Kingdom of Scotland

This article is about the historical kingdom. For the tiveness of local government. The continued existence of
country in its current form, see Scotland. courts baron and the introduction of kirk sessions helped
consolidate the power of local lairds.
Warning: Page using Template:Infobox former country Scots law developed into a distinctive system in the Mid-
with unknown parameter country (this message is dle Ages and was reformed and codied in the 16th and
shown only in preview). 17th centuries. Under James IV the legal functions of the
council were rationalised, with Court of Session meet-
The Kingdom of Scotland (Scottish Gaelic: Roghachd ing daily in Edinburgh. In 1532, the College of Justice
na h-Alba; Scots: Kinrick o Scotland) was a state in north- was founded, leading to the training and professionalisa-
west Europe traditionally said to have been founded in tion of lawyers. David I is the rst Scottish king known
843, which joined with the Kingdom of England to form to have produced his own coinage. Early Scottish coins
a unied Kingdom of Great Britain in 1707. Its territories were virtually identical in silver content to English ones,
expanded and shrank, but it came to occupy the northern but from about 1300 their silver content began to depre-
third of the island of Great Britain, sharing a land bor- ciate more rapidly than the English coins. At the union of
der to the south with the Kingdom of England. It suf- the Crowns in 1603 the Scottish pound was xed at only
fered many invasions by the English, but under Robert I one-twelfth the value of the English pound. The Bank
it fought a successful war of independence and remained of Scotland issued pound notes from 1704. Scottish cur-
a distinct state in the late Middle Ages. In 1603, James rency was abolished by the Act of Union.
VI of Scotland became King of England, joining Scot- Scotland is half the size of England and Wales in area,
land with England in a personal union. In 1707, the two but has roughly the same length of coastline. Geograph-
kingdoms were united to form the Kingdom of Great ically Scotland is divided between the Highlands and Is-
Britain under the terms of the Acts of Union. From the lands and the Lowlands. The Highlands had a relatively
nal capture of the Royal Burgh of Berwick by the King- short growing season, which was further shortened dur-
dom of England in 1482 (following the annexation of the ing the Little Ice Age. From Scotlands foundation to the
Northern Isles from the Kingdom of Norway in 1472) inception of the Black Death, the population had grown
the territory of the Kingdom of Scotland corresponded to a million; following the plague, it then fell to half a
to that of modern-day Scotland, bounded by the North million. It expanded in the rst half of the 16th century,
Sea to the east, the Atlantic Ocean to the north and west, reaching roughly 1.2 million by the 1690s. Signicant
and the North Channel and Irish Sea to the southwest. languages in the medieval kingdom included Gaelic, Old
The Crown was the most important element of govern- English, Norse and French; but by the early modern era
ment. The Scottish monarchy in the Middle Ages was a Middle Scots had begun to dominate. Christianity was
largely itinerant institution, before Edinburgh developed introduced into Scotland from the 6th century. In the
as a capital city in the second half of the 15th century. Norman period the Scottish church underwent a series of
The court remained at the centre of political life and changes that led to new monastic orders and organisation.
in the 16th century emerged as a major centre of dis- During the 16th century, Scotland underwent a Protestant
play and artistic patronage, until it was eectively dis- Reformation that created a predominately Calvinist na-
solved with the Union of Crowns in 1603. The Scottish tional kirk. There were a series of religious controversies
Crown adopted the conventional oces of western Eu- that resulted in divisions and persecutions. The Scottish
ropean courts, and developed a Privy Council and great Crown developed naval forces at various points in its his-
oces of state. Parliament also emerged as a major le- tory, but often relied on privateers and fought a guerre
gal institution, gaining an oversight of taxation and pol- de course. Land forces centred around the large common
icy, but was never as central to the national life as its army, but adopted European innovations from the 16th
century; and many Scots took service as mercenaries and
counterpart in England. In the early period the kings
of the Scots depended on the great lordsthe mormaers as soldiers for the English Crown. Scottish ags included
the Lion rampant and the Saltire, the latter being incor-
and tosechsbut from the reign of David I, sheridoms
were introduced, which allowed more direct control and porated into the Union Flag from 1603.
gradually limited the power of the major lordships. In
the 17th century, the creation of Justices of Peace and
Commissioners of Supply helped to increase the eec-

1
2 1 HISTORY

1 History very uid, with Northumbria being annexed to Scot-

land by David I, but lost under his grandson and succes-
Main article: History of Scotland sor Malcolm IV in 1157.[12] The Treaty of York (1237)
xed the boundaries with England close to the modern
border.[13] By the reign of Alexander III, the Scots had
annexed the remainder of the western seaboard after the
stalemate of the Battle of Largs and the Treaty of Perth
1.1 Origins: 400943
in 1266.[14] The Isle of Man fell under English control in
the 14th century, despite several attempts to restore Scot-
Main article: Origins of the Kingdom of Alba
tish authority.[15] The English occupied most of Scotland
under Edward I and annexed a large slice of the Low-
From the 5th century AD, north Britain was divided into lands under Edward III, but Scotland established its inde-
a series of petty kingdoms. Of these, the four most im- pendence under gures including William Wallace in the
portant were those of the Picts in the north-east, the Scots late 13th century and Robert I and his successors in the
of Dl Riata in the west, the Britons of Strathclyde in the 14th century in the Wars of Independence (12961357).
south-west and the Anglian kingdom of Bernicia (which This was helped by cooperation with the kings of France,
united with Deira to form Northumbria in 653) in the under the terms of what became known as the Auld Al-
south-east, stretching into modern northern England. In liance, which provided for mutual aid against the English.
AD 793, ferocious Viking raids began on monasteries In the 15th and early 16th centuries, under the Stewart
such as those at Iona and Lindisfarne, creating fear and Dynasty, despite a turbulent political history, the Crown
confusion across the kingdoms of north Britain. Orkney, gained greater political control at the expense of indepen-
Shetland and the Western Isles eventually fell to the dent lords and regained most of its lost territory to around
Norsemen.[2] These threats may have speeded up a long- the modern borders of the country.[16] The dowry of the
term process of gaelicisation of the Pictish kingdoms, Orkney and Shetland Islands in 1468 was the last great
which adopted Gaelic language and customs. There was land acquisition for the kingdom.[17] In 1482, Berwick a
also a merger of the Gaelic and Pictish kingdoms, al- border fortress and the largest port in medieval Scotland,
though historians debate whether it was a Pictish takeover fell to the English once again; this was the last time it
of Dl Riata, or the other way round. This culminated changed hands.[16] The Auld Alliance with France led to
in the rise of Cnaed mac Ailpn (Kenneth MacAlpin) the heavy defeat of a Scottish army at the Battle of Flod-
as king of the Picts in the 840s (traditionally dated to den Field in 1513 and the death of the king James IV. A
843),[3] which brought to power the House of Alpin.[4] long period of political instability followed.[18]
When he died as king of the combined kingdom in 900
one of his successors, Domnall II (Donald II), was the
rst man to be called r Alban (King of Alba).[5] The 1.3 Consolidation and union: 15131707
term Scotia would increasingly be used to describe the
heartland of these kings, north of the River Forth, and Main article: Scotland in the early modern period
eventually the entire area controlled by its kings would In the 16th century, under James V of Scotland and
be referred to as Scotland.[6] The long reign (900942/3) Mary, Queen of Scots, the Crown and court took on many
of Donalds successor Causantn (Constantine II) is of- of the attributes of the Renaissance and New Monar-
ten regarded as the key to formation of the Kingdom of chy, despite long royal minorities, civil wars and inter-
Alba/Scotland, and he was later credited with bringing ventions by the English and French.[19] In the mid-16th
Scottish Christianity into conformity with the Catholic century, Scottish Reformation was strongly inuenced by
Church.[7] Calvinism, leading to widespread iconoclasm and the in-
troduction of a Presbyterian system of organisation and
discipline that would have a major impact on Scottish
1.2 Expansion: 9431513 life.[20]
In the late 16th century, James VI emerged as a ma-
Main article: Medieval Scotland jor intellectual gure with considerable authority over the
kingdom.[21] In 1603 he inherited the thrones of England
Mel Coluim I (Malcolm I) (r. c. 943954) an- and Ireland, creating a Union of the Crowns that left the
nexed Strathclyde, over which the kings of Alba had three states with their separate identities and institutions.
probably exercised some authority since the later 9th He also moved [22]
the centre of royal patronage and power
[8]
century. The reign of David I has been characterised to London.
as a "Davidian Revolution",[9][10] in which he introduced When James son Charles I attempted to impose elements
a system of feudal land tenure, established the rst royal of the English religious settlement on Scotland, the result
burghs in Scotland and the rst recorded Scottish coinage, was the Bishops Wars (163740), which ended in de-
and continued a process of religious and legal reforms.[11] feat for the king and a virtually independent Presbyterian
Until the 13th century, the border with England was Covenanter state in Scotland.[23] It also helped precipitate
 3

