NR TRITA-INFRA 02-001

ISSN 1651-0194
ISRN KTH/INFRA/EX--02/001
MASTER OF SCIENCE THESIS

Building Materials & Engineering Design

Low-Income Housing Projects
Port Elizabeth-South Africa

By
Camila Corts Ballerino - Chile

Supervisor: Prof. Dick Urban Vestbro

Co-Supervisor: Prof. Kobus Van Wyk

In the subject of
Built Environment Analysis, the Master programme
Environmental Engineering and Sustainable Infrastructure at
The Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden

Stockholm 2002
The cover:
Low-income house at Kwazakhele,
Port Elizabeth, August 2001
Massive wall system using hollow concrete blocks

Camila Corts Ballerino, 2002

Royal Institute of Technology, KTH
Stockholm, Sweden
 NR TRITA-INFRA 02-001
ISSN 1651-0194
ISRN KTH/INFRA/EX--02/001

MASTER OF SCIENCE THESIS

Building Materials & Engineering Design

Low-Income Housing Projects
Port Elizabeth-South Africa

By
Camila Corts Ballerino - Chile

Supervisor: Prof. Dick Urban Vestbro

Royal Institute of Technology, Sweden

Co-Supervisor: Prof. Kobus Van Wyk

Port Elizabeth Technikon, South Africa

In the subject of
Built Environment Analysis, the Master programme
Environmental Engineering and Sustainable Infrastructure at
The Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden

Stockholm 2002

II
III
ABSTRACT

Low-income housing projects are characterised by an increasing demand mainly due

to urbanisation. The selection of building materials should meet the needs of local
conditions to improve quality of life for the most needed ones by building new
structures and/or by improving existing structures.

This document is a study on the use of building materials and engineering design in
low-income housing projects in Port Elizabeth, South Africa.

A field study was carried out in Port Elizabeth between July and October 2001,
comprising on-site and literature investigations in addition to interviews with key
persons such as researchers, authorities, planners, suppliers, constructors and
beneficiaries.

Although this study attempts to cover most of the factors influencing the use of
building materials and engineering design, the focus has been to investigate the impact
of processed building materials for wall systems in urban areas.

KEY WORDS

South Africa, low-income housing, building materials, wall building system, housing
delivery system

i
ii
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Low-income housing projects are closely related to urbanisation, natural population

growth, and the economical, financial and political situation. It involves everyone
from decision-makers to beneficiaries and users.

Provision of "adequate housing" is one of the most pressing problems of the 21st
century. Worldwide, 18% of all urban housing units are non-permanent and 25% do
not conform to building regulations (Habitat, 2001a, p.30). The persistence of
homeless and sub standards living conditions are mostly seen in cities of developing
countries. In South Africa up to 18,5 % of the total population live in informal
settlements in urban areas (Van Wyk, 1996a, p. 2).

Sustainability regarding urban housing intends to develop new approaches to manage

human settlements and integrate energy and environmental issues. To achieve a
sustainable housing project is required a balance of environmental, economical and
social issues with technical issues.

This study is limited to engineering design and impact of building materials for walls
of low-income housing projects in urban areas of Port Elizabeth.

Findings show that up to 60 % of the total cost of a low-income housing project is

allocated to engineering design and construction materials. Moreover, walls constitute
up to 50% of the total cost of materials and up to 45% of total construction time.
Material origin, production techniques and labour requirements all have major impacts
on the selection of wall building material.

The analysis of particular local conditions will determine where materials are most
suitable for their use. Furthermore, the time when materials and techniques were / are
mostly used will determine whether they could be classified as traditional or
contemporary. The regularity of use will determine whether materials and methods
could be classified as conventional or alternative.

Building components can be interrelated through different systems. There are three
building systems considered in this study:

Massive system; a solid construction based on one type of material.

Frame system; vertical, horizontal and angular members joined together to form a
load-bearing framework. The space between the members can remain open or be
filled with different materials.
Core system; a combination of materials with an inner, or core, part and an outer
layer for cladding/reinforcement.

The city of Port Elizabeth is a major seaport, located in the Eastern Cape province. Its
transitional Local Council established a Housing Policy in 1996 in order to manage
the housing delivery process, aiming to construct nearly 160,000 houses for the
following 15 years (an average of 150 houses/week). These houses if implemented
successfully, will cover not only the increasing demand due to urbanisation and
natural growth but will also eliminate the existing housing backlog.

iii
Local designs have shown many variations. The diversity of social realities is reflected
in high technology and standards for formal settlements and minimum to sub
standards for low-income housing projects.

The main constraint for engineering design has been the budget allocated for the top
structure (foundations, walls and roof), about 17 USD/m2. Port Elizabeth Municipality
has performed feasibility studies in order to identify impacts on material prices and
building systems. The following table shows the most relevant aspects concerning
advantages and disadvantages of the building systems reviewed.

Table A. Wall building systems, advantages and disadvantages

Advantages
+ Reduced number of materials and
components
+ Materials could be manufactured in
situ
+ High thermal capacities (common in
MASSIVE
hot arid climates)
SYSTEM
+ Medium to high resistance to
dampness
+ Medium construction speed
+ Accessible information for design,
construct and maintenance
+ Medium resistance to natural hazards
+ High construction speed
FRAME + Medium innovative design and
SYSTEM construction techniques
+ Very high thermal performance
+ High resistance to dampness
+ Very high construction speed
+ Lighter elements to erect
+ Reduce site work
+ High innovative design and
CORE
construction techniques
SYSTEM
Disadvantages
- High quantities of the same material needed
- It needs wall finishing to perform well
- Needs support and centering during
construction (verticality problems may cause
the failure of the structure)
- Possibilities of insects and vermin attack
- Increase variety of components, equipment
and skills
- Intermediate level of accessibility of
information for design, construct and
maintain
- Compulsory use of wall finishing
- Partially or totally imported material
- Need industrialised production rises basic
cost
- Needs Environmental control during
manufacturing
- Special design and connections
- Less access information for design,
construct and maintenance
- High skill workers
- Sophisticated and conventional equipment
during construction
- Higher possibilities of insects and vermin
attack

The study showed that a big variety of wall materials have been used in different
building systems with traditional and modern construction methods, but only few of
them (extruded clay bricks, hollow concrete blocks) have successfully been
implemented in low-income housing projects. Conventional materials (e.g. cement,
steel, concrete) in low-income houses constitute up to 98% of the materials used. Non-
conventional materials (polymers, composites, recycled) have been left aside despite
better thermal and condensation characteristics for local conditions. Alternative design
including use of non-conventional materials have also been left aside despite reduction
of construction time of more than 50%.

iv
Some of the aspects/criteria most frequently considered in the comparison of technical
advantages and disadvantages of wall building material are shown in the table below.

Table B. Technical advantages and disadvantages in wall materials

Advantages Disadvantages
+ Traditional design - Low water penetration resistance
+ High thermal resistance in semi-dry - Low condensation capacity
and dry places - Low fire, noise, impact resistance for
+ High fire, noise, impact resistances for fibres
soils and stones - Low natural hazards resistance
+ High durability for soils and stones - Low durability for fibres
NATURAL
+ High biological attack resistance for - Low biological attack resistance for fibres
RAW
MATERIAL soils and stones
+ High importance aesthetic service life
+ Long physical service life
+ High reparability
+ High recyclability

+ High thermal resistance - Professional design

+ Medium water penetration resistance - Low condensation capacity
+ Medium to high fire, noise resistances - Low biological attack resistance
+ Medium to high natural hazards - Short technical service life
resistance
PROCESSED + High noise, impact properties
MATERIAL + Long durability if maintained
Conventional + Medium to long aesthetic service life
+ Medium to long physical service life
+ Medium to long technical service life
+ Medium to high reparability (need
knowledge)
+ Medium recyclability
+ Very high thermal and condensation - Professional / specialized design
resistance - Medium to low fire resistance
+ Medium to high impact resistance - Medium to low noise properties
+ Medium natural hazards resistance - Long physical service life
PROCESSED + Long durability if maintained - Medium to low reparability
MATERIAL + Medium to high biological attack - Low recyclability
Alternative resistance
+ Medium to long aesthetic service life
+ Long technical service life

v
The main conclusions of this study are:

The delivery system of low-income housing projects can be vastly improved by

considering options for alternative design and materials. These play an important
role in the economic development for formal and informal sector.
Technical sustainability, such as energy efficiency, diversification, control,
impacts on nature and health, should receive more attention.
The allocated budget is insufficient, resulting in a cost-quality-size conflict.
Social perception and attitude influence negatively on choice of design and
material.

The main recommendations are:

Secure a common understanding (professionals, politicians, authorities, users, etc.)

of the definitions of "adequate house", structural stability and safety and control to
achieve a quality structure
Increase co-operation amongst institutions and access to information and education
Make people aware of new concepts and ideas of alternative housing materials, by
use of show cases, information brochures, lectures, etc.
Concentrate on walls designs and materials that are durable, flexible and that need
a minimum of maintenance and service
Initiate programs to produce materials and structures locally in order to create jobs

vi
 I had a dream
To be able to help African people in any way I could
Today, Thomas Henell, my beloved husband,
had made this dream come true
He has supported me morally and economically
during my staying in South Africa, I will always thank him
and I wish I could also make his dreams come true

vii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I thank all the people in Sweden and

in South Africa who helped me in my research

I specially thankful Mr. Gerrie de Bruin and Mr. Kobus Lane

They have taught me technical issues, shared experiences,
but overall they have taught me values of life

I also thank Prof. Dick Urban Vestbro for giving me

the chance to go to Port Elizabeth, and
Prof. Kobus Van Wyk for all his concerns and help

viii
TABLE OF CONTENTS Page No.

1 INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................................... 1

2 SCOPE, METHODOLOGY AND LIMITATIONS................................................................................. 3

2.1 SCOPE ........................................................................................................................................................ 3
2.2 METHODOLOGY ......................................................................................................................................... 3
2.3 LIMITATIONS ............................................................................................................................................. 4
3 THEORY FOR HOUSING PROJECTS................................................................................................... 5
3.1 SUSTAINABILITY FOR HOUSING PROJECTS.................................................................................................. 5
3.2 DESCRIPTION OF HOUSE WALL SYSTEMS .................................................................................................. 6
3.2.1 Massive wall system ........................................................................................................................ 8
3.2.2 Frame Wall System ....................................................................................................................... 11
3.2.3 Core wall system ........................................................................................................................... 13
4 BUILDING MATERIALS........................................................................................................................ 15
4.1 RAW (NATURAL) BUILDING MATERIALS ................................................................................................ 15
4.2 PROCESSED BUILDING MATERIALS ......................................................................................................... 15
5 LOW INCOME HOUSING...................................................................................................................... 17

6 THE SITUATION IN PORT ELIZABETH: A CASE STUDY ............................................................ 19

6.1 PORT ELIZABETH BACKGROUND ............................................................................................................. 19
6.1.1 Physical and Environmental Conditions ....................................................................................... 19
6.1.2 Social Conditions .......................................................................................................................... 19
6.1.3 Economical and Financial Conditions.......................................................................................... 20
6.1.4 Institutional Conditions................................................................................................................. 21
6.1.5 Technical Conditions .................................................................................................................... 24
6.2 HOUSING FINDINGS ................................................................................................................................. 25
6.2.1 Informal and Formal Dwellings.................................................................................................... 26
6.2.1.1 Informal Settlements................................................................................................................................. 26
6.2.1.2 Formal Settlements ................................................................................................................................... 27
6.2.2 Engineering Design for Low Income Housing .............................................................................. 27
6.2.2.1 Conventional Design Solutions ................................................................................................................ 28
6.2.2.2 Alternative Design Solutions .................................................................................................................... 29
6.2.3 Materials in low-income houses.................................................................................................... 30
6.2.3.1 Conventional houses with modern/contemporary conventional materials................................................ 31
6.2.3.2 Conventional houses with contemporary alternative processed materials ................................................ 31
6.2.3.3 Conventional houses with natural raw materials....................................................................................... 32
6.3 FINDINGS.............................................................................................................................................. 33
6.3.1 Organisational / Institutional Situation ........................................................................................ 34
6.3.2 Economical and financial Issues................................................................................................... 34
6.3.3 Social Factors ............................................................................................................................... 35
6.3.4 Environmental Issues .................................................................................................................... 35
6.3.5 Engineering Design....................................................................................................................... 36
6.3.6 Construction and Maintenance Observations ............................................................................... 38
7 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS................................................................................... 41

8 DEFINITION OF TERMS ....................................................................................................................... 47

9 REFERENCES .......................................................................................................................................... 49

ix
LIST OF FIGURES /PICTURES Page No.

FIG. 3.1 EXAMPLES OF LOADS IN A STRUCTURE........................................................................................ 6

PICTURE 5.1 VARIOUS CONSTRUCTION SOIL METHODS FOR MASSIVE WALL SYSTEMS ............... 9
PICTURE 5.2 MASSIVE WALL SYSTEM WITH CONCRETE BLOCKS ...................................................... 10
PICTURE 5.3 MASSIVE WALL SYSTEM WITH TIMBER ............................................................................. 10
PICTURE 5.4 MASSIVE WALL SYSTEM USING CEMENT FOAM PANEL................................................ 11
PICTURE 5.5 FRAME WALL SYSTEM USING ALUMINIUM FRAME WITH CEMENT BOARD ........... 12
PICTURE 5.6 METAL POLE FRAME WITH CONCRETE PANELS .............................................................. 12
PICTURE 5.7 TIMBER FRAME WITH FIBREGLASS MESH AND CEMENT PLASTER. ........................... 13
PICTURE 5.8 METAL PROFILES AND EXPANDED POLYSTYRENE CORE WALLS. ............................. 13
PICTURE 5.9 POLYURETHANE FOAM CORE REINFORCED WITH MILD STEEL WIRE....................... 14
PICTURE 6.1 XHOSA CULTURE, DANCES BY A TYPICAL HUT............................................................... 19
FIG 6.1 (1) FEASIBILITY (2) PRE-IMPLEMENTATION (3) IMPLEMENTATION PHASE ........................ 23
PICTURE 6.2 INFORMAL SETTLEMENT, TEMPORARY DWELLINGS IN PORT ELIZABETH, SWIDE
VILLAGE. ............................................................................................................................................................ 26
PICTURE 6.3 FORMAL SETTLEMENT, PERMANENT DWELLING IN PORT ELIZABETH, COEGA
RELOCATION. .................................................................................................................................................... 27
PICTURE 6.4 UPGRADING SCHEMES, INDIVIDUAL TOILET, WALMER, PORT ELIZABETH ............ 27
PICTURE 6.5 DIFFERENT DESIGN FOR CLAY GROUND CONDITIONS .................................................. 29
PICTURE 6.6 ALTERNATIVE DESIGN, PELIP-SIDA PROJECT, PORT ELIZABETH ................................ 30
PICTURE 6.7 ALTERNATIVE DESIGN, DELTA FOUNDATION PROJECT, PORT ELIZABETH ............. 30
PICTURE 6.8 EXPANDED POLYSTYRENE WALLS AS ALTERNATIVE PROCESSED MATERIALS.... 32
PICTURE 6.9 ROCKS AND SOIL CAN BE USED AS WALL MATERIAL IN A SELF HELP SYSTEM..... 32
PICTURE 6.10 DEFECT IN CONSTRUCTION, PORT ELIZABETH .............................................................. 38
PICTURE 6.11 DEFECTS IN CONSTRUCTION, BETHELSDORP, PORT ELIZABETH ............................. 38
PICTURE 6.12 DEFECTS IN CONSTRUCTION, MORTAR MIX, MOTHERWELL, PORT ELIZABETH .. 40
PICTURE 6.13 DEFECTS IN CONSTRUCTION, CLAY SOIL CONDITIONS, BETHELSDORP, PORT
ELIZABETH......................................................................................................................................................... 40

x
LIST OF TABLES Page No.

TABLE A. WALL BUILDING SYSTEMS, ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES ................................ IV

TABLE B. TECHNICAL ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES IN WALL MATERIALS......................V
TABLE 3.1 EXAMPLES OF DELIVERY SYSTEMS .......................................................................................... 5
TABLE 3.2 WALL BUILDING SYSTEMS, ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES ................................. 8
TABLE 4.1 CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIALS............................................................................................. 15
TABLE 4.2. DIFFERENCES BETWEEN NATURAL RAW AND PROCESSED MATERIALS. ................... 16
TABLE 6.1 SUBSIDY SCHEMES ...................................................................................................................... 21
TABLE 6.2 CHRONOLOGICAL FRAMEWORK IN THE USE OF WALL BUILDING MATERIALS IN
PERMANENT HOUSES IN THE PORT ELIZABETH AREA .......................................................................... 24
TABLE 6.3 PARTIAL COSTS OF LOW-INCOME HOUSING ELEMENT IN NORMAL SOIL
CONDITIONS. ..................................................................................................................................................... 31
TABLE 6.4 PARTIAL COSTS OF LOW-INCOME HOUSING ELEMENT IN CLAY GROUND
CONDITIONS. ..................................................................................................................................................... 31
TABLE 6.5 FRAMEWORK FOR ANALYSIS ................................................................................................... 33
TABLE 6.6 COMPARISONS BETWEEN PROCESSED AND NATURAL RAW MATERIALS ................... 36
TABLE 6.6 DEFECTS IN CONSTRUCTION AND PROPOSED SOLUTIONS............................................... 39
TABLE 7.1 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF MATERIALS...................................................... 43

LIST OF APPENDIXES

APPENDIX I : MAPS
APPENDIX II : LIST OF INTERVIEWS AND FIELD VISITS
APPENDIX III : AGREMENT AND MANTAG CERTIFICATES OF SOUTH AFRICA
APPENDIX IV : BUILDING MATERIALS DESCRIPTION

xi
xii
1 INTRODUCTION

Today more than one billion of the world's city residents live in inadequate housing;
worldwide, 18% of all urban housing units are non-permanent structures and 25% do
not conform to building regulations (Habitat, 2001). Between 40 and 70% of the
population in most African cities live in informal settlements (Towards sustainable
Urban development, 2000, p.5). In South Africa alone, up to 18,5 % of the total
population live in informal settlements in urban areas (Van Wyk, 1996a, p. 2).

