Introduction and OverviewGetting Started

Chapter- 1
Introduction and
OverviewGetting Started

Chapter Objectives
Definition of operating system and the services offered by it.
Types of operating system.
History of UNIX and Linux along with their features.

File system architecture details.

Types of users and files in UNIX/LINUX.

Basic UNIX Commands.

Recap.

Quiz.

1.1 Definition of Operating System and the services

offered by it
Operating system (OS) is a set of programs that manages the activities of the
computer system and lets the user use the system resources effectively.
Most desktop and laptop PCs come pre loaded with Microsoft Windows.
Macintosh computers come with Mac OS X. Many corporate servers use the
Linux or UNIX operating systems. The operating system is the first thing
loaded onto the computer without the operating system; a computer is of
no use.
An operating system creates the ability to:
a. serve a variety of purposes
b. interact with users in more complicated ways
c. keep up with needs that change overtime
d. management of the processor, RAM, I/O
e. file and Information Management
f. management of execution of applications
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At the simplest level, an operating system does two things:

1. It manages the hardware and software resources of the system. In a desktop
computer, these resources include such things as the processor, disk space,
memory and more.
2. It provides a stable, consistent way for applications to deal with the
hardware without having to know all the details of the hardware.
The first task, managing the hardware and software resources, is very
important, as various programs and input methods compete for the attention
of the central processing unit and demand memory, storage and input/output
bandwidth for their own purposes.
The second task, providing a consistent application interface, is especially
important if there is to be more than one of a particular type of computer using
the operating system, or if the hardware making up the computer is ever open to
change. A consistent application program interface allows a software developer
to write an application on one computer and have a high level of confidence
that it will run on another computer of the same type, even if the amount of
memory or the quantity of storage is different on the two machines.
There are cases where processes need to communicate with each other
to exchange information. It may be between processes running on the same
computer or running on the different computers. By providing this service the
operating system relieves the user of the worry of passing messages between
processes. In case where the messages need to be passed to processes on the
other computers through a network it can be done by the user programs. The
user program may be customized to the specifics of the hardware through
which the message transits and provides the service interface to the operating
system.

1.2 Types of Operating System

From the previous section, we understood that Operating systems that create a
link between end users and the applications form the core of computer systems.
It dissociates the programs, the hardware and simplifies resource management.
Let us look at the different types of operating systems in this section.
Single user and Multi user Operating Systems: In a single user OS
type, only a single person has access to all resources and in case of multi user
OS, multiple users can access a computer system concurrently. Time sharing
system can be classified as multi user systems as they enable a multiple
user access to a computer through the sharing of time. Being able to have
multiple accounts on a Windows operating system does not make it a multi
user system. Rather, only the network administrator is the real user. But for a Unix
Introduction and OverviewGetting Started 3

like operating system, it is possible for two users to login at a time and this
capability of the OS makes it a multi user operating system. Some examples
of multi user operating systems are Linux, Unix, and Windows 2000.
Single tasking and Multi tasking Operating Systems: When a single
program is allowed to run at a time, the system is grouped under a single
tasking system, while in case the operating system allows the execution of
multiple tasks at one time, it is classified as a multitasking operating system.
Multitasking can be of two types namely, pre emptive or co operative. In pre
emptive multitasking, the operating system slices the CPU time and dedicates
one slot to each of the process. Unix like operating systems such as Solaris and
Linux support pre emptive multitasking. Cooperative multitasking is achieved
by relying on each process to give time to the other processes in a defined manner.
MS Windows prior to Windows 95 used to support cooperative multitasking.
UNIX and Windows 2000 are examples of multitasking systems.
Real time Operating System: It is a multitasking operating system that
aims at executing real time applications. Real time operating systems often
use specialized scheduling algorithms so that they can achieve a deterministic
nature of behavior. The main object of real time operating systems is their
quick and predictable response to events. They either have an event driven
or a time sharing design. Time sharing operating systems switch tasks based
on the clock interrupts while an event driven system switches between tasks
based on their priorities. DSP BIOS is an example for real time Operating
system.
Distributed Operating System: An operating system that manages a
group of independent computers and makes them appear like a single computer
is known as distributed operating system. The development of networked
computers that could be linked and communicate with each other, gave rise to
distributed computing. Distributed computations are carried out on more than
one machine. When computers in a group work in cooperation, they make a
distributed system.
Embedded System: The operating systems designed for being used in
embedded computer systems are known as embedded operating systems. They
are designed to operate on small machines like PDAs with less autonomy.
They are able to operate with a limited number of resources. They are very
compact and extremely efficient by design. Windows CE, Minix 3 and Free
BSD are some examples of embedded operating systems.