were moves that led to political union with England as

the Kingdom of Great Britain, which came into force on
1 May 1707. The English and Scottish parliaments were
replaced by a combined Parliament of Great Britain, but
it sat in Westminster and largely continued English tradi-
tions without interruption. Forty-ve Scots were added
to the 513 members of the House of Commons and 16
Scots to the 190 members of the House of Lords. It was
also a full economic union, replacing the Scottish systems
of currency, taxation and laws regulating trade.[27]

2 Government
Main articles: Government in Medieval Scotland and
Government in early modern Scotland
The unied kingdom of Alba retained some of the rit-

James VI, whose inheritance of the thrones of England and Ire-

land created a dynastic union in 1603

the Wars of the Three Kingdoms, during which the Scots

Coronation of Alexander III of Scotland at Scone Abbey; beside
carried out major military interventions.
him are the Mormaers of Strathearn and Fife while his genealogy
After Charles Is defeat, the Scots backed the king in is recited by a royal poet.
the Second English Civil War; after his execution, they
proclaimed his son Charles II of England king, resulting ual aspects of Pictish and Scottish kingship. These can
in the Third English Civil War against the emerging re- be seen in the elaborate ritual coronation at the Stone of
publican regime of Parliamentarians in England led by Scone at Scone Abbey.[28]
Oliver Cromwell. The results were a series of defeats While the Scottish monarchy in the Middle Ages was a
and the short-lived incorporation of Scotland into the
largely itinerant institution, Scone remained one of its
Commonwealth of England, Scotland and Ireland (1653 most important locations, with royal castles at Stirling and
60).[24] Perth becoming signicant in the later Middle Ages be-
After the 1660 restoration of the monarchy, Scotland re- fore Edinburgh developed as a capital city in the second
gained its separate status and institutions, while the cen- half of the 15th century.[29][30]
tre of political power remained in London.[25] After the The Crown remained the most important element of gov-
Glorious Revolution of 168889, in which James VII was ernment, despite the many royal minorities. In the late
deposed by his daughter Mary and her husband William Middle Ages, it saw much of the aggrandisement asso-
of Orange in England, Scotland accepted them under ciated with the New Monarchs elsewhere in Europe.[31]
the Claim of Right Act 1689,[25] but the deposed main Theories of constitutional monarchy and resistance were
hereditary line of the Stuarts became a focus for politi- articulated by Scots, particularly George Buchanan, in the
cal discontent known as Jacobitism, leading to a series of 16th century, but James VI of Scotland advanced the the-
invasions and rebellions mainly focused on the Scottish ory of the divine right of kings, and these debates were
Highlands.[26] restated in subsequent reigns and crises. The court re-
After severe economic dislocation in the 1690s, there mained at the centre of political life, and in the 16th cen-
4 3 LAW

tury emerged as a major centre of display and artistic pa-

tronage, until it was eectively dissolved with the Union
of the Crowns in 1603.[32]
The Scottish Crown adopted the conventional oces
of western European courts, including High Steward,
Chamberlain, Lord High Constable, Earl Marischal and
Lord Chancellor.[33] The Kings Council emerged as a
full-time body in the 15th century, increasingly dom-
inated by laymen and critical to the administration of
justice.[34] The Privy Council, which developed in the
mid-16th century,[35] and the great oces of state, in-
cluding the chancellor, secretary and treasurer, remained
central to the administration of the government, even af-
ter the departure of the Stuart monarchs to rule in Eng-
land from 1603.[36] However, it was often sidelined and
was abolished after the Acts of Union 1707, with rule di-
rect from London.[37]
The Parliament of Scotland also emerged as a major legal
institution, gaining an oversight of taxation and policy.[38]
By the end of the Middle Ages it was sitting almost ev-
ery year, partly because of the frequent royal minorities The Regiam Majestatem is the oldest surviving written digest of
and regencies of the period, which may have prevented Scots law.
it from being sidelined by the monarchy.[39] In the early
modern era, Parliament was also vital to the running of
Ounceland measure.[47] Althings were open-air govern-
the country, providing laws and taxation, but it had uc-
mental assemblies that met in the presence of the Jarl
tuating fortunes and was never as central to the national
and the meetings were open to virtually all free men.
life as its counterpart in England.[40]
At these sessions decisions were made, laws passed and
In the early period the kings of the Scots depended on complaints adjudicated.[48]
the great lords of the mormaers (later earls) and tosechs
The introduction of feudalism in the reign of David I of
(later thanes), but from the reign of David I, sheridoms
Scotland would have a profound impact on the develop-
were introduced, which allowed more direct control and
[41] ment of Scottish law, establishing feudal land tenure over
gradually limited the power of the major lordships. In
many parts of the south and east that eventually spread
the 17th century, the creation of justices of the peace and
northward.[49] Sheris, originally appointed by the King
the Commissioner of Supply helped to increase the eec-
as royal administrators and tax collectors, developed legal
tiveness of local government.[42] The continued existence
functions.[50] Feudal lords also held courts to adjudicate
of courts baron and introduction of kirk sessions helped
disputes between their tenants.
consolidate the power of local lairds.[43]
By the 14th century, some of these feudal courts had de-
veloped into petty kingdoms where the Kings courts
did not have authority except for cases of treason.[51]
3 Law Burghs also had their local laws dealing mostly with com-
mercial and trade matters and may have become similar
Main article: History of Scots law in function to sheris courts.[52] Ecclesiastical courts had
Scots law developed into a distinctive system in the Mid- exclusive jurisdiction over matters such as marriage, con-
[53]
dle Ages and was reformed and codied in the 16th and tracts made on oath, inheritance and legitimacy. Ju-
17th centuries. Knowledge of the nature of Scots law be- dices were often royal ocials who supervised baronial,
[54]
fore the 11th century is largely speculative,[44] but it was abbatial and other lower-ranking courts. However,
probably a mixture of legal traditions representing the the main ocial of law in the post-Davidian Kingdom of
dierent cultures inhabiting the land at the time, includ- the Scots was the Justiciar who held courts and reported to
ing Celtic, Britonnic, Irish and Anglo-Saxon customs. [45] the king personally. Normally, there were two Justicia-
The legal tract, the Leges inter Brettos et Scottos, set out a rships, organised by linguistic boundaries: the Justiciar
system of compensation for injury and death based on of Scotia and the Justiciar of Lothian, [54]
but sometimes
ranks and the solidarity of kin groups. [46]
There were Galloway also had its own Justiciar. Scottish common
popular courts or comhdhails, indicated by dozens of law, the jus commune, began to take shape at the end of
[41]
place names in eastern Scotland. In Scandinavian-held the period, assimilating Gaelic and Celtic law with prac-
[55]
areas, Udal law formed the basis of the legal system tices from Anglo-Norman England and the Continent.
and it is known that the Hebrides were taxed using the During the period of English control over Scotland there
 5

