10ES43-2015, EEE, CMRIT Lecture Notes 3 Manavaalan G

Lecture Notes 3:

Contents
1 Transfer Functions, Poles and Zeros 1

2 Steady-State Errors and Error Constants 2

2.1 Steady-State Errors for a Unit-Step Input: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.2 Steady-State Errors for a Unit-Ramp Input: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.3 Steady-State Errors for a Unit-Parabolic Input: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

1 Transfer Functions, Poles and Zeros

Transfer Function: [1, page: 15]
The transfer function of a linear, time-invariant, differential equation system is defined as the
ratio of the Laplace transform of the output (response function) to the Laplace transform of
the input (driving function) under the assumption that all initial conditions are zero.
Consider the linear time-invariant system defined by the following differential equation:

(n) ( n 1) (m) ( m 1)
a0 y + a1 y + + an1 y + an y = b0 x + b1 x + + bm1 x + bm ; (n m)
(n) dn
where y is the output of the system and x is the input, y = y(t). The transfer function of
dt
this system is given as

L {output} 

Y (s)
Transfer function = G (s) = =
L {input} zero initial conditions
 X (s)
b0 sm + b1 sm1 + + bm1 s + bm
= (1)
a 0 s n + a 1 s n 1 + + a n 1 s + a n

If the highest power of s in the denominator of the transfer function is equal to n, the system
is called n-th order system.
Poles and zeros: [2, page: 134]
The transfer function G (s) can also be given as
m

N (s)
K ( s zi )
i =1
G (s) = = n , (2)
D (s)
( s pi )
i =1

K is called the transfer function gain (dc gain).

Manavaalan G, Assistant Professor, Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, CMR Institute
of Technology, Bangalore, E-mail: manavaalan.g@cmrit.ac.in.

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10ES43-2015, EEE, CMRIT Lecture Notes 3 Manavaalan G

The roots of the numerator z1 , z2 , , zm are called the finite zeros of the system. The zeros
are locations in the s-plane where the transfer function is zero. If s = zi then,

G (s)|s=zi = 0.

The roots of the denominator, p1 , p2 , , pn are called poles of the system. The poles are
locations in the s-plane where the magnitude of the transfer function becomes infinite. If
s = pi , then
G (s)|s= pi = .

The zeros also correspond to the signal transmission-blocking properties of the system and
are also called the transmission zeros of the system. The system has the inherent capability
to block frequencies coinciding with its zeros locations. If we excite the system with the
nonzero input, u = u0 es0 t , where s0 is not a pole of the system, then the output is identically
zero (Identically zero means that the output and all of its derivatives are zero for t > 0.),
y 0, for frequencies where s0 = zi .
The poles of the system determine its stability properties. The poles of the system also
determine the natural or unforced behaviour of the system to as the modes of the system.
The zeros and poles may be complex quantities, and we may display their locations in a
complex plane which we refer to as the s-plane. The locations of the poles and zeros lie at
the heart of feedback control design and have significant practical implications for control
system design. The system is said to have n m zeros at infinity if m < n because the
transfer function approaches zeros as s approaches infinity.

2 Steady-State Errors and Error Constants

Errors in a control system can be attributed to many factors. Changes in the reference in-
put will cause unavoidable errors during transient periods and may also cause steady state
errors. Imperfections in the system components, will cause errors at steady state. In this sec-
tion, however, we shall not discuss errors due to imperfections in the system components.
Rather, we shall investigate a type of steady-state error that is caused by the incapability of
a system to follow particular types of inputs.

R E C
G

Figure 1: Negative feedback control system.

TypeN system: Consider a feedback control system shown in Figure 1 with the following
open-loop transfer function T (s):
m
K (Ti s + 1)
i =1
T (s) = G (s) H (s) = n
sN (Tj s + 1)
j =1

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10ES43-2015, EEE, CMRIT Lecture Notes 3 Manavaalan G

It involves the term s N in the denominator, representing a pole of multiplicity N at the origin,
such system is called type N system. It is different from that of the order of a system. [1,
page: 225]
Steady-State Errors: The transfer function between the error signal e(t) and the input signal
r (t) is

E(s) H (s)C (s)

= 1
R(s) R(s)
G (s) H (s)
= 1
1 + G (s) H (s)
1
= ,
1 + G (s) H (s)

where the error e(t) is the difference between the input signal and the output signal.
The final-value theorem provides a convenient way to find the steady-state performance of
a stable system. Since E(s) is

1
E(s) = R(s)
1 + G (s) H (s)

the steady-state error is

ess = lim e(t) = lim sE(s)

t s 0
s R(s)
= lim (3)
s 0 1 + G (s) H (s)

Note: As the type number is increased, accuracy is improved; however, increasing the type
number aggravates the stability problem. A compromise between steady-state accuracy and
relative stability is always necessary.
The static error constants defined in the following are figures of merit of control systems. The
higher the constants, the smaller the steady-state error. In a given system, the output may
be the position, velocity, pressure, temperature, or the like. The physical form of the output,
however, is immaterial to the present analysis. Therefore, in what follows, we shall call the
output position, the rate of change of the output velocity, and so on. This means that
in a temperature control system position represents the output temperature, velocity
represents the rate of change of the output temperature, and so on.

