della Valle
and his wife in the area: even after ac<1uiring intimate friends in Isfahan,
they still would rather go back to the Euphrates to continue their habitual
way of life. 1be remaining Georgians show little zeal. Even the Carmelites,
though they in particular must have heartily endorsed the great project, can
get neither sympathr nor assistance from Rome.
Della Vaile becomes wearied in his zeal, and he decides to return to
Europe, unfortunately at the most unpropitious time. To march through
the desert seems intolerable, and he resolves to !,>o through India. But now
military conflicts arise among the Portuguese, Spaniards and English over
Hormus, the most important commercial center, and Abbas finds it to his
advantage to join the dispute. The emperor resolves to fight his discomfit
ing Portuguese neighbors, to remove them, and in the end, possibly by
resorting to cunning and delaying tactics, to thwart the purposes of the
helpful English and to exploit all advantages.
In such critical times our traveler is now taken aback by the peculiar
feeling that puts a man in greatest conflict with himself - a sense of
- 267 -
Notes & Essays
remoteness from the fatherland just at the moment when, uneasy in a

foreign country, he wants to return to the homeland or even wishes he
were there already! He can no longer ward off impatience. So moved, our
friend finds that his eager nature and his noble, powerful self-confidence
delude him about the difficulties ahead. His risk-prone audacity has suc
ceeded thus far in overcoming all obstacles, carrying out all plans, and he
flatters himself with visions of equal luck in the future. Since the way home
through the desert seems unbearable, he decides to go by way of India,
accompanied by his beautiful l\laani and their foster daughter 1\lariuccia.
Many a disagreeable event occurs, presaging added menace. But he
marches through Persepolis and Shiraz, attentive a::; always, precisely noting
and distinguishing the objects, customs, and manners of the country.
Arriving at the Bay of Persia, he predictably ftnds all ports closed, all ships
confiscated after the outbreak of war. There on the shore, in a most
unhealthy area, he encounters a camp of Englislunen, whose caravan, also
halted, awaits an opportune moment. Responding to their friendly
welcome, he joins them, erecting his tents near theirs and a palm hut for
greater comfort. Here a friendly star seems to shine on him! His marriage
was so far childless. To the great joy of both husband and wife l\laani
announces she is preb>nant. But della Valle falls ill ; bad food and tainted air
have a destructive effect on him and unluckily also on l\laani. She is
confined too earlr, and the fever will not abate. Her steady character keeps
her alive for awhile even without medical aid. But fmally she feels her end
approaching, resigns herself in silent impassivity, and demands to be
brought from the palm hut to the tent area. \Xlhile Mariuccia holds the
consecrated candle and della Valle recites the traditional prayers, she dies in
his arms. She was twenty-three.
To calm the shock of the enormous loss, he firmly and irrevocably
resolves to transport the body to his family vault in Rome. Though lacking
resins, balms, and precious spices, he luckily fmds a s hipment of the best
camphor, which can preserve the body when meticulously applied by
experienced people.
But with this he takes on the weightiest burden. From now on, for the
whole journey, he must try, through appeasement or bribery, to placate
superstitious camel-drivers, greedy and prejudiced public servants, and alert
customs officials.
\X-'e accompany him to Lar, the capital of Laris tan, where he fmds
better air and a good welcome, and he awaits the Persians' conquest of
I lormuz. But even their triumphs do not advance his project. Driven back
again to Shiraz, he at length sets out for India on an English ship. Here we
- 268 -
Pietro della Valle
find his conduct equal to what we have seen before. S teadfast bravery,
knowledge, and noble virtues win for him everywhere an easy entry and a
honorable sojourn. But he is finally forced back to the Persian Gulf and
must return home by way of the desert.
Here he suffers every hindrance he had feared. Decimated by tribal
chiefs, taxed by customs officers, robbed by .A.rabs and even in Christen
dom everywhere irritated and delayed, he nonetheless salvages and brings
to Rome curiosities and precious objects - the most precious being the
body of his beloved 1-laani. There, in i\ra Coeli, he performs a magnificent
funeral, and as he descends into the grave to pay her the final honor, we
find two virgins at his side - Sylvia, his daughter who in his absence has
grown to full loveliness, and Tinatin de Ziba, whom we have known by the
name of Mariuccia, both about fifteen years old. He now decides to marry
the latter, against the will of his relatives and even of the Pope, who intend
for him more distinguished and upper-class relationships. But a fter the
death of his spouse, Tina tin had been the faithful companion of his voyage
and his only solace. For several more years yet, he U'ill he brilliantly active in
accord with his vehemently daring and courageous character, not without
quarrels, annoyance, and danger. Dying at age sixty-five, he leaves a numer
ous progeny.
(50) APOLOGY
One naturally likes one's own path to understanding more than any
other, preferring to initiate and guide successors along the same lines.
Accordingly, I have portrayed Pietro della Valle in great detail because he
was the voyager who made the particular features of the Orient dawn upon
me first and most clearly. My bias convinced me that only by such a
portrayal could I give my Divan an adequate foundation. In these times, so
rich in essays and isolated pamphlets, I would like to encourage others to
read a substantial book that will lead them to a meaningful world. In the
latest travel accounts that world will appear superficially altered yet
fumlamentally the same as it did to that excellent man in his time.