rationalised, with a royal Court of Session meeting daily

in Edinburgh to deal with civil cases. In 1514, the of-
ce of justice-general was created for the Earl of Argyll
(and held by his family until 1628).[65] In 1532, the Royal
College of Justice was founded, leading to the training
and professionalisation of an emerging group of career
lawyers. The Court of Session placed increasing empha-
sis on its independence from inuence, including from
the king, and superior jurisdiction over local justice. Its
judges were increasingly able to control entry to their
own ranks.[66] In 1672, the High Court of Justiciary was
founded from the College of Justice as a supreme court
of appeal.[67]

4 Coinage
Main article: Scottish coinage
David I is the rst Scottish king known to have produced

Institution of the Court of Session by James V in 1532, from the

Great Window in Parliament House, Edinburgh

is some evidence that King Edward I of England, called

Hammer of the Scots, attempted to abolish Scot-
tish laws contrary to English law as he had done in
Wales.[56][57]
Penny of David II (132971)
Under Robert I in 1318, a parliament at Scone enacted
a code of law that drew upon older practices. It codied his own coinage. There were soon mints at Edinburgh,
procedures for criminal trials and protections for vassals Berwick and Roxburgh.[68] Early Scottish coins were sim-
from ejection from the land.[58] From the 14th century, ilar to English ones, but with the kings head in prole
there are surviving examples of early Scottish legal liter- instead of full face.[69] The number of coins struck was
ature, such as the Regiam Majestatem (on procedure at the small and English coins probably remained more signi-
royal courts) and the Quoniam Attachiamenta (on proce-
cant in this period.[68] The rst gold coin was a noble (6s.
dure at the barons court), which drew on both common 8d.) of David II.[70] Under James I pennies and halfpen-
and Roman law.[59]
nies of billon (an alloy of silver with a base metal) were
Customary laws, such as the Law of Clan MacDu, introduced, and copper farthings appeared under James
came under attack from the Stewart Dynasty which con- III.[70] In James Vs reign the bawbee (1 d) and half-
sequently extended the reach of Scots common law.[60] bawbee were issued, and in Mary, Queen of Scots reign
From the reign of King James I a legal profession be- a twopence piece, the hardhead, was issued to help the
gan to develop and the administration of criminal and common people buy bread, drink, esh, and sh. The
civil justice was centralised.[61] The growing activity of billon coinage was discontinued after 1603, but twopence
the parliament and the centralisation of administration in pieces in copper continued to be issued until the Act of
Scotland called for the better dissemination of Acts of the Union in 1707.[68]
parliament to the courts and other enforcers of the law.[62]
Early Scottish coins were virtually identical in silver con-
In the late 15th century, unsuccessful attempts were made
tent to English ones, but from about 1300 the silver con-
to form commissions of experts to codify, update or de-tent began to depreciate more rapidly than English. Be-
ne Scots law.[63] The general practice during this period,
tween then and 1605 they lost value at an average of 12
as evidenced from records of cases, seems to have been to
per cent every ten years, three times the then English
defer to specic Scottish laws on a matter when available
rate. The Scottish penny became a base metal coin in
and to ll in any gaps with provisions from the common about 1484 and virtual disappeared as a separate coin
law embodied in Civil and Canon law, which had the ad- from about 1513.[69] In 1423, the English government
vantage of being written.[64] banned the circulation of Scottish coins. At the union of
Under James IV the legal functions of the council were the crowns in 1603 the Scottish pound was xed at only
6 6
A bawbee from the reign of Mary, Queen of Scots
one-twelfth that of the English pound.[68] The Parliament
of Scotland of 1695 enacted proposals to set up the Bank
of Scotland.[71] The bank issued pound notes from 1704,
which had the face value of 12 Scots. Scottish currency
was abolished at the Act of Union, the Scottish coin in
circulation was drawn in to be re-minted according to the
English standard.[72]
5 Geography
Main article: Geography of Scotland
At its borders in 1707, the Kingdom of Scotland was half and over 1000 mm in the west. This encouraged the
The topography of Scotland.
DEMOGRAPHY
the size of England and Wales in area, but with its many
inlets, islands and inland lochs, it had roughly the same
amount of coastline at 4,000 miles (6,400 km).[73] Scot-
land has over 790 oshore islands, most of which are to
be found in four main groups: Shetland, Orkney, and the
Hebrides, subdivided into the Inner Hebrides and Outer
Hebrides.[74] Only a fth of Scotland is less than 60 me-
tres above sea level.[73] The dening factor in the geogra-
phy of Scotland is the distinction between the Highlands
and Islands in the north and west and the Lowlands in the
south and east. The highlands are further divided into
the Northwest Highlands and the Grampian Mountains
by the fault line of the Great Glen. The Lowlands are di-
vided into the fertile belt of the Central Lowlands and the
higher terrain of the Southern Uplands, which included
the Cheviot Hills, over which the border with England
ran.[75] The Central Lowland belt averages about 50 miles
in width[76] and, because it contains most of the good
quality agricultural land and has easier communications,
could support most of the urbanisation and elements of
conventional government.[77] However, the Southern Up-
lands, and particularly the Highlands were economically
less productive and much more dicult to govern.[78]
Its east Atlantic position means that Scotland has very
heavy rainfall: today about 700 mm per year in the east
spread of blanket bogs, the acidity of which, combined
with high level of wind and salt spray, made most of the
islands treeless. The existence of hills, mountains, quick-
sands and marshes made internal communication and
conquest extremely dicult and may have contributed to
the fragmented nature of political power.[73] The Uplands
and Highlands had a relatively short growing season, in
the extreme case of the upper Grampians an ice free sea-
son of four months or less and for much of the Highlands
and Uplands of seven months or less. The early modern
era also saw the impact of the Little Ice Age, with 1564
seeing thirty-three days of continual frost, where rivers
and lochs froze, leading to a series of subsistence crises
until the 1690s.[79]
6 Demography
Main article: Demographic history of Scotland
From the formation of the Kingdom of Alba in the 10th
century until before the Black Death arrived in 1349, es-
timates based on the amount of farmable land suggest
that population may have grown from half a million to a
million.[80] Although there is no reliable documentation
on the impact of the plague, there are many anecdotal
references to abandoned land in the following decades.
If the pattern followed that in England, then the popula-
tion may have fallen to as low as half a million by the end
of the 15th century.[81]
Compared with the situation after the redistribution of
population in the later Highland Clearances and the

