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Attributes Interpretation of Beserah Field, Penyu Basin.

by

Nurathirah Binti Kamarudin

18244

Dissertation submitted in partial fulfilment of

the requirement for the

Bachelor of Technology (Hons)

(Petroleum Geoscience)

FYP II January 2017

Department of Geosciences
Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS
32610 Bandar Seri Iskandar
Perak Darul Ridzuan
CERTIFICATION OF APPROVAL

Attributes Interpretation of Beserah Field, Penyu Basin.

by

Nurathirah Binti Kamarudin

18244

A project dissertation submitted to the

Petroleum Geoscience Programme

Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS

In partial fulfilment of the requirements for the

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY (Hons)

PETROLEUM GEOSCIENCE

Approved by,

(Abdul Halim B Abdul Latiff)

UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI PETRONAS

TRONOH, PERAK

January 2017

i
CERTIFICATION OF ORIGINALITY

This is to certify that I am responsible for the work submitted in this project, that the
original work is my own except as specified in the references and
acknowledgements, and that the original work contained herein have not been
undertaken of done by unspecified sources or persons.

NURATHIRAH BINTI KAMARUDIN

ii
ABSTRACT

Penyu Basin is one of the prospect basins in Malaysia. Penyu Basin is located
offshore of Peninsular Malaysia and it is a minor extensional basin. The basin is
separated from Malay Basin by the Tenggol Arch. The basin is formed at the age of
Oligocene when the region undergoes the extensional stresses caused by the pulling
effect of the continental plate. This basin characterized by the fault trend East-North-
East and North-West. The main purpose of this research is to investigate the
structural features of the Beserah Field located in Penyu Basin. Penyu Basin consists
of four major faults which is the extensional part of the basin. This in any way give
great influenced to the basin development. In order to evaluate the features, various
types of maps are produced. Time map are produced to identify the elevation depth
and the contour of the surface. Attributes map are produced in order to show the
clear geological features of the particular area. The decompaction is used in order to
know the true depth of the sediment at the time of deposition. Result from the
decompaction illustrated the burial history of the sediment sequence in Beserah Field
showing that the thickness of the lihofacies is thicker at the time of deposition. The
effect of compaction can be seen when the lithofacies for each stages are stripped off
from the seismic section.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First and foremost, I would like to thanks Allah S.W.T for the strength and the
blessing He have bestow me, I am able to complete this project. This project gives
me an opportunity to learn and to polish my skills in the technical aspects as
Geoscience students. All those knowledge that have been learned are used for
completing this project. Here, I would like to thank you Universiti Teknologi
PETRONAS (UTP) for the facility that help me in order to complete my project. I
want to express my gratitude to the Midland Valley for providing the Move
Software. Move software helps me in order to understand more about the structural
interpretation.

I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my main supervisor, Mr. Abdul


Halim B Abdul Latiff for the endless support and the guidance for me to complete
this project. I have learned so many things throughout completing this project. His
moral support and comments will definitely help me to improve myself. Not to
forget, I would like to give appreciation to Mr Hafiz Musa, my co-supervisor, for his
knowledge and guidance. All those help from them are really beneficial for me and
my future.

For the most important people in my life, my family, thank you for giving me the
strength to chase my dream. Thank you for always be there for me whenever I
needed them. To Afiqah Bt Abdul Fatakh, thank you for your help and your support
throughout this project. I am really thankful for all the encouragement, inspiration
and the support given to me throughout completing this project. I would like to give
the appreciation to all my friends for the help and support. All the knowledge that I
have gained is really beneficial for me and hoping that I can apply all those
knowledge for my future career.

iv
CERTIFICATION OF APPROVAL. . . . .i

CERTIFICATION OF ORIGINALITY . . . . ii

ABSTRACT. . . . . . . . ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT. . . . . . iv

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION. . . . . 1

1.1 Background of Study . . . 1

1.2 Problem Statements . . . 2

1.3 Objectives . . . . . 4
1.4 Scope of Study . . . . 4

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW . . . 5


2.1 Introduction . . . . 5
2.2 Tectonic Evolution of South-East Asia. 5
2.2.1 Pre-Tertiary Evolution History. . 8
2.2.2 The India-Asia Collision . . 10
2.3 Geological Setting of Peninsular Malaysia 13
2.3.1 Tectonic Evolution . . . 14
2.4 Regional Geology of Penyu Basin. . 17
2.4.1 Structure . . . . 18
2.4.2 Stratigraphy . . . . 19
2.4.3 Basin Evolution . . . 22
2.5 Attributes Analysis . . . 22
2.6 Backstripping . . . . 25

CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY . . . . 27
3.1 Introduction . . . . 27
3.2 Project Workflow . . . . 27
3.3 Data Loading . . . . 29
3.4 Seismic Interpretation . . . 29
3.5 Seismic Attributes . . . . 30
3.6 Mapping . . . . . 31

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3.7 Backstripping. . . . . 31
3.8 FYP 1 Gantt Chart . . . 32
3.9 FYP 2 Gantt Chart . . . 33
3.10 Project Milestones . . . 33

CHAPTER 4: RESULT AND DISCUSSIONS . . 34


4.1 Introduction . . . . 34
4.2 Map of Study Area . . . 34
4.2.1 Time Map . . . . 35
4.2.2 Attributes Map . . . 40
4.2.2.1 RMS Amplitude Attribute . 40-
4.2.2.2 Variance Attribute . . 41
4.2.2.3 Instantaneous Frequency . 43
Attribute
4.2.2.4 Relative Acoustic Impedance 45
Attribute
4.2.3 Cross Section . . . 47
4.3 Backstripping- Sediment Decompaction . 51

CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION AND 54


RECOMMENDATIONS
54
5.1 Conclusion . . . .
55
5.2 Recommendations . . . .
REFERENCES . . . . . 56

vi
LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1.1 4D Seismic Exploration 2

Figure 1.2 Seismic data of Beserah Field in line 1330 3

Figure 2.1 Global plate tectonic framework of South-East 6


Asia
Figure 2.2 Major tectonic component of the South-East Asia 8
Figure 2.3 Palaeogeographic reconstruction of the Tethys 9
area showing sketches of distribution of land and
sea for South-East Asia.
Figure 2.4 Extrusion tectonic hypothesis model. 12
Figure 2.5 Tectonic Setting of South-East Asia. 13
Figure 2.6 Northern Sunda Shelf represents by the Malay 15
Dome.
Figure 2.7 Location of Penyu Basin and Beserah Field in 17
offshore east of the Peninsular Malaysia
Figure 2.8 Structural Elements in Penyu Basin. 19
Figure 2.9 Stratigraphy of Penyu Basin 20
Figure 2.10 Seismic Attributes 23
Figure 2.11 (a)Horizon Slice of Original Seismic data 25
(b)Color Blend of Three Spectral Decomposition
Figure 2.12 Subsidence in forward sense 26
Figure 3.1 Project Workflow. 28
Figure 3.2 Data Loading 29
Figure 3.3 Water Bottom Picked at the Top of the Seismic 30
Section.
Figure 3.4 Backstripping Technique 32
Figure 4.1 (a)Normal seismic section (b) Seismic data 35
with Structural Smoothing and Trace AGC
attributes.
Figure 4.2 Horizon Interpretation in Seismic Section at 36
line 1300
Figure 4.3 Time maps showing the water bottom at 0ms. 37

vii
Figure 4.4 Time map of Horizon2 at -350ms. 37
Figure 4.5 Time map of Horizon3 at -400ms. 38
Figure 4.6 Time map of Horizon4 at -850ms. 38
Figure 4.7 Time map of Horizon5 at -1400ms. 39