In the Orient it's true
\Vhat is old is what is new.
- 26 9 -
Notes & Essays
(5 1) [ADA:t\'1] OLEARIL'S [ca. 1 603-1 671]
The accumulation of printed sheets for this book reminds me to

proceed from now on with more prudence and fewer digressions. So I
mention the excellent Olearius only in passing. We find English travelers,
among whom I regret to neglect Sherley and [Sir Thomas] Herbert (1 606-
1 682]; then we fmd Italians and Frenchmen. At this point, let a German
enter, in strength and dignity. Unfortunately, in his voyage to the Persian
court he was associated with a man who, more adventurer than ambassa
dor, played both roles willfully, clumsilr, even insanely. The excellent,
upright Olearius comes through unruffled, offering pleasant and edifying
travel accounts, all the more precious because he arrived in Persia only a
few years after della Valle and shortly after the death of Abbas the Great.
After his return he further acquainted Germans with the excellent Saadi
through an effective, gratifying translation. I hate to break off - I want to
give this man abundant thanks for all the services I owe to him. I am equal
ly obliged to shortchange the next two travelers, whose merits I will touch
on only superficially.
(52) [JEAN-BAPTISTE] TAVERNIER [1 605-1 689];

JEAN CHARDIN [1 643-1 7 1 5]
Tavernier, goldsmith and jewelry merchant, whose richly elaborate

wares recommend him, advances with intelligence and clever skill to
Oriental courts, and everywhere knows how to assimilate and adapt. He
reaches the Indian diamond mines and after a perilous return voyage
receives no friendly welcome in the \Vest. The writings he left are highly
instructive. Yet c:nardin, his compatriot, successor, and rival, not only
impedes him in his course of life but effaces him in public opinion
afterward. At the beginning of his trip Chardin is obliged to surmount the
b>Teatest hazards. He knows well how to exploit the mentality of Oriental
rulers and plutocrats, who vacillate between magnanimity and selfishness.
Resourcefullr, he caters to their inappeasable greed for fresh jewels and
foreign goldsmith-work (though these potentates may already possess the
greatest treasures). So at length he returns, favored by good fortune and
advantage.
These two men cannot be admired enough for their intelligence,
equanimity, dexterity, pertinacity, winning behavior, and dependability, and
every man of the world on his voyage through life might well venerate
- 2 70 -
Tmemier & Chardin
them as a model. But they had two advantages not at everyone's disposal:
they were Protestant and French - attributes that in combination may
produce highly capable individuals .
(53) LATER AND LATEST TRAVELERS
I cannot even touch on all we owe to the eighteen th and already to the
nine teenth century. Recently the English have enligh tened us about the
most unknown regions. The kingdom of Kabul, the old Gedrosia and
Karamania, have become accessi ble. One cannot deny, but must clearly
recognize, that as the English roam across the Indus their activities there
attain wider range daily, furthering in the West an ever growing desire for a
-
deeper, more extensive knowledge of languages.

\'l/hen I recall how eagerness a n d as siduity went hand in hand in
allowing the E nglish to advance from a limited Hebrew-rabbinical
realm to the depth and breadth of the Sanskrit, I am glad to have been a
witness to that progress for so many years. Even the obstmctive wars that
destroy so much have revealed many advantages to our deepened insight.
Down from the Himalayan mow1tains, the regions on both sides of the
Indus, so fairytalc-like in prior accounts, have been made clearer to us in their
connection with the rest of the world. From the peninsula down to Java we
can expand the survey accorJ.ing to our preferences, energy, and opportunity,
instructing ourselves in the most minute detail. One after the other, gates
open to friends of the Orient, whether we are curious about unanswered
questions of early his tory flaws of a strange local cons titution or an ill- fated
,
religion, or the splendor of a poetry where pure humanity, noble custom,

serenity, and love take refuge, to console us for the conflict of castes, for
fantas tic monsters of religion and abstruse mysticism and to convince us
,
that in the end it is in such a poetry that the salvation of humanity is held.
(54) TEACHERS: FOREBEARS AND CONTEMPORARIES
To give myself an account of who has taught me this or that as I pur

sued my s tudies, of how not only friends and comrades but foes and
adversaries, too, have helped me to progress, is a difficult task I can hardly
accomplish. Yet I feel impelled to name a few men to whom I gratefully
acknowledge a special debt.
- 27 1 -
Notes & Essays
[Sir William] Jones [ 1 746-1794] . The merits of this world- famed man
have been so widely praiseu that nothing remains for me but to recognize
that I always tried to apply his labors in any way possible. But I want to
note one part of his achievement that stands out in my mind.
With his English education he is so well schooled in Greek and Latin
literature that he can not only appreciate its creations but work in these
languages. Familiar with Oriental and European literatures alike, he enjoys
the twofold ability to estimate every nation on its own merits anu at the
same time to ftnd everywhere attainments of the good anu beautiful, realms
where all nations excel
But in conveying his insights he encounters many a difficulty. He must
chiefly confront the predilection of his nation for classical Greek and
Roman literature. And if we observe him closely, we notice that he pru
dently seeks to connect the unknown to the known, the estimable to what
is already esteemed. Disguising his preference for Asiatic poetry, with s kill
ful modesty he mainly offers examples of a sort readily comparable to
highly regarded Latin and Greek poems. He employs tlte rhythmical antique
Western forms to make the graceful tendernesses of the Orient equally
appealing for classicists. Not only the archaizing bias of his country but its
patriotic motivation gave him trouble: he was pained by the disparagement
of Oriental poetry. This becomes brilliantly clear in the pitiless ironical
essay, only two pages long, called Arabs, sive de Poesi Anglorum Dialog11s, at the
end of his work Of Asiatic Poetry. Here, with undisguised bitterness, he
shows how absurd Milton or Pope would appear in Oriental clothes. From
this it follows, as I, too, repeat so often, that we should go and see, know
and esteem, every poet in his own language and in the particular context of
his era and customs.
[Johann Gottfried] Eichhorn ( 1 7 52-1827]. It is gratifying to recognize
that in my present work I still try to emulate the same exemplary model this
highly meritorious man offered through his edition of Jones' works forty
two years ago, when we still counted him as one of us and heard from him
so much salutary advice. During all this tim e I have quietly followed his
instructions, and recently I was delighted to receive yet another highly
important work enlightening us about the prophets and their circumstances.
For what could be more enjoyable, for the quietly contemplative man as
well as for the enthusiastic poet, than to see how these God-gifted men
viewed their troubled times and indicated the strangely perturbing nature of
what was taking place as they punished, warned, comforted, anu raised the
spirits of their hearers.
- 272 -
Teachers, Forebearers and Contemporaries
\'(lith those few words let me acknowledge my gratitude to the worthy