Plan of Edinburgh in 1764, the largest city in Scotland in the
early modern era
Industrial Revolution, these numbers would have been
relatively evenly spread over the kingdom, with roughly
half living north of the River Tay.[82] Perhaps ten per cent
of the population lived in one of many burghs that grew
up in the later medieval period, mainly in the east and
south. They would have had a mean population of about
2000, but many would have been much smaller than 1000
and the largest, Edinburgh, probably had a population of
over 10,000 by the end of the Medieval era.[83]
Price ination, which generally reects growing demand
for food, suggests that the population probably expanded
in the rst half of the 16th century, levelling o after
the famine of 1595, as prices were relatively stable in
the early 17th century.[84] Calculations based on hearth
tax returns for 1691 indicate a population of 1,234,575,
but this gure may have been seriously eected by the
subsequent famines of the late 1690s.[85] By 1750, with
its suburbs, Edinburgh reached 57,000. The only other
towns above 10,000 by the same time were Glasgow with
32,000, Aberdeen with around 16,000 and Dundee with
12,000.[86]
7 Language
Main article: Celtic languages
Historical sources, as well as place name evidence, indi-
cate the ways in which the Pictish language in the north
and Cumbric languages in the south were overlaid and re-
placed by Gaelic, Old English and later Norse in the Early
Middle Ages.[87] By the High Middle Ages, the majority
of people within Scotland spoke the Gaelic language, then
simply called Scottish, or in Latin, lingua Scotica.[88] In the
Northern Isles the Norse language brought by Scandina-
vian occupiers and settlers evolved into the local Norn,
which lingered until the end of the 18th century[89] and
Norse may also have survived as a spoken language un-
til the 16th century in the Outer Hebrides.[90] French,
Flemish and particularly English became the main lan-
guage of Scottish burghs, most of which were located in
the south and east, an area to which Anglian settlers had
already brought a form of Old English. In the later part
7
The linguistic divide c. 1400, based on place-name evidence.
Scottish Gaelic
Scots
Norn
of the 12th century, the writer Adam of Dryburgh de-
scribed lowland Lothian as the Land of the English in
the Kingdom of the Scots.[91] At least from the acces-
sion of David I, Gaelic ceased to be the main language of
the royal court and was probably replaced by French, as
evidenced by reports from contemporary chronicles, lit-
erature and translations of administrative documents into
the French language.[92][93]
In the Late Middle Ages, Middle Scots, often simply
called English, became the dominant language of the
kingdom. It was derived largely from Old English, with
the addition of elements from Gaelic and French. Al-
though resembling the language spoken in northern Eng-
land, it became a distinct dialect from the late 14th cen-
tury onwards.[94] It began to be adopted by the ruling
elite as they gradually abandoned French. By the 15th
century, it was the language of government, with acts of
parliament, council records and treasurers accounts al-
most all using it from the reign of James I onwards. As
a result, Gaelic, once dominant north of the Tay, began a
steady decline.[94] Lowland writers began to treat Gaelic
as a second class, rustic and even amusing language, help-
ing to frame attitudes towards the Highlands and to create
a cultural gulf with the Lowlands.[94]
8 8 RELIGION

From the mid-16th century, written Scots was increas-
ingly inuenced by the developing Standard English of
Southern England due to developments in royal and po-
litical interactions with England.[95] With the increasing
inuence and availability of books printed in England,
most writing in Scotland came to be done in the En-
glish fashion.[96] Unlike many of his predecessors, James
VI generally despised Gaelic culture.[97] Having extolled
the virtues of Scots poesie, after his accession to the
English throne, he increasingly favoured the language of
southern England. In 1611, the Kirk adopted the 1611
Authorized King James Version of the Bible. In 1617, in-
terpreters were declared no longer necessary in the port of
London because as Scots and Englishmen were now not
so far dierent bot ane understandeth ane uther. Jenny
Wormald, describes James as creating a three-tier sys-
tem, with Gaelic at the bottom and English at the top.[98]
8 Religion
Main article: History of Christianity in Scotland
The Pictish and Scottish kingdoms that would form the
series of reforms and transformations. With royal and lay
patronage, a clearer parochial structure based around lo-
cal churches was developed.[103] Large numbers of new
foundations, which followed continental forms of re-
formed monasticism, began to predominate and the Scot-
tish church established its independence from England,
developed a clearer diocesan structure, becoming a spe-
cial daughter of the see of Rome, but lacking leader-
ship in the form of Archbishops.[104] In the late Middle
Ages, the problems of schism in the Catholic Church al-
lowed the Scottish Crown to gain greater inuence over
senior appointments and two archbishoprics had been es-
tablished by the end of the 15th century.[105] While some
historians have discerned a decline of monasticism in the
late Middle Ages, the mendicant orders of friars grew,
particularly in the expanding burghs, to meet the spiritual
needs of the population. New saints and cults of devo-
tion also proliferated. Despite problems over the number
and quality of clergy after the Black Death in the 14th
century, and some evidence of heresy in this period, the
Church in Scotland remained relatively stable before the
16th century.[105]