This situation is mainly due to urbanisation and increases by natural population

growth and in some cases political, economical manipulation have caused land
restriction and further worsened the problem. Thus, the pressure on the increasing
demand of housing has become a challenge and a problem to authorities,
beneficiaries/users, suppliers, engineers, contractors and nature.

Many studies, seminars, workshops and researches by governmental, universities,

private institutions, NGOs, etc., have tried to find solutions for low-income housing.
Unfortunately the solution is not unique, peoples need and necessities are different
even within a city.

The definition of an "adequate shelter or house" varies considerably (BESG, 1999,

p.8). It has to consider weather conditions, cultural, social, economical factors but it is
agreed on that it should be more than a roof over one's head (Habitat, 1996, Art. 60).
Moreover, the selection of building materials should meet the local conditions to
improve quality of life by building new structures or by improving existing structures.

The dilemma cost-quality-size plays an important challenge in low-income housing

projects for engineers and architects regarding housing within a sustainable
framework. In general sustainability intends to develop new approaches to manage
urban settlements and to integrate energy and environmental issues (Ebsen & Rambol,
2000, p.2), moreover addresses the integration of technical factors to social,
economical and environmental issues.

Low-income housing should not denote low quality, and it should not be design as a
survival shelter.

The main questions addressed in this study are:

(i) Is it possible to combine traditional and contemporary technological

knowledge in low-income housing projects in order to meet the increasing
demand, and should it be done?

(ii) Can processed building materials offer solutions for adequate low-income
housing?

(iii) How can implementation of alternative techniques and materials in low-

income housing projects be accomplished?

1
The evolution (improvement) of building materials is a continuous process,
technology has created substitute materials by improving natural raw materials or by
developing synthetic materials, called in this study "processed materials".
Construction techniques also have been positive influenced by technology specially
saving time and specialisation of skills.

Awareness of frequent/infrequent use and the era (time) when building materials were
used gives a powerful tool to improve solutions and efficiency in design and
construction.

Ideally, willingness of all stakeholders through regulations, planning, management and

design should influence to seek solutions that could be implemented. Authorities
should look after regulations, financing resources and rights to provide a house with
good quality and safe environment, while engineers and technicians should be able to
provide solutions for adequate structures and materials.

Port Elizabeth suffers from urbanisation (as other African cities) but has installed a
non-racial local government, re-integrated the city and prioritised low-income housing
projects. Thus, a study on the use of building materials and engineering design in low-
income housing projects in Port Elizabeth was carried out, focus on wall building
materials in urban areas.

The field study was performed between July and October 2001, comprising on-site
and literature investigations in addition to interviews with key persons such as
researchers, authorities, planners, suppliers, constructors and beneficiaries/users.

The result of low-income housing solutions do not alone remedy all social problems
and needs but should promote better social environment conditions, economical and
environmental improvements through time, foster progress and knowledge for the
future generations and lead to changes in the way of living regarding health and family
life.

2
2 SCOPE, METHODOLOGY AND LIMITATIONS

2.1 Scope

In answering the questions (See Introduction) the study will strive to demonstrate that
the use of wall building materials in Port Elizabeth, South Africa, will not only rely on
technical factors but also on social, economical, financial, institutional issues.

The selection of wall building materials can promote better quality of structures, faster
construction solutions and foster new economical development. This selection will
have to deal with "appropriateness" and "adequacy" within energy efficiency and
environmental approaches for local conditions (social, economical, financial,
institutional, environmental, etc.). Both concepts will need to be clarified through
interviews and literature investigations from many publications regarding building
materials properties and wall building systems.

As previously mentioned, this study focuses on walls building materials in low-income

housing projects. The primary reason is that cost of this structural element reaches up
to 50% of the total cost, secondary reason is that can take 45% of the construction time
and finally the indirect negative impact on the environment.

Better technical solutions regarding energy efficiency and environmental

characteristics of a structure should result in houses with a quality that will improve
the urban environment. As a consequence, health related problems will decrease and
job opportunities, training programs and exchange of information will increase.

This information pretends to be useful for all stakeholders in low-income housing

projects and, problems and solution (proposals) will be the result from the analysis and
hopefully generate ideas of appropriate used of natural or processed materials for a
near future implementation.

2.2 Methodology

Four methods of investigation were used: (i) literature investigation regarding building
materials and walling systems, and sustainability issues regarding urban environment,
(ii) engineering design and policy review to appreciate the compliance with standards,
(iii) interviews with key persons including researchers, authority representatives,
planners, suppliers, constructor, engineers, architects and beneficiaries and users in
order to map their perceptions and personal experiences, and (iv) field observations of
housing projects in formal and informal settlements.

The purpose of the literature investigations were to identify the ideal conditions when
selecting building materials, design, construction methods, monitoring procedures,
performance criteria (life cycle analysis). However, the literature investigations tended
to leave aside historical background, constrains and limitations under local conditions.
Thus, the idea of combining these investigations with field observations of housing
projects and interviews makes the study more reliable and realistic.

3
 The relevance of each method for each issue (social, technical, historical, economical,
environmental) is assessed and presented in the study. High relevance had interviews
and field visits in the overall results. Literature, policy and drawing analysis, were
necessary to establish differences between theory and practice.

2.3 Limitations

Low-income housing projects are part of a vast field of study. The focus of the author
has been to highlight specific aspects of building materials for walls (wall systems),
based upon a field study of low-income housing in urban areas of Port Elizabeth,
South Africa.

Limitations, restrictions and/or constrains have been defined based on social, political
background, economic and financial plans for low-cost housing projects. Issues such
as environmental regulations and infrastructure planning are not dealt with in detail in
this document.

The housing situation is a dynamic process that depends mainly on (i) attitudes from
the decision makers to the beneficiaries/users, (ii) technology, and/or (iii) external
factors such as globalisation. As a result the outcome of this study is valid only for the
period of time limited to the study.

4
3 THEORY FOR HOUSING PROJECTS

3.1 Sustainability for housing projects

Awareness of environment and sustainable development has increased since the

1970s. However only during the last decade these two issues have been considered
jointly in the overall framework for sustainable urban housing. In general
sustainability intends to develop new approaches to manage urban settlements and to
integrate energy and environmental issues (Ebsen & Rambol, 2000, p.2). The
following aspects of sustainability are regarded as the two most important for housing:

Balanced sustainability, which refers to the evaluation and relative importance of

the four pillars for sustainability: social, economic, biophysical and technical
sustainability, mentioned among others by Professor Richard Hill (University of
Cape Town, South Africa). This requires the building of the capacity of authorities
in order to establish interrelated procedures in the housing delivery systems to
achieve efficiency regarding planning, financing, management and construction
performances (Hill et al, 2000, p.2, 28). Authorities have to be seen as facilitators
rather than constructors (Van Wyk, 1995, p.50 and Habitat 2001, p. 30). This
means to allow formal, semiformal and informal housing markets to operate and
foster economic development (BESG, 1999, p.32-33 and Boaden, 1985, p.34), see
Table 3.1. On the other hand, building capacity for communities implies
participation with responsibility and education to enhance social development
(Towards sustainable Urban development, 2000, p.12).

Table 3.1 Examples of Delivery Systems

Delivery System Description Sustainability

Formal: Contractor to provide labour and Household that can afford loans with
Conventional contractor materials. Architect responsible. aim to increase standard of living
Semi-formal: Contractor to provide labour, owner Household that cannot afford loans.
Small contractor to provide materials. Housing Willingness exists to improve or
advisor to inspect and certify acquire own building skills
completion.
Assisted: Household trained and managed by a Household that cannot afford loans.
Mutual help constructor manager. Materials Use of relatively small construction
bought in bulk for several companies and material suppliers.
households. Agreement and equal Willingness exists to be involved in
contribution the construction phase
Informal: Household to buy materials. Advice Household that cannot afford loans.
Privately built and assistance may bee required to Large number of small construction
achieve quality. companies and material suppliers.
Source: BESG, Nov1999, Towards the right to adequate housing, table p.32

Technical sustainability implies good quality materials and serviceability in the built
environment (Hill & Bowen, 1997, p.231-233). Diversification and innovation of
design and building materials have to meet the needs for durable and safe structures
(Walker, 1999, p.18-22). Technical sustainability also implies sharing of information
at all levels (Towards sustainable Urban development, 2000, p.16). Furthermore, the
overall goal is to achieve the same or equivalent service by using less material and
energy (KTH & NTNU, 1998, Borg & Trinius, p.3).

5
 It also implies energy saving during the construction and performance of the structure,
moreover to minimise damage in nature as a result of urbanisation (Walker, 1999,
p.16-18). Furthermore, the use of materials by the current generation must not hamper
the housing possibilities of future generations.

Sustainable urban development, including low-income housing projects, can be seen

as alleviation of certain social problems and promotion of good physical health and
family environment for this and future generations.

3.2 Description of House Wall Systems

House design involves structural functionality, purpose (Rioja, p.3) and aesthetic
issues that can be achieved through traditional or contemporary technological
approaches. Whatever approach is used, "a house can not be built without fundamental
knowledge of building materials and construction" states Stulz & Mukerji (1981, p.1).
Design and construction techniques differ depending on the external loads and local
conditions such as geology, soils, climate, and natural hazards. See Figure 3.1.

Rain

Sun

Wind
Wind

Earthquake

Wind
Weight and/or
Sound rain Impact

Example of external
loads in a structure
that are considered in
Soil, groundwater the design. Authors
scheme.
FIG. 3.1 EXAMPLES OF LOADS IN A STRUCTURE

Evolution of traditional materials (mostly raw) and methods has helped to understand
social values and needs (Marshall & Kearney, 2000, C.2), while engineering designs
enhance the search for solutions in the appropriate production and use of materials and
construction techniques. "Appropriateness" of a building material or construction
technique can never be generalised. Factors such as industrialisation of the country,
material origin, material price, transport facilities, volume of elements made of
selected material, climate compatibility, understanding of properties and handling,
workers skills, social acceptance will determine appropriateness (Stulz, & Mukerji,
1981, p. X, 1-4).

40% of material resources of the world are used in buildings (KTH & NTNU, 1998,
Melby, 1998, p.4 and EESI, 2000, Svane, p.2).

6
It is therefore important to assess the environmental consequences for building
projects and achieve the same level of service life in building material performance
using less natural resources and energy (KTH & NTNU, 1998, Borg & Trinius, p.3).
In this sense, contemporary technology has achieved efficiency, through the creation
of substitute processed and prefabricated materials, as well as mechanised
construction methods to speed up the delivery time (Webb, 1987 and 1989).

Building components and building materials have different service live times
regarding aesthetic, economic, functional, physical and technical performance over
time (KTH & NTNU, 1998, Melby, p.3, 4). It is therefore important to differentiate
between the main elements of a structure, such as foundations, floor, walls, roof,
ceiling, opening frames and sanitary elements. Walls and foundations play important
roles in the stability of the structure as well as in the percentage of the total cost and
construction time.

The choices of design of wall systems and foundations are closely related. The
materials and construction techniques can be based on traditions or on more
industrialised methods using specialised skills, computerised manufacturing and
design processes and sophisticated equipment.

Local regulations stipulate technical requirements, and performance tests, on wall (and
other) systems in most countries. Typical parameters that are considered include:

Structural strength; defined as resistance to all likely loading, e.g. compression,

tension, flexion, impact, etc.
Structural stability; defined as resistance to gravity (e.g. dead loads like self weight
and live load like overweight), uplift forces and horizontal loads (e.g. wind loads).
Special requirement and/or in-service performance; defined as resistance to e.g.
seismic design, vibration or cyclical loads, accidental loads, door slamming forces,
attachment of fitting, condensation and fire etc.
Thermal performance; defined as the result of the process whereby the design,
layout, orientation and construction materials of the building modify the prevailing
outdoor climate to create an indoor climate.
Acoustic performance: refers to the amount of noise transmitted from both outside
and inside the building to a specific room.
Water resistance and damp-proofing; defined as the state when no dampness is
visible on the inside of the external walls of a building for human habitation under
normal weather conditions, while the damp proofing elements should comply with
standards.
Durability; defined as a period for which the specific material or structure fulfils its
intended function satisfactory when subjected to normal use, assuming reasonable
maintenance at regular intervals. (See also Chapter 9 Definition of Terms).

There are typically three common wall systems being used in house construction, (i)
massive (ii) frame and (iii) core. A comparison of advantages and disadvantages
among the three systems is shown in Table 3.2. Improvements of wall system design
aim to: reduce waste, reduce amount of required materials, simplify assembly and
increase accuracy and speed of construction.

7
 Table 3.2 Wall building systems, advantages and disadvantages

Advantages
+ Reduced number of materials and
components
+ Materials could be manufactured in
situ
+ High thermal capacities (common in
MASSIVE
hot arid climates)
SYSTEM
+ Medium to high resistance to
dampness
+ Medium construction speed
+ Accessible information for design,
construct and maintenance
+ Medium resistance to natural hazards
+ High construction speed
FRAME + Medium innovative design and
SYSTEM construction techniques
+ Very high thermal performance
+ High resistance to dampness
+ Very high construction speed
+ Lighter elements to erect
+ Reduce site work
+ High innovative design and
CORE
construction techniques
SYSTEM
Disadvantages
- High quantities of the same material needed
- It needs wall finishing to perform well
- Needs support and centering during
construction (verticality problems may cause
the failure of the structure)
- Possibilities of insects and vermin attack
- Increase variety of components, equipment
and skills
- Intermediate level of accessibility of
information for design, construct and
maintain
- Compulsory use of wall finishing
- Partially or totally imported material
- Need industrialised production rises basic
cost
- Needs Environmental control during
manufacturing
- Special design and connections
- Less access information for design,
construct and maintenance
- High skill workers
- Sophisticated and conventional equipment
during construction
- Higher possibilities of insects and vermin
attack

3.2.1 Massive wall system

A massive wall system is a construction based on one type of material (a base). The
type of material is commonly soil, natural or synthetic fibres, masonry, etc. It can be
used with or without additives, moulding, binder (see Appendix IV), and special
surface protection. An important characteristic of the system is the self supported
walls. Use of constructions techniques and equipment varies depending on selected
material.

Adobe is a mixture of earth and water. Emphasis has been put on investigating ways to
increase the stability and resistance to erosion using various additives. At the North
American and Canadian Institutes tests were performed with bitumen, at Turkish
Institutions with semi-hydrated gypsum plaster and straw and in Kenya tests were
performed with cowdung (United Nations Centre for Human Settlements (HABITAT,
1988, p.18-19).

Burnt clay bricks need no painting, oiling or preservatives. Furthermore they are
fireproof and, if properly used, waterproof and insect and fungus proof as well. They
have low thermal expansion resulting in less cracks than in cement. No extra materials
are needed except mortar.

8
Rammed earth walling systems are formed by compacting earth in temporary or
permanent forms. The main research had been focusing on form-work alternatives and
performed in Australia, United States, Peru and Ecuador to mention a few.
(HABITAT, 1988, p.18-20)

Negative aspects with soil constructions:

- Pressed soils need large amounts of material.
- Non-stabilised soils show excessive absorption of water, causing tracks and deterioration
by frequent wetting and drying (swelling and shrinkage) as well as weakening and
disintegration by rains and floods.
- Low resistance to abrasion and impact, if not sufficiently stabilised or reinforced.
- Low tensile strength, increasing vulnerability to earthquakes.
- Low acceptability amongst social groups, due to numerous examples of poorly
constructed and maintained structures.
- Commonly lack of references for building performance and standards.
- Relatively high-energy consumption during manufacturing of products such as burnt clay
products.
- Impurity of soil results in weak bricks
- Most suitable in arid and semiarid areas

PICTURE 5.1 VARIOUS CONSTRUCTION SOIL METHODS FOR MASSIVE WALL SYSTEMS
Source: Stulz & Mukerji, 1981, fig page10

9
Concrete blocks and concrete brick
They can be hollow or massive with mortar or interlocked as a dry-stack masonry
system. The masonry could be a non-reinforced or reinforced load-bearing wall,
depending on local conditions and standards. Construction could achieve efficiency if
well supervised and performed. The mortar can be traditional Portland cement or
cement mix with lime and/or rice husk ash.