Eichhorn.
[Georg \Vtlhelm] Ltmbach (1 752-1 8 1 6]. It is als o obligatory to com
me morate here the stout-hearted Lorsbach. He entered our circle when
already advanced in years, and he was not able to fmd a comfortable situa
tion for himself; yet he re sponded to all my reque sts with valid information
within h.is sphere of knowledge, at times too circumscribed . At fust I would
wonder why I could not find in him a particular friend of Orien tal poetry.
Yet his frame of mind was that of a person who has applied himself for a
long period of time with zeal and liking to a task he did not consider
proportiona tely rewardi ng. Then , though old age is the time when rewards
would be merited, en j oyment falls short jus t when most deserved. His
intelligence and his sincerity were equally good-humored, and I always recall
wi th p leasure the hours I spen t with him.
(55) [HEINRICH FRIEDRICH] VON DIEZ [1 786-1 8 1 7]
An important in fluence on my s tudies , which I thank fully acknowledge ,

is that of the prelate von Diez. At the time when I was carefully researching
Oriental poe try, the Book of Ko/Jus came into my hands . It seemed so
importa n t that I devo ted much time to it and invited many friends to have
a look at it. Through a traveler I tran smit ted my sincere thanks to that
estimable man from whom I had learned so much. He kindly sent me in
return a little book about n1lips. I had a sheet of s ilky paper which I
directed to be ado rned with a spl endid golden floral de sign. On that sheet I
wrote the following poem:
How to be prud en t in our wanderings

Uphill, or down, departing from a throne -
Dealing with people, horses, other things -
All a king teaches to his son - you've s hown .
Through your fine gift, such knowledge now is ours.
you even add a tulip bloom!
To that,
Were this gold frame not narrowing my powers,
To sing your prais e I would need endle s s room .
And so develo p ed a conversation in l e t ters, which the worth y man

continued, in an almo st illegible hand, amid sufferings and pain s , wttil the
end of his life.
- 273 -
Notes & Essays
Since I have so far become acquainted with the customs and history of
the Orient only in a general way, and with its languages not at all, such
kindness was most important to me. Because I was working in a planned,
methodical way, I needed accessible information that would have required
time and energy to locate in books. So when in doubt I consulted him and
always got an adequate, practical reply to any question. The content of
these letters wo u ld make them worthy of prin ting; they would serve as a
mon wnent to his knowledge and benevolence. As I knew his s trict and
ilistinctive cast of mind, I was careful not to mention certain topics. But,
quite in contrast to his usual mode of thought, when I wished to learn
about the personality of !'lasrrddin Khot!Ja, merr travel- and ten t- compa nion
y
of the global conqueror Timur, von Diez obligingly translated for me some
of the anecdotes. 'These showed once again that many audacious fairytales,
which Westerners have treated in their own way, have their origin in the
Orient but in being transformed have lost their special coloring, their true,
appropriate tone.
Because the manuscript of that book is now to be found in the royal
library of Berlin, it would be highly desirable for a specialist to offer a
translation. Perhaps it might be most properly undertaken in Latin so the
scholar would be the ftrst to know it fully. One might then make a decent
translation of some excerpts available to the German public.
The present collection of essays may serve as proof that I have made
good use of that friend's additional writings, such as the .l\1emorabilia of the
Orient etc. I t is riskier to admit that his not always admirable quarrelsome
ness also profited me a good deal. But let me recall how, during my ye ars a t
the uni vers ity, I would rush t o the fencing room to watch masters or
seniors try their force and dexterity against each other. This undeniably
gave me a chance to mark strengths and weaknesses that would have eluded
anyone who had not seen such a contest.
Doubly dear to me, the more I read him, is the author of the Book
Kobus [Qabtts Nama, or ,\1irror for Princes], na mely Kai Ka'tts [ibn Iskander,
eleventh century], king of the Dilemites. He lived in the mountainous
region of Ghilan, which hides the Euxine Bridge to the south. Carefully
educated as crown prince for the freest, most active life, he left the count1-y
to acquire further culture and practical training farther in the East.
Shor tly after the death of :Mahmud (whose glorious achievements I
earlier had occasion to summarize), he came to Ghazna, where he was well
received by the latter's son Mesud and, in the wake of many a service in war
and peace, was married to one of I\'lesud's sisters. At the court where
Firdusi had written the .Jhah 1\lameh j us t a few years before, where a great
- 274 -
,on Die::.
assembly of poets and talented men continued to flourish, and where the
new ruler, courageous and bellicose like his father, valued the society of the
clever ami gifted, Kai Ka'us could fmd the most precious opportunity for
further instruction.
But I need to speak first o f his education. To perfect his physical train
ing, his father had entrusted him to an excellent teacher. From this man the
boy acquired practice in all the chivalrous arts: shooting, riding, equestrian
shooting, sp ear throwing, and hitting a ball adroi tly with a polo mallet.
After all this had been superbly achieved and the king seemed to be satis
fied, he praised the teacher but added: "You have instructed my son in all
the activities he needs imp lements for. W'ithout a horse he cannot ride. He
cannot shoot without a bow. What is his ann, if he has no javelin? Polo,
without mallet and ball? You have not taught him the one activity where he
needs only himself alone, the one most necessary and where no one can
help him." Standing there ashamed, the teacher heard that the prince lacked
the art of swimming. So the prince leamed it, though with some reluctance,
and it saved his life when, on a voyage to :r..-tecca, his boat, filled with
pilgrims, ran aground in the Euphrates. Only he and a few others survived.
That he was j u s t as thoroughly educated in matters of intellect is
proved by the good reception he found at the court of Ghazna. He was
appointed companion to the prince, which at the time meant a good deal,
because he had to be smart enough to give a reasonable and agreeable
report of everything that went on.
The succession to the throne of Ghilan was made as insecure as the
realm itself by powerful, warmongering neighbors. Finally, after the death
of his royal fa ther, who had been deposed and then restored to rule, Kai
Ka'us ascended to the throne with great wisdom and with full awareness of
its likely hazards. Foreseeing, in his old age, that his son Ghilan Shah would
hold a position even more precarious than his own, he writes this memora
ble book, in which he tells the youth "that he wishes to educate him in the
arts and sciences for a twofold reason: that through any art necessary he
may gain a means of livelihood, should destiny place him in that position;
or if not, that he may at a ny rate he well instructed in the reasons for things
if he should remain in power."
If only in our time such a book had been available to noble emigres
who with admirable resignation often supported themselves by the work of
their hands - how consoling it would have been for them!
That such an excellent, invaluable book has not become better known
may be largely due to the fact that the author published it at his own
expense and the Nicolai publis hing flrm has taken it only on commission,
- 275 -
Notes & Essays
which in the book trade will bring such a work immediately to an initial
s tandstill . But to let the country know what treasures the book holds, I will
sum up the contents of the chapters and req uest that respected daily papers
such as the Mot;gmb/att and Gese//schafter make known to the general public
the edifying, entertaining anecdotes and s tories and the incomparable
maxims the work contains.
Contents of the Book Kabl(s by chapters:

1) Knowledge of God.
2) Praise of the Prophet.
3) God is praised.
4) Fullness in godly service is necessary and useful.
5) Duties toward father and mother.
6) Lineage shall be elevated through virtue.
7) Rules governing speech.
8) The last teachings of Nushirwan.
9) Condition of old age, and that of youth .
1 0) Decency and rules at meals.

1 1) Behavior when drinking wine.
1 2) How guests are to be invited and treated.
1 3) How to have fun, to play at stones and chess.
1 4) Conduct of lovers.
1 5) Use and harm of cohabitation.
1 6) How to bathe and wash.
1 7) State of sleep and rest.
1 8) Organization of hunting.
1 9) How to practice playing ball.
20) How to confront the enemy.
2 1 ) 11eans of increasing one's property.
22) How to preserve and to give back goods one has been entrusted
with.
23) Purchase of male and female slaves.
24) \Vhere to buy possessions.
25) PW"chase of horses and traits of the best.
26) How the man is to take a wife.
27) Rules for the education of children.
28) Advantages in making friends and choosing them.
29) Not to be careless about the plots and schemes of the enemy.
30) It is meritorious to forgive.
3 1 ) How to seek knowledge.
2 76 -
l'On Die::
32) Business.
33) Rules of doctors, and how to live.
34) Rules of astronomers.
35) Attributes of poets and poetry.
36) Rules of musicians.
37) The way to serve emperors.
38) Conduct of confidants and companions of the emperor.
39) Rules of the chancelleries.
40) Organization of the office of ";zier.
4 1 ) Rules for commanding an atmy.
42) Rules of emperors.
43) Rules of plowing and agriculture.
44) Benefits of virtue.
A book with such contents promises, beyond question, a broadened

knowledge of Oriental circumstances, and we will doubtless find a wealth
of analogies that can teach us about our European condition and how to
evaluate it.
At the end a short chronological summary: King Kai Ka'us came to
power approximately in Heg . 450 = 1 058, was still ruling in Heg. 473 =
1 080, and had married a daughter of Sultan i\Iahmud of Ghazna. His son,
Ghilan Shah, for whom he wrote the work, was robbed of his lands: we
know little about his life, nothing of his death. See the translation by Diez,
Berlin 1 81 1 .
I would ask the bookshop that has undertaken to publish Book Kab11s or
taken it on commission to include this information. A low price will facili
tate wider sales.
(56) [JOSEPH] VON HAMMER [1 774-1 856)
Every part of my li ttle book demonstrates how much I owe to this