2.1 Steady-State Errors for a Unit-Step Input:

The steady-state error of the system for a unit-step input is

s 1
ess = lim
s 0 1 + G ( s ) H ( s ) s
1
=
1 + G (0) H (0)

Static Position Error Constant K p : The static position error constant K p is defined by

K p = lim G (s) H (s) = GH |s=0

s 0

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Thus, the steady-state error in terms of the static position error constant K p is given by
1
ess =
1 + Kp
For a type-0 system,
m
K (Ti s + 1)
i =1
K p = lim n =K
s 0
(Tj s + 1)
j =1

For a type-1 or higher system,

m
K (Ti s + 1)
i =1
K p = lim n = , for N 1
s 0
sN (Tj s + 1)
j =1

For a unit-step input, the steady-state error ess may be summarized as follows:
1
ess = , for type 0 systems
1+K
ess = 0, for type 1 or higher systems.

2.2 Steady-State Errors for a Unit-Ramp Input:

The steady-state error of the system with a unit-ramp input is given by
s 1
ess = lim
s 0 1 + G ( s ) H ( s ) s 2
1
= lim
s 0 s G ( s ) H ( s )

Static Velocity Error Constant Kv : The static velocity error constant Kv is defined by
Kv = lim s G (s) H (s)
s 0

Thus, the steady-state error ess in terms of the static velocity error constant Kv is given by
1
ess =
Kv

The term velocity error is used here to express the steady-state error for a ramp input. The
dimension of the velocity error is the same as the system error. That is, velocity error is not
an error in velocity, but it is an error in position due to a ramp input.
For a type 0 system,
m
sK (Ti s + 1)
i =1
Kv = lim n =0
s 0
(Tj s + 1)
j =1

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For a type 1 system,

m
sK (Ti s + 1)
i =1
Kv = lim n =K
s 0
s (Tj s + 1)
j =1

For a type 2 or higher system,

m
sK (Ti s + 1)
i =1
Kv = lim n = , for N 2
s 0
sN (Tj s + 1)
j =1

The steady-state error ess for the unit-ramp input can be summarized as follows:
1
ess = = , for type 0 systems
Kv
1 1
ess = = , for type 1 systems
Kv K
1
ess = = 0, for type 2 or higher systems
Kv

A type 0 system is incapable of following a ramp input in the steady state. The type 1 system
can follow the ramp input with a finite error. In steady-state operation, the output velocity is
exactly the same as the input velocity, but there is a position error. This error is proportional
to the velocity of the input and is inversely proportional to the gain K. The type 2 or higher
system can follow a ramp input with zero error at steady state.

2.3 Steady-State Errors for a Unit-Parabolic Input:

The steady-state error of the system with a unit-parabolic input (acceleration input), which
is defined by
t2
r (t) = , for t 0
2
= 0, for t < 0
is given by
s 1
ess = lim
s 0 1 + G ( s ) H ( s ) s 3
1
= lim 2
s 0 s G ( s ) H ( s )

Static Acceleration Error Constant Ka : The static acceleration error constant Ka is defined
by
Ka = lim s2 G (s) H (s)
s 0
Thus, the steady-state error ess in terms of the static acceleration error constant Ka is given
by
1
ess =
Ka

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The term parabolic error is used here to express the steady-state error for a parabolic input.
The dimension of the velocity error is the same as the system error. That is, acceleration
error is not an error in acceleration, but it is an error in position due to a parabolic input.
For a type 0 system,
m
s2 K (Ti s + 1)
i =1
Kv = lim n =0
s 0
(Tj s + 1)
j =1

For a type 1 system,

m
s2 K (Ti s + 1)
i =1
Kv = lim n =0
s 0
s (Tj s + 1)
j =1

For a type 2 system,

m
s2 K (Ti s + 1)
i =1
Kv = lim n =K
s 0
s2 (Tj s + 1)
j =1

For a type 3 or higher system,

m
s2 K (Ti s + 1)
i =1
Kv = lim n = , for N 3
s 0
sN (Tj s + 1)
j =1

The steady-state error ess for the unit-ramp input can be summarized as follows:

1
ess = = , for type 0 and 1 systems
Ka
1 1
ess = = , for type 2 systems
Ka K
1
ess = = 0, for type 3 or higher systems
Ka

Note that both type 0 and type 1 systems are incapable of following a parabolic input in the
steady state. The type 2 system can follow a parabolic input with a finite error signal. The
type 3 or higher system with follows a parabolic input with zero error at steady state.

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Summary:

Table 1: Steady-state error in terms of gain K.

Step Input Ramp Input Acceleration Input

1
r (t) = 1 r (t) = t r ( t ) = t2
2

1
Type 0 system
1+K

1
Type 1 system 0
K

1
Type 2 system 0 0
K

Type 3 or higher system 0 0 0

Table 2: Static error constants.

System Types

0 1 2 3

Static Position Error Constant K p K p = lim G (s) H (s) K 0 0 0

s 0

Static Velocity Error Constant Kv Kv = lim s G (s) H (s) K 0 0

s 0

Static Position Error Constant Ka Ka = lim s2 G (s) H (s) K 0

s 0

***

References
[1] Katsuhiko Ogata. Modern Control Engineering. PHI Learning Private Limited, 5-th edi-
tion, 2011.
[2] Gene F. Franklin, J. David Powell, and Abbas Emami-Neeini. Feedback Control of Dynamic
Systems. Pearson Education, 4-th edition, 2006.

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