Figure 4.8 Time map of Basement at -1500ms. 39

Figure 4.9 RMS Amplitude attribute. Top of Beserah Field 40


(a) Time slice at 500ms (b) Time slice at 600ms.
Figure 4.10 RMS Amplitude Attribute (a) Time slice at 41
2900ms (b) Time slice at 3100ms (c) Time slice at
3500ms (d) Time slice at 3900ms.
Figure 4.11 Variance Attribute. Top of Beserah Field (a) Time 42
slice at 500ms (b) Time slice at 600ms.
Figure 4.12 Variance Attribute. (a) Time slice at 2900ms (b) 43
Time slice at 3100ms (c) Time slice at 3500ms (d)
Time slice at 3900ms.
Figure 4.13 Instantaneous Frequency. Top of Beserah Field (a) 44
Time slice at 500ms (b) Time slice at 600ms.
Figure 4.14 Instantaneous Frequency. (a) Time slice at 2900ms 45
(b) Time slice at 3100ms (c)Time slice at 3500ms
(d) Time slice at 3900ms.
Figure 4.15 Relative Acoustic Impedance. Top of Beserah 46
Field (a) Time slice at 500ms (b) Time slice at
600ms.
Figure 4.16 Relative Acoustic Impedance. (a) Time slice at 47
2900ms (b) Time slice at 3100ms (c) Time slice at
3500ms (d) Time slice at 3900ms.
Figure 4.17 (a)Seismic Section at inline 1300 (b) Cross Section 50
Map of the Beserah Field
Figure 4.18 Seismic sections with polygon in line 1330. 51
Figure 4.19 Decompaction. (a) Removal of Stage I. (b) 53
Removal of Stage II (c) Romoval of Stage III.

viii
LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1 Sediment formation of Penyu Basin 21

Table 3.1 Seismic Attributes and its Functions 30

Table 4.1 Contour Interval 36

Table 4.2 Seismic Profile of Beserah Field Based on Past 49


Studies by Khalid, 1970

Table 4.3 Age for each stages in Beserah Field 51

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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of Study

Petroleum exploration in offshore Malaysia took place in 1950s with the introduction
of marine seismic surveys of Sarawak. In 1957, offshore drilling was commenced
and its began to accelerate quickly in 1966 (Noorul Haq, 2014). Around the end of
1982, it is about 295,000 line-km of marine seismic data was acquired and more than
500 exploratory or appraisal well were drilled.

Today, the modern seismic section serves as an aid to the geophysicist in order to
view the stratigraphic, structural cross section together with producing the maps.
Because of this technology, exploration will have a high chance of success and
greater exploration progress. This is because seismic technology has been improved
in order to gain a better resolution of the seismic data. According to Noorul Haq
(2014) back in 1924, the oil discovery in Brazoria County, Texas was the first
discovered based on single-fold seismic data. Nowadays, the 4D or time-lapse is
introduced in seismic technology. From Figure 1.1, in order to monitor the seismic
reservoir, the results of 3D seismic reflection survey have been compared as the
survey are re-run for several years over the same location. It compared the 3D
seismic reflection survey done in 1992 with the survey done in 2003. The differences
have been identified in term of oil sand probability produced by the reservoir
production. This method is known as the 4D of time-lapse.

1
It consists of the series of 3D seismic survey that can help the interpreter to monitor
how properties of reservoir may change throughout the life of production. Because
of this advance technology, it helps the geophysicist to have clear view regarding
what they want to interpret.

Figure 1.1: 4D seismic exploration, (Lafet, Roure, Doyen, Buran and Taylor, 2009)

Penyu Basin is part of the extensional basin that is located offshore east of
Peninsular Malaysia. This basin have been discovered and explored. Because of the
lack of maturity of its hydrocarbon, the well drilled is not giving any output. With
the help of new and modern technology, new field like for example, Beserah field
was discovered. This field was discovered by using the seismic marine acquisitions.

1.2 Problem Statements

Penyu Basin is the minor extensional basin that is situated in the eastern part of
offshore Peninsular Malaysia. This basin is known as a complex and complicated
basin location northern of Sunda shelf but comprises several grabens or sub-basins.

2
According to the Mazlan Madon (1995), there are four main faults that surrounded
the sub-basins. They are: Kuantan, Pekan, Rumbia and Merchong grabens. These
faults give trend of east and southeast direction. Khalid Ngah (1975) stated that most
of the faults in Penyu Basin were coexistent with deposition of sediment and some of
the faults formed boundaries towards the basin. Because of the idea having the faults
formed from the similar tectonic stress as what the basin undergoes, the un-similar
trends of those faults might characterize the older structural elements and also
represent the basement composition.

Therefore, this project is actually focusing on interpreting the structural features of


Beserah Fields. The available data as shows in the Figure 1.2 need to go through
reprocessing so that the quality of the data can be improves. Meanwhile, the
reprocessing would comprise any signal processing such as demultiplex and denoise.
Therefore, from the data enhancement, the attributes analysis will allow a better
stratigraphic and structural interpretation that actually located within Beserah Field.

Figure 1.2: Seismic data of Beserah Field in line 1330.

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1.3 Objectives

The main objective of this research is to identify and analyze the structural features
of Beserah Field. This will be followed by the sub-objectives which are:

1. To produce a various type of attributes analysis.


2. To analyze the depositional environment of Beserah Field.

1.4 Scope of Study

The study will revolve the use of Petrel software. It will involve the interpretation of
stratigraphic and also the structural interpretation at Beserah Fields. For the
stratigraphic interpretation, there are 3 sub-areas that are related to the stratigraphic
interpretation. There are: analysis of seismic sequence, analysis of seismic facies and
analysis of reflection character.

Then, the structural interpretation is usually related with creating maps portraying
the geometry of the subsurface structure. Seismic interpretation can be defined as the
understanding of the geology of the earth from the processed seismic record. This
interpretation is subdivided into three aspects which are stratigraphic, structural and
also lithologic. The seismic sequences stratigraphic are much more related to the
cycle of the deposition. It will be overlaid with the reflection pattern in order to the
create chronostratigraphic framework that have connection with the strata. From this
framework, the depositional environment can be known.

In the case of structural seismic interpretation, basically it will involve the fault and
horizon picking, attributes analysis and produces various types of maps. From here,
the three-dimensional subsurface structural maps will be created for the
configuration of arrival times. The backstripping technique will be used in order to
know the subsidence history of the extensional basins which involve the removal of
sediment loads. This will give a lot of information regarding the reservoir. For
lithologic interpretation process will help in evaluation of the formation by
determining the direct hydrocarbon indicator and lithology from the seismic data.

4
CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

Southeastern Asia consists of south of China, east of India, west of New Guinea and
north of Australia. It is separated into two geographic regions: Mainland South-East
Asia (Indochina) that consists of Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, Thailand, Myanmar and
West Malaysia and Maritime South-East that comprising Indonesia, East Malaysia,
Singapore, Philippines, East Timor, Brunei, Cocos (Keeling) Islands and Christmas
Island. This chapter basically will summarize the tectonic evolution of the South-
East Asia followed with the geological setting of Peninsular Malaysia and the
regional geological of Penyu Basin.