worthy man. I had long been aware of Hafiz and his poems, but nothing I
had found in literature, travel books, journals, or other documents had
conveyed any sense of the merits of this extraordinary man. \XIhen I f111ally
encountered a complete translation of all his works in the spring of 1 8 1 3
[1 8 1 4], I felt I had grasped his inner nature with a special affinity and tried
to establish a relation to him through my own production. This collegial
activity helped me get through precarious times and allowed me finally to
enjoy in the most agreeable way the fruits of the peace I attained.
- 277 -
Notes & Essays
For some years I had known in a general way about the flourishing
enterprise of the Frmdgmben [On"mtal So11rces; see Bibliography], but now
came the time for me to take full advantage of it. This work pointed in
many directions, arousing and satisfying the needs of the time. Here again
experience confirmed a basic truth: our contemporaries aid us most
rewardingly when we are willing to apply their worthy contributions with
cordial gratitude. Well-informed men teach us about the past, indicate
starting points for present ventures, and point out the next road we may
take. Fortunately the splendid On"ental Sorm-es is now being supplemented
with the same zeal, and though I have to backtrack to keep up, I always
gladly return with renewed interest to what is so freshly enjoyable and
useful from many perspectives.
One thing should be noted: I could have used this important collection
even more efficiently if the editors, whose efforts and contributions arc
targeted toward specialists, had also focused attention on laymen and
amateurs. Had they prefaced at least some of the articles with brief
introductions about historical contexts, people, and places, they would have
spared an eager s tudent many a wearying, distracting search.
But whatever that presentation left to be desired is now amply
compensated by everything I was taught about the history of Persian poetry
in such an invaluable work. I will gladly admit that as early as 1814, when the
Gallinger Anzeigen offered a tentative account of the book's contents, I
immediately organized my sn1dies according to the given rubrics, which
profited me greatly. When the whole work, so impatiently awaited, fmally
appeared, I found myself at once in a familiar world, whose circumstances I
could note and observe in detail, no longer in a generalized way as if through
shifting, misty veils.
I hope you will be reasonably satisfied with the way I have used this
work, intending to attract those who might otherwise never have heard of
such an abundance of treasures.
Surely we have now acquired a basis on which to display tl1e
mabrnificence of Persian literature. Using this model we may similarly elevate
the position and advance the appreciation of other literatures. It would
remain highly desirable to preserve chronological order and not attempt to
arrange the poetry according to its different genres. With Oriental poets
everything is too interwoven to allow items to be isolated. The character of
the era and of the poet in his era is the only enlightening context to enliven
each poet. I recommend that my method continue to be used.
I hope readers will acknowledge the special merit of the splendid
.. Shin"1l' [ Hammer, .. Schin"n"], the amiably and earnestly instructive "Clover-
- 278 -
''on Hammer
leaf" [Hammer, "r..forgenlandisches Kleeblatt " ] which I have: placed with

such pleasure at the end of this work.
(57) TRANSLATIONS
As Gennans continue to approach the Orient more closely by way of

various tramlations, it makes sense to insert here something that, however
well known, can never be repeated enough.
There are three kinds of translations. The first acquaints us, in our own
mode of understanding, with a foreign country: a simple prosaic rendering
is most appropriate here. For as prose wholly obliterates all distinctive
features and brings poetic enthusiasm down to the general low water level,
it initially does the greatest service because in the midst of our customary
national domestic life, our common daily round, it startles us with some
thing splendidly new. We are unwittingly lifted into a heightened mood and
genuinely edified. Luther's Bible translation invariably has this effect.
Had the Nibelungen been tumed into powerful prose and marketed as a
popular book, much would have been gained. The: strange, earnest, melan
choly, cruel knightly spirit would have spoken to us in all its vigor. Whether
this may still be appropriate and feasible we leave to the judgment of
writers more intensely involved in these antiquarian studies.
Next comes a second mode of translation, where you are trying to
place yourself in the context of the foreign country but are able to
assimilate unfamiliar material only by representing it in your own way. Such
a mode I want to call the parodistic one, in the purest root meaning of that
word. It is mostly clever and inventive people who feel attracted to such an
occupation. The French use this mode in rendering all poetical works: we
find hundreds of examples in the translations of (Jacques] Del.ille [ 1 7 38-
1 81 3] . As the French verse translator adapts foreign words to make them
palatable, he deals in the same way with feelings, thoughts, even objects. He
demands for every foreign fruit a surrogate grown on his own ground.
The translations of [Christoph Martin] Wieland [1 733-1 8 1 3] belong to
this mode. He had distinctive criteria of reason and taste that allowed him
to approach a distant time or foreign locale only insofar as he found in it
what suited him . This outstanding man may be: regarded as representative
of his time, extraordinarily e ffective insofar as what he liked, appropriated,
and in1parted was also what his contemporaries favored and enjoyed.
But we cannot long remain in any state, whether perfect or imperfect:
things keep chanb>ing. So we have witnessed a third phase of translation, the:
- 279 -
Notes & Essays
last and highest, where we seek to make the translation identical to the
orinal, not a substitute but a replacement.
At the outset, this mode encountered the greatest resistance. The
translator who faithfully follows the original text will have to sacrifice, to a
greater or lesser degree, the distinctiveness of his own tradition . .And so a
tertium quid arises - a new item of such a kind that, to develop a taste for it,
most people will need to educate themselves.
The inestimable [Johann Heinrich] Voss [ 1 7 5 1 -1 826] could not initially
satisfy the public, which only later began to accustom itself to the new man
ner. But who now fully appreciates what has happened, what Germans
have btai..tttd in versatility, what rhetorica rhythmical, metrical advantages
are now available to talented, inventive youth, how Ariosto and Tasso,
Shakespeare and Calderon, newly Germanized, are brought to us with
double and triple benefit? I hope literary history will state candidly who was
the first to take this path, bestrewn with obstacles as it was.
"The translations of von Hammer also indicate, for the most part, a
similar treatment of Oriental masterworks, in which particularly the
approach to external fomt is to be recommended. How infmitely more
rewarding arc his renderings of passages by Firdusi than those of the
would-be remodelcrs in One11tal Jources [Fu11dgmbm des Orients]. Such remod
eling of a poet is in our opinion the saddest error a diligent translator can
make, even if he is equal to the demands of the text in other ways.
Because itt every literature those three modes or phases of translating
repeat, reverse themselves, or take effect at the same time, a prose
translation of the Jhah Nameh and of the works of Nizam.i would s till be
suitable now. I used one for a cursory reading, focusing on the main drift,
relishing the stories, legends, morals in general, and becoming more and
more familiar with the characteristic convictions and ways of thinking, till I
was able to make friends with them.
Remember the emphatic applause we Germans accorded to such a
translation of the Shakuntala [by Sanskrit playwright Kalidasa] : we may well
credit its good reception to the accessible prose into which the original
verse had been dissolved. But now it is time for someone to offer a
translation of the third kind, which would convey the different dialects and
types of rhythm.ica metric, and prosaic diction found in the original and
would make this poem newly enjoyable and familiar to us in all its
distinctiveness. ,\ manuscript of the immortal work may be found in Paris.
A German living there could eam eternal merit by such a project.
The English translator of [Kalidasa's] Megadhuta or Cloud Messenger is
alo;o worthy of all respect, for the first encounter with such a work will
- 280 -
Translations
always mark an epoch in our life. But his translation is actually in t he