Dundrennan Abbey, one of the many royal foundations of the

12th century

basis of the Kingdom of Alba were largely converted

by Irish-Scots missions associated with gures such as
St Columba, from the 5th to the 7th centuries. These
missions tended to found monastic institutions and col-
legiate churches that served large areas.[99] Partly as a
result of these factors, some scholars have identied a
distinctive form of Celtic Christianity, in which abbots
were more signicant than bishops, attitudes to clerical
celibacy were more relaxed and there were some sig- John Knox, one of the key gures in the Scottish Reformation
nicant dierences in practice with Roman Christian-
ity, particularly the form of tonsure and the method of
During the 16th century, Scotland underwent a Protestant
calculating Easter. Most of these issues had been resolved
Reformation that created a predominately Calvinist na-
by the mid-7th century.[100][101] After the reconversion of
tional kirk, which was strongly Presbyterian in outlook,
Scandinavian Scotland from the 10th century, Christian-
severely reducing the powers of bishops, although not
ity under papal authority was the dominant religion of the
abolishing them. The teachings of rst Martin Luther
kingdom.[102] and then John Calvin began to inuence Scotland, partic-
In the Norman period, the Scottish church underwent a ularly through Scottish scholars who had visited continen-

tal and English universities. Particularly important was
the work of the Lutheran Scot Patrick Hamilton.[106] His
execution with other Protestant preachers in 1528, and of
the Zwingli-inuenced George Wishart in 1546, who was
burnt at the stake in St Andrews, did nothing to stem the
growth of these ideas. Wisharts supporters seized St An-
drews Castle, which they held for a year before they were
defeated with the help of French forces. The survivors,
including chaplain John Knox, were condemned to be
galley slaves, helping to create resentment of the French
and martyrs for the Protestant cause.[107] Limited toler-
ation and the inuence of exiled Scots and Protestants
in other countries, led to the expansion of Protestantism,
with a group of lairds declaring themselves Lords of the
Congregation in 1557. By 1560, a relatively small group
of Protestants were in a position to impose reform on the
Scottish church. A confession of faith, rejecting papal
jurisdiction and the mass, was adopted by Parliament in
1560.[108] The Calvinism of the reformers led by Knox re-
sulted in a settlement that adopted a Presbyterian system
and rejected most of the elaborate trappings of the Me-
dieval church. This gave considerable power within the
new Kirk to local lairds, who often had control over the
appointment of the clergy, and resulting in widespread,
but generally orderly, iconoclasm. At this point the ma-
jority of the population was probably still Catholic in per-
suasion and the Kirk would nd it dicult to penetrate
the Highlands and Islands, but began a gradual process
of conversion and consolidation that, compared with re-
formations elsewhere, was conducted with relatively little
persecution.[109]
The riots set o by Jenny Geddes in St Giles Cathedral that
sparked o the Bishops Wars
In 1635, Charles I authorised a book of canons that made
him head of the Church, ordained an unpopular ritual
and enforced the use of a new liturgy. When the liturgy
emerged in 1637 it was seen as an English-style Prayer
Book, resulting in anger and widespread rioting.[110] Rep-
resentatives of various sections of Scottish society drew
up the National Covenant on 28 February 1638, objecting
to the Kings liturgical innovations.[111] The kings sup-
porters were unable to suppress the rebellion and the king
refused to compromise. In December of the same year,
matters were taken even further, when at a meeting of the
9
General Assembly in Glasgow the Scottish bishops were
formally expelled from the Church, which was then estab-
lished on a full Presbyterian basis. Victory in the result-
ing Bishops Wars secured the Presbyterian Kirk and pre-
cipitated the outbreak of the civil wars of the 1640s.[112]
Disagreements over collaboration with Royalism created
a major conict between Protesters and Resolutioners,
which became a long term divide in the Kirk.[113]
At the Restoration of the monarchy in 1660, legisla-
tion was revoked back to 1633, removing the Covenan-
ter gains of the Bishops Wars, but the discipline of kirk
sessions, presbyteries and synods were renewed.[114] The
reintroduction of episcopacy was a source of particular
trouble in the south-west of the country, an area with
strong Presbyterian sympathies. Abandoning the o-
cial church, many of the people here began to attend il-
legal eld assemblies led by excluded ministers, known
as conventicles.[115] In the early 1680s, a more intense
phase of persecution began, in what was later to be known
in Protestant historiography as "the Killing Time".[116]
After the Glorious Revolution, Presbyterianism was re-
stored and the bishops, who had generally supported
James VII, abolished. However, William, who was more
tolerant than the kirk tended to be, passed acts restor-
ing the Episcopalian clergy excluded after the Revolution.
The result was a Kirk divided between factions, with sig-
nicant minorities, particularly in the west and north, of
Episcopalians and Catholics.[117]
9 Education
Main article: History of education in Scotland
The establishment of Christianity brought Latin to Scot-
land as a scholarly and written language. Monasteries
served as repositories of knowledge and education, of-
ten running schools and providing a small educated elite,
who were essential to create and read documents in a
largely illiterate society.[118] In the High Middle Ages,
new sources of education arose, with song and grammar
schools. These were usually attached to cathedrals or a
collegiate church and were most common in the devel-
oping burghs. By the end of the Middle Ages gram-
mar schools could be found in all the main burghs and
some small towns.[119] There were also petty schools,
more common in rural areas and providing an elemen-
tary education.[120] Some monasteries, like the Cistercian
abbey at Kinloss, opened their doors to a wider range
of students.[120] The number and size of these schools
seems to have expanded rapidly from the 1380s. They
were almost exclusively aimed at boys, but by the end of
the 15th century, Edinburgh also had schools for girls,
sometimes described as sewing schools, and probably
taught by lay women or nuns.[119][120] There was also the
development of private tuition in the families of lords
and wealthy burghers.[119] The growing emphasis on ed-
ucation cumulated with the passing of the Education Act
10
Tower of St Salvators College, St Andrews, one of the three uni-
versities founded in the 15th century
1496, which decreed that all sons of barons and freehold-
ers of substance should attend grammar schools to learn
perfyct Latyne. All this resulted in an increase in lit-
eracy, but which was largely concentrated among a male
and wealthy elite,[119] with perhaps 60 per cent of the no-
bility being literate by the end of the period.[121]
Until the 15th century, those who wished to attend uni-
versity had to travel to England or the continent, and
just over a 1,000 have been identied as doing so be-
tween the 12th century and 1410.[122] Among these the
most important intellectual gure was John Duns Scotus,
who studied at Oxford, Cambridge and Paris and prob-
ably died at Cologne in 1308, becoming a major inu-
ence on late medieval religious thought.[123] The Wars
of Independence largely closed English universities to
Scots, and consequently continental universities became
more signicant.[122] This situation was transformed by
the founding of the University of St Andrews in 1413,
the University of Glasgow in 1450 and the University of
Aberdeen in 1495.[119] Initially these institutions were de-
signed for the training of clerics, but they were increas-
ingly used by laymen who would begin to challenge the
clerical monopoly of administrative posts in the govern-
ment and law. Those wanting to study for second de-
grees still needed to go abroad.[122] The continued move-
ment to other universities produced a school of Scottish
nominalists at Paris in the early 16th century, of which
John Mair was probably the most important gure. By
1497, the humanist and historian Hector Boece, born in
Dundee, returned from Paris to become the rst princi-
9 EDUCATION
pal at the new university of Aberdeen.[122] These inter-
national contacts helped integrate Scotland into a wider
European scholarly world and would be one of the most
important ways in which the new ideas of humanism were
brought into Scottish intellectual life.[121]
A woodcut showing John Mair, one of the most successful prod-
ucts of the Scottish educational system in the late 15th century
The humanist concern with widening education was
shared by the Protestant reformers, with a desire for a
godly people replacing the aim of having educated citi-
zens. In 1560, the First Book of Discipline set out a plan
for a school in every parish, but this proved nancially
impossible.[124] In the burghs the old schools were main-
tained, with the song schools and a number of new foun-
dations becoming reformed grammar schools or ordinary
parish schools. Schools were supported by a combina-
tion of kirk funds, contributions from local heritors or
burgh councils and parents that could pay. They were
inspected by kirk sessions, who checked for the quality
of teaching and doctrinal purity. There were also large
number of unregulated adventure schools, which some-
times fullled a local needs and sometimes took pupils
away from the ocial schools. Outside of the estab-
lished burgh schools, masters often combined their po-
sition with other employment, particularly minor posts
within the kirk, such as clerk.[125] At their best, the cur-
riculum included catechism, Latin, French, Classical lit-
erature and sports.[126]
In 1616, an act in Privy council commanded every parish
to establish a school where convenient means may be
had, and when the Parliament of Scotland ratied this
with the Education Act of 1633, a tax on local landown-
ers was introduced to provide the necessary endowment.
A loophole which allowed evasion of this tax was closed
in the Education Act of 1646, which established a solid
institutional foundation for schools on Covenanter prin-
ciples. Although the Restoration brought a reversion to
the 1633 position, in 1696 new legislation restored the
provisions of 1646. An act of the Scottish parliament
in 1696 underlined the aim of having a school in every
parish. In rural communities these obliged local landown-
ers (heritors) to provide a schoolhouse and pay a school-
master, while ministers and local presbyteries oversaw the
quality of the education. In many Scottish towns, burgh
 11