Negative aspects with masonry:

- Long term shrinkage of units placing wall under tension thereby increasing cracking
- Mixing of mortar must be done under control to obtain good results or cracks may appear
- Necessary to plaster and paint with waterproof painting
- Requires on site supervision
- Methods of jointing must be controlled

Concrete blocks masonry is a common solution for

low-income houses in South Africa. Types vary
from mass, hollow, interlocking and dry-stack
systems. (Picture by C. Corts B., August 2001,
Kwazakhela in Port Elizabeth, South Africa).

PICTURE 5.2 MASSIVE WALL SYSTEM WITH CONCRETE BLOCKS

Timber
This is probably one of the most commonly used materials for houses. Flexibility in
design depends on the type of timber and needs of the end user. Modular systems are
incorporated to gain efficiency and time during construction.

Negative aspects with timber:

- Maintenance is needed
- Deforestation in large scale causes environmental problems
- Storage needs to be covered
- Sensitivity to fires and biological agents

Wood is broadly used to build houses. Types of timber

and accessories have been developed very fast in the
last decade. (Source: Brochure of timber house, Port
Elizabeth, South Africa)

PICTURE 5.3 MASSIVE WALL SYSTEM WITH TIMBER

10
 Reinforced cement
This is a mix of water and cement which has been reinforced with polypropylene
fibre, glass fibre or steel / steel mesh to increase compression and flexural resistance.
The fibre mix in situ is not common. The walls are often consist of prefabricated
panels, decreases the lead-time for erection and assembly of elements.

Negative aspects with reinforced cement:

- Shrinking could be uncontrolled if no additives are incorporated
- Difficult to achieve even density in fibre mix if mixed by hand
- Certain reinforcements need special calculations

Massive wall system with prefabricated

concrete panels. (Source: Cemwall pre-cast
walling system, Agreement Certificate 89/198 -
South Africa, Brochure 1996)

PICTURE 5.4 MASSIVE WALL SYSTEM USING CEMENT FOAM PANEL

3.2.2 Frame Wall System

A frame, or skeleton, wall system consists of vertical, horizontal and angular members
(timber, steel, reinforced concrete, etc.), joined together to form a load-bearing
framework. The space between the members can remain open or be filled with
different materials. These materials will either give the characteristics of solid walls
(e.g. masonry) or lightweight walls (e.g. composite boards). The use of filling
material, in addition to the roof structure, helps to stabilize the whole construction and
prevent distortion.

Natural fibre frame

This is a traditional technology with variety of shapes and construction techniques,
governed by climate conditions and specific social environment. Single fibres are less
resistant to compression but in larger quantities, and if twisted and interlocked, they
can be used as structural elements. In-fill material usually consists of leaves and other
types of fibres

Negative aspects with natural fibre frame:

- Low life performance, requires extensive maintenance
- Vulnerability to biological agents
- Tendency to absorb moisture, accelerating the deterioration process
- Low resistance to physical impacts
- Rapid propagation of fire

Aluminium frame
This system can be combined using cement board panels. The panels are produced
with a range of different densities, combined with additional isolating materials. They
can be spray painted and also mixed with polystyrene to increase thermal and sound
insulation properties.

11
Walls need special accessories in order to provide inter-panel locking. The system has
been found to be structurally resistant, well insulated and easily mounted if handled
properly.

Negative aspects with aluminium:

- Not a standard solution, recommendations for usage is needed
- Specially designed range of fixing accessories
- Panels must be stored and handled with extra care

There are many materials for load bearing framework

and in-fill systems. The construction sequence starts
with the frame with the panels and accessories in a
second stage. (Source: Hamon-Sobelco modular
accommodation Brochure - South Africa1996)

PICTURE 5.5 FRAME WALL SYSTEM USING ALUMINIUM FRAME WITH CEMENT BOARD

Steel frame
This type of frame is able to encase many different materials: concrete or mud, precast
panels, polyurethane foam, timber particle board, bricks, etc, thus allowing a large
variety of solutions. The design of prefabricated steel frames, especially the inter-
locking links and clamps, varies from company to company.

Negative aspects with steel frame:

- Special design for joints
- Anti-corrosion measures must be considered

Steel columns with concrete panels as an example

of load bearing framework. (Source: South African
Modular Architectural System Ltd.)

PICTURE 5.6 METAL POLE FRAME WITH CONCRETE PANELS

Timber frame
This type of frame can be made in site or be prefabricated. The cladding has many
possibilities, such as timber particleboard, fibreglass mesh with cement and plaster or
fibre cement sheeting. The layout is flexible to users need and the elements easy and
fast to assemble under supervision.

Negative aspects with timber frame:

- Special design for joints
- Need for supervision at site

12
 Fibreglass mesh supported by a timber frame
can be quickly assembled at low cost. (Source:
SALMA guidelines and SABS 082, for kit
dwelling, South Africa)

PICTURE 5.7 TIMBER FRAME WITH FIBREGLASS MESH

AND CEMENT PLASTER.

3.2.3 Core wall system

The core wall system consists of a combination of materials: (i) an inner, or core,
material that commonly uses a polymer matrix resin to achieve desired requirements
such as temperature performance, chemical resistance, fire resistance etc. (ii) an
external layer as protection or cladding such as mortar, and (iii) an outer reinforcement
of metal sheets, fibre etc.

Polystyrene
This type of material is used to increase thermal insulation properties. New solutions
have been developed since almost a decade ago and are still being improved. An
example of this is "CasaBona", an integrated structural system made of sheet metal
profiles supported by blocks of expanded polystyrene, developed by Professor Gudni
Jhannesson in Sweden. A special machine is needed to manufacture the metal
profiles. The design has differed depending on location. A study of its use in South
Africa was performed by A. Andersson and R Andersson in their Master Thesis:
Affordable houses for South Africa, 1997.

Negative aspects with polystyrene:

- Special equipment for manufacturing.
- Relatively high base cost

Expanded polystyrene core wall system

applied in Sweden, Island and China. System
developed by Prof. G. Johannessson in
Sweden. (Source: Division of Building
technology & Dep. Building Sciences KTH,
Sweden)

PICTURE 5.8 METAL PROFILES AND EXPANDED POLYSTYRENE CORE WALLS.

13
Polyurethane
This material is used as core in a lightweight three-dimensional welded frame with
sprayed concrete to achieve the required thickness. It is a monolithic wall system with
many properties similar to conventional building elements. The most suitable use is
for one-storey buildings and for certain industrial purposes. Typical characteristics
are: structural stability, crack resistance, excellent thermal properties, good moisture
barrier, good fire resistance and rapid assembly.

PICTURE 5.9 POLYURETHANE FOAM CORE REINFORCED WITH MILD STEEL WIRE.
(Source: Space Frame system according to" Agrement" 81/91,South Africa)

Metal web or Wirewall

This consists of an expanded metal web filled with conventional cement mix,
developed in South Africa. The walls are mounted in galvanised channels with a rod
pile foundation system. The floor is a reinforced mesh and the roof of alternating tile
type. It is quick to mount and no special equipment or skills are needed for
construction and assembly.

Negative aspects with metal web or wirewall:

- Walls need to be plastered
- If the walls shall be cover with sheet steel or aluminium, additional accessories are
required
- Foundation needs special accessories and in most cases a ring beam of reinforced concrete
- Special machine required to manufacture the expanded metal web

14
4 BUILDING MATERIALS

A house cannot be built without the fundamental knowledge of building materials and
construction (Stulz & Mukerji, 1981, p.X).

The analysis of particular local conditions will determine where materials are most
suitable for their used. Furthermore, the era / time when materials and techniques were
/ are mostly used will determine whether they could be classified as traditional or
contemporary. The regularity of use will determine whether materials and methods
could be classified as conventional or alternative. See Table 4.1 below.

Table 4.1 Classification of Materials

Classification Era / time when use Regularity of use

of Pre-industrial Industrial Frequent Infrequent
Materials TRADITIONAL CONTEMPORARY CONVENTIONAL ALTERNATIVE

Raw Natural X X (rural)

Processed X X (rural/urban) X (urban)

Table 4.1 illustrates the concepts of "time" and "regularity" in the use of building
materials. This classification will help to analyse the selection of a particular building
material considering technical development or local building traditions and user
group's way of living.

4.1 Raw (Natural) Building Materials

Raw natural building materials have been used before the modern processed building
materials were used and before industrialisation took place. Many cultures have found
their own way to improve their life by utilising structures, which were traditionally
built with raw materials (Bryan, 1985, p.25-29). Construction methods have been
passed on from generation to generation among different cultures, thus traditional
construction methods vary from country to country and even within some countries
(YVBSG, 2001, p.1). Traditional techniques involve local labour and the use of
available natural raw materials such as earth, soil, natural fibres, natural rubber, stones
and timber. (See Appendix IV, Building Materials Description)

The advantage of natural raw materials is based on environmental principles

(renewable, energy efficient, recyclable) and social involvement (self construction,
family and community working together). Disadvantages of natural raw materials are
their dependence on local availability, water absorption, resistance to natural hazards,
such as hurricanes, earthquakes etc., resistance to eventual impacts, contamination
susceptibility (soluble salts, biological agents, etc.) and social acceptability (Lindberg,
1998, bilaga 2; Stulz, & Mukerji, 1981, Ch.1).

4.2 Processed Building Materials

Processed building materials refer to materials (which could be natural or man made)
such as concrete, ferro-cement and other fibre cement mixes, glass, metal, polymers
and recycled materials. (See Appendix IV, Building Materials Description).

15
"Processed materials" are substitutes for raw materials and are generally regarded as
more technologically developed/advanced, with altered chemical, mechanical or
physical properties. The choice between processed- and natural raw materials should
always be based on local requirements.

The advantages of processed building materials are: specialised applications,

improved properties, higher productivity and timesaving during construction. The
disadvantages of processed building materials are: failure to meet the realities of local
conditions and a high base cost for manufacturing/processing and transport (Spence &
Cook, 1983, Preface). Assessment of advantages/disadvantages of processed materials
can have economical, technical and environmental approaches, e.g. environmental
impact in manufacturing can be justified if the final product is durable (KTH &
NTNU, 1998, Melby, p.17).

It can be appreciated that, through time, conventional processed materials such as

cement, steel and plastic have already been combined with natural raw materials for
building purposes, but it has become necessary to allow technology to influence the
use of non conventional / alternative and recycled materials. Table 4.2 shows the main
differences between natural raw and processed building materials.

Table 4.2. Differences between natural raw and processed materials.

NATURAL RAW PROCESSED MATERIALS

MATERIALS
CONVENTIONAL ALTERNATIVE
Organic Natural Raw Artificial / Synthetic
- Animal products -Leaves and fibres - Polymers
(feathers, skin, hair) -Soil - Composites
- Leaves and fibres -Wood Recycled material
- Natural rubber Artificial / Synthetic - Waste materials
- Soils - Cement - By products
- Wood - Concrete
Non Organic - Steel
- Stones - Plastic
- Paper
Natural resources Natural or synthetic and processed by humans
Produced through natural Produced by means of technological processes and chemical
processes reactions
Simple equipment used Simple and/or sophisticated equipment used in production and
during construction
Labour intensive during Less labour intensive during construction
construction

Table 4.2 shows the differences between natural and processed materials regarding
origin, production techniques and labour requirements. These differences impact
(positively and/or negatively) in the selection of building materials for low-income
housing project in Port Elizabeth.

16
5 LOW INCOME HOUSING

Housing is recognised as a basic human right and is enshrined in the Universal

declaration of Human Rights (1948), the International Covenant on Economic, Social
and Cultural Right (1966), Vancouver Declaration on Human Settlements (1976) and
the Habitat II Declaration (1996), (BESG, 1999, Executive Summary; EESI, 2000).

Low-income housing projects do exist primarily due to problems around affordability

caused of a number of reasons:
Urbanisation: by 2001, 50% of the Earth's population lived in urban areas (Habitat,
June 2001b)
Natural population growth: the annual population growth rate for the period 1995 to
2000 was 1,3 % (Habitat, June 2001b).
Economical and financial situation: 1,3 billion people earn less than 1 USD per day
(Habitat, 2000).
Political situation

The lack of "adequate housing" in the cities of developing countries is one of the most
pressing problems of the 21st century. Today more than one billion of the world's city
residents live in inadequate housing. World-wide, 18% of all urban housing units are
non-permanent structures and 25% do not conform to building regulations (Habitat,
2001). Between 40 and 70% of the population in most African cities live in informal
settlements (Towards sustainable Urban development, 2000, p.5). In South Africa
alone, up to 18,5 % of the total population live in informal settlements in urban areas
(Van Wyk, 1996a, p. 2). Therefore, national and local authorities as well as
politicians, developers and professionals should work together to ensure that
"adequate houses" are provided for the most needy people, households with no income
or very low income who cannot afford to build their own house.

BESG (1999, p.8) mentions: "Definitions of adequate housing can differ

considerably". For example, Article 60 of the Habitat Agenda (1996) states that:

"Adequate shelter means more than a roof over one's head. It also means adequate
privacy; adequate space; physical accessibility; adequate security; security of
tenure; structural stability and durability; adequate lighting, heating and
ventilation; adequate basic infrastructure, such as water-supply, sanitation and
waste-management facilities; suitable environmental quality and health-related
factors; and adequate and accessible location with regard to work and basic
facilities: all of which should be available at an affordable cost. Adequacy should
be determined together with the people concerned, bearing in mind the prospect for
gradual development. Adequacy often varies from country to country, since it
depends on specific cultural, social, environmental and economic factors. Gender-
specific and age-specific factors, such as the exposure of children and women to
toxic substances, should be considered in this context."

The combination cost-quality-size with respect to low-income housing is an important

challenge for politicians, developers, engineers and architects.

17
The starting point for any house design is the selection of appropriate materials,
where availability plays an important role (Stulz & Mukerji, 1981, p.1-4).
"Appropriate" building materials (see also 3.2) should consider resource level,
durability, reparability and recyclability during the service lifetime. Service life can be
defined as aesthetic, economic, functional, physical (use and maintenance) and
technical performance (KTH & NTNU, 1998, Melby, p.3)

Important factors to bear in mind in the selection of such materials are:

Resources : Local or imported (partially or totally), quality and durability.

Manufacturing : Time and delivery, factory distance.
Construction : Level of skill and/or knowledge, maintenance and/or
restoration, equipment and techniques, natural hazards, safety
conditions.
Cost : Market price, transport price, construction.
Environment : Amount of energy consumption during manufacture,
renewable or non-renewable resource, wastage and pollution.
Social Factor : Acceptance by beneficiary/user and authorities.

As far as it is practically possible, the final goal of providing "adequate housing" must
prevail over distorting factors that can adversely impact on the quality of materials and
final outcome of the dwellings. The selection of the materials will result in social,
economical and environmental consequences through time.

18
6 THE SITUATION IN PORT ELIZABETH: A CASE STUDY

6.1 Port Elizabeth Background

6.1.1 Physical and Environmental Conditions

Port Elizabeth, a city located in the Eastern Cape Province, is the major seaport on the
south-eastern coast of Africa and is considered the economic capital of the region
(Port Elizabeth, http://www.pecc.gov.za/where_is_pe.html). It is the fifth largest city
in South Africa in terms of population and the second largest in terms of area (462
km2). (Port Elizabeth, http:// www.pecc.gov.za/bod.html).The Port Elizabeth area also
includes Uitenghage (162 km2) and Despatch (37 km2).

The main geographical and topographical features of the Port Elizabeth region include
Algoa Bay, the southern coastline, the Coega River and the highlands to the west of
Uitenhage. The Swartkops and Baakens are the two main rivers within the boundaries
of the region. A wide floodplain exists between the rivers as well as an escarpment
incised by series of valleys. The city has 6 biomes threatened by development (forest,
grassland, savannah, fynbos, thicket and nama karoo).

The geology along the coast comprises marine terraces of typically consolidated and
partly consolidated sand with shelly limestone and gravel. Northwards there are
mainly of rocks from the Table Mountain group, Kirkwood and Sundays river
formations, the latter one consisting mainly of clay and mudstone. Soil types overlying
the geological strata are generally not suitable for intensive agriculture (CUP, 1999,
p.274).

Port Elizabeth area has warm and humid subtropical climate with prominent coastal
condensation. Most rainfalls is in the summer with only scarce showers in winter. The
annual rainfall varies between 500-to-1250 mm. Average daily maximum
temperatures range from about 28C in January and 22C in July. Average daily
minimum temperatures range from about 19C in January and 9C in July. The wind
direction is mainly parallel to the coastline and often strong (Andersson & Andersson,
1997, p.14.)

6.1.2 Social Conditions

Eastern Cape province has a strong Xhosa

culture that maintains the traditional lifestyle
wearing colourful outfits and beads. Traditional
rituals related to puberty and marriages are
important as well as beliefs in the supernatural.

Hut made of mud with thatch roof. Xhosa

village in the Port Elizabeth area. (Picture by
C. Corts B., October 2001)

PICTURE 6.1 XHOSA CULTURE, DANCES BY A TYPICAL HUT

19
 Port Elizabeth a city located in the Eastern Cape Province, "South Africas poorest
province" according to CHF (2000). The population of Port Elizabeth is 1,3 million
(CUP, 1999, p.295), distributed as Black 75.2%, Coloured 8,6 %, Whites 13.7% and
Indian 2,6% (CIA, 2001). Port Elizabeth area includes also Uitenghage with 200,000
habitants and Despatch with 30,000 habitants.