1.3 History of UNIX and LINUX along with their

features
1.3.1 Unix
In 1969-1970, Kenneth Thompson, Dennis Ritchie, and others at AT&T Bell
Labs began developing a small operating system on a little used PDP-7. The
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operating system was soon christened UNIX, a pun on an earlier operating

system project called MULTICS. In 1972-1973, the system was rewritten
in the programming language C, an unusual step that was visionary: due to
this decision, UNIX was the first widely used operating system that could
switch from and outlive its original hardware. Other innovations were added
to UNIX as well, in part due to synergies between Bell Labs and the academic
community. In 1979, the "seventh edition'' (V7) version of UNIX was released,
the oldest of all extant UNIX systems.

1.3.2 Linux
In 1991, Linus Torvalds began developing an operating system kernel, which
he named "Linux". This kernel could be combined with the FSF material and
other components to produce a freely modifiable and very useful operating
system. This book will term the kernel itself the "Linux kernel'' and an entire
combination as "Linux''. Note that many use the term "GNU/Linux'' instead
for this combination. Linux is not derived from UNIX source code, but its
interfaces are intentionally like UNIX. Therefore, UNIX lessons learned
generally apply to both, including information on security.

1.3.3 Comparison of Unix and Linux

UNIX is copyrighted name only big companies are allowed to use the UNIX
copyright and name, so IBM AIX, Sun Solaris and HP UX all are UNIX
operating systems. Most UNIX systems are commercial in nature.
Linux is a UNIX Clone. It is just a kernel. All Linux distributions
include GUI system, GNU utilities (e.g., ls, cp, mv, date, bash etc), installation
and management tools, GNU c/c++ Compilers, Editors (VI) and various
applications (e.g., Open Office, Firefox etc). However, most UNIX operating
systems are considered as a complete operating system as everything comes
from a single source or vendor.
Linux is Free. It can be downloaded from the Internet or redistributed
under GNU licenses. There is a best community support for Linux. Most UNIX
like operating systems are not free. However, some Linux distributions such
as Red hat/Novell provides additional Linux support, consultancy, bug fixing,
and training for additional fees.
Linux is considered as most user friendly UNIX like operating systems.
It makes it easy to install sound card, flash players and other desktop goodies.
However, Apple OS X is most popular UNIX operating system for desktop
usage. Linux comes with open source netfilter/iptables based firewall tool to
protect the server and desktop from crackers and hackers. UNIX operating
system comes with its own firewall product or need to purchase third party
software such as Checkpoint UNIX firewall.
Introduction and OverviewGetting Started 5

1.4 File system architecture details

Generalized file system provides a simple and unified way to access resources.
The basic unit is a file. A file consists of essential data, metadata (data about
the data), nonessential metadata, and some information. Unless the file is a
directory, the information is given "as is" and not analyzed by the file system.
Essential metadata can be edited only by the file system driver and other
privileged programs, since, improper editing may make the file unusable.
Nonessential metadata contain information useful for indexing systems (the
indexing systems are ordinary programs, and not a part of the file system).
Nonessential metadata have a nested structure.
A directory (also known as a folder) is a file that may contain other
files inside the file. Since, the file system is flexible and extensible, different
directories may have different physical implementation. Essential metadata
may include file size; date created, last modified, last accessed; directory
structure; and special storage properties. Metadata of a directory may apply to
files inside the directory.
A symbolic link is an empty file that points to a file. The link may indicate
either an absolute location or a location relative to the location of the link.
Unless requested otherwise, a reference to a symbolic link is a reference to
the file to which the link points. Files are identified by their path, such as
/file_system/folder/file. For example, name 1/name 2 identifies file name 2
inside the file name1. Copying the file copies the contents of the identified file
to the identified path. The file may then or during copying be converted to the
appropriate structure for files in that location.
The contents of the root file system must be adequate to boot, restore,
recover, and/or repair the system.
a. To boot a system, enough must be present on the root partition to mount
other file systems. This includes utilities, configuration, boot loader infor-
mation, and other essential start up data. /usr, /opt, and /var are designed
such that they may be located on other partitions or file systems.
b. To enable recovery and/or repair of a system, those utilities needed by
an experienced maintainer to diagnose and reconstruct a damaged system
must be present on the root file system.
c. To restore a system, those utilities needed to restore from system back ups
(on floppy, tape, etc.) must be present on the root file system.
The following directories, or symbolic links to directories, are required in /.
Directory Description
bin Essential command binaries
boot Static files of the boot loader
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dev Device files