schools were operated by local councils.[127] By the late a series of reforms associated with Andrew Melville, who
17th century, there was a largely complete network of returned from Geneva to become principal of the Uni-
parish schools in the Lowlands, but in the Highlands basic versity of Glasgow in 1574. He placed an emphasis on
education was still lacking in many areas.[128] simplied logic and elevated languages and sciences to
the same status as philosophy, allowing accepted ideas in
all areas to be challenged.[131] He introduced new spe-
cialist teaching sta, replacing the system of regenting,
where one tutor took the students through the entire arts
curriculum.[132] Metaphysics were abandoned and Greek
became compulsory in the rst year followed by Aramaic,
Syriac and Hebrew, launching a new fashion for ancient
and biblical languages. Glasgow had probably been de-
clining as a university before his arrival, but students now
began to arrive in large numbers. He assisted in the re-
construction of Marischal College, Aberdeen, and in or-
der to do for St Andrews what he had done for Glasgow,
he was appointed Principal of St Marys College, St An-
drews, in 1580. The University of Edinburgh developed
out of public lectures were established in the town 1440s
on law, Greek, Latin and philosophy, under the patron-
age of Mary of Guise. These evolved into the Tounis
College, which would become the University of Edin-
burgh in 1582.[133] The results were a revitalisation of all
Scottish universities, which were now producing a qual-
ity of education the equal of that oered anywhere in
Europe.[131] Under the Commonwealth, the universities
saw an improvement in their funding, as they were given
income from deaneries, defunct bishoprics and the ex-
cise, allowing the completion of buildings including the
college in the High Street in Glasgow. They were still
largely seen as a training school for clergy, and came
under the control of the hard line Protestors.[134] After
Andrew Melville, credited with major reforms in Scottish Univer- the Restoration there was a purge of the universities, but
sities in the 16th century. much of the intellectual advances of the preceding period
was preserved.[135] The universities recovered from the
The widespread belief in the limited intellectual and upheavals of the mid-century with a lecture-based cur-
moral capacity of women, vied with a desire, intensi- riculum that was able to embrace economics and science,
ed after the Reformation, for women to take personal oering a high quality liberal education to the sons of the
moral responsibility, particularly as wives and mothers. nobility and gentry.[128]
In Protestantism this necessitated an ability to learn and
understand the catechism and even to be able to inde-
pendently read the Bible, but most commentators, even
those that tended to encourage the education of girls, 10 Military
thought they should not receive the same academic ed-
ucation as boys. In the lower ranks of society, they bene- 10.1 Navy
ted from the expansion of the parish schools system that
took place after the Reformation, but were usually out- Main articles: Royal Scots Navy and History of the Royal
numbered by boys, often taught separately, for a shorter Navy
time and to a lower level. They were frequently taught There are mentions in Medieval records of eets com-
reading, sewing and knitting, but not writing. Female il-manded by Scottish kings including William the Lion[136]
literacy rates based on signatures among female servants and Alexander II. The latter took personal command
were around 90 percent, from the late 17th to the early of a large naval force which sailed from the Firth of
18th centuries and perhaps 85 percent for women of all Clyde and anchored o the island of Kerrera in 1249,
ranks by 1750, compared with 35 per cent for men.[129] intended to transport his army in a campaign against the
Among the nobility there were many educated and cul- Kingdom of the Isles, but he died before the campaign
tured women, of which Mary, Queen of Scots is the most could begin.[137][138] Records indicate that Alexander had
obvious example.[130] several large oared ships built at Ayr, but he avoided a sea
After the Reformation, Scotlands universities underwent battle.[136] Defeat on land at the Battle of Largs and winter
12 10 MILITARY