2.2 Tectonic Evolution of South-East Asia

South-East Asia in the present day is known as the area covered by the sea with
several islands where the continental and transitional crusts are fundamentally
underlie the shallow shelf seas with the water depth of 200m or less while the ocean
crust underlies the deeper ocean basins. The megatectonic features for the region of
South-East Asia can be explained basically by plate tectonic, the contact of
torsionally rigid lithospheric bodies called plates. According to Mazlan Madon
(1999), South-East Asia is consists of three major lithospheric plates namely: the
Indian-Australian plate, Pacific plate and Philippine Sea plate that are still
converging with relative velocity of about 6 to 8 cm per year towards Eurasia. The
boundaries between these plates are active subduction zones which circle the area
nearly continuous from the Ryukyu arc (north-east) through the Philippines, Sumatra
and Java, to Myanmar (north-west).
Moreover, these active plate zones are almost in all places associated with shallow to
deep seismicity, well-developed Benioff-Wadati zones, accretionary complexes,

5
trenches and volcanic arcs. The northward motion of the India-Australia Plate
causing the highly oblique convergent plate boundary along the Sumatra arc. This
motion gives rise to the strong right-lateral shear component to the subduction-
related deformation (McCaffrey, 1996; Malod and Kemal, 1996).

From Figure 2.1, the South-east Asia can be seen as the part of Eurasian Plate and it
is surrounded by the active subduction zones (bold line with barbs) that is used to
mark the boundaries with the major oceanic plates: India-Australia (partly
continental), the Philippine Sea and the Pacific. The red lines represent the mid-
ocean ridges.

Figure 2.1: Global plate tectonic framework of South-East Asia, (Hamilton , 1979).

6
South-East Asia consists of a pre-Tertiary continental core named Sundaland that
covered most of its western area from Myanmar to western Borneo. Sundaland is
located southern part of the Eurasian Plate that is attached and bonded in between
South China and India. During Mesozoic and early Cenozoic, a vast landmass is
formed in this contiguous parts of continental terrain from the Peninsular Malaysia
to the southwestern Borneo.

On the other hands, eastern part of South-East Asia is relatively younger compared
to the western part. It might have evolved in the Late Cretaceous-Tertiary which was
50 to 60 million years ago. This area can be defined by the existence of abundance of
accreted island-arcs along with the plentiful microcontinental blocks of diverse
origin and obducted ophiolites. It shows that this area is more oceanic in character.
At the northern part of Borneo, the Rajang Fold-Thrust Belt covered almost of the
area. According to Hutchinson (1996), it is a relict of a Late Cretaceous-Early
Miocene deep oceanic basin where the sediment fill have been deformed and
disinterred into a large accretionary wedge complex.

The South China Sea basin is the oceanic crust that occurred during Oligocene
(about 32 Million years ago) and underlies the area between Borneo and Vietnam
(Taylor and Hayes, 1980; Briais et al., 1993). South China Sea is tectonically
surrounded by the Yangtze Block at the north, Indochina Block to the west and the
Philippines Sea Plate on the east. From Figure 2.2, the subduction zone can be seen
along the accreted crust. This subduction zone exists to separate the Philippines Sea
with the Asian Sea. The collision of the Eurasian Plate with the Indian Plate is one of
the major factors of the South China Seas formation. When the collision took place,
it thickened the continental crust and changed the topography elevation from the
Himalayan orogenic zone to the South China Sea, mostly around the Tibetan
Plateau. Then, because of it, the location of South China Sea produces several
tectonic events. There are about five stages of the tectonic evolution. There are: rift
event, sea floor spreading, subsidence of the South China Sea, closure of the South
China Sea Basin and uplift of Taiwan.

7
Figure 2.2 showing the major allochthonous continental terranes, the types of crustal
and also the suture zones. The tectonic settings of Peninsular Malaysia, Sarawak and
Sabah are different from each others. The adjacent areas are underlain by the
continental crust while Sarawak and Sabah are covered by the accreted crust. The
plate in South-East Asia moves relatively six to eight cm per year. (Metcalfe, 1996).

Figure 2.2: Major tectonic component of the South-East Asia. Modified from
Metclafe (1996).

2.2.1 Pre-Tertiary Evolution History

The gradual break-up of the supercontinent Pangaea and the evolution of the eastern
Tethys seaways is said to be the main factor of the tectonic evolution of South-East
Asia that happened during Palaeozoic and Mesozoic age. During Palaeozoic and
Mesozoic period, the Tethys Ocean covered the area between Pangaea,
Gondwanaland and Laurasia. According to the studied done on stratigraphic,
palaeobiological and palaeomagnetic,

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South-East Asia is said to have several major tectonostratigraphic terranes that were
formed during the break-up of Pangaea and the opening and closing of successive
Palaeo Tethys oceans. (Metcalfe 1988, 1991, 1996). According to Metcalfe (1996),
there were at least three successive Tethys; palaeo-Tethys, Meso-Tethys and Neo-
Tethys that closed during different collisional events.

In the early Carboniferous age, the Cathaysian terrains of South China, IndoChina,
Simao, West Sumatra and East Malaya have been drifted across the Palaeo-Tethys
Ocean that located far north of Gondwanaland. IndoChina and South China had
merged along the Song Ma suture. These merged continental terrains known as
Chathaysialand in the Early Permian age where the equatorial Gigantopteris flora
evolved and flourished (Hutchison, 2014). Figure 2.3 showing the time of the
tethyss reconstruction showing how the sea and land moves in South-East Asia.

Figure 2.3: Palaeogeographic reconstruction of the Tethys area showing sketches of


distribution of land and sea for South-East Asia, (Lee and Ng, 2014)

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The elongated Cimmerian Continent (engr, 1984) caused the Gondwanaland to be
rifted and began to drift northwards in the Late Permian. According to Wakita and
Metcalfe (2005), the ocean ahead (north) of it, known as the Palaeo-Tethys and the
behind (south) of it is newly formed Meso-Tethys. Approach to Cathaysialand was
accomplished by the northwards subduction that formed the Sukhothai Zone along
the border of the Indochina Block. Then, the Sibumasu collided with the
Cathaysialand in the Triassic to form the Bentong-Raub suture and the Cathaysialand
merged with the North China.

Hutchison (1989) believed that the Palaeo-Tethys Ocean was eliminated by the
Bentong-Raub sutures formation that give rise to the formation of major mountain-
building event, known as Indosinian Orogeny that also can be called as the
Indochinese Cimmerides by engr, (1984). The Palaeo-Tethys became narrower
because it has been subducted beneath the East Malaya-Indochina that gives rise to
the Permo-Triassic volcanic rocks (Sone, Metcalfe, 2008). The phase of crustal
thickening, uplift and exhumation of the rocks happened in this period.

2.2.2 The India-Asia Collision

During the Cenozoic period, India-Asia collision took place within the range of 50 to
45 million years ago and became one of the major event that pattern the South-East
Asia region (Dewey et al., 1989: Peltzer and Tapponnier, 1988). The processes of
strike-slip tectonics, marginal basin formation and arc collision involved in the event
happened during the Cenozoic age.

The collision of India-Asia in the Middle to Late Eocene has been proven by
Tapponnier et al. (1982) by using a simple experiment of continental indentation
using plasticine. From the experiment, it is said that the extrusion of continental
slivers along major strike-slip faults happened during the India-Asia collision.