etc Host specific system configuration
lib Essential shared libraries and kernel modules
media Mount point for removable media
mnt Mount point for mounting a file system temporarily
opt Add on application software packages
sbin Essential system binaries
srv Data for services provided by this system
tmp Temporary files
usr Secondary hierarchy
var Variable data
Each directory listed above is specified in detail in separate subsections
below. /usr and /var each have a complete section in this document due to the
complexity of those directories.

1.5 Types of users and files in UNIX/LINUX

Linux supports numerous file system types
a. Ext2: This is like UNIX file system. It has the concepts of blocks, inodes
and directories.
b. Ext3: It is ext2 file system enhanced with journaling capabilities. Journaling
allows fast file system recovery. Supports POSIX ACL (Access Control
Lists).
c. Isofs (iso9660): Used by CDROM file system.
d. Sysfs: It is a ram based file system initially based on ramfs. It is used to
exporting kernel objects so that end user can use it easily.
e. Procfs: The proc file system acts as an interface to internal data structures
in the kernel. It can be used to obtain information about the system and to
change certain kernel parameters at runtime using sysctl command. For
example, you can find out cpuinfo with following command:
# cat /proc/cpuinfo
f. Or you can enable or disable routing/forwarding of IP packets between
interfaces with following command:
# cat /proc/sys/net/ipv4/ip_forward
# echo "1" > /proc/sys/net/ipv4/ip_forward
# echo "0" > /proc/sys/net/ipv4/ip_forward
g. NFS: Network file system allows many users or systems to share the same
files by using a client/server methodology. NFS allows sharing all of the
above file system.
Introduction and OverviewGetting Started 7

h. Linux also supports Microsoft NTFS, vfat and many other file systems.
See Linux kernel source tree Documentation/file system directory for list
of all supported file system.
i. You can find out what type of file systems currently mounted with mount
command:
$ mount
OR
$ cat /proc/mounts
A UNIX file system is a collection of files and directories stored. Each
file system is stored in a separate whole disk partition. The following are a few
of the file system:
a. / - Special file system that incorporates the files under several directories
including /dev, /sbin, /tmp etc
b. /usr - Stores application programs
c. /var - Stores log files, mails and other data
d. /tmp - Stores temporary files
1.6 Basic UNIX commands
a. ls --- lists your files
ls - l --- lists your files in 'long format', which contains lots of useful infor-
mation.
ls - a --- lists all files, including the ones whose filenames begin in a dot.
b. more filename --- shows the first part of a file, as much as will fit on one
screen.
c. emacs filename --- is an editor that lets you create and edit a file.
d. mv filename1 filename2 --- moves a file
e. cp filename1 filename2 --- copies a file
f. rm filename --- removes a file.
g. diff filename1 filename2 --- compares files, and shows where they differ
h. wc filename --- tells you how many lines, words and characters there are
in a file
i. chmod options filename --- change the read, write and execute permissions
on files.
j. File Compression
i. gzip filename --- compresses files, so that they take up much less
space.
ii. gunzip filename --- uncompresses files compressed by gzip.
iii. gzcat filename --- to look at a gzipped file without actually having to
gunzip it.
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k. printing :
i. lpr filename --- print.
ii. lpq --- check out the printer queue.
iii. lprm jobnumber --- remove something from the printer queue.
Points to remember
An operating system is a resource manager that is useful to handle all the
available resources effectively and efficiently.
The following are the available types of operating systems:
Single user and Multi user operating systems
Single tasking and Multi tasking operating systems
Real time operating system and
Distributed operating system
Linux and UNIX are almost the same, except that Unix is commercial
in nature.
1.7 Quiz
1. What is the need for an operating system?
2. What are the types of operating system available?
3. How does RTOS differ from other operating systems?
4. Which one is a free ware UNIX or Linux?
5. Define a file system.
6. What does dev correspond to?
7. How to change the read, write and execute permissions on files?
Answers
1. It is acting as a resource manager. It enhances the utilization of available
resources and it makes the user more comfortable.
2. There are single user, multi user, single- tasking, multi tasking, real time
OS and distributed OS are available in the market.
3. RTOS is an operating system that works for real time system, i.e. logical
correctness of the operation within a deterministic deadline is mandatory
in that kind of systems.
4. Linux.
5. A UNIX file system is a collection of files and directories stored.
6. Dev refers to device files.
7. Chmod is the simplest way to change the file permissions. Chmod with
number followed for user, group and others will get the permissions
changed.
ooo
Linux/Unix CommandsAn In-depth Analysis 9