A carving of a birlinn from a 16th-century tombstone in Mac-

Dues Chapel, Oronsay, as engraved in 1772

storms forced the Norwegian eet to return home, leaving

the Scottish crown as the major power in the region and A model of the Great Michael in the Royal Museum
leading to the ceding of the Western Isles to Alexander in
1266.[14] in the 15th century. James IV put the enterprise on a new
Part of the reason for Robert Is success in the Wars of In- footing, founding a harbour at Newhaven and a dockyard
dependence was his ability to call on naval forces from the at the Pools of Airth.[141] He acquired a total of 38 ships
Islands. As a result of the expulsion of the Flemings from including the Great Michael,[142] at that time, the largest
England in 1303, he gained the support of a major naval ship in Europe.[142][143] Scottish ships had some success
power in the North Sea.[139] The development of naval against privateers, accompanied the king on his expedi-
power allowed Robert to successfully defeat English at- tions in the islands and intervened in conicts in Scandi-
tempts to capture him in the Highlands and Islands and navia and the Baltic,[140] but were sold after the Flodden
to blockade major English controlled fortresses at Perth campaign and after 1516 Scottish naval eorts would
and Stirling, the last forcing Edward II to attempt the rely on privateering captains and hired merchantmen.[140]
relief that resulted in English defeat at Bannockburn in James V did not share his fathers interest in developing a
1314.[139] Scottish naval forces allowed invasions of the navy and shipbuilding fell behind that of the Low Coun-
Isle of Man in 1313 and 1317 and Ireland in 1315. They tries.[144] Despite truces between England and Scotland
were also crucial in the blockade of Berwick, which led there were periodic outbreaks of a guerre de course.[145]
to its fall in 1318.[139] After the establishment of Scottish James V built a new harbour at Burntisland in 1542.[146]
independence, Robert I turned his attention to building up The chief use of naval power in his reign was a series of
a Scottish naval capacity. This was largely focused on the expeditions to the Isles and France.[147] After the Union
west coast, with the Exchequer Rolls of 1326 recording of Crowns in 1603 conict between Scotland and Eng-
the feudal duties of his vassals in that region to aid him land ended, but Scotland found itself involved in Eng-
with their vessels and crews. Towards the end of his reign lands foreign policy, opening up Scottish shipping to at-
he supervised the building of at least one royal man-of- tack. In 1626, a squadron of three ships was bought and
war near his palace at Cardross on the River Clyde. In the equipped.[143] There were also several marque eets of
late 14th century, naval warfare with England was con- privateers.[148] In 1627, the Royal Scots Navy and ac-
ducted largely by hired Scots, Flemish and French mer- companying contingents of burgh privateers participated
chantmen and privateers.[140] James I took a greater inter- in the major expedition to Biscay.[149] The Scots also re-
est in naval power. After his return to Scotland in 1424, turned to the West Indies[150] and in 1629 took part in the
he established a shipbuilding yard at Leith, a house for capture of Quebec.[151]
marine stores, and a workshop. Kings ships were built During the Bishops Wars the king attempted to block-
and equipped there to be used for trade as well as war, ade Scotland and planned amphibious assaults from Eng-
one of which accompanied him on his expedition to the land on the East coast and from Ireland to the West.[152]
Islands in 1429. The oce of Lord High Admiral was Scottish privateers took a number of English prizes.[153]
probably founded in this period. In his struggles with his After the Covenanters allied with the English Parlia-
nobles in 1488 James III received assistance from his two ment they established two patrol squadrons for the At-
warships the Flower and the Kings Carvel also known as lantic and North Sea coasts, known collectively as the
the Yellow Carvel.[140] Scotch Guard.[154] The Scottish navy was unable to
There were various attempts to create royal naval forces withstand the English eet that accompanied the army led
10.2 Army 13

by Cromwell that conquered Scotland in 164951 and the land, but they were used to good eect by Robert I at
Scottish ships and crews were split up among the Com- the Battle of Bannockburn in 1314 to secure Scottish
monwealth eet.[155] Scottish seamen received protectionindependence.[162] After the Wars of Scottish Indepen-
against arbitrary impressment by English men of war, dence, the Auld Alliance between Scotland and France
but a xed quota of conscripts for the Royal Navy was played a large part in the countrys military activities,
levied from the sea-coast burghs during the second half especially during the Hundred Years War. In the Late
of the 17th century.[156] Royal Navy patrols were now Middle Ages, under the Stewart kings forces were fur-
found in Scottish waters even in peacetime.[157] In the ther augmented by specialist troops, particularly men-at-
Second (166567) and Third Anglo-Dutch Wars (1672 arms and archers, hired by bonds of manrent, similar to
English indentures of the same period.[163] Archers be-
74) between 80 and 120 captains, took Scottish letters of
marque and privateers played a major part in the naval came much sought after as mercenaries in French armies
conict.[158] In the 1690s, a small eet of ve ships was
of the 15th century in order to help counter the English
established by merchants for the Darien Scheme,[159] andsuperiority in this arm, becoming a major element of
the French royal guards as the Garde cossaise.[164] The
a professional navy was established for the protection of
commerce in home waters during the Nine Years War, Stewarts also adopted major innovations in continental
with three purpose-built warships bought from English warfare, such as longer pikes and the extensive use of ar-
shipbuilders in 1696. After the Act of Union in 1707, tillery. However, in the early 15th century one of the
these vessels were transferred to the Royal Navy.[160] best armed and largest Scottish armies ever assembled
still met with defeat at the hands of an English army at
the Battle of Flodden Field in 1513, which saw the de-
10.2 Army struction of a large number of ordinary troops, a large
section of the nobility and the king, James IV.[165] In the
Main articles: Royal Scottish Army, Warfare in Medieval 16th century, the crown took an increasing role in the
Scotland, and Warfare in early modern Scotland supply of military equipment.[166] The pike began to re-
Before the Wars of the Three Kingdoms in the mid-17th place the spear and the Scots began to convert from the
bow to gunpowder rearms.[167] The feudal heavy cav-
alry had begun to disappear from Scottish armies and the
Scots elded relatively large numbers of light horse, often
drawn from the borders.[168] James IV brought in experts
from France, Germany and the Netherlands and estab-
lished a gun foundry in 1511.[147] Gunpowder weaponry
fundamentally altered the nature of castle architecture
from the mid-15th century.[169]

Scottish soldiers in the period of the Hundred Years War, detail

from an edition of Froissarts Chronicles

century, there was no standing army in the Kingdom of

Scotland. In the Early Middle Ages, war in Scotland was
characterised by the use of small war-bands of household
troops often engaging in raids and low level warfare.[161]
By the High Middle Ages, the kings of Scotland could
command forces of tens of thousands of men for short
periods as part of the common army, mainly of poorly
armoured spear and bowmen. After the "Davidian Rev-
olution" of the 12th century, which introduced elements
of feudalism to Scotland, these forces were augmented by
small numbers of mounted and heavily armoured knights.
These armies rarely managed to stand up to the usually
larger and more professional armies produced by Eng-
The earliest image of Scottish soldiers wearing tartan, from a
woodcut c. 1631
In the early 17th century, relatively large numbers of
Scots took service in foreign armies involved in the Thirty
Years War.[170] As armed conict with Charles I in the
Bishops Wars became likely, hundreds of Scots mer-
cenaries returned home from foreign service, includ-
ing experienced leaders like Alexander and David Leslie
and these veterans played an important role in training
recruits.[152] These systems would form the basis of the
Covenanter armies that intervened in the Civil Wars in
14 11 FLAGS