10
The displacement of the Sundaland to the south-east and east by nearly thousand
kilometres away from the collision zone was taken up along the major strike-slip
faults zones. From India-Asia collision too, Pattani Trough and Malay Basin were
formed as a pull-apart basins along the north-west trending strike-slip faults (Daines,
1985; Polochan and Sattayarak, 1989).

The extensional basins coming from the Gulf of Thailand to Natuna was named as
the Malay-Natuna-Lupar Shear Zone by Daines (1985). Wang Chao, Three Pagodas
and Red River were the examples of the major strike-slip faults that displayed the
left-lateral displacement of several hundred kilometres (Lacassin et al., 1993;
Maluski et al., 1993; Scharer et al., 1990, 1993, 1994). These strike-slip faults
supported the extrusion model.

In the Figure 2.4, the model of tectonic extrusion can be seen where at the left of the
Figure 2.4, it explain about the experiment done by Tapponier et al. (1982) that
shows the effect of the indentation by a solid body in to the plasticine. From the
model, the results gain gives huge similarities to the tectonic of South-East Asia. The
first extrusion that involved the Indochina produced the left-lateral motion along the
Red River Fault. Then, for the second extrusion, it is result in the reactivation of the
Red River Fault in the form of dextral sense at the China Block. (Tapponnier et al.,
1982).

11
Figure 2.4: Extrusion tectonic hypothesis model. After Tapponnier et al., 1982.

12
2.3 Geological setting of Peninsular Malaysia

Peninsular Malaysia together with the adjacent offshore area which is the South
China Sea and the Straits of Melaka are part of the Sundaland. According to Madon
(1999), it is different from its main structural trend as the Peninsular Malaysia is
elongated parallel in north-northwest direction and it is superimposed upon
structures with northeast and east strikes.

As for the main trend, it is developed in the Late Triassic-Early Jurassic


deformational era. Sundaland have become tectonically stable by Early Tertiary.
Figure 2.5 shows the South-East Asia tectonic setting. At the center left of the Figure
2.5, it can be seen that the continental slabs of the South-East Asian portion being
extruded to the southeast where the Indian Ocean-Australian plate and Pacific plate
are moving towards north and west respectively. The movement of the South-East
Asia to the southeast is because of the collision happened between the Eurasian
plates with the Indian subplate. (Tjia, 1999).

Figure 2.5: Tectonic setting of South-East Asia, (Tjia, 1999).

13
Madon (1999) believed that the younger major deformations have been compressed
into the existing weakness zones and the annual movements of vertical crustal
occurred at sub-millimetre scale. Nevertheless, these weakness zones have most
possibly accommodated considerable lateral displacements. Because of this, the
Tertiary basins have formed from the offshore regional subsidences that basically
hold several kilometres of sediments.

From this Tertiary basins, the Malay Basin becomes the largest basin with the
accumulations of at least 3 km. Sundaland becomes the core of South-East Asia
region and still experiencing convergence from all direction. Basically, the Indian
Ocean-Australian plate is moving the north; the Pacific plate is coming from east and
the South-East Asia of Eurasian plate where the Sundaland is located, is being
extruded to the south.

2.3.1 Tectonic Evolution

The Malay, Penyu and West Natuna basins are parts of the Tertiary basins that
located at the north of the Sunda Shelf. Beneath the current junction of the Malay-
Penyu-West Natuna Basins, a mantle plume arched up the continental crust of
northern Sunda shelf and marked as Malay Dome (Figure 2.6). Its formed triple
junctions that have a moderately high geothermic gradient (Tjia, 1998).

The junction overlapped with the thicker crust that represents the basis of
differentiated mantle-plume material. The crest then breaks into Malay, Penyu and
West Natuna Basins. An extruded elongated crustal slab of Southeast Asian
lithosphere was pushed up differently towards the southeast along the three major
NW-SE striking wrench fault zones during the hard collision of the Indian subplate
with the Eurasian plate.

14
The Malay Basin is around 500 km long with the direction to the northwest and
have the width with 200 km. Tjia (1998) suggested that the north of the Malay Basin
changed into a northerly strike that is parallel with the regional structures in the Gulf
of Thailand. The basin is completely filled with the pre-upper Oligocene and
younger sediments with over than 14km. It erased any surfaces that indicate
depression. Deposition in this basin starts with the continental-type of sediments and
this type of depositional continues until late Miocene-Pliocene age. After Pliocene
age, the marine conditions dominated.

The tectonic development for Malay Basin started with the pre-Late Oligocene
transtensional era, followed with subsidence and basin filling until early Middle
Miocene when the basin-filling sediments began to compress and fold by the
regional transpression. Finally in Late Miocene, the tectonic development succeeded
by the epeirogenic subsidence in the period of cross faults that were developed
across the large anticlines. (Ng, 1987; Md Nazri Ramli, 1988).

Figure 2.6: Northern Sunda Shelf represents by the Malay Dome, (Tjia, 1999)

15
The Penyu basin on the other hands, have about 200 km east-west diameter and
about 100 km across. The depression (west end) of this basin is extends onshore
under the Pahang river. At the north of the basin, it is separated by the Tenggol Arch
that shows the boundary between Penyu and Malay Basin. Penyu Basin is separated
into two parts by the NW-striking fracture named Rumbia fault where in the west
part of it is dominated by two east-west half graben while in the east part; dominated
by the NW to WNW-trending structure including eight half-grabens.

The tectonic development of Penyu Basin began with the north-south extension of
pre-Late Oligocene that formed majority east-west half-graben in the entire basin
followed with the lateral slippage alongside the Rumbia fault that may rotated the
half-grabens of the eastern part by 25 degrees in clockwise direction. This event
happened in the Late Oligocene to Middle Miocene. For West Natuna basin, it has a
huge crescentic plan that concave towards north.

This basin is 100km in width with 250 km in length. This basin is said to have
undergo a rifting or/and pull-apart processes that formed a NE-trending half-grabens
into becoming a non-marine sedimentation in the Early Oligocene. In Early
Miocene, a reverse fault and folding formed from the regional compression caused
the half-graben fillings to be uplifted. A several separate inversion event took place
in earliest Miocene around 23 million years ago and terminating in early Late
Miocene (12 million years ago).

Ginger et al. (1993) believed that the structural inversion arose in the eastern part of
the basin and spread to the west part of the basin progressively. Then, in Late
Miocene to Early Pliocene, uplift and also probably sea level changes raised the
anticlinal crests caused an unconformity. In Pliocene to Recent, the marine
sediments are relatively uninterrupted.

16
2.4 Regional Geology of Penyu Basin

Penyu Basin situated offshore east of Peninsular Malaysia is a minor extensional


basin that is separated from the larger Malay Basin by the Tenggol Arch. Apart from
that, Penyu Basin is connected with the West Natuna Basin. From the Figure 2.7,
Penyu Basin is also connected with the Pahang Platform and Johor Platform. Penyu
Basin that aging from Oligocene till recent was characterized by a normal fault and
graben that have east trend and northeastwards and continue into the West Natuna
Basin.

Figure 2.7: Location of Penyu Basin and Beserah Field in offshore east of the
Peninsular Malaysia. Modified form ASCOPE (1981).

17
2.4.1 Structure

Penyu basin is one of the rift failures in the Malay Dome. It is elongated in EW
direction and is measured 160 km x 200 km. There are ten major half grabens that
are faulted from the pre-Tertiary basement (Tjia, 1999). The synriff sediment fills of
the half-graben thickening towards the bounding faults that usually give rise to the
development of the rollover anticline. A major NW striking fracture so called
Rumbia fault, separated the Penyu basin into 2 parts which are: the western part;
manifest by the EW half grabens and the eastern part; marked by the WNW-ESE
oriented depressions.