The first settlement in the Port Elizabeth area has been found in the Algoa Bay area by
the Baakens River and dated back to 1799. In 1870 the city had become an industrial
centre and since then urbanisation has been taking place, especially in northern part. In
1920 the harbour was built and in 1930 further extension took place (CUP, 1999,
p.267-269).

Racial issues began back in 1847 when regulations lead to segregation. In 1855 the
first relocations took place. A series of incidents and reforms then took place,
Bubonic plague in 1901
Native Land Act in 1913
Native Acts (urban areas) in 1923
Native Trust and Land Act in 1936
Group Areas Act in 1950

Relocation and residential right restraints took place until the late 1980s. From 1948 to
1991 the "apartheid" (different development) regime forced the black and coloured
population to move to special homelands, causing distortion and disruption of the low-
income housing projects. "Influx control in South Africa is discriminatory and
offensive to human dignity. It negates the basic principles of free enterprise and
interferes with economic progress" (Zah de Beer, 1985).

During the same period black people were totally denied ownership rights and were
forced to live in state owned localities. 75% of the people lived on 13% of the land
(CIA, 2001). When "apartheid" was abolished, the new government (African National
Congress, ANC) formulated programs to solve the housing problem. "Everyone has
the right to have access to adequate housing", says Article 26 of the Bill of Rights in
the South African Constitution, implemented 1997. The government has also
implemented mechanisms to avoid discrimination to be repeated, to encourage human
rights, to raise values of the people and to secure a city development.

6.1.3 Economical and Financial Conditions

The transition process in the South African economy is characterised by globalisation,

international trade, inflation, increasing interest rates and low savings. As a
consequence the national budget for housing delivery is limited to 1,4% of total
expenditure in 2000/2001 (Smit, 2000, p.2) compared with the set goal of 5% in 2000
(Van Wyk, 1996b, p.31). Moreover declining investment in housing budget could
result in loss of up to 50000 job opportunities in South Africa (Smit, 2000, p.3).

During 1994-1999 the housing delivery program built only 51% of the set target in the
Eastern Cape Province (Van Eeden, 1999). During the period 1995-1998 the real value
of governmental subsidy decreased by 25% (BESG, 1999, p.5).

20
 This resulted in lower quality of wall materials (concrete blocks manufactured not
complying standards), smaller size dwellings (from 54m2 to 40m2), smaller plots
(from 100-200m2 to 70-140m2), poor resistance to damp (no membranes and/or plaster
or waterproof paint, sometimes not even floors) and location with bad accessibility
and soils. The capital cost for a core or starter house (top structure) of 30 m2 estimated
to R 20,000 to 30,000 including water and sanitary services in urban areas, says BESG
(1999, p.29). However today the subsidy reaches a mere R 16,000 as a base and an
additional 15% for special slopes and soil conditions, for a 42 m2 core house.

During an interview in August 2001, Mr. T. Antony, manager of the Housing Division
at the Port Elizabeth Municipality, informed of the distribution and break-down of
costs based on the subsidy: land and services R 5,134; registration R 250; Port
Elizabeth Municipality administration fees R 400; bridging finance R 247; house
construction and salaries R 9,969, (62,3% of the total subsidy). Table 6.1 illustrates
the distribution of grants in relation to joint gross monthly household income. (Note: 1
U$ = 8,97 R, August 2001)

Table 6.1 Subsidy schemes

Joint gross monthly Base Total % % of population

household income Subsidy income Black Coloured White Asians Total
R 0 - R 1,500 R 16,000 57.20% 70,62% 17,67% 11,04% 0,67% 100%
R 1,501 - R 2,500 R 10,000 13.53% 36.41% 26,28% 35,76% 1,55% 100%
R 2,501 - R 3,500 R 5,500 7.52% 28,36% 19,58% 50,28% 1,78% 100%
Over R 3,500 None (loan 21.75% 24,37% 14,17% 59,61% 1,85% 100%
alternative)
% of the total 100% 52,75% 18,22% 27,90% 1,13% 100%
Projection to 2010 of 67,25% 13,09% 18,88% 0,78% 100%
% of the total
Source: Central statistic services report 03-13-91, adjusted to 1995 in Housing policy PE-TLC.

Table 3 illustrates the distribution of monthly income based on ethnic/racial

background among the population in Port Elizabeth. The figures form the basis for
future adjustments on housing demand according to demographic profiles. As an
example the approximate population growth for the R 0 - R 1500 income level is as
follows: Blacks +15%, Coloured 9,7% , Whites 5% and Asians 0,3%.

The economic situation only aggravates the problem of affordability. Unofficial

unemployment, within all population, for black population reaches 60% in rural areas
and 45% in urban areas while official numbers of unemployment, within active
population, is 30% (CIA, 2001, p.6). In addition, black people (the most affected
population group according to distribution of income) do not have tradition of saving
and the priorities of expenditure are clothes, furniture, food and finally housing.
"Urban black households spend from 8 to 10% of their incomes on housing, compared
with international norms of 20% or more" (Gebhardt, 1995, p.3).

6.1.4 Institutional Conditions

The structure of South Africa government contains national, provincial and local
authorities. The roles and responsibilities of each of them are outlined in chapter 3 of
the South African Constitution.

21
It is the Department of Housing (Housing Act No. 107, 1997
http://www.housing.gov.za), which is responsible "to establish and facilitate a
sustainable process that provides equitable access to adequate housing for everyone".

The Port Elizabeth transitional Local Council established a Hosing Policy in 1996
(revised May 1998). It follows the South African National Housing Policy promoting
access to "permanent residential structures with secure of tenure, ensuring internal
and external privacy and providing adequate protection against elements".

The main parts of the Housing Policy comprise the following:

- Constitution of the Rep. of South Africa, 1996 (Act 108)
- Housing Act, 1997 (Act 107)
- RDP, Reconstruction and Development Programme, 1994
- GEAR, Growth, Employment and Redistribution strategy, 1994
- Urban development Framework, 1994
- White paper and policy frameworks pertaining to local government and public
services, 1994.

The technical Institutions are:

- SABS, Standard Bureau of South Africa, established in 1985, publishes standards
and codes for product materials (http://www.sabs.co.za)
- Agrement Board of South Africa established in 1969, certified a specific
building system, product or material (http://www.agrement.co.za)
- MANTAG Criteria, Minimum Acceptable Norm and Technology Advisory Guide
- NBR, National Building Regulation
- NHBRC, National Home Builders Registration Council
- CSIR, Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, in 1994 established the Red
Book as guideline for residential development

Management of low-income housing deals with human and financial resources with a
specific budget and period of time. It can be divided into 3 phases as shown in Fig 6.1.
The critical path in the management of low-income housing project in Port Elizabeth
has two main sources: social acceptability and land availability.

Technical issues are: preliminary design and top structure, engineering surveys and
detail design and finally construction of top structure (highlighted in Fig 6.1). These
issues are not considered as critical paths in the process of a housing delivery system.

22
 ID Project

Social Technical Legal/Land

1 Acceptability Issues

Preliminary programme, budget and cash flow

Land Availability
ID beneficiary

2 First check
Preliminary Design
Township Lay-out
and Top Structure

Approval Lay-out
Project approval

Agreement

Beneficiary Info Approval Lay-out

Erf No & size Coordinates

3
Financial Options &
Top Structure Eng. Survey - Detail Design 4 PEGS

Sign up
Tender Approval Coordinates

Approval
Install services Town Registration

Construction Top
Structure Transfer

70% Subsidy Pay Out Issue Title Deed

Completion Certificate

Final Pay Out

FIG 6.1 (1) FEASIBILITY (2) PRE-IMPLEMENTATION (3) IMPLEMENTATION PHASE

Management administrative process, low-income housing project, Port Elizabeth.
(Source: Mr. Adrian van Eeden, Director, Africon Eng. Int. Ltd.)

23
6.1.5 Technical Conditions
Based on research, approximately 60% of the total expenses regarding low-income
houses go to construction and materials while 40% goes to legal and administrative
issues. In low-income houses, walls constitute 50% of the material cost (including
finishing) and 45% of the construction time. Additionally, "observational on the
market in SA shows that development has been largely in the field of walling methods
and systems" (Hill et al., 2000, p.14). Wall building materials and construction
methods have varied through time and space. Table 6.2 illustrates the influence of
technology on production as well as on construction methods through time (referential
dates only) within a permanent house design. The table also shows that technological
improvements and / or parallel implementation of different wall materials have been
undertaken until today at different locations (spatial criteria: inner-urban in the core of
the city, sub-urban, peri-urban in the outer edges of the city and rural). The table was
created based on literature research and interviews to professionals involved in low-
income projects, performed in Port Elizabeth (see also section 3.2 Description of
house wall system).

Table 6.2 Chronological framework in the use of wall building materials in permanent
houses in the Port Elizabeth area

Wall
Location of
Era Wall Material Building Forms of Production and Construction
Use
System
Stone Rural Mass Nat. Resources +Traditional construction skill
1600 Wattle and Rural Mass Traditional production + traditional construction
mud / daub skill
1800 Wattle and Rural Mass Traditional production + traditional construction
mud + lime skill
1815 Imported clay Urban Mass (European influence) Modern production +
bricks modern construction
1840 Corrugated iron Rural + Mass/ Modern production + modern construction
Suburban Frame
1860 Burnt clay Suburban Mass (European influence) Modern production +
bricks modern construction
(moulded)
1940-50 Wood clap Urban Frame Industrialisation (technology) + specialised
boarding construction
1950 Hollow clay Urban Mass Factory production (technology) + construction
bricks skill
(extruded)
1960 Concrete Inner Urban Mass / Traditional/factory production + modern
blocks + Suburban Frame construction
Solid concrete Urban Mass Industrialisation (technology) + specialised
panels construction + efficiency in erection time
1960-70 Wooden poles Rural + Mass / Traditional production + technical advice in
+ wire mesh + suburban Frame construction
filling
Conventional Rural + Mass Modern production + construction skills + modern
mud blocks Suburban construction
Block mud + Rural Mass Traditional/Modern production + construction skill
lime + cement
1970 Hollow Urban Mass / Traditional/factory production + construction skill
Concrete Frame
blocks

24
 Interlock Urban Mass Factory production (technology) + technical advice
concrete blocks in construction
1970-75 Wood poles Urban Frame Factory production (technology) + modern
and concrete construction
panels
Ferro cement, Urban Mass / Industrialisation (prefabricated) + specialised
fibre cement, Frame construction
etc.
1980 Metal web Urban Core Industrialisation (technology) + specialised
system construction
1985 Polystyrene Urban Core Industrialisation (technology) + specialised
/polyethylene system construction
walls and other
1995 Hollow Urban + Mass / Industrialisation/traditional production + technical
concrete blocks Peri-urban Frame advise in construction
+ pre-cast + suburban
columns
Description of terms used in Table 6.2:

- Core System: metal web filled with conventional cement mix developed in South Africa
- Traditional construction skills: labour based manufacture, no modern equipment, and small scale production.
- Traditional production: labour based manufacture, small amount of modern equipment, small scale production
- Modern production: use modern equipment and technology for manufacture on a medium scale production
- Industrialisation: high technology machinery, specialisation of work, large scale, less labour involved during construction.
- Modern construction: influence of foreign construction methods, more specialised work in situ, less labour
- Specialised construction: special transport, careful handling and assembling materials in situ, special equipment to assemble
and set up elements

The table shows that a big variety of wall materials have been used in Port Elizabeth
area with traditional and modern construction methods but only a few of them
(extruded clay bricks, hollow concrete blocks) have been successfully implemented in
low-income housing projects.

6.2 Housing Findings

The demand for housing has been increasing due to urbanisation, 75% of the
population is estimated to be living in urban areas in South Africa by 2010 says Van
Eeden (1996a, p.7); in Eastern Province by 1998, 35% of population lived in urban
areas (South Africa Government on line, 2001, http://www.housing.gov.za). Natural
national population growth also contributes to housing demand. The growth was
2,36% per year for the years 1990-2000 but it is declining (Van Wyk, 1996b, p.22). To
aggravate the problem, spatially distorting features of apartheid have negatively
impacted housing sector, resulting in a considerable backlog (Gebhardt, 1995, p3).

The provision of houses in SA is based on a national housing programme to facilitate

sustainable housing development process (Housing Act No 107, 1997), with founding
assistance or subsidy scheme for individuals and institutions (Van Wyk, 1996b,
p.189). An individual subsidy scheme based on monthly income provides access to a
house through a "housing delivery system" mentioned by Van Wyk (1996b) as: "a set
of inter-related procedures which result in dwelling units being created and occupied".
The deliver system can follow conventional (private sector) or small contractors,
assisted help or self build according to the local needs. In the case of Port Elizabeth
the model chosen is small emerging contractors with technical training and advice.

25
 The Port Elizabeth Transitional Local Council (PE-TLC) established a Housing Policy
in 1996 (Revision May 1998) to provide "adequate houses" that fulfil physical
necessities as well as psychological needs, responding to the cultural and political
contexts within the biophysical environment. Services and houses required in the
period 1995 and 2010 for Port Elizabeth Area are 159,852 units for a projected natural
population growth. These numbers will allow for natural growth 65,833 units (41 %),
to eliminate backlog 68,000 units (43%) and serviced sites only 2,609 units (16%)
(PE-TLC, May 1998, p.7). In average this means to build 8,123 per annum or 150
houses per week in the mentioned period for the lower income group (R 0-R 1,500 per
month). The present construction rate reaches a mere 80 houses per week.

6.2.1 Informal and Formal Dwellings

In Port Elizabeth not only formal settlement with permanent structures should be
considered as the sole use for building materials. In addition, one should also realise
that informal settlements in urban areas require non-building materials for temporary
dwellings or informal dwelling / shacks.

The differentiation between formal and informal dwellings is unclear when taking into
consideration factors such negligence of property improvements. As an example Pelip
census data (Nov. 2000a) stated that in Port Elizabeth, Uitenhage and Despatch, an
average of 27% of the dwellings are informal and 73% are formal. The study states
that a "(i) formal dwelling does not necessary translate to what be regarded as
adequate housing and (ii) formal dwelling might not be owned by the tenant".

6.2.1.1 Informal Settlements

Refers to those communities with informal or illegal houses or shacks. The land where
these structures are located does not belong to the dwellers. The structures are built
with no proper engineering design resulting in a life span of less than 20 years,
therefore regarded as temporary. Characteristic building materials are: concrete floor
or foundation (if any), corrugated steel sheets, wooden poles draped with wire or
waste construction materials for walls and frames; plastic bags, chicken wire mesh or
carton for the roof. Communal and / or individual water taps and sanitary facilities are
provided once the upgrading programme takes place officially. Urban informal
settlements are unevenly distributed: in the outskirts with poor accessibility, in the
buffer zones in the city and generally in areas near roads. These settlements are often
located in areas with risk for flooding (closer than 25 m from a river side) and/or with
risk for land slides (soil slope steeper than 1:8) (BESG, 1999, p.9).

Informal settlements are illegal structures or shacks

without qualified design. Materials used consist of
construction waste, corrugated steel, plastic bags,
carton etc (Picture by C. Corts B, August 2001,
Swide, Port Elizabeth)

PICTURE 6.2 INFORMAL SETTLEMENT,

TEMPORARY DWELLINGS IN PORT ELIZABETH,
SWIDE VILLAGE.

26
6.2.1.2 Formal Settlements
Refers to communities with formal or legal houses. The land where these structures
(semi-detached and detached houses, flats) are located have security of tenure through
various types of agreements; rental, leasing, ownership, provision by employer etc.
The structures are designed and built to reach a life span of more than 20 years,
therefore regarded as permanent. Characteristic building materials for low income
formal settlement houses are: concrete floor (if any) and foundation; concrete blocks
(hollow) or bricks for walls, wooden trusses and corrugated iron sheets for the roof, no
ceilings, frame structures with pine (South African timber) or metal and sanitary
elements with PVC. Formal settlement in Port Elizabeth combats urban sprawl and
inefficient infrastructure by increasing densities (first by fill-in empty areas then, high
density future dwellings) and improving the network.

Formal settlements with a permanent

dwelling with engineering design.
(Picture by C. Corts B., August
2001)

PICTURE 6.3 FORMAL SETTLEMENT, PERMANENT DWELLING IN PORT ELIZABETH, COEGA RELOCATION.

6.2.2 Engineering Design for Low Income Housing

Local design show many variations. The diversity of social realities in the Mandela
Metropole, including Uitenhage-Despatch-Port Elizabeth, is reflected in high
technology and standard for formal settlements (permanent houses) and minimum
official standard for low-income housing.

Engineering design deals with the strategies used by Port Elizabeth Municipality to
develop low-income housing projects. There are two approaches:
(i) Serviced land provision in empty areas
(ii) Rapid land release ("four peg strategy") in existing illegal settlements, which
includes identification of the area, planning, pegging, allocation of site and
services upgrading (communal first and then individual). This is also called
upgrading scheme where engineering design start with services, then toilet
design and finally dwelling design. A lapse of years can take place since the
planning to the construction of the starter house structure.