second mode or phase, paraphrasing and supplemental: iambic pentameters
charm the Northeas terner's car and sense. To our [Johann Goffried
Ludwig) KoJegartell [1 792-1 860), however, I owe some verses done directly
from the original and offering a quite different insight. The Englishman has
further allowed himself to transpose themes, something the experienced
aesthetic viewer immediately discerns and dislikes.
I would like to explain briefly why I called the third phase of translation
the "last" one. A transla tion that tries to identify with the original finally
approaches an interlinear version and gready eases our understanding of the
orib>inal. As a result, we are led, in fact driven, back to the basic text. So at
le ngth we close the whole circle in which the nearing of the foreit,rn to the
familiar, of the known to the unknown, has taken place.
(58) FINAL CONCLUSION!
Experts and friends will benevolently judge to what degree I have

succeeded in linking the age-old, departed Orient to the newest and liveliest
one. Something belonging to the present day recently came to hand that
may offer a happy and enlivening conclusion to the whole .
About four years ago, when the Persian ambassador destined for
Petersburg received departure orders from his emperor, the illustrious wife
of the monarch did not miss this opportunity to send importan t gifts to
Her Majesty the Empress-Mother of ..:\II the Russias, along with a letter
which I have the good fortune to convey in translation:
.[essagefrom the lf/tfo ofthe Persian Emperor to Her lv!qjes!J the Empress
Mother ofAll the RliSsias
So long as the elements last from which the world is made,
may the illu strious Lady of the Palace of Grandeur, the Treasure
Casket of the Pearl of Empire, the Constellation of the Stars of
Rule, the One \X.'ho Has Borne the Gun of the Great Realm, the
Circle Around the Center of Sovereignty, the Palm-tree of the Fruit
of Supreme Power, may she always be happy and shielded from all
adversities.
Having presented these my most sincere wishes, I have the
honor to announce that now, since in our fortunate times, through
the work of the great mercy of the Almighty Being, the gardens of
the two high powers produce new, fresh rose blossoms, and all
- 28 1 -
Notes & Essays
that had crept in to separate the two splendid courts has been put
aside, in recognizing this great blessing, all who are linked to the
one or to the other court will not cease to maintain friendly
relations and correspondence.
Now, at rlus moment when His Excellency l\lirza Abul Hassan
Khan P>. 1 776], ambassador at the great Russian court, departs to
its capital, I have found it needful to open the door of friendship
with the key of this sincere letter. And because it is an old custom,
in accord with the principles of friendship and cordiality, that
friends offer each other gifts, therefore I beg you to receive with
pleasure the finest jewelcraft of our country presented here. I hope
that, in tum, with the cordial drops of friendly letters, you will
quicken the garden of a heart that loves you dearly. I ask as well
that you may gladden me with requests which I devotedly offer to
carrv out.
May God sustain your days pure, happy, and full of glory!
Presents
A pearl-necklace, weighing 498 carats
Five Indian shawls
A cardboard casket, work of Isfahan
A small box in which feathers may be placed
A receptacle with needed utensils
Five pieces of brocade.
How the ambassador, who stayed in Petersburg, prudently and

modestly expressed himself further about the conditions of the two
countries is a matter I have already dealt with above in connection with the
lus tOl)' of Persian literature and poetry.
But lately I ftnd that this "born ambassador' (so to speak), when already
on his way to England, was contacted in Vienna by his Emperor. The
sovereign enclosed further gracious gifts, to which he desired to add
meaning and splendor through poetical expression. I add these poems, too,
as a fmal keystone to my cupola. Though made of diverse materials, God
grant it may be durable!
- 282 -
Final Conclusion
..f-J; .l ;
),;JI fl ! A "!"- ;:.} ;a
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.. \:) t.J.r:t
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>'
.JI rA- '; ' ' .$,- J+' ;'
LA; ' r ..., ' ''"' \;)
On the Banner
Great Fatih Ali Shah the Turk's like Jcmshid,
Lord of Iran, World Light, Sun of the Earth.
His shield throws on the global mead wide shadows,
His belt breathes musk, regaling Satum's brain.
Iran's a lions' den, t he sun their prince;
Both sun and lion shine on Dara's banner
The head of Abul Hassan Khan, the herald,
To heaven's vault by silken banner raised.
It is with love that he was s ent to Lo ndo n ,
Brought luck and triumph to the Christians' lord.
- 283 -
Notes & Essays
.,,I"""
" ; ->
t.o.J t, al.:. .;,.}) 4
;.;r- ->n ) ...ut clJ4J
J ->n .,M r Lu ' a=
u L. ;' ;'.rl'
r' ...,..W:...; , .
)L=;.
al .:;...;... -> l.-t ,t " ; I . ,ri- fA