At the north, the Pahang Platform and Tenggol Arch were bounded to the Penyu
Basin while at the south; it is bounded by the Johor Platform (Figure 2.8). Penyu
Basin was composed by several grabens or sub-basins. Mazlan Madon (1995)
recognized four major faults that bounded the sub-basins: Kuantan, Pekan, Rumbia
and Merchong grabens. In the eastern part of the basin, the Kuantan and Pekan
grabens are bounded by the Pahang and Johor platforms. These two platforms are the
extensional offshore of Late Mesozoic basement of Peninsular Malaysia. Rumbia
and Merchong grabens are categorized by the linear and steep bounding faults.

18
Figure 2.8: Structural elements in Penyu Basin, (Mazlan Madon, 1993).

It is said that, the major influence on the basin development comes from the pre-
existing basement faults. There are two dominant fault trends: ENE-trending, where
mostly half-graben bounding; and NW-trending where it a combined dips and strike-
slip fault.

2.4.2 Stratigraphy

The sediments in the Penyu Basin are consist of siliciclastic that composed of
interbedded shale, sandstone, and siltstone and in the mid part; coal. It is classified
into synrift and postrift sequences that aging from Oligocene to Recent. McKenzie
(1978) believed that the lithospheric extension changes the sedimentation phases
between synrift and postrift. During the extensional period of basin development,
the Oligocene sedimentation is represented by the synrift sequence while from the
Miocene to the Recent sedimentation is represented by the extensional fault when its
activity has been terminated.

19
From that, the sediment fill can be recognized. As for synrift sequence, it occurred as
half-graben where the thickness determined the extension amount through the
bounding faults. Then, postrift sequence is more uniform in term of the thickness.
This is because, it result in a gentle drooping causing by the non-fault-related
subsidence.

Based on Figure 2.9, there are four different formations of sediments in Penyu Basin
ranging in descending order: Pilong, Pari, Terengganu and Penyu. Penyu Formation
represents the deposition of synrift that occurred during Oligocene. At the top of
synrift succession, it is marked with the Base-Pari Unconformity that produced the
Late Oligocene basin inversion. Because of this inversion, a minor folding and
truncation of synrift strata occurred in some area in the basin. Terengganu Formation
on the other hands is also deposited in the alluvial and coastal plain environment as
Pari Formation.

Figure 2.9: Stratigraphy of Penyu Basin, (Mazlan Madon, 1999).

20
These both Formations belong to post-rift sequences that occurred during early to
Middle Miocene. For Pari Formation, Madon (Madon, 1999) said that it is overlay
the inverted half-grabens because on top of it, it is marked by erosional
unconformity named: Top-Pari Unconformity. Pilong Formation is consists of
deposition of sandstone and shale in nearshore to shallow marine environment. Table
2.1 is the simplification of the sediment formation of Penyu Basin which included
the Pilong Formation, Pari Formation, Terengganu Formation and also the Penyu
Formation.

Table 2.1: Sediment formation of Penyu Basin.


Formation Description

Pilong Consists of soft claystone that have the stringers of


coarse grained and poorly consolidated sandstone.

Pari Composed of fine to coarse grained, thin to massive


bedded and very poorly consolidated sands.

Terengganu Dominated by the claystone and fine to coarse grained


sandstone.

Penyu Consists of very fine to medium grained sandstone and


also the reddish brown interbedded of claystone.

21
2.4.3 Basin Evolution

The India-Asia collision that happened during the Late Eocene reactivated a pull-
aparts motion along a major NW trending shear zone of those basins. Analogy with
the West Natuna Basin (Daines, 1985; Wongsosantiko and Wirojudo, 1984; Ginger
et al., 1993) suggests that the Penyu Basin was formed during the Late Eocene to
Early Oligocene that is between 40 and 35 Ma. The alignment of the faults relative
to the direction of regional extension controlled the orientation and geometry of the
half-grabens. Deformation also happened in internal rotation of the fault-bounded
crustal blocks like for example; the Rumbia Fault reactivated the basement fault.

Inversion happened in the Penyu Basin caused by the change in the regional stress
field during the Early to Middle Miocene (e.g Huchon et al., 1994; Tjia and Liew,
1996). The formation of the E-trending and double-plunging anticlines named Sunda
folds; above the major half-graben formed because of the shortening of the North-
South across the basin. This inversion is strongly controlled by the basement faults
that bound the underlying half-grabens.

2.5 Attributes Analysis

Back in 1930s, attributes analysis has been an important aspect to interpret the
seismic reflection. It originated when the geophysicists started to pick the travel
times to coherent reflections on the seismic field records (Chopra and Marfurt,
2005). Seismic technology linked closely with the advances in computer technology.

Definition of seismic attribute is to condition the seismic data to improve


interpretation and to give more accurate prospect identification. According to
Subrahmanyam (2008), seismic attributes was introduced as the seismic
interpretation in the early 1970s. It begins in 1960s with the digital recorded of
seismic data and the ensuing analysis of bright spot, then later in 1970s, a complex
trace attributes and seismic inversion together with the color were introduced
(Chopra and Marfurt, 2006).

22
Subsequently, there were many new attributes that have been derived and computed.
This included the development of response attributes, texture analysis, 2D attributes,
horizon and also interval attributes and also the universal use of color. Figure 2.10
shows the basic attributes that been used to interpret seismic data. According to
Chopra, S & Marfurt, K. (2006), the seismic interpretation techniques have changed
with the introduction of seismic sequence attributes, introduction of 3D seismic
techniques, and the coherence technology in mid 1990s together with the
introduction with the spectral decomposition in the late 1990s. Then, the 3D
visualization techniques were introduced and give a new dimension that attained the
seismic attributes as the 3D volume attributes can reveal and characterized the
geological structure.

Figure 2.10 Seismic Attributes, (Canadian Society of Exploration Geophysicists,


2006)

23
Nowadays, seismic attributes can improve subtle amplitude and phase variations in
the seismic signals that are usually hard to see on the original data (Marfurt, 2008).
Seismic attributes is divided into three parts which are amplitude attributes, time or
horizon attributes and frequency attributes (Subrahmanyam, 2008).

The amplitude attributes used the amplitude of the seismic signal as their main
factor. There are many types of amplitude attributes such as mean amplitude,
average energy, RMS amplitude, AVO attributes and many more. For time or
horizon attributes, it is basically consists of coherence, dip, azimuth and curvature
attributes. Under the time or horizon attributes, it is basically makes the horizon as
their main factor to interpret the seismic data.

As for frequency attributes, it involve the organizing and separating the seismic
events based on their frequency. This implementation is usually called spectral
decomposition. Spectral decomposition gives a means of examining subsurface
geologic features at any discrete frequency within the acquisition bandwidth
(Marfurt, 2008). In other words, the spectral decomposition helps to illuminate the
structures with different frequency band in order to see if any of them will give a
better resolution.

Figure 2.11 shows the different between the original seismic data and the seismic
data after applying the spectral decomposition. The spectral decomposition gives
much better resolution compared to the original seismic data. The stratigraphic
features such as channel can be clearly seen on the spectral decomposition.

24
Figure 2.11: (a) Horizon slice of original seismic data (b) Color blend of three
spectral decomposition, (Oranje-Nassau Energie, 2016).