Upgrading scheme with individual toilet in the

corner plot. Designs vary from corrugated steel
sheets, prefabricated concrete panels and concrete
blocks. (Picture by C. Corts B. August 2001)

PICTURE 6.4 UPGRADING SCHEMES, INDIVIDUAL TOILET,

WALMER, PORT ELIZABETH

27
 Both approaches use a core or starter house on the site, one unit one plot. The
starter house consists of a permanent top structure (foundation, walls and roof) with
possibility of extensions according to affordability of the dwellers (step by step
upgrading structure). Analyses of the various wall designs, feasibility and approved
studies, in starter houses conclude that the most frequently used wall material is
hollow concrete blocks.

Through interviews it can be appreciated that it is commonly believed by the

beneficiaries that the starter house is a final house. This misconception has leaded to
that the amount of square meters is more important than plaster or damp proofing
elements. These important elements are often left aside by the beneficiaries in order to
get more floor area, resulting in houses with poor to inadequate thermal properties.

6.2.2.1 Conventional Design Solutions

The design for a starter house includes detached units and semi-detached units with
concrete foundation, wall structure and roof. The wall system most frequently used is
masonry with clay bricks and concrete blocks, both being moulded and extruded. The
standard size of the structure has been reduced from 54 m2 in the period 1950-1970 to
50 m2 in1994 and 40 m2 in 2001 (with less than 30 m2 in some cases) (Housing
Division, http://www.housing.gov.za, Housing Code: 3.1 National Standard Norms,
p.3). The floor area is one of the key indicators of housing quality (Habitat, 2001). The
main reason for this is its influence of the overall house budget.

The design of a plot, including the house, has gone through several changes since the
concept was first introduced.
Design 1: The toilet in the middle of the plot and the starter house around the
toilet structure. This alternative never took off since the planning of services
considered the connections only until the corner of the plot.
Design 2: The starter house (30, 32, 36, 38, 40 and 42m2) in the middle of the plot
with the possibility of future external toilet additions (4 alternative locations) by
extension of the existing connection for the corner toilet.
Design 3: The starter house (30, 32, 34, 36, 38, 40 and 42m2) in the middle of the
plot including the toilet inside.
Future design: During the period April to September 2001 different lay-outs and
toilet solutions have been proposed; the floor size has been decreased to 40 m2 in
order to improve plaster and waterproof paint and improve the foundation design
including an underground reinforced beam for clay soil conditions.

The two main types of soil, normal and clayey ground, in Port Elizabeth area have
resulted in two types of design:

Starter house, normal soil, foundation is 540x200x300 mm, 15 MPa concrete strip
footing to all walls, wall structure is normally masonry concrete hollow blocks
(140x190x390mm) with 3, 5 MPa with finishing. Concrete floor 75 mm thick on
250 micron damp-proofing membrane, selected filling, sometimes no floors at all;
wooden trusses and purlins (38x114 mm South African pine); corrugated iron
sheet roof, no ceiling; wooden or metal frames for doors and windows or lintels of
concrete special blocks.

28
 Starter house, clay ground, concrete hollow block fill-in supported concrete
corner and columns. Intermediate columns are specified only if span is greater
than 6 m.
(a) Column optimisation: corner blocks 390x390x190 mm, pre-cast pre-stressed
columns 140x140 mm, L hollow blocks 390x390x190mm. (See Fig 6.5a,b,c)
(b) Foundation optimisation: 500x500x600 mm 20 MPa concrete base to all
columns and 100x250 mm 15 MPa concrete strip footings to all wall panels,
raft foundations or 200x100 mm concrete foundation to all external panels.
Floors 75 mm 10MPa concrete on 250 micro damp-proof membranes on well
compacted selected fill.

(a) Interlocked square corner block

(b) Pre-cast pre-stressed column corner block

(c) Interlocked rectangular corner

PICTURE 6.5 DIFFERENT DESIGN FOR CLAY GROUND CONDITIONS

(Picture (a) by Kobus Lane, (b) by Whirl wind concrete products and (c) by C. Corts B. at Kwazakhele, Port
Elizabeth, August 2001)

6.2.2.2 Alternative Design Solutions

Alternative design solutions in this section refers to options (design) to the most
common design in low-income projects, "one unit one plot. There have been only a
few experimental projects with higher density housing. Projects carried out by Pelip-
SIDA (Swedish International Development Co-operation Agency) in Red Location
and by Delta Foundation in Missionvale are examples of double storey dwellings with
alternative architectural solutions.

29
 PELIP-SIDA alternative design project in Red
Location. An architectural contest took place in
order to revitalise the area. (Picture by A. Gomez,
September 2001)

PICTURE 6.6 ALTERNATIVE DESIGN, PELIP-SIDA PROJECT, PORT ELIZABETH

Unfortunately authorities have shown little interest in the results achieved regarding
density and technical innovations. The main reasons are (i) fear of increased design
costs using alternative building materials and (ii) reluctance by beneficiaries and
authorities to seek new solutions. At present 37 projects with a total of 9,733 houses
in Port Elizabeth are planned with conventional design solutions, one plot one
house (Mr. Tony Antony, manager of the Housing Division at the Port Elizabeth
Municipality).

Missionvale alternative design project. Little

interest from authorities to develop innovative
design has discouraged engineers and
architects. (DELTA Foundation Missionvale
project magazine, June 2000)

PICTURE 6.7 ALTERNATIVE DESIGN, DELTA FOUNDATION PROJECT, PORT ELIZABETH

6.2.3 Materials in low-income houses

Cost has always been a concern and a limitation for engineering solutions. Feasibility
studies have always been performed in Port Elizabeth in order to see the impact of
selected building materials on the total budget. An example of a cost-reducing element
is the concrete block, the most frequently used wall material. See Table 6.3 and 6.4.

It was observed that the concrete block is the cheapest, and socially most acceptable,
contemporary conventional building material today in Port Elizabeth.

30
 Table 6.3 Partial costs of low-income housing element in normal soil conditions.
COMPARISON OF COST
HOUSE 42M2- NORMAL SOIL CONDITIONS
without with
ELEMENT # services services
FOUNDATIONS AND WALLS 1 38.17% 37.59%
FLOOR 2 9.11% 7.38%
EXTERNAL BAGGING AND PAINT 3 12.34% 9.98%
ROOF 4 22.09% 17.86%
ONVLEE POWDER COATED STEEL WINDOWS 5 12.11% 9.79%
DOOR FRAME AND IRONMONGERY 6 3.31% 4.33%
PLUMBING AND DRAINAGE 7 0.00% 10.74%
BUILDERS TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT 8 2.87% 2.32%
(Source: G. de Bruin , Senior Architect- Port Elizabeth Municipality) 100.00% 100.00%

Table 6.4 Partial costs of low-income housing element in clay ground conditions.
COMPARISON OF COST
HOUSE 42M2-CLAY SOIL CONDITIONS
without with
ELEMENT # services services
PRECAST CONCRETE COLUMN, BASED AND TUNGUE BLOCKS 1 23,20% 19,52%
FOUNDATIONS AND WALLS 2 21,83% 22,76%
FLOOR 3 8,09% 6,83%
EXTERNAL BAGGING AND PAINT 4 10,97% 9,23%
ROOF 5 19,64% 16,52%
ONVLEE POWDER COATED STEEL WINDOWS 6 10,77% 9,06%
DOOR FRAME AND IRONMONGERY 7 2,94% 4,01%
PLUMBING AND DRAINAGE 8 0,00% 9,93%
BUILDERS TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT 9 2,55% 2,15%
(Source: G. de Bruin , Senior Architect- Port Elizabeth Municipality) 100,00% 100,00%

6.2.3.1 Conventional houses with modern/contemporary conventional materials

The basic top structure is built with: (i) concrete foundations, strip footing or raft
design depending on soil conditions (ii) wall system: clay bricks used until early
1970s, hollow concrete blocks used since the early 1970s, replacing bricks due to
lower prices, today concrete blocks is the most accessible contemporary / conventional
building material, 98% of the subsidy house walls are built with them; precast
concrete columns and/or corner hollow concrete blocks for clayey conditions are also
used in a load bearing frame system (iii) wooden trusses and a corrugated iron roof, no
ceilings, (iv) window and door frames with metal or pine and (v) PVC sanitary and
water pipes.

6.2.3.2 Conventional houses with contemporary alternative processed materials

The wall systems found in different areas of Port Elizabeth are: (i) the frame wall
system: prefabricated concrete panels with steel or precast concrete columns in the
Northern areas; and (ii) the core wall system: expanded metal web core system in
Motherwell, polystyrene core in Missionvale; and a polyurethane core in Despatch,
Motherwell and Uitenhage.

There are only 1 to 2% low-income houses built with alternative (non conventional)
systems (source: Mr. Ossie Long, Asst. Planning & Development Officer: Housing,
City Engineer's Dept, Port Elizabeth Municipality). In the early 1980s, framed and
core wall systems were used to build Community Centres successfully. However,
when these systems were used for houses they were not successful. The reason for this
was lack of maintenance and misuse causing the material to deteriorate very rapidly.
As a consequence communities rejected the houses and considered them poorly built.

31
 Few examples of alternative processed
materials are found in Port Elizabeth.
Lack of knowledge and social
acceptability have been the main
obstacles for further housing projects
implementation. (Picture by C. Corts
B., Kwadesi, Port Elizabeth, August
2001)

PICTURE 6.8 EXPANDED POLYSTYRENE WALLS AS ALTERNATIVE PROCESSED MATERIALS

6.2.3.3 Conventional houses with natural raw materials

Only a few examples were found where natural raw materials are used. "Outside the
rural areas and some informal settlements, very little use is made of natural building
materials such as earth, timber, thatch and stone,, no standards have been developed
for earth building for incorporation into building codes" says Hill et al. (2000, p.15).
Mud and clay are readily available in the Port Elizabeth and Uitenhage areas.
However, experiments performed by Port Elizabeth Technikon have shown that these
materials are not suitable for making acceptable bricks. Grahamstown, Stutterheim
and Komga, are other areas where raw materials have been used.

The idea of self-help (Zenzele in the Xhosa language) is strongly related to natural
raw materials and traditional construction methods, called the Zinzele system. It was
known in the Eastern Cape already in 1978 as an improved version of the "wattle and
daub" system, but was not implemented until 1982 when a change in housing policy
allowed self-help (Nell, 1985, p.21). The Zinzele system uses the following materials:
(i) concrete foundation (if any) (ii) floor of rammed earth or cast in concrete in-situ,
(iii) walls of treated wood poles faced with a weld mesh and the cavity filled with
stamped mud with sand/cement plaster finish inside and outside (iv) frames of metal
or pine and (v) corrugated steel sheet as roof. By the end of 1988, this system was
approved as building innovation by the MANTAG, Minimum Agrement Norms of
South Africa (Schlotfeldt, 1989). At this time only one known project was
successfully carried out (in Grahamstown), using this option, even though there were a
few additional proposals made.

Zenzele system or do it yourself is a solution if well

organised and supervised. No examples of this method
were found in the Port Elizabeth area during the field
research. (Picture Municipal Engineer Magazine,
October 1988)

PICTURE 6.9 ROCKS AND SOIL CAN BE USED AS WALL MATERIAL IN A SELF HELP SYSTEM

32
6.3 FINDINGS

The field research in Port Elizabeth has shown that building materials in low-income
housing can not be seen in isolation due to its interdependence with social,
environmental, development policies (Habitat, 1996, Art 65.) and also due to the
"critical role that housing plays in economic development in both the formal and the
informal sectors in the city" (Towards sustainable Urban development, 2000, p.7).
The relation between materials, engineering design and construction needs to be
integrated with physical, economic and social aspects of urban development (CUP,
1999 p.76) in order to find a better sustainable solution with energy-efficient approach
and reduce negative impact on the environment.

The situation of housing delivery system in Port Elizabeth today was identified
through interviews, analysis of engineering drawings, policy reviews and observations
on current projects. The framework for the analysis was based on types of settlements
(formal and informal in urban areas) in relation with housing (permanent and
temporary structures) as illustrated in Table 6.5.

Table 6.5 Framework for analysis

Type of settlement Evolution of dwellings Present Situation

Inner-urban -Informal Settlement - Shacks (not approved Materials Institutional
Peri-urban (Squatters) or illegal) & Economic/ Financial
Sub-urban -Formal Settlement - Temporary house (not Engineering Social
(Site and services, approved or illegal) design Environmental
starter house) - Permanent house Technical
(approved or legal)

The analysis of types of settlements reflects the impact in the housing process by
urbanisation (migration from rural to urban) and segregation patterns (abolition of
land restriction and housing ownership for non-white population).

Port Elizabeth has followed the dominant pattern of urbanisation in Africa, starting
with occupation of land and continuing with raising of houses, servicing, and finishing
with planning (Towards sustainable Urban development, 2000, p.15). This results in
temporary houses and illegal settlements; in a later stage legalisation might occur, first
for the land and then for the top structure. Illegal settlements in Port Elizabeth have
taken place since the early 1980s in the buffer areas continuing until today on vacant
land. People searching for job opportunities settle illegally, usually in risk areas and
bad accessibility, increasing the backlog for housing.

Legal settlements, on the other hand, provide permanent top structures to alleviate
living conditions. The Comprehensive Urban Plan (CUP) of Port Elizabeth
Municipality establishes residential, industrial, business areas within a general
framework for spatial planning and development for the urban growth and future
changes guided by the principles contain in the Development Facilitation Act (1995)
and the Local Government Transition Act (1996) (CUP, 1999, p.82, 100, 246).

33
 The chronological framework (evolution) of building materials and engineering design
conclude that the most frequent wall building material used in permanent /legal
dwelling units is concrete hollow blocks. The reasons for this election are not only
Architectural/Engineering and Economical/Financial considerations but also
Organisational/Institutional, Social and Environmental as highlighted below.

6.3.1 Organisational / Institutional Situation

There is lack of co-ordination and communication between institutional levels. This is
particularly true regarding the realisation of national and local goals with specific
reference to innovative solutions for housing projects in terms of material, layout and
housing density. Authorities / Institutions in Port Elizabeth, have shown little interest
in implementing alternative building materials in low-income housing projects,
resulting in the choice of concrete (hollow) blocks as the least social resistant
option or implementation and occupation phases. As a result, the authorities
discourage investments in new manufacturing plants and other related companies,
according to interviewers in Port Elizabeth during the period of investigation.

In implementing a low-income housing project, authorities tend to limit their focus on

three areas of interest: (i) increased job opportunities for emerging black owned
contractors (ii) ensuring that emerging contractors and their personnel are well trained
during the construction and (iii) speedy delivery of affordable housing / low income
(Hill et al, 2000, p.22). As a consequence of too much emphasis on these factors, a
lower quality level of building materials and construction has been noted.

6.3.2 Economical and financial Issues

A 1% decline-housing budget, in South Africa, in the last four years has decreased the
possibilities to improve the living conditions of the poor. This, due to economical
international dependency, global integration in the economical and social transition
period. The real value of the subsidy has decreased (see section 6.1.3), resulting in low
quality houses, as public recognition from the Housing Minister in June 1999,
"400,000 of 600,000 low-income houses that have been built are substandard"
(Walker, 1999, p.6), this considering that the design of the top structures should
comply with SABS standards.

Schemes for upgrading of houses and plots have shown to be up to 20% more
expensive than to design a "core house" initially. The result is a prioritisation for
starter houses using hollow concrete blocks.

Concrete blocks have monopolised the low-income housing market due to lower
prices displacing other conventional and non-conventional materials. The social
acceptability of concrete block has initiated creation of new, small scale
manufacturing plants. However, as a result of very limited in-situ manufacturing
control, products tend not to comply with set quality standards.

The ownership of material supply industry in South Africa is highly concentrated,

limiting competition. This situation is aggravated by restrictions on building material
imports (Van Wyk, 1996b, p. 187).

34
6.3.3 Social Factors
Perception is one of the reasons for not accepting innovative solutions regarding
materials and/or design.

Beneficiaries/users have shown a negative attitude towards new solutions. The main
reasons for this is:
Lack of knowledge and information makes understanding of technical
improvements more difficult; beneficiaries only trust what they have previously
experienced (e.g. shape of houses, materials, etc.), any change is seen as lower
quality
Political statements have created high expectations regarding the quality of the
dwellings, leading to a misunderstanding of the concept of "core house upgrading
Non conventional materials for core wall systems are seen as "weak", causing
distrust regarding the stability of the structure
Natural raw materials are seen as a step backwards in the development of housing

A critical issue has been the payment of subsidy in conjunction with relocation of
extended families to different communities.

Furthermore, influences from foreign countries have refrained people from preserving
and using traditional buildings materials and styles. Instead it has become preferred to
live in houses similar to the middle and upper class society, which is the reason why
concrete blocks are popular and more socially accepted.

There is an extensive bureaucracy related to the process of handling subsidy schemes.

During the process, documentation is not always easy to obtain. Issues such as
inefficiency in public transport and a number of fees to be paid, delay legal issues.

In addition, due to a general lack of education among the beneficiaries, there is a need
for assistance and explanation of new responsibilities within households, such as
payment of water, electricity, rent and the undertaking of maintenance.