) , . ',) . J r-'
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' J ' ,so,= , . .,- u '-'4.;
r ;' La! 'J '-=',.,. "r:
.:N'
J+" L, l:; M)l.J

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,,. ..,...
,=4.- ...,l.- 1 ,+" .>I.) 'Ji

ir ;' ; ..:J'I.;"
r- .),.-... r- ,.=. -r.J-
\:) ' r
.) L..U:; .s
i''.) ;a - J,.J ..;J:J ....,_. ...
On the Ribbo11 ofa Knight!J Order
with Images ofS#n and King
God bless this ribbon of a noble luster;
The veil before it has the sun withdrawn.
Embellished by a second !\!ani's brush,
A s un-crowned portrait: Fatili Ali Shah.
Great herald of his lord with heaven-court
Is Abul Hassan Khan, well-schooled and wise,
\X'eighed down from head to foot in kingly pearls.
He trod the path of service, end to end.
So that his head to sun-height might be raised,
The sun of heav'n his servant would become.
Such happy tidings have a sense profound
For the ambassador, beloved, noble.
His bond is that of Dara, global ruler;
I lis word, that of the Master, heaven-bright.
- 284 -
Final Conclusion
Under the semblance of a childlike naivete, Oriental courts maintain a

particularlr clever, shrewd behavior; the preceding poems are a proof of
that.
The latest Russian lq.,ration to Persia found Mirza Abul Hassan Khan
indeed at the court but not in special favor. I le modestly remains with the
legation, renders them many a service, and gains their gratitude. A few years
later the same man is sent to England with a sizable suite, but to glorify him
rightly, a particular means is used. He is not immediately provided with all
the advantages planned for him to enjoy but is left to set out with credits
and whatever else is necessary. But having barely arrived in Vienna, he is
overtaken by splendid confirmations of his dignity, s triking testimonies to
his importance. A flag with imperial insignia is sent to him, the ribbon of an
order adon1ed with images of the sun and even of the emperor himself \ll .
this raises him to the position of representative of the highest power: in and
with him, the Majesty is present. But even that is not enough: poems are
added, glorifying the banner, sun, and pictures in the Oriental manner, in
splendid metaphors and hyperboles.
To clarify details, I will add a few remarks. The emperor call s himself a
Turk, as he comes from the Turkish-speaking Katshar tribe. All the main
tribes of Persia contributing personnel to the army are divided by language
and descent into those speaking Turkish, Kurdic, Ulric, and Arabic.
He compares himself to Jemshid because Persians classify their powerful
princes in relation to certain attributes of their ancient kings: Feridun for
his dignity, Jemshid for his splendor, Alexander for his power, Darius for
his protective care. A shield is the emperor himself, a shadow on god's earth;
but on hot summer days he himself needs protection. Yet this king casts a
shadow not on himself alone but on the whole world. The smell of mllik -
the finest, most enduring and e ffusive - ascends from the belt of the
Emperor to the brain of Saturn. For these Persians, Saturn is still the
highest of the planets; his circle closes the lower world. Here is the head,
the brain of the whole. \XIhere there is a brain, there are senses. Satun1 is
therefore still susceptible to the odor of musk rising from the emperor's
belt. Dara is the name of Darius and signifies ruler; the memory of
ancestors is never slighted. Calling Iran a lions' den I find important because
the reb>ion of Persia where the court is now staying is mos tly mountainous,
and the empire can well be thought of as a den populated by warriors, or
"lions." The silken banner elevates the status of the ambassador a:> high as
possible, and a friendly, affectionate relation to England is expressed at the
end.
- 285 -
Notes & Essays
As for the second poem, I would generally remark that the linguistic
relationships give Persian poetry a lovely inner life. They are highly charac
teristic and lend pleasure by their meaningful assonance.
The ribbon is valid also for all sorts of enclosures which have an
entrance and need a doorkeeper, as the original text says: ''\Vhose curtain
(or door) the sun is lifting." Often the door of an Oriental room is a
curtain, so the holder and lifter of the curtain is the doorkeeper. By i.\1ani is
meant Manes, head of the sect of the l\lanicheans. He is said to have been
an able painter and to have spread his strange doctrines mainly through his
pictures. He flJ,:rures here as we would speak of Apelles and Raphael. At the
phrase "kingly pearls" our imagination feels strangely animated. Pearls may
signify drops: we can think of a sea of pearls, in which the gracious lord
immerses his favorite. If he draws him out again, the drops remain
suspended on him, and he is preciously adorned from head to foot. But
then, too, the official channels have head and foot, beginning and end, start
and goal: because the servant has faithfully followed his path, he is praised
and rewarded. The succeeding lines point again to the purpose of elevating
the ambassador effusively and aim to secure for him the highest confidence
at the court where he has been sent, as if the emperor himself were present.
We may conclude that his mission to England is of the highest importance.
It has been tmly said that Persian literature is involved in a perpetual
process of exhaling and inhaling. The preceding poems confirm tlus view.
They continually go into the infmite and then immediately back again into
the specific. The ruler is light of the world and at the same time lord of his
empire. 1l1e shield protecting him from the sun spreads its shadows on the
global meadow. The perfumes of his belt can be smelled even by Saturn.
And so everything tends towards remoteness and back to nearness, from
the most legendary tin1es to a brief day at the royal court. From this we
lean1 again that their tropes, metaphors, hyperboles can never be compre
hended on their own but only within the meaning and context of the
whole.
(59) REVISION
Considering the part of the Persian legacy which from the most ancient
to most recent times has been entrusted to the written tradition, we find
most of it enlivened by the fact that on those parchments and writing
sheets there is alwars s till something to be altered and improved. If it were
- 286 -
Re1ision
possible for a copy of an ancient work that was admittedly error-free to be