2.6 Backstripping

Backstripping was developed by Watts & Ryan (1976) which help in recovery of the
basement subsidence and history of the uplifted in response to the sediment absence
and water loading. This will give isolation to the contribution of the tectonic forces
that aid in the rift basin formation. Backstripping consists of several additional
incorporation of isostatic effect of sediment unloading like for example flexural, 1D,
2D or 3D. Figure 2.12 , show the subsidence in the forward sense. Originally, it will
go from to 3 showing how the sediment settles to the bottom surface. In simplest
words, backstripping will show how to get back from 3 to .

Backstripping is used to investigate the subsidence history of extensional basins


which in way involved the deletion of sediment loads together with the sediment
decompaction related to the unloading. (Robert, Kusznir, Yielding & Styles, 1998).
The depositional process will be modeled in reverse progress as the younger part will
be removed. This method will help in determining the lithosphere stretching
magnitude coming from post rift subsidence rate. (Sclater & Christie, 1980). In other
way, backstripping help to predict the geological features within the basin itself.

25
1 1 2 2 3

Figure: 2.12 Subsidence in forward sense, (Allen and Allen, 2005)

The procedures of backstripping started with removal of stratigraphy unit from top
downwards. In other words, the successive layers of basin fill sediment are removed
from the total stratigraphy during the basins history study. When undergo the
backstripping process, correction must be done for sediment compaction that caused
by the burial and subsidence arising responding to the sediment loading. (Robert et
al. 1993b, Kusznir et al. 1995, Nadin & Kusznir 1995, Robert et al. 1997, Walker et
al. 1997).

Typically, the growth of a sedimentary basin going deeper from a marginal flexure,
and it is accompanying with the isochronous strata that thicken basinward.
Backstripped happened when the isochronous unit is isolated one by one and the
rotation of a lower bounding surface happened upward to the datum. When the
backstripping is successful, the history of basin deepening can be known by plotted
in reverse. Thus, the tectonic isostatic origin will be known. To get to know in more
detailed, the decompaction of the remaining sequence can be done to each of the
stages of the backstripping.

26
CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

This chapter discusses the methodology used in this project. The first part of this
chapter will begin with the project workflow. The second part explains about the
data loading, data enhancement, seismic interpretation, seismic attributes and
mapping. The third part shows the Gantt chart for FYP1 and FYP 2 together with the
key milestones for both FYP 1and FYP 2.

3.2 Project Workflow

The project will begins with the loading of seismic data into the Petrel software
followed with the attributes analysis. For attributes analysis, there are several
attributes that will use for this project; which are Variance (edge method), Relative
Acoustic Impedance, RMS amplitude, Instantaneous Frequency, Structural
Smoothing and Trace AGC. Figure 3.1 explain about the workflow of the project
which is begins with the data loading and finish with mapping.

27
DATA LOADING

SEISMIC
ATTRIBUTES
INTERPRETATION
ANALYSIS
-FAULT
(VOLUME)
-HORIZON

MAPPING AND
CONTOURING

TIME MAP ATTRIBUTES MAP CROSS SECTION

BACKSTRIPPING
-DECOMPACTION

Figure 3.1: Project workflow

28
3.3 Data Loading

The methodology will start with the data loading. The seismic format of SEG-Y is
used to import the data into the Petrel software as it can compress all traces. The
coordinate reference system (CRS) of UTM84-48N is selected as the Penyu Basin is
located in that particular area where the Beserah Field is also situated in it. Figure
3.2 shows how the data is loaded into the Petrel software.

Figure 3.2: Data loading.

3.4 Seismic interpretation

In the seismic interpretation, it comprises the interpretation of faults and horizons.


For fault interpretation, it is done in order to improve the structural features of the
formation. In other words, the fault interpretation is interpreted first before horizon
interpretation as the fault may interrupt the horizon continuity. Horizon picking is
based on the strongest reflector that can be seen in the seismic section. Sometimes,
the reflector can be enhanced by using the attributes such as the variance attributes.
With the help of the attributes, the horizon picking will become much more easily
compared when using the original seismic data.

29
Before proceed with any seismic interpretation, the water bottom is picked first as a
decision to which polarity that used for the horizon interpretation. Water bottom is
known with the strongest and continuous reflector (Figure 3.3).

Figure 3.3: Water bottom picked at the top of the seismic section (red).

3.5 Seismic attributes

In order to improve the stratigraphy and structures of the seismic data, the attributes
is used to the seismic section. Seismic attributes can be classified into two which are
surface attributes and volume attributes. Surface attributes is used to extract the
seismic data from the horizon or within an interval only while for volume attributes,
it is used to extract the seismic for the whole volume in order to produce an attribute
cube. Table 3.1 shows the volume attributes that is used for this project.

Table 3.1: Seismic attributes and its functions.

SEISMIC ATTRIBUTES FUNCTION.


RMS Amplitude Highlighted the variation of acoustic
impedance.
variance Used for fault delineation and channel edges.
Instantaneous Frequency Coherent detection and measure bed thickness
and fluid content.
Relative Acoustic Illustrate the unconformity surface and indicate
Impedance sequence boundaries.

30
3.6 Mapping

After seismic interpretation is done, several maps are generated for this project
which is time map, time-slice map, attributes map and cross-section map. Time map
are generated from the horizon where it contain the information regarding the
elevation and the contours. Time-slice map give the information regarding the
change in amplitude in the seismic data. Stratigraphy features such as channel can be
observed in the time-slice map. For attributes map, it is used to detect any amplitude
change and can be also used to enhance seismic reflector. It also can be used to
detect fault and fractures. The cross section map is the map that shows the lithofacies
of the seismic data.

3.7 Backstripping

Move software is used in order to do the backstripping technique. Backstripping is


done by using the seismic section from Beserah Field. The seismic data are
synchronized with the depth from the software used. This is because, the seismic
section need to have the 0m at the seabed. Figure 3.4 show the procedure to do the
backstripping technique.

In order to decompact layer 1, layer 2 and 3 need to be removed. The faults and the
horizons needed to be interpreted first before the backstripping can be done. From
the horizon interpreted, the polygons will be plotted at the seismic section. The
polygon will indicated different litofacies according to the age of the formation in
Penyu Basin. After that, the lithofacies will be stripped off one by one.

31
Figure 3.4: Backstripping technique, (Tourba, Wang and Chen, 2017)

3.8 FYP 1 Gantt Chart


Throughout the first part of final year project, there are several activities that have
been planned. From the activities that have been planned, mapping and contouring
for the Beserah field has been completed.

NO ACTIVITIES WEEK NO
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
1 Topics project
discussion
2 Read and
analyze all
reports
3 Data Loading
4 Extended
proposal and
proposal defense
5 Attributes
Analysis
6 Fault
Interpretation
7 Horizon
interpretation
8 Time Map
9 Mapping and
Contouring

32
3.9 FYP 2 Gantt Chart
In FYP 2, it will continue with mapping and then proceed with the attributes map.
After that, the seismic attributes analysis will be done to the project. Throughout the
second part of final year project, the activities that have been planned are as below:

NO ACTIVITIES WEEK NO
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
1 Mapping
2 Backstripping
(Decompaction)
3 Pre-Sedex
4 Seismic
Attributes
5 Final Review
6 Pre-Sedex, Viva
and Submit
Dissertation

3.10 Project Milestones

Several milestones were identified throughout the project. The milestones are as
follows:

NO ACTIVITIES TIMELINES
1 Topics project discussion 12th September 2016
2 Research Work 19th September 2016
3 Data Loading 3rd October 2016
4 Extended proposal and proposal defense 14th October 2016
5 Attributes Analysis 6th November 2016
6 Fault Interpretation 20th November 2016
7 Horizon interpretation 4rd December 2016
8 Time Map 18th December 2016
9 Mapping and contouring 1st January 2017
10 Backstripping (Decompaction) 12th February 2017
11 Seismic Attributes 15th March 2017
12 Final Review 2nd April 2017
13 Pre-Sedex, Viva and Submit Dissertation 16th April 2017

33
CHAPTER 4

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

4.1 Introduction
For this chapter, it discusses the result obtained throughout this project. It will start
with the map of the study area that consists of the Time Map, Attributes Map, the
cross section of the project area and the backstripping technique for sediment
sequence.