6.3.4 Environmental Issues

Regulations regarding the environmental impact of land use and construction in South
Africa exist, but have not yet been enforced. Priorities have been put on sustainable
social and economical development while technical aspects have been given little
attention (Walker, 1999, p.4-6). There are no enforced guidelines for environmentally
acceptable (non-toxic) products or sustainable design and construction regarding
energy efficiency implementation. Moreover, environmental quality of different
building materials should be evaluated through life cycle analysis in order to
determine impacts in health and surroundings, which has not yet been implemented
for low-income housing projects.

National requirements regarding energy efficiency designs (renewable energy such as

solar and wind) have resulted in solutions, which are not feasible to implement for low
income housing, due to cost limitations. Additionally, not all manufactures do
environmental assessment impact (EIA) studies, causing air and noise pollution
(source: factory visits during the investigation period).

35
6.3.5 Engineering Design
A limited budget and little acceptance for innovations regarding design, creativity and
materials limit designs of low-income houses. A lack of understanding and
information on the advantages of alternative building materials has resulted in designs
based on concrete blocks wall systems. Hollow concrete blocks perform well
(experimentally proved) if they comply with local regulations on quality and if proper
plaster and paint is used during assembly and construction. The design of concrete
blocks has improved. One example is the change from solid to hollow interlocking
elements; another is further developed foundations and columns for the clayey soil.

Wall systems design and quality of alternative materials have also improved which is
reflected by "Agrement Board" certificates based on product assessments. By July
2001, 57 walling and building systems were registered but only 42% have been
activated ("Agrement Board" of South Africa, http://www.agrement.co.za). The main
reason for not activating a system is a poor interest in low-income housing projects.
As a result there is a general loss of interest of innovative solution studies.

The main findings regarding comparison of materials are shown in the table below.
This table shows that materials can be suitable for one criteria and non suitable for
other. A weighting in the criteria should give the most appropriate materials for the
project.

Table 6.6 Comparisons between processed and natural raw materials

NATURAL RAW PROCESSED MATERIAL

CRITERIA
MATERIAL Conventional Alternative
ENVIRONMENTAL
Resource availability Depends on the natural Local, imported partially Imported partially and/or
resources in the area, and/or totally totally
renewable Non renewable Non renewable
Environmental impact in Depletion of natural Negative when chemicals High negative when
nature resources if abusive use and waste/disposal are chemicals/waste/disposal
of raw material not treated/control are not treated/control
Energy consumption Low, medium Medium, high High
during manufacture
TECHNICAL
Engineering design Traditional design Conventional/specialised Specialised design
design
Water penetration Low Low, medium High
resistance / condensation
Thermal resistance Low (fibres) Medium-high Medium
High (soils and stones)
Fire resistance Low (fibres) Medium, high Low, medium
High (soils and stones)
Noise resistance High (soils and stones) Medium Low, medium
Low (fibres)
Impact resistance Low in fibre, high in High Medium, high
soils and stones
Natural hazard resistance Low Medium, high Medium
Durability of the material Long (stones) Long Long
itself Short (leaves, fibres)
Biological attack High (soils) Low, medium Medium, high
resistance Low (fibres, leaves)

36
 Aesthetic service life High importance Medium, high Medium, high
time (cultural and status)
Physical service life time High Medium-high Low
Technical service life Low Medium- high High
time
Reparability High Medium Low
Recyclability /reusability High Medium Low
CONSTRUCTION
Time delivery Depend on the Depend on the location Depend on the location
availability of materials of the factories of the factories
Handling during If made in site, no Depend on the weight Depend on the weight
transport transport is needed, no and size, normally and size, normally
special care requires care requires high care
Information Passed on from Lack or little, not Lack, not accessible to or
generation to accessible to or understandable to all
generation understandable to all
Construction experience Unskilled, semiskilled Semiskilled, training is High specialisation,
workers needed training is needed
Job creation High, labour intensive Medium, high labour Low labour
Workability Slow construction Normal time construction Fast construction
Efficiency High if performed by Medium, high High
skilled workers
Handling Depend on the weight Depend on the weight Depend on the weight
and size, normally and size, normally and size, normally
requires little care requires care requires high care
Equipment Traditional Conventional and /or Conventional and /or
sophisticated sophisticated
Control in situ Control Control High control
Storage Care required Covered /or in open air Usually covered
FINANCIAL / ECONOMICAL
Transport No cost if available in Medium (depend on the High (depend on the
situ location of the factories) location of the factories)
Basic cost of Low basic cost Medium, high High
manufacture
Professional fees Medium Medium High
Training Low Medium High
Market Small scale, local Big scale, high demand Medium, high demand
demand needed to be sustainable
SOCIAL
Social Acceptance by Low (urban areas) High Low
users/beneficiaries Medium-high (rural
areas)
Social acceptance by High (architectures) High Medium
professionals Low (engineers)
Social acceptance by Low High Low
authorities/politicians
Description of terms used in table 6.6:

- Impact resistance: refers to those environmental loads and eventual loads during the use or technical service life
- Durability: period for which it is able to fulfil its intended function, expected service life (subjected to normal use)
- Biological attack: includes insects (termite, mosquitoes, bugs, cockroaches, etc.), animals (rats, bats, birds, snakes, etc),
fungi (moulds, stains, rots, etc)
- Physical service life time: refers to the use and maintenance of the building and /or building materials during the use
- Technical service life time: time that a material can last technically, it is the manufacture and the engineer who decides and
plan this time period
- Social acceptance: the willingness to accept and use building materials, usually is related to preconceived ideas or
misconception. It varies from area to area and from time to time.
- General observation: the table is made considering a normal material performance for each criteria. Some of the evaluation
will required further analysis for a clearer understanding which can be accomplish by knowing all local conditions.

37
6.3.6 Construction and Maintenance Observations
Quality of construction involves clear technical specifications, in-situ control of
material and handling, education and training of workers, and proper management and
co-ordination of involved parties for whatever material choice (conventional or non
conventional).

An increased level of construction quality is required even in projects using

conventional material, illustrated by the use of concrete blocks. These have long been
used in low-income housing projects. However, construction defects are still common
as recorded during on-site investigations and expressed by supervisors and contractors
in ongoing projects. These defects are mainly caused by: (i) use of unskilled
construction workers (ii) insufficient technical supervision (iii) use of emerging
contractors with limited technical knowledge and quality awareness (iv) allowing
communities to change design and choice of materials during the construction phase.

Emerging contractors have little awareness

of quality. (Picture by Kobus Lane, Port
Elizabeth, 2000)

PICTURE 6.10 DEFECT IN CONSTRUCTION, PORT ELIZABETH

"Communities will contribute in all aspects of the housing

process", says Housing Policy of Port Elizabeth
Transitional Local Council. Implementation has failed
allowing the communities to interfere in technical issues
changing specified materials, resulting in faster
deterioration. (Picture by C. Corts B., August 2001)

PICTURE 6.11 DEFECTS IN CONSTRUCTION, BETHELSDORP, PORT ELIZABETH

Lack of maintenance and misuse during the occupation of the dwelling also results in
faster deterioration, mainly due to a lack of money, time and information.
Beneficiaries have little knowledge how to repair structures, even if built with
traditional or contemporary materials. Table 6.6 outlines common identified defects of
low-income houses with proposed solutions for immediate repair in Port Elizabeth
area. (Source: SABS Standards for housing modified by C. Corts B)

38
Table 6.6 Defects in construction and proposed solutions
DEFECTS IN CONSTRUCTION SOLUTION + SITE INSPECTION
Foundations
Excavations of trenches do not carefully - Sketches and instructions must be provided
provide a hard and level bottom surface
and angled walls
Clayey soil unsuitable to build on - Soil conditions should be studied sufficiently
- Special design
- Remove water and provide drains before the execution of work
Backfilled earth not properly compacted. - Sketches and instructions must be provided and work should be adequately
supervised
Cast concrete without proper vibration - Training in the use of equipment and clear instructions given
methods
Lack of moisture membrane protection. - Specify membrane, waterproof coating, additive to add in mix and proper roof
overhang
Floors
Not uniform ground conditions lead to - Soil inspection previous work
uneven surfaces. - Replace topping
Lack of damp-proof membranes. - Soil conditions should guide design requirements
- Specify membrane, waterproof coating, and additive to add in mix.
Wrong performance in construction joints - Site Inspection and training
and sealant materials.
Cracking problems - Fix and provide expansion joints
- Repair concrete
Surface finishing - Re-lay the floor finish
Walls
Horizontal cracks due to differential - Underpin foundations
foundation movement - Strengthening of the structure under severe damage
Vertical cracks due to differential - Remove large threes and shrubs close to the house
foundation movement - Strengthening the structure under severe damage
Cracks from top corners of doors and - Place proper lintels and frame systems with sufficient depth and reinforcement
windows - Refill cracks if not severe
- Strengthening the structure under severe damage
Cracks of limited width - Fill cracks
Lack of mortar in upper zone - Fill cracks with cement mortar, concrete pieces or broken blocks
- Seal properly to avoid roof water penetration
Random cracks - Fill cracks and identify cause to avoid problem in the future
Insufficient depth of plaster - Paint with water proof agent according to manufacturers instructions
- Site inspections for proper mix and application
Loose plaster - Replace plaster
- Site inspection for proper mix and application use
Damp patches - Install effective damp proofing
- Plaster or paint wall with silicone repellent externally
- Repair all joints
- Identify causes (leakage, others) and repair them
Damp patches in openings (windows, - Check window and door frame position with reference to external walls (set back
doors, others) at least 100 mm.)
- Seal again with good quality material and avoid drying process of the putty
- Verify sill slope
Damp patches near roof - Adjust roof overhang
- Place gutters correctly
- Check damp proofing in roof
White efflorescence - Wash with clean and cold water only
Weak mortar in brick s joints - Replace with correct mortar
Roofs
Leaks - Seal openings and fixings to prevent rain water from entering
- Seal any gap between wall and underside of the roof covering with mortar
- Review material quality and replace if not proper
- Modify slope
- Check truss defects
- Modify ridging overlap
Loose roofs - Check wire ties during construction
- Change all ties to truss and replace damaged parts
No gutters - Include gutters and downpipes in the design
Doors & windows
Openings and frames not plumb - Refit frames
- Replace frames
Drains
Leaks - Re-lay correctly
- Replace damaged pipes
Bad installation - Re-fit pipes and accessories correctly
- Specialist work needed

39
Table 6.6 shows most of the defect found during the visit to working sites in low-
income projects in Port Elizabeth. The recommendations comprise SABS remedial
actions, local engineers/constructors suggestions and literature research for
appropriate construction methods.

Lack of knowledge and technical advise result in poor

quality of mortar. Mix in situ does not comply with
standards, resulting in faster deterioration of plaster and
joints. (Picture by C. Corts B., August 2001)

PICTURE 6.12 DEFECTS IN CONSTRUCTION, MORTAR MIX, MOTHERWELL, PORT ELIZABETH

Poor quality in construction on clay soils can

damage structures despite good design. Poor
quality in construction such as lack of
reinforcement and ties, poor quality of mortar, poor
performance of joints, etc. result in fast
deterioration of dwellings. (Picture by C. Corts B.,
September 2001)

PICTURE 6.13 DEFECTS IN CONSTRUCTION, CLAY SOIL CONDITIONS, BETHELSDORP, PORT ELIZABETH

40
7 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Low-income housing projects do exist primarily due to problems around affordability

caused mainly because of urban population growth. This has resulted in a tremendous
pressure for the housing delivery system. Housing programmes have been centralised
with top-down approach. Today South African government is in the process of take a
position as facilitator and enabling communities through public participation and
bottom-up approach.

Designs for low-income projects have been improved but alternatives and innovations
regarding materials and design have not always been successfully implemented. The
selection of building materials had deal with "appropriateness" and "adequacy"
regarding local conditions.

Findings and a field study in Port Elizabeth urban areas, have lead to the following
main conclusions.

Main Conclusions

The delivery system of low-income housing projects can be vastly improved by

considering options for alternative design and materials. These play an important
role in the economic development for formal and informal sector.
Technical sustainability, such as energy efficiency, diversification, life-cycle
analysis of materials, control, responsibilities, impacts on nature and health,
should receive more attention.
The allocated budget is insufficient, resulting in a cost-quality-size conflict.
Social perception and attitude influence negatively on choice of design and
material.

The following part gives recommendations for a successful, sustainable development

of low-income housing projects in Port Elizabeth. A number of steps should be taken
by the Local Council and other authorities as well as by engineers, constructors,
inspectors and beneficiaries.

General Recommendations

Agree on a common definition of "adequate housing"

Assume overall responsibility for low-income housing projects
Focus on marketing of alternative materials and techniques by encouraging new
emerging contractors, individual and communal initiatives and education etc.
Simplify administrative processes in housing delivery systems by setting up local
offices
Make the subsidy process transparent
Implement a intra-organisational communication network for exchange of
information related to technical innovations and solutions
Actively support and encourage studies and research aiming at finding innovative
solution for low income houses and use of alternative building materials
Develop further training courses for technical inspectors and emerging contractors

41
 Involve students in technical advice programmes for employees and emerging
contractors
Aim at increasing the subsidy for low-income houses by approaching national and
local authorities

Recommendations for future housing market

Increase the number of quality certificates for processed, natural and man made
building materials
Promote the activation of innovative wall building systems ("Agrement Board" of
South Africa and "Mantag")
Promote investments in the local building and manufacturing industry
Promote, at national level, trade of materials, technical information and exchange
of best practices in innovative design and construction techniques
Facilitate an adequate supply of cost-effective building materials (de-concentrate
the market by promoting competition)
Enforce environmental policies and regulations regarding building material quality
through life cycle analysis, guidelines for hazardous materials and guidelines to
avoid valuable land exploitation in low-income housing projects
Integrate "Agenda 21" Chapter 30 - the role of business and industry through
effective and clean production with life cycle analysis

Recommendation Roles and Responsibilities for Communities

Encourage community institutional framework

Raise the level of knowledge by the beneficiaries of alternative materials
Inform of the impact on HIV/AIDS on the housing sector
Inform of household responsibilities

Recommendation on Technical Issues

Planning Phase
Avoid areas with clayey soil, torrential flooding or slopes in order to minimise
costs for special foundations and damp proofing elements
Avoid locations with negative impact on nature and biomes
Encourage early involvement, and co-ordination, by engineers, town planners,
developers and land surveyors
Involve the community in the planning process
Strive to minimise relocation and separation of families by seeking plot size
flexibility (preserve extended families at least in the same area or relocate them
all together by mean minimal disruption of existent social conditions).

Design Phase
Promote and communicate alternative designs using a variety of materials
Promote designs with affordable building materials
Promote designs with durable building materials to minimise maintenance
Promote designs with building materials that offer possibilities of expansion
Make thermal property improvements in the design
Develop the potential use of local materials

42
 Emphasise on details such as sealant, membranes, roof anchorage, etc.
Prepare technical drawings, specifications and manuals in such way that they can
easily be interpreted and understood by contractors, inspectors and beneficiaries

Building Materials
The main advantages and disadvantages of building materials are given in Table 8.1
below. Aspects have been divided into (1) environmental (2) technical (3)
constructional (4) financial/economical and (5) social.