England and Ireland.[171] Scottish infantry were generally

armed, as was almost universal in Western Europe, with
a combination of pike and shot. Scottish armies may also
have had individuals with a variety of weapons includ-
ing bows, Lochaber axes, and halberds.[172] Most cavalry
were probably equipped with pistols and swords, although
there is some evidence that they included lancers.[173]
Royalist armies, like those led by James Graham, Mar-
quis of Montrose (164344) and in Glencairns ris-
ing (165354) were mainly composed of conventionally
armed infantry with pike and shot.[174] Montroses forces
were short of heavy artillery suitable for siege warfare and
had only a small force of cavalry.[175]
At the Restoration the Privy Council established a force
of several infantry regiments and a few troops of horse
and there were attempts to found a national militia on
the English model. The standing army was mainly em-
ployed in the suppression of Covenanter rebellions and
the guerilla war undertaken by the Cameronians in the
East.[176] Pikemen became less important in the late 17th
century and after the introduction of the socket bayonet
disappeared altogether, while matchlock muskets were
replaced by the more reliable intlock.[176] On the eve
of the Glorious Revolution, the standing army in Scot- Sculpture of Saint Andrew, Freemasons Hall, Edinburgh
land was about 3,000 men in various regiments and an-
other 268 veterans in the major garrison towns.[177] After
the Glorious Revolution the Scots were drawn into King
William II's continental wars, beginning with the Nine drew, the patron saint of Scotland, was crucied on an
Years War in Flanders (168997).[178] By the time of the X-shaped cross at Patras (Patrae) in Achaea.[184] Use of
Act of Union, the Kingdom of Scotland had a standing the familiar iconography of his martyrdom, showing the
army of seven units of infantry, two of horse and one apostle bound to an X-shaped cross, rst appears in the
troop of Horse Guards, besides varying levels of fortress Kingdom of Scotland in 1180 during the reign of William
artillery in the garrison castles of Edinburgh, Dumbarton, I. This image was again depicted on seals used during
and Stirling, which would be incorporated into the British the late 13th century; including on one particular exam-
Army.[179] ple used by the Guardians of Scotland, dated 1286.[184]
Use of a simplied symbol associated with Saint Andrew
which does not depict his image, namely the saltire, or
crux decussata (from the Latin crux, 'cross, and decussis,
11 Flags 'having the shape of the Roman numeral X'), has its ori-
gins in the late 14th century; the Parliament of Scotland
Main article: Flag of Scotland decreed in 1385 that Scottish soldiers wear a white Saint
The earliest recorded use of the Lion rampant as a royal Andrews Cross on their person, both in front and behind,
emblem in Scotland was by Alexander II in 1222.[180] It for the purpose of identication.[185] The earliest refer-
is recorded with the additional embellishment of a double ence to the Saint Andrews Cross as a ag is to be found in
border set with lilies during the reign of Alexander III the Vienna Book of Hours, c. 1503, where a white saltire
(124986).[180] This emblem occupied the shield of the is depicted with a red background.[185] In the case of Scot-
royal coat of arms which, together with a royal banner land, use of a blue background for the Saint Andrews
displaying the same, was used by the King of Scots un- Cross is said to date from at least the 15th century,[186]
til the Union of the Crowns in 1603.[181] Then it was with the rst certain illustration of a ag depicting such
incorporated into both the royal arms and royal ban- appearing in Sir David Lyndsay of the Mount's Register
ners of successive Scottish then British monarchs in or- of Scottish Arms, c. 1542.[187]
der to symbolise Scotland; as can be seen today in the Following the Union of the Crowns in 1603, James VI,
Royal Standard of the United Kingdom.[182] Although King of Scots, commissioned new designs for a banner
now ocially restricted to use by representatives of the incorporating the ags of the Kingdom of Scotland and
Sovereign and at royal residences, the Royal Standard of Kingdom of England. In 1606, a Union Flag was com-
Scotland continues to be one of Scotlands most recog- missioned, combining the crosses of Saint George (the
nisable symbols.[183] Flag of England), with that of Saint Andrew.[188] There
According to legend, the apostle and martyr Saint An- was also a Scottish version of this ag, in which the cross
13.1 Footnotes 15

of Saint Andrew overlaid the cross of St George. This 13.1 Footnotes

design may have seen limited, unocial use in Scot-
land until 1707, when the English variant of the same, [1] Old English (9501066)
whereby the cross of St George overlaid that of St An- Middle English (10661550)
drew, was adopted as the ag of the unied Kingdom of Modern English (15501707)
Great Britain.[189][190][191][192]
[2] Old English (until 1066)
Middle English (106613th century)
Early Scots (13th century1450)
Middle Scots (from 1450)

The Royal Standard of [3] Became the chief language of governance in the eleventh-
Scotland and twelfth centuries.

[4] Widely used for administrative and liturgical purposes.

13.2 Notes
[1] Sharpe, R (2011). Peoples and Languages in Eleventh-
The Royal Standard of and Twelfth-century Britain and Ireland: Reading the
Scotland used, with minor variations, between 1603 Charter Evidence (PDF). In Broun, D. The Real-
and 1707. ity Behind Charter Diplomatic in Anglo-Norman Britain
(PDF). Glasgow: Centre for Scottish and Celtic Studies,
University of Glasgow. pp. 1119. ISBN 978-0-85261-
919-3 via Paradox of Medieval Scotland 10931286.

[2] W. E. Burns, A Brief History of Great Britain (Infobase

Publishing, 2009), ISBN 0816077282, pp. 445.
The Flag of Scotland; Azure, [3] B. Webster, Medieval Scotland: the Making of an Identity
a saltire argent (St. Martins Press, 1997), ISBN 0333567617, p. 15.

[4] B. Yorke, The Conversion of Britain: Religion, Politics and

Society in Britain c.600800 (Pearson Education, 2006),
ISBN 0582772923, p. 54.

[5] A. O. Anderson, Early Sources of Scottish History, A.D.

The Scottish Union Flag 500 to 1286 (General Books LLC, 2010), vol. i, ISBN
used between 1606 and 1707. 1152215728, p. 395.

[6] Webster, Medieval Scotland, p. 22.

[7] A. Woolf, From Pictland to Alba: 789 1070 (Edinburgh:

Edinburgh University Press, 2007), ISBN 0748612343, p.
12 See also 128.

Falkland Palace [8] B. T. Hudson, Kings of Celtic Scotland (Westport: Green-

Linlithgow Palace
List of monarchs of Scotland
Obsolete Scottish units of measurement
Royal Consorts of Scotland
Scottish monarchs family tree
hill 1994), ISBN 0313290873, pp. 9596.
[9] G. W. S. Barrow, David I of Scotland: The Balance of
New and Old, in G. W. S. Barrow, ed., Scotland and
Its Neighbours in the Middle Ages (London: Bloomsbury,
1992), ISBN 1852850523, pp. 911.
[10] M. Lynch, Scotland: A New History (London: Random
House, 2011), ISBN 1446475638, p. 80.
[11] Webster, Medieval Scotland, pp. 2937.

Scottish Term Day [12] R. R. Davies, The First English Empire: Power and Identi-
ties in the British Isles, 10931343 (Oxford: Oxford Uni-
versity Press, 2000), ISBN 0198208499, p. 64.

13 References [13] W. P. L. Thomson, The New History of Orkney (Edin-

burgh: Birlinn, 2008), ISBN 184158696X, p. 204.
16
[14] A. Macquarrie, Medieval Scotland: Kinship and Nation
(Thrupp: Sutton, 2004), ISBN 0-7509-2977-4, p. 153.
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wiki/User_talk:Endrick_Shellycoat' title='User talk:Endrick Shellycoat'>Shellycoat</a> 21:32, 20 August 2011 (UTC)
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