4.2 Map of Study Area

Before the seismic data were interpreted, the structural smoothing together with the
trace AGC was applied to the seismic data. Trace AGC is useful for enhancing the
weak events for improved interpretability. It also enhanced the noise which can be
eliminated by using structural smoothing. Structural smoothing attribute helped in
increasing the continuity of the reflections of the seismic data. It will show a clearer
reflectivity thus helped in seismic interpretations. From the figure 4.1, the difference
between the normal seismic sections with the one that have been smoothed can be
clearer seen. The red box in the Figure 4.1(a) is the example of the seismic reflectors
before the attributes are applied to the seismic data and the red box in the Figure
4.1(b) represents the example of the seismic reflectors after the attributes are applied
to the seismic data. It shows that after applying the attirbutes, the seismic reflector
become clearer compared to before applying the attributes. This will help the
interpreter to interpret the data easier because the reflectivity is clearer.

34
a) b)

Figure 4.1: (a) Normal seismic section (b) Seismic data with Structural
Smoothing and Trace AGC attributes.

4.2.1 Time Map

Time Maps were generated in order to know the elevation depth and the contour of
the surface. Time maps were generated from the horizon interpreted during the
seismic interpretation. Basically, there were six horizons that have been interpreted
from the seismic data. From these horizons (Figure 4.2), the time maps are
generated. From the Figure 4.3, horizon-1 acted as the water bottom at the offset of -
65ms. Horizon-2 interpreted at offset of -297ms (Figure 4.4), horizon-3 at offset -
355ms (Figure 4.5), horizon-4 at offset of -820ms (Figure 4.6), horizon-5 at offset of
-1383ms (Figure 4.7), and the basement at offset of -1500ms (Figure 4.8). From the
contour lines, it can be observed that the elevation started to decrease from NW-SE
direction as it goes deeper.

35
This elevation decreases can be seen in horizon-2 (Figure 4.4) as the purple color
started to appear at the SE of the map. The basement (Figure 4.8), showing the half-
graben with the fault trending of SE-NW. The contour intervals are shown on the
table 4.1.

Table 4.1: Contour interval

Horizon Contour interval (m)


Water Bottom 10
2 8
3 5
4 10
5 20
Basement 100

Figure 4.2: Horizon interpretations in seismic section at line 1300.

36
Horizon1

Figure 4.3: Time maps showing the water bottom at 0ms.

Horizon2

Figure 4.4: Time map of Horizon2 at -350ms.

37
Figure 4.5: Time map of Horizon3 at -400ms.

Horizon4

Figure 4.6: Time map of Horizon4 at -850ms.

38
Horizon5

Figure 4.7: Time map of Horizon5 at -1400ms.

Basement

Faults

Figure 4.8: Time map of Basement at -1500ms.

39
4.2.2 Attributes Map

A good attributes usually sensitive towards the desired geological feature and will
helped in defining the structural or depositional environment. There were several
attributes used in order to capture some morphological structures seen on the seismic
data.

4.2.2.1 RMS Amplitude Attribute

RMS Amplitude basically highlighted the variations of acoustic impedance. A high


RMS amplitude gives high acoustic impedance. Consequently, higher acoustic
impedance will be seen on the brighter color which indicated high amplitude. From
the figure 4.9, at the time slice 600ms, the brighter color can be seen with the range
of color from orange to yellow. This gives an indication that, at this area, it has high
amplitude which indicated the channel fill together with the surrounding lithology.
In figure 4.9 (a), the channel can be clearly seen in yellow and orange color.

-500ms

a) Channel

-600ms

b)

Figure 4.9: RMS Amplitude attribute. Top of Beserah Field (a) Time slice at 500ms

(b) Time slice at 600ms.

40
The figure 4.10, showed the various offset obtained from the RMS Amplitude
attribute. At offset -3100ms, channel can still be seen but at offset -3500ms, the
picture show no geological features. In figure 4.10 (d), the basement can be seen as it
show low RMS amplitude at the deeper depth.

-2900ms -3100ms

a) b)

-3500ms Fault -3900ms

c) d)
Basement

Figure 4.10: RMS Amplitude Attribute (a) Time slice at 2900ms (b) Time slice at 3100ms
(c) Time slice at 3500ms (d) Time slice at 3900ms.

4.2.2.2 Variance Attribute

Variance attribute visualized the changes in acoustic impedance represented by the


trace-to-trace variability. Traces with the same features gives low variations
coefficient, while discontinuities will have high variations coefficient. This is
because, channel and faults caused discontinuities to the lithology and generally it
will be detected in seismic volumes.

41
Figure 4.11 showed the top part of the Beserah Field at offset -500ms and -600ms.
Channel can be clearly seen on the picture. At offset -2900ms, -3100ms and -
3500ms, the basement area is shown on the figure 4.12. It can be detected when the
high color variations (Figure 4.12) appeared on the figure as it shows high
distribution of red color. While at the center between the basements, it shows low
variation of red color. This might indicate the sediment infill.

-500ms

a) Channel

-600ms

b)

Figure 4.11: Variance Attribute. Top of Beserah Field (a) Time slice at 500ms

(b) Time slice at 600ms.

42
-1800ms -2900ms

a) b)

-3100ms Faults -3900ms

c) Basement d) Basement

Figure 4.12: Variance Attribute. (a) Time slice at 2900ms (b) Time slice at 3100ms (c) Time
slice at 3500ms (d) Time slice at 3900ms.

4.2.2.3 Instantaneous Frequency Attribute

Instantaneous frequency showed the rate of change of the phase. Instantaneous


frequency reacts to both propagation of wave together with the depositional
characteristics. From the figure 4.13, the greenish color can be seen on the picture.
The greenish color indicates a slightly higher frequency compared to yellow and red
color.

43
It shows that at the greenish part, it may have sand prone lithologies. It also
indicates the sharp interfaces as it may exhibit by a thinly laminated shales. The
yellow and red color may indicate the unconsolidated sand as it may content some
fluid in the pores. In figure 4.14, when going deeper, the frequency becomes lower
as it shown the red color. This may happen due to reduction in pore spaces as it
undergo compaction.

-500ms

a) Greenish
color

-600ms

b)

Figure 4.13: Instantaneous Frequency. Top of Beserah Field (a) Time slice at 500ms

(b) Time slice at 600ms.

44
-1800ms -2900ms

a) b)

-3100ms Faults -3900ms

c) d)
Basement
Basement

Figure 4.14: Instantaneous Frequency. (a) Time slice at 2900ms (b) Time slice at 3100ms
(c) Time slice at 3500ms (d) Time slice at 3900ms.