Table 7.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Materials

ENVIRONMENTAL Advantages Disadvantages

+ Renewable - Local availability
NATURAL RAW
MATERIAL
+ Low, medium energy consumption - Depletion of natural resources, abuse
during manufacturing
- Non renewable
PROCESSED - Negative impact in nature from waste
MATERIAL disposal
Conventional - Medium, high energy consumption
during manufacturing
- Non renewable
PROCESSED - Imported partially or totally
MATERIAL - High negative waste disposal
Alternative - High energy consumption during
manufacturing
TECHNICAL Advantages Disadvantages
+ Traditional design - Low water penetration resistance
+ High thermal resistance in semi-dry - Condensation problems
and dry places - Low fire, noise, impact resistance for
+ High fire, noise, impact resistances fibres
for soils and stones - Low natural hazards resistance
+ High durability for soils and stones - Low durability for fibres
NATURAL RAW
MATERIAL
+ High biological attack resistance for - Low biological attack resistance for
soils and stones fibres
+ High importance aesthetic service
life
+ Long physical service life
+ High reparability
+ High recyclability
+ High thermal resistance - Professional design
+ Medium water penetration resistance - Low condensation capacity
+ Medium to high fire, noise - Low biological attack resistance
resistances - Short technical service life
+ Medium to high natural hazards
resistance
PROCESSED + High noise, impact properties
MATERIAL + Long durability if maintained
Conventional + Medium to long aesthetic service life
+ Medium to long physical service life
+ Medium to long technical service
life
+ Medium reparability (need
knowledge)
+ Medium recyclability

43
 + Very good thermal and condensation - Professional / specialized design
resistance - Medium to low fire resistance
+ Medium to high impact resistance - Medium to low noise properties
PROCESSED + Medium natural hazards resistance - Short physical service life
MATERIAL + Long durability if maintained - Medium to low reparability
Alternative + Medium to high biological attack - Low recyclability
resistance
+ Medium to long aesthetic service life
+ Long technical service life
CONSTRUCTION Advantages Disadvantages
+ Knowledge is transmitted from - High time consuming
generation to generation
+ High accessibility if natural
resources available in the area
NATURAL RAW
MATERIAL
+ No special care in handling
+ Unskilled, semiskilled workers
+ High labour intensive
+ Traditional equipment
+ Normal/none storage conditions
+ No special care in handling - Medium time consuming
+ Medium, high labour creation - Easy information exchange
PROCESSED + Normal time consuming - Semiskilled, training is needed
MATERIAL + Medium, high efficiency is
Conventional semiskilled or trained workers
+ Conventional equipment
+ Normal storage conditions
+ Fast erection of structures - Special care in handling
+ High efficiency - Information is not accessible for all
+ Light weight elements - Training is needed
PROCESSED
+ High level of technology - Low labour creation
MATERIAL
Alternative - Sophisticated and conventional
equipment
- High control in manufacturing
- Usually special storage conditions
FINANCIAL /
ECONOMICAL
Advantages Disadvantages
+ No cost related to transport - Medium cost for professional fees
+ Low basic cost compared with - Low, medium training cost
NATURAL RAW
MATERIAL
formal sector
+ Small scale, individuals, families
production
+ Medium, high scale production - Medium cost related to transport
- Medium, high cost for basic
PROCESSED
manufacture
MATERIAL
Conventional - Medium, high cost for professional
fees
- Medium training cost
+ Lower cost during construction - High cost related to transport
phase - High additional cost for basic
PROCESSED manufacture
MATERIAL - High cost for professional fees
Alternative - High training cost
- Need medium, high scale production to
be sustainable

44
 SOCIAL Advantages Disadvantages
+ Medium, high social acceptance in - Low social acceptance in urban areas
NATURAL RAW
MATERIAL
rural areas by beneficiaries
+ Positive attitude of architects
PROCESSED + High acceptance
MATERIAL
Conventional
PROCESSED + High acceptance by engineers - Low acceptance for beneficiaries,
MATERIAL politicians, authorities
Alternative

Construction Phase
Ensure continuous technical advice and training
Provide enough technical inspectors in order to control material quality and
handling, execution and final reception of works
Improve construction methods for conventional materials

Maintenance Phase
Monitor occupation behaviour of building materials with time
Identify defects compromising the stability of the structure, including defects due
to misuse
Educate the beneficiaries on self help, i.e. instruction manuals to maintain and
repair structures
Identify people concerns regarding materials and structure defects, include
children and elderly people

45
46
8 DEFINITION OF TERMS

Dwelling unit: "A self-contained interleading suite of rooms, which shall contains no more than one
kitchen, used for human habitations and includes uses normally associated therewith but subordinate
thereto and include also the letting on a permanent basis by the resident of a part of the dwelling unit,
otherwise than as a separate dwelling unit to not more than four persons" defined by Port Elizabeth
Zoning Scheme (1996, p.5)
Durability: period for which material is able to fulfil its function satisfactory when subjected to normal
use, assuming that it is reasonably maintained at regular intervals. It can be also defined as the retention
of performance and appearance over the expected service life.(Agrement Board of South Africa,
www.agrement.co.za, performance criteria: durability, p.2)
Erf: "proportion of land register or capable of being register in the Deeds Registry and may include a
servitude right of lease", defined by Port Elizabeth Zoning Scheme (1996, p.5)
Incremental housing: A process, which starts with an asset, that satisfies the basic physical and social
needs. Households add to their initial asset incrementally according to their financial means. (Van Wyk,
1996b)
Informal housing: A shelter usually constructed with unconventional building materials acquired
informally (waste from construction sites, plastic bags, paper, etc). (Van Wyk., 1996, key words). A
shelter that do not meet any recognised standard but still serve a purpose as temporary emergency
housing.
Informal sector housing: The sector of the housing market, which includes unauthorised and squatter
houses. (Van Wyk, 1996b)
Life cycle analysis: includes all steps from extraction of raw materials, production of building
materials, transport, construction, use and maintenance, demolition and waste management and in some
cases recycling of materials. (KTH & NTNU, 1998, Melby, p.3).
Multiple dwelling: "means a building containing two or more dwelling units" defined by Port
Elizabeth Zoning Scheme (1996, p.5)
Processed materials: Raw material with altered chemical and mechanical properties, or purely
artificial/synthetic and recycled material.
Service life: includes aesthetic (dependant on fashion considering colour and design), economic
(present value v/s original investment), functional (real time from construction to demolition), physical
(use and maintenance during the use) and technical service live (time that a material can last
technically) (KTH & NTNU, 1998, Melby, p.3-5).
Site and Services: Subdivision of urban land and the provision of services and utilities for residential
use. Site or plot is a land on which a house can be build; services can vary from pit latrines and shared
water standpipes to full services to the individual plots.
Sustainability: "A development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of
the future generations to meet their needs" (WB, 1987)
Squatter houses: Concept that has different meaning depending on the country, in Port Elizabeth refers
to illegal settlements and/or to illegal erection of a dwell, mostly found in inner urban, peri urban
suburban areas.
Starter house: The first shelter unit in which a household begins the process of incremental housing.
(Van Wyk, 1996b), South African concept related with low-income housing projects.
Traditional knowledge: The knowledge that has been passed on through many generations.

47
48
9 REFERENCES
Andersson, A. & Andersson, R., 1997, Affordable Houses for South Africa, KTH Royal Institute of
Technology-Division of Building Technology in co-operation with University of Cape Town-
Dep. Of Construction Economics and Management
Architectural division City Engineers Department- Port Elizabeth Municipality, Dec 1998, Typical
starter houses for subsides housing, South Africa.
BESG (Built Environment Support Group), Nov 1999, Towards the right to adequate housing, Built
Environment Support Group & European Union Foundation for human rights in South Africa,
printed by Natal Witness Printing and publishing Company Ltd. South Africa.
Boaden, B.G., March 1985, "A framework for evaluation low-income housing delivery system",
Modern mass housing supplement, p.34, South Africa.
Borg & Trinius, 1998, Integration of service life aspects into life cycle assessment, et al.. KTH &
NTNU, Royal Institute of Technology, Sweden and Norway technique university, svensk
/norsk doktorandkurs given november 1997 till april 1998, KTH, Gvle, Sweden.
Brown, P., 1998, Alternative Sanitation Solutions, Urban Green File- Participant: Land of Landscape
architects of South Africa & The Institute of Environment and Recreation Management, Africa
(www.urbgreen.co.za)
Bryan, L.D., March 1985, "Some aspects of housing in our time", Modern Mass Housing Supplement
Magazine, South Africa.
Cape Metropolitan, 2001, Integrated Metropolitan Environmental Policy (IMPE) for the Cape
Metropolitan Area, Cape Metropolitan Council, South Africa.
CHF, Cooperative Housing Foundation, Feb 1999, A proposal to develop a community based low cost
housing program for the community of Sanddrif, Tsitsikamma, Port Elizabeth - South Africa;
CHF, Cooperative Housing Foundation, 2000, International program report- building a better world.
MD USA, www.chfhg.org
CIA, 2001, facktbook of South Africa, http://www.odci.gov/cia/publications/facktbook (29-01-2001)
City Engineers Dept. Of Port Elizabeth -Town Planning Division, - The first Comprehensive Urban
Plan (CUP), Nov 1999, City of Port Elizabeth, South Africa.
CUP- The first Comprehensive Urban Plan, Nov 1999, City Engineers Dept. Of Port Elizabeth -Town
Planning Division, City of Port Elizabeth, South Africa.
Delta Foundation, Dec 2000, Guideline- Higher residential densities in new low income development,
based on Missionvale experience, South Africa.
Dinar, A., "South Africa Page", http://sas.upenn.edu/African_Studies/Country_Specific/S_Africa.htlm,
(2001-06-06)
Ebsen & Rabol, August 2000, International review of sustainable low cost housing projects,
http://www.builnet.csir.co.za/ssbe/conferences, http://csir.co.za, Danish International Human
Settlement Service, Klosterport 4C, Denmark.
EESI Master of Science Program, 2000, Human Settlements and Housing Compendium, Div. of Built
Environment Analysis, dept of Infrastructure and Planning, Royal Institute of Technology
(KTH), Sweden, http://www.kth.se
Efrem, A.H. and Rogriguez, W., 2001, Armerad Skumbetong , Kungliga Tekniska Hgskolan-
Institutionen fr byggkonstruktion
Egnell, S. and Larsson, L., May 1981, Local Building Materials, Technical Information VBB member
of Sweco, Engineers-Architects and economists.
Escuela Tcnica Superior de Arquitectura-Madrid, "Interaccin entre los medios natural y urbano",
1998-07-22, http://habitat.aq.upm.es/ub/a003.htlm, (2001-01-26)
Gebhardt, C., August 1995, "Exclusive: The World Bank report: Housing policy is a shambles",
Business magazine Cape Town, South Africa.
Grant, D.A., July 1987, "Building with GRC", Industrial Magazine, South Africa.
Habitat, 1988, United Nation Human Settlement: A Compendium of information on selected low-cost
building materials, Nairobi, Kenya.
Habitat, 1996, United Nation Human Settlement, Habitat Agenda, http://www.unchs.org (2001-11-22)
Habitat, 2000, United Nation Human Settlement: "Urbanization of poverty",
http://www.unch.org/unchs/english/hdv6n4/urban_poverty.htm
Habitat, 2001a, United Nation Human Settlement: State of world's city - 2001, "Urban settlements:
housing", http://www.unchs.org/documents (2001-11-28)
Habitat, 2001b, United Nation Human Settlement:"Urban population trends", http://www.unchs.org/
hd/hdv7n2/index.htm

49
Heunis, R., March 1985, "Industrialised building: systemised and unsystemised", Modern Mass
Housing Supplement, South Africa.
Hill, R.C. & Bowen P, 1997, "Sustainable construction: principles and framework for attainment",
Magazine Construction Management and Economics V 15 N3,p 223-239, E&FN Spon-
London, UK.(http://cme.thomsonprofessional.com)
Hill, R.C., et al. (Pienaar, J., Bowen, P.A., Ksel, K. And Kuiper, S.), 2000, The transition to
sustainability in the planning, construction and management of the built environment in South
Africa, Refereed and revised paper submitted to International Journal of Environmental
Technology and Management in Dec 2000, for a special issue on sustainability in the built
environment.
Housing Act No 107, 1997, http://www.housing.gov.za, (2001-04-23)
International network for Engineers and Scientist (INES), Jan 2001, The role of design and planning
professionals for solving the global housing problem-Report from a Workshop at the
Conference Challenges for Science and Engineering in the 21st century, Editor Dick Urban
Vestbro, Sweden
J.E.B. Jennings (article based on his paper), Low cost building news, July 1977, "Early development in
low cost housing: An appraisal of an historic contribution" South Africa.
KTH & NTNU, Royal Institute of Technology, Sweden and Norway technique university, 1997-1998,
Bestndighet och livslngd fr material och byggnader, Svensk / Norsk doktorandkurs given
november 1997 till april 1998- KTH, Gvle, Sweden. Melby: Requirements of service life
data for building materials in LCA methodology; Borg & Trinius: Integration of service life
aspects into life cycle assessment, et al.
Lindberg Eva-Rut, 1998, r jordbaserade byggmaterial utvecklingsbara inom byggindustrin?, KTH
Royal Institute of Technology-Architectural design and technology/Building Engineering, SE-
100 44 Stockholm, Sweden.
Marschall, S. & Kearney, B., 2000, Architecture in the new South Africa-Opportunities for relevance,
University of South Africa-Pretoria, first edition.
McGill University School of Architecture, "Minimum Cost Housing Group",1997-03-21,
http://ww2.mcgill.ca/mchg/
Medical Research Council-Environmental Evaluation Unit, 1999, University of Cape Town, MRC
Policy Brief- Linking health and environment in the Cape Metropolitan Area, South Africa
Melby, 1998, Requirements of service life data for building materials in LCA methodology, KTH &
NTNU, Royal Institute of Technology, Sweden and Norway technique university, 1997-1998,
Bestndighet och livslngd fr material och byggnader, Svensk / Norsk doktorandkurs given
november 1997 till april 1998- KTH, Gvle, Sweden.
Ministry of Provincial and local Government, "Welcome to the department of provincial and local
government", http://www.local.gov.za/DCD/dcdmid.html, (2001-04-23)
Mullins, M. , 2000, Emerging influence of digital tools on design, ZN-NIA Journal, Journal 1,School of
Architecture, University of Natal, South Africa.
Municipal Engineers, Oct 1989, Zenzele low cost housing method, South Africa.
Nell M.A.E, Feb/Mar1985, General Manager of Housing Urban Foundation, ," The practicalities of
undertaking self help housing schemes", Modern mass magazine supplement, South Africa.
NMMM, Nelson Mandela Metropolitan Municipality, 5 Years housing programme, July 2001-June
2006, Port Elizabeth, South Africa.
Port Elizabeth Municipality, 1999, Report: Shack audit -qualification of housing need in Port Elizabeth
Port Elizabeth Zoning Scheme, 1996, Report for PE Municipality, Port Elizabeth, South Africa.
Port Elizabeth, http://www.pe.org.za , April 2001, visit 23-04-2001
Pelip (Port Elizabeth low income projects), Nov 2000a, An analysis census data in selected settlements
in Port Elizabeth, Uitenhage and Despatch, Sibongile Muthwa, Fort Hare Institute of
Governement, Port Elizabeth, South Africa.
Pelip (Port Elizabeth low income projects), 2000b, Open the door for the disabled, published in Port
Elizabeth, South Africa.
Planning and Building Development, March 1985, "People in housing", Periodical magazine Planing
and Building Development in South Africa.
PE-TLC Port Elizabeth Transitional Local Council, Rev. May 1998, Hosing Policy, South Africa.
Port Elizabeth, South African Government, "Where is PE?", "Welcome to the friendly city", "A Brief
History of Business in Port Elizabeth", http:// www.pecc.gov.za/where_is_pe.html, (23-04-
2001)
Prestige Buildings by Karol L., July 1987, Industrialised Magazine, South Africa

50
Rioja, E., Razn y ser de los tipos estrucutrales, Instituto Tcnico de la Construccin y del Cemento
Spain.
Rodriguez, M. & strand, J.,1996, Building issues- Organised small scale self help housing, Lund
university, Lund Centre for habitat studies.
SABS, South African Bureau Standard, 1998 / 1999, Standards for housing, South Africa,
http://www.sabs.co.za
SALMA (PAV Bryant, technical and research manager), 1987, "Industrialisation in timber building",
Industrialise, Building . Supplemented to building equipment and materials, South Africa
Schlotfeldt, C.J., 1989, Manager of Agrement Board, Article: "Mantag system sets standards for
affordable housing", Magazine S.A. Construction World, South Africa
Smit, W., Dec 2000, Adequate housing for all, Newsletter of Nadels Human Right Research and
homepage Advocacy Project, Rights Now- South Africa (homepage:
http://sunsite.wits.ac.za/nadelproject)
South Africa Government on line, Department of housing, 2001-04-14, http://www.housing.gov.za,
(2001-04-23)
South African Government, "Agenda 21: South Africa. Human Settlements",
http://www.un.org/esa/agenda21/natlinfo/countr/safrica/social.htm, (2001-06-06)
Sowetos Eco-house, Sustainable Housing, Urban Green File- Participant: Land of Landscape architects
of South Africa & The Institute of Environment and Recreation Management, Africa
(http://www.urbgreen.co.za)
Spence, R.J.S. & Cook, D.J., 1983, Building materials in Developing Countries, John Wiley & Sons
Ltd.- Chichester, New York, Toronto, Brisbane, Singapore.
Stulz, R. and Mukerji, K., 1981, Appropriate Building Materials. AKAT Publications, Switzerland
Sunde, J. & Kleinbooi, K., July 1999. Promoting equitable and sustainable development for women
farm workers in the Western Cape. Centre of Rural Legal Studies-CRLS-South Africa.
Svane rjan, 2001, "but most of the buildings are already there", EESI Master of Science Program,
2000, Human Settlements and Housing Compendium, Div. of Built Environment Analysis,
Stockholm, Sweden
Taylor, J., MaGregor, K. et al., 1994, Here to stay, Informal Settlements in KwaZulu-Natal, Edited by
Doug Hindson & Jeff McCarthy.
Towards sustainable Urban development, Conference Report, March 2000,
(http://www.housing.gov.za/pages/African%20Solutions/Events/Africa_Solutions/asn_Confere
nce_report.html), (23-04-2001)
Truswell, J.F., An Introduction to the Historical Geology of South Africa, Purnell- - Cape Town,
Johannesburg, London
UCT (University of Cape Town), Dept of Civil Eng., UCT Dept of Civil Eng.: Home Page,
http://civil.uct.ac.za, (2001-01-26)
United Nations Centre for Human Settlements (HABITAT), 1990, Co-operation in the African Region
on Technologies and Standards for Local Building Materials
United Nations Centre for Human Settlements (HABITAT), A Compendium of Information on selected
low-cost Building Materials
Walker, J., 1999, A sustainability assessment method for green fields, low cost cement block housing
developments on the Cape Flats, Dissertation for fulfil Master of Philosophy Degree in Env.
Science-Dept. Env. and Geographical Science-University of Cape Town- South Africa
Van Eeden, A., 1999, Housing Statistics as at the end of Dec 1997/ March1999, Africon Engineering
International (PTY) ltd., South Africa.
Van Eeden, A., July 1996a, Delta Foundation Accelerate Achievers Programme- Urban Development &
Management. Port Elizabeth, South Africa.
Van Eeden, A., Sept 1996b, Development strategy of a Typical Housing project, Africon Engineering
International (PTY) ltd., South Africa.
Van Wyk, J.J., March 1995, " Housing delivery-A call for a paradigm shift", Regional Focus-Eastern
Cape, p.50, South Africa.
Van Wyk, J.J., March 1996a, Strategies enabling the low-income housing market a sustainable basis.
Paper presented at the NAHD national conference; South Africa
Van Wyk, J.J., March 1996b, Master Thesis: Strategies enabling the low-income housing market a
sustainable basis., South Africa.
Webb, T.L., April 1989, "The relative roles of management and technology in industrialised building",
Industrialised Magazine, South Africa.
Webb, T.L., July 1987, "Low income housing", Industrialised Magazine, South Africa;
WB, World Bank, 1987 and 1996, http://www.worldbanck.org

51
Vernacular Architecture Society, "Vernacular Architecture Society of South Africa", 1983-10-14,
http://www.museums.org.za/vassa/gloss.html (2001-06-05)
Vernacular architecture, various, http://www2.arnes.si (05-06-2001)
Vestbro, D.U. and Almgren, T., Aug 1999, How Should the Post-Apartheid City be Planned?- A Report
from a field work in Port Elizabeth, South Africa.
Yong, R. & Warkentin, B.P., 1975, Soil Properties and behaviour, Civil Engineering and applied
Mechanics- McGill University, Montreal, Canada.
Yusuf, A., Ambrose C.G.and Shaheed, H., 1997, South End as we knew it, Annotated by ROY H DU
PR, South Africa
YVBSG, Yorkshire Vernacular Building Study Group, Vernacular Architecture, May 2001
http://www.yvbsg.org.uk (2001-06-05)
Zah de Beer, 1985, "Urbanisation", Modern Mass Housing magazine South Africa
ZN-NIA Journal, Issue 4/2000,V25, Durban , South Africa.