Chapter- 2
Linux/Unix Commands
An In-depth Analysis

Chapter Objectives
Understanding Shell.
Discuss directory commands.
Discuss all file related commands.

An analysis of rest of the Linux commands.

Recap.

Quiz.

2.1 What is Shell?

Fortunately or unfortunately computers can only understand Binary (0s and 1s)
and humans can only understand the English or equivalent high level language.
In olden days instructions to the computer were fed in the form of binary only.
But it was highly difficult for anyone (though being expert) to interpret and
understand. In order to ward off this difficulty every operating system has got
an inbuilt interpreter! The shell accepts instruction or command fed by user
in English and will translate the same to binary language which computer can
understand without any problem. After accepting the input it will process the
same and get the output in English that user can easily understand. So, to be
short and sweet, Shell is a language translator. Reader will be introduced to
Shell of Linux and the commands that are most commonly used.
A diagrammatic representation (Fig. 2.1) would make the above paragraph
more meaningful and reader can understand it better.

Yes, Boss! I can

User Input English to Binary
Shell understanding
(Commands) Conversion your request

Fig. 2.1 Shell A Diagrammatic representation.

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And Shell is the area where user can play around with the commands and
script that has to be run. It can be called as an environment where user can type
and get response.
Table 2.1 summarizes the available types of shell in the market and along
with a brief description of each.
Table 2.1: Available shells in the market with a brief description
S.No. Name of Shell Description
1. Bourne Shell (bsh) This is the original Unix shell written by Steve
Bourne of Bell Labs. This Shell is not as ad-
vanced as other latest shells.
2. C Shell (csh) This Shell was written at University of Cali-
fornia, Berkeley. It provides C like language
support for writing scripts. So, it is called as
C Shell.
3. TC Shell (tcsh) This Shell is very advanced and all the fea-
tures of the C shell together with emacs style
editing of the command line is presented in
this Shell. It is available for public domain.
4. Korn Shell (ksh) David Korn of Bell labs has written the Shell.
This is made available in all Unix systems.
Combined features of C and TC shells along
with the features of Bourne shell are made
available in ksh. This is very advanced and
highly efficient shell. This is very interactive
in nature as well.
5. Bourne Again Shell This shell is written by free software founda-
(BASH) tion. GNU initiative helped in framing this out
totally. Bash is meant totally for the usage of
academic community and most of the Linux/
Unix users are using this shell. Bash provides
the features of all the previously mentioned
shells. It is in short a hybrid shell which com-
bined the features of all shells.

2.2 LINUX / UNIX commands

From here on the reader is exposed to the basic Linux commands. It would be
very easy to understand if reader has a Linux PC. To get free Linux CD please
visit www.shipit.ubuntu.com. One can get free CD from the site by filling the
information requested or can download the OS image available from the site.
If user has any other Linux OS flavours like Redhat or Fedora it can also be
used to try the following commands. Get username and password from system
administrator. Start the PC. It will prompt for typing name and password. Type
them, Linux world will welcome!