4.2.2.4 Relative Acoustic Impedance Attribute

Relative acoustic impedance attribute visualized the unconformity surfaces,


discontinuities and can indicate the sequence boundaries. In figure 4.15, the red box
show the distributary channels that exist in time slice of 500ms to 600ms. The blue
color within the red box (Figure 4.15) indicates the thickest part of the channels
while the red color indicates the thinner parts of the channels. This shows that the
blue color have the high productive channels. Relative acoustic impedance can also
be used to detect thin-bed reflectivity. As going the deeper, the separation of color
cannot be recognized. This is because the bed becomes thicker (Figure 4.16). This
indicates the basement area.

45
-500ms

Channel

a)

-600ms

b)

Figure 4.15: Relative Acoustic Impedance. Top of Beserah Field (a) Time slice at
500ms (b) Time slice at 600ms.

46
-1800ms -2900ms

a) b) Basement

-3100ms Faults -3900ms

c) d)
Basement

Figure 4.16: Relative Acoustic Impedance. (a) Time slice at 2900ms (b) Time slice at
3100ms (c) Time slice at 3500ms (d) Time slice at 3900ms.

4.2.3 Cross Section

The cross sectional map are produced based on the seismic interval. From the Figure
4.17(a), Stage I is said to have a weak a transparent signals while for Stage II, it have
a stronger seismic signal. For Stage III, it is feebler and more transparent compared
to costal section. Stage IV where can be call as basement, is recognized with the
noise within the seismic section. The pink color in Figure 4.17(b) might indicate the
sediment filled into the basin.

47
Table 4.2 showing the seismic profile of Beserah Field. From the Table 4.2, the
uppermost part is a seabed as it shows a very straight and continuous horizon. Table
4.2 (I) showing the Stage I where the reflector lies is not very close to each others.
The reflector is weak and the signal is transparent. This is happened because of the
thin beds that give the weak reflector. There is no fault found in Stage I.

For the table 4.2 (II), For Stage II, the reflectors are lateral and continuous. The
reflector stronger compared to the marine environment. As for Table 4.2 (III), it can
be classified as Stage III. Looking at the seismic section of Beserah Field in Table
4.2 (III), the reflector is weaker and have more transparent signals compared to Stage
II. It still has a lateral reflector but it is weak.

Stage IV in Table 4.2 (IV) shows that there is no clear reflector that can be seen on
the Table 4.2 (IV) because it contains chaotic reflection configuration. These noises
appeared because of the metamorphic rock at the basement that did not form any
beds.

48
Table 4.2: Seismic profile of Beserah Field based on past studies by Khalid, 1970.

SEISMIC SEISMIC DESCRIPTION

(PAST STUDIES) (BESERAH FIELD)

Seabed
I I Shallow Marine
Thin sand beds, soft
mud

II II Coastal
Sand, silt, mudstone

Continental
III
Silt with sand and
mudstone

III
Basement
IV
Metamorphic or
granitic rocks.

IV

49
I

II

III

IV

a)

Marine
Coastal

Continental

b)

Figure 4.17: (a) seismic section at line 1300. (b) Cross Section Map of the Beserah
Field.

50
4.3 Backstripping- Sediment Decompaction
Backstripping is used to interpret the sedimentary rock sequences of the Beserah
Field. Backstripping helped in model the reversal unit of the depositional process.
By doing this, the depth of the basement can be estimated in the absence of sediment
and water loading. Figure 4.18 shown the whole seismic section in line 1330
together with four stages of lithofacies in Beserah Field.

Before this method is applied, the age of each stages is identified. The ages is
important as the purpose of backstripping is to identify the uplift history of the
sediment sequences. According to Khalid Ngah (1970), the ages for each stages is
identifed as the following:

Table 4.3: Age for each stages in Beserah Field


Stages Age
I 3.0 Ma
II 15.0 Ma
III 23.0 Ma
IV 33.0 Ma

II

III

IV

Figure 4.18: Seismic sections with polygon at line 1330.

51
In Figure 4.19, when undergo the decompaction, the lithofacies stages will be
removed one by one. It started with the removal of Stage I. Before decompaction is
done, Stage II started at the depth of -800m to -1250m (Figure 4.18). After applying
the technique, the depth changed to -400m to -1000m (Figure 4.19 (a)). The
difference in depth before and after decompaction is approximately 150m. This
shows the effect of compaction when going deeper.

This effect is also applied to the Stage III when the Stage II is removed from the
seismic section as what been shown in Figure 4.19 (b). The depth of Stage III before
decompaction started at depth of -1530m until -3000m (Figure 4.19 (a)) but after
applying the decompaction, the depth of Stage III changed to -1130m to -2900m
(Figure 4.19 (b)). As for in Figure 4.19 (c), the removal of Stages III give a huge
difference in depth for sediment in Stage IV. The original depth begins at -2900m to
-5390m but after decompaction, the depth changed to -2334m to -5390m.

From the decompaction, it generally estimated the subsidence by removing the effect
of other causes of subsidence like for example the loading of subsidence caused by
the sedimentary column. The used of this technique can also be related to the
reconstruct the stratigraphy through time. This is because, when the stages is
removed, the older stages seem to be uplifted showing the lithofacies before it
undergo compaction. The most obvious example can be seen in Figure 4.19 (c),
where Stages IV uplifted showing that the sedimentary subsidence was larger at the
time when it was deposited compared to when it was measure in the field.

The depth of the stage IV before and after the decompaction gives a difference of
566m. This gives an indication that when going deeper after the compaction, the
thickness becomes compacted. Because of decompaction, the real depth of the Stage
IV is obtained which is at -2334m.

52
a)
II

III

IV

b)

III

IV

c)

IV

Figure 4.19: Sediment Decompaction. (a) Removal of Stage I. (b) Removal of Stage
II. (c) Removal of Stage III.

53
CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Conclusions

As a conclusion, seismic data in Beserah Field is undergo the reconstruction.


This reconstruction is done by using backstripping technique (sediment
decompaction) in order to know the effect of compaction towards the sediment
sequences. Its show that, sediment loaded was larger at the time of deposition
compared to the present time when undergo the sediment decompaction. From the
removal of the layer or lithofacies, the real depth of the basement is obtained which
is 2334m. Its show the effect of compaction through time. Compaction happened
when the older sediment filled in the basin is being compacted by the younger
sediment filled.

From the given seismic data, the faults are interpreted first as it shows the
displacement between the horizons. Six horizons are interpreted for this project
including the seabed and the basement of the Beserah Field. From the horizons
interpretation, six time maps have been generated. The time map will give the
elevation depth together with the contour of the surface. Contour line helps in
keeping the difference in elevation between two lines. The attribute maps such as the
RMS Amplitude, Variance, Instantaneous Frequency and Relative Acoustic
Impedance are generated. The cross sectional map of Beserah Field are produced and
Beserah field can be divided into four parts based on studies made by Khalid Ngah
(1970) which are Stage I, Stage II, Stage III and Stage IV. However, more analysis
and discussion can be conducted in order to fully understand the structural features
of Beserah Field.

54
5.2 Recommendations

For this project, the recommendations that would be suggested are related to
the enhancement of the seismic data. The data for this project need to be undergo the
reprocessing as it would give the better and clear seismic data. The restoration of
fault can be done in order to develop a strong structural interpretation. The spectral
decomposition can also be done to the seismic data. Spectral decomposition will help
in enhancing the stratigraphic together with the structural features.

55
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