handed down to us, it might soon be put aside.
I would not deny that we pardon a book many an eJTatum, feeling
flattered by its discovery. May this human trait also benefit my publication,
since errors and defects remain to be righted by me or others: small
contributions will be welcomed.
I might f.rst mention the spelling of Oriental names, where uniformity
can hardly be attained. For as Eastern and \Xlestern languages differ so
greatly, it is hard to find strict alphabetic e')uivalents. Since the differing
or4,>ins and varied dialects of European languages have lent the letters of
their alphabets different meanings, uniform spelling of the names becomes
even more difficult.
It is under French escort that I was chiefly led into those areas. The
dictionary of [Bartelcmy d'] Herbe/ot (1 625-1695] assisted me in my desires.
But the French scholar had to adapt Oriental words and names to French
pronunciation and phonic expectations; and these versions eventually
entered Germany. So even today we prefer to say Hegirc, rather than Hejra,
as more pleasant and more familiar.
How much the English have achieved! Though they do not agree about
their own idiom, they have reasonably acquired the right to pronounce and
to write Oriental names in their way - giving us in Germany more
hesitations and doubts.
The Germans, who write most easily in the way they normally speak
and do not hesitate to adapt foreign sounds, rhythms, and accents, did seri
ous work. But precisely because they tried to approximate more and more
to what was foreign and strange, we find a big difference between older and
newer writings. Here again, it is hardly possible to fmd a reliable authority.
But these concerns were alleviated for me by my careful and obliging
friend J [ohannj G [ottfried] Ljudwig] Kosegarten, who also did the above
translation of the imperial poems. He kindly helped me and offered
corrections. May this trustwortl1y man look with empathy upon my
preparations for a future Divali.
(60) SILVESTRE DE SACY [1 758-1 838)
Pledge yourself, my little book,

Gladly to our Master - go.
Here, the start and fm.ish - look:
Eastern, \Vestern, A and :!.
- 287 -
Notes & Essays
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u') - ' '
,-
4 . , .. 1
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, '-'r" ..,, ,
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Good counsel to the people have we given

And many d ay s devoted to the words.
If to tht: ear they seem discordant, duty
yet bade a herald speak. So let it be.
- 288 -

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West-East Divan

THE POEMS, WITH "NOTES AND ESSAYS":

Johann Wolfgang von Goethe

Divan translated, with Introduction and Commentary Poems

"Notes and Essays" translated

Martin Bidney and Peter Anton von Arnim

Volume II in the Series: East-West Bridge Builders

State University of New York Press

In Memoriam: Peter Anton von Arnim xxm

Sonnet to I\Iy Collaborator, Peter Anton von Al:nim,

117est-East Divan by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, translated by

l\Ioganni Nameh: Book of the Singer

Hafis Nameh: Book oflhftz 18

Ushk Nameh: Book of Love 28

Tekfr.r. Narlleh: Book of Observations 39

(58) Worry not what entry gate... 44

Renj Nameh: Book of Anger 53

Hikmet Nameh: Book of Proverbs 65

(93) The sea is flowin ever,... 66

(133) "How startling, what a marvel-feat,.. "

Timur N ameh: Book of Timur 84

Suleika Nameh: Book of Zuleika 86

lr'liiJ I!Jc lim: t!f"/111/C !Jm,c k11own

In Goethe's Englished works about the lVliddle East

Among whose many splendid merits not the least

Goethe, our guide, has been the bravest company

Providing in the prose and wizard poeu'Y

The lightness, the serenity of the Divali poems is fmally to be found

Poetry if you would know,

in Arabic. Reading his llwughtful "Afterword" to Katharina Ivfommscn's

The souls that form a standard for the judgment of

He'd published not sold out! The riddle rose above

In his experimental Diva11 Goethe, the German, Western poet, becomes

Johann Wolfgang von Goethe

Twenty years I let pass by,

North and South and West- they shake!

There, in what is pure and right,

\X-'here their fathers they respected,

!\line with shepherd-lives will mesh

As we ride the rocky way

I'll in baths and taverns, too,

If you envy him tlt.is joy

Tme believers' talisman

For an amrllet divine

Making them a scapular.

The plain inscription nothing more will hide;

BringAbraxas? No, a fright!

Thinking it the highest height.

A seal ri11gs tricky to design,

Let me get my saddle, don't need rest!

He set the stars, that you may guide

Looking up, steadily.

To God belongs the Orient!

He, the Righteous, in His height

Straying aims to faze the minJ,

Ev'n when I think of worldlr things

Two graces of competing kinds

Four Gifts of Grace

That Arabs might traverse a wide

The turban, ft.rst, will finely show

A sword, that better will defend

I'll write a sung about the flow'rs

Flowers and fmits I will for you