52
 Appendix I

APPENDIX I

Maps

a
b
 Appendix I

c
d
 Appendix I

e
f
 Appendix II

APPENDIX II

List of Interviews
List of Field visit

g
h
 Appendix II

INTERVIEWS

The most relevant interviews:

Adriaan van Eeden, Director, Africon Engineering International (PTY) ltd., Port Elizabeth, South
Africa (Interview 16, 22 )
Andrew Treasure, Chief Architect, City Engineer's Department, Port Elizabeth, South Africa
(Interview 31)
Daniel Masanja, PhD, Dept. Structural Engineering, Royal Institute of Technology-KTH-Sweden
(Interview 1)
David Thompson, Country Director, Community Habitat Finance (CHF), Port Elizabeth, South Africa
(Interview 34)
Deon Bellingan, Register Town Planner, City Engineer's Dept., Port Elizabeth, South Africa
(Interview 13)
Gerrie de Bruin, Senior Architect, City Engineer's Dept., Port Elizabeth, South Africa (Interview 14,
15, 18, 20, 23, 26, 28, 29, 36)
Gudni A. Jhannesson, Professor, Building technology, Royal Institute of Technology-KTH-Sweden
(Inter. 4)
Harmut Schetzer, Chief Executive Officer, City Engineer's Dept., Port Elizabeth, South Africa
(Interview 21)
J.H Herman Strydom, Managing Director, Deranco Blocks Ltd, Port Elizabeth, South Africa
(Interview 24)
Karin Kleinbooi, Researcher, Center for Rural Legal Studies (CRLS), Stellenbosh, South Africa
(Interview 10)
Kjell Nilver, Univ,Lektor, Building technology, Royal Institute of Technology-KTH-Sweden
(Interview 6)
Lance del Monte, Planner, Metroplan Town Planners, Port Elizabeth, South Africa (Interview 27, 30)
Leon Dorfling, Managing Director, Whirlwind Concrete Products, Port Elizabeth, South Africa
(Interview 25)
Ossie Long, Asst.Plannning & Development Office, City Engineer's Department, Port Elizabeth,
South Africa (Interview 32)
Ralph Kilian, Project Management, Community Habitat Finance (CHF), Port Elizabeth, South Africa
(Interview 35)
Richard Hill, Professor, Dept. Environmental & Geographical Science, University of Cape Town,
South Africa (Interview 7)
Saayman Irene, Hidrogeologist, Cape Water Programme, Council Science for Investigation and Research
(CSIR), Stellenbosh, South Africa (Interview 8)
Schalk Potgieter, Chief Executive, Pelip Housing Company, Port Elizabeth, South Africa
(Interview 12)
Tony Anthony, Project Manager, Housing Division- Municipality, Port Elizabeth, South Africa
(Interview 17)
People in the street and in the townships during visit

i
 Appendix II

FIELD VISIT IN SOUTH AFRICA July-October 2001

DATE CITY PLACE

1 6 july Cape Town Hostal
Meduim income black buildings
Old scheme semidetached houses
Cape Flats
2 9 -1 july Stellenbosch general view
Paarl
13 july Garden route
3 V1 31 july Port Elizabeth Walmer
Red Location
Masangwana
Wazakhela or Site and services
Soweto
Swide
Kwamagxaki
Kwadesi
Bloemendal
Algoa bay
Missionvale
4 V2 8 aug Port Elizabeth Missionvale (village 30)
Boelmendal ext,35,36,37
Motherwell
Well State (Coega relocation)
5 V3 15-aug Port Elizabeth Algoa Park
New Brigthon
Wazakhela or Site and services
Bethelsdorp
6 V4 23-aug Port Elizabeth Red Location
Masanwana
Rail road
Wazakhela or Site and services
Bloemendal
Bethelsdorp
7 V5 29-aug Port Elizabeth Motherwell
Well State (Coega relocation)
8 V6 07-sep Port Elizabeth Walmer
9 V7 12-sep Port Elizabeth Walmer
Red Location
Masangwana
Wazakhela or Site and services
Swide
Bloemendal
Bethelsorp
Henenvale
10 V8 20-sep Port Elizabeth Factory SAGEX
Silvertown
Zezonki
Wazakhela or Site and services
11 V9 17 Oct Port Elizabeth Walmer
Bloemendal
Swide
Soweto
Silvertown
Wazakhela or Site and services
Masangwana
Red Location

j
 Appendix III

APPENDIX III

Agrement Certificates of South Africa

Mantag Certificates of South Africa

k
l
 Appendix III
AGREMENT SOUTH AFRICA
APPROVAL FOR BUILDING SYSTEMS
(http://www.agrement.co.za)
P.O. Box 395, Pretoria 0001
Tel: + 27 (012) 841 3711
Fax: + 27 (012) 841 2539

Current Certificates innovative construction products (July 2001)

Example of active walling and building systems:

Concrete panels cast on site for single storey building/ multi-storey building
Drystacked hollow concrete block with cement stabilised soil fill
Hollow interlocking concrete blocks are drystacked to erect walls; certain cavities form core columns
Interlocking hollow EPS blocks form permanent shuttering for cementitious material, plastered
Panels of dense, precast concrete used for internal and external walls
Mortar applied to both faces of factory-produced wall panel of expanded metal, may be plastered
Precast, reinforced or pre-stressed concrete panels bolted together, storey high
Precast, reinforced concrete panels and post for single storey building
Reinforced concrete columns, beams and floors slabs and precast concrete wall panel; multi-storey
Steel-framework with various cladding to form cavity walls some of which are insulated
Steel-framed, load bearing wall panels, steel roof construction - Single storey building
Steel-framed system with fibre cement external cladding, timber roof construction- double storey building
Steel-framed panels with fibre cement and plasterboard cladding - single or double storey building
Steel-framed panels with fibre cement and plasterboard cladding - two to four storey building
Steel-frame external wall clad with exterior grade particleboard, steel of trusses
Steel framework with fibre cement sheets externally, steel trusses and ceiling frames
Structural steel frame with fibre cement board or brick veneer external cladding
Soil cement block walls, drystacked and where specified, bedded in mortar
Wall panel manufactured from two sheets of profiled galvanised steel riveted back to back with reflective
foil sandwiches in between; degreased and painted with external quality acrylic on completion; roof similar
Walls of cellular light weight concrete, cast in situ for the erection of single storey building
Walls of hollow interlocking concrete blocks drystacked; certain form core columns
Walls of modular interlocking ABS blocks filled with a sand-cement mix and reinforced

Example of inactive walling and building systems:

Hollow concrete blocks are drystacked in stretcher bond; certain voids filled to form columns
Interlocking hollow concrete units are drystacked and bagged or plastered
Large, precast, reinforced concrete panels cast on site
Modular interlocking steel frame with Bisondura infill wall panels
Non structural cladding panels of cement bonded wood chips, plastered to form continuos wall surface
Precast, storey high wall panels of aerated concrete encased in modified mortar
Precast concrete building
Precast concrete walls
Precast dense concrete external wall panels, dry wall or masonry internal walls
Precast concrete panels and load bearing post with strip foundations, conventional roofs
Precast external wall panels of fibre reinforced concrete, brick or block internal walls
Precast, pre-stressed concrete wall panels and plinth beams
Polyester coated steel sheet walls and roof, insulated walls and ceilings
Reinforced micro-concrete external and internal walls, applied in two layers
Reinforced ,precast concrete external and internal wall panels, polystyrene void former
Reinforced concrete columns, beams and floor slabs and precast concrete wall panels
Shuttering for concrete cores formed by interlocking hollow blocks of polystyrene foam, plastered
Steel-frame, prefabricated insulated walls and roof panels, plastered externally

m
 Appendix III

Steel-frame walls clad with X rated gypsum plasterbord internally, fibre cement board or brick veneer
externally
Structural steel frames with external wall panels of single skin, glass reinforced cement
Timber poles support shiplap hardboard and hardboard sheet, sand filled cavity
Timber frame with resin-impregnated infill boards of sandwich construction, plastered
Walls of lightweight, cast in situ concrete, conventional foundations, surface beds and roofs
Walls of aerated reinforced concrete are cast continuously
Walls panels have welded mesh on polystyrene core, sprayed concrete and plaster finish
Walls panels have expanded polystyrene core between fibre cement sheets, steel and timber connector
columns, steel top and bottom channel
Wall panels of steel sheet encapsulating foamed mortar
Welded wire frames may have polyurethane core, plastered to form continuous wall surfaces
Wire mesh on both sides of timber poles with the cavity filled with soil or clay, plastered finish (zenzele)

Source: Agrement directory of current certificated July 2001

MANTAG SOUTH AFRICA

(MINIMUM AGREMENT NORMS AND TECHNICAL ADVISORY GUIDE)

P.O. Box 395, Pretoria 0001

Tel: + 27 (012) 841 3711
Fax: + 27 (012) 841 2539

The criteria consider: Behaviour in fire, structural strength and stability, termite resistance, thermal performance,
weathertightness, provision for ventilation.
Some of the structure approved by Mantag are:

Zenzele building system: treated timber poles planted in ground, which support timber roof trusses, plinth of
hollow concrete block, or cement stabilised soil built in natural ground. Galvanised steel mesh fixed to both
sides to the poles and the space between them is filled with a soil clay mixture to form external and internal
walls which are plastered with sand cement plaster.
Upgrade zenzele-type housing system: treated timber poles planted in ground, which support timber roof
trusses, conventional concrete floor slab. Galvanised steel mesh fixed to both sides to the poles and the
space between them is filled with a soil clay mixture to form external and internal walls which are plastered
with sand cement plaster.
Wettcott drysstack housing system: conventional strip foundation, modular walls, drystacked interlocking
hollow concrete masonry units, bagged on both sides, column are formed of some filling in hollow blocks;
reinforced ring beam, conventional roof.
Steyn housing system: concrete surface beds with edge beams; conventional roof; walls with corrugated
cardboards core formers to which wire mesh is attached and to which plaster is then applied on both sides.
Prebuilt Zakhlele: modular external wall panel are timber framed with a single skin of glass reinforced
concrete. Panel are bolted together to form walls and erected on special glass reinforced concrete plinth
block. Internal walls with gypsum plasterboard on timber framing. Roofs are timber truss.
GR building system:foundation and wall are constructed with hollow concrete units which links together
and which are built without the addition of concrete. Certain cavities are reinforced.
Panel Proud homes: composite panels of expanded polystyrene between sheets of factory coated metal.
Conforce economical house: Walls of precast reinforced dense concrete panels. Concrete strip foundations
or precast bearing blocks. Roofs are conventional
OBH low cost housing system: Concrete strip foundations and bricks plinth or concrete surface bed with
edge beams, wall of precast reinforced solid dense concrete panels bolted to steel columns. Roofs are
conventional
Mastercrete building system: walls of precast concrete panels set between precast concrete post,
conventional internal walls, surface beds and roofs.
TF building system: walls with loadbearing, precast concrete post with non loadbearing, low grade concrete
cast in situ between posts. Surface beds and roofs are conventional.

n
 Appendix IV

APPENDIX IV

Building Materials Description

- Bamboo
- Binder
- Cement
- Composite
- Concrete
- Earth/soil
- Ferrocement
- Clay product
- Glass
- Lime
- Metal
- Natural and animal fibre
- Polymer
- Puzzolana
- Soil stabiliser
- Stone
- Sulphur
- Timber
- Waste and recycled

o
p
 Appendix IV

BAMBOO
Bamboo is a very old construction material, found in tropical and subtropical regions, they grow very
fast (some species can grow more than one metre per day) but they are useful for constructions after 5
or 6 years of growth. Though they can be used as a single material, they have many applications.
Deterioration of the bamboo can be very fast if not properly treated.

Application:
Columns for pile foundation
Building frame structures, beams, stairs, ladders, fencing, roof tiles, concrete reinforcement and
grid for structures.
Furniture, boards and others no constructive elements

BINDER
Binder is used to bind different materials together such as inorganic/organic, hard / flexible, etc. This is
generally due to chemical reactions, which take place when the binder is heated, mixed with water
(and/or other material) or exposed to air.

The main types of binders are:

Mineral binders: can be divided as hydraulic binders (reacting with water, e.g. cement), non-
hydraulic binders (reacting with air, e.g. clay) and thermoplastic binders (reacting with
temperatures, e.g. sulphur)
Bituminous binders: mechanical mixture of different hydrocarbons (compounds with carbon and
hydrogen), e.g. asphalts as mixture of bitumen and mineral matter.
Natural binders: plants juice and animal excreta and other products. They were previously used, but
currently they have been replaced by artificial or synthetic binders in some areas.
Synthetic binders: produce by industrial processes, some toxic and expensive.

CEMENT
Fine grey powder from a stone when mix with sand, gravel and water produces a long lasting mortar or
concrete. The mixture of these materials varies; it depends on the proportion of the raw materials used.
Today the most common cement is Portland and is produced in large-scale in many countries.

Cement varieties:
- Rapid hardening Portland cement
- Sulphate resistant Portland cement
- Portland puzzolana cement
- High alumni cement

Application:
Binder for several organic and inorganic materials (mortar)
Mix with sand and gravel to produce concrete
Mix with sand and fibres to produce ferrocement
Painting mix and coating

COMPOSITE
Composite is a combination of materials that differs in composition and form. The mixture exceeds
mechanical and physical properties of the individual components. The most common composite is
concrete with iron reinforcement, but also there exist reinforcements of fibres, glasses, polymers and
ceramics, which are available in different forms and combinations.

The disadvantages of these materials are the anisotropy behaviour (resistance varies with the direction
of fibres) and their complex union elements. The knowledge of performance and cost is required for
design and implementation.

Applications:
Reinforced structural elements
Aereospatial and motor industry

q
 Appendix IV
CONCRETE
Consist of the mix of cement, aggregate (sand and gravel) and water. Proportions of the components
give special workability and durability for building purposes. The mixture can take the shape of the
formwork, which is removed once the concrete reaches the desired strength. The mix is placed and
vibrated to eliminate air. When placement occurs at different times, previous preparation of the surfaces
should be considered. Curing of concrete takes few day (according to specifications), watering and
covering the surfaces have to be periodically done.

Types of concrete:
No-fines concrete: light concrete with only one size aggregate is good for isolation suitable for
bearing and non bearing walls, fill in walls in framed structures and coarse for floors slabs.
Light weight concrete: used with expanded clay, foam, ash or other light aggregate for thermal
isolation walls and blocks.
Aerated concrete: introducing air to improve thermal properties. Disadvantages are low resistance
to abrasion and high shrinkage.
Pre-stressed concrete: reinforced concrete with steel held under tension during production. The
final product achieves stiffness, crack resistance and lighter construction components, for example,
slabs, beams, trusses and large-span units.
Cold-drawn-low carbon steel wire prestressed concrete: low-carbon steel wires of 6mm to 8 mm
diameter are doubled by drawing them through a die at normal temperatures, producing 3, 4 or 5
mm diameter, saving 30 to 50% of the steel. Concrete grade is C30. (Stulz & Mukerji, 1981, p. 74-
75).
Natural fibre concrete: mix of fibres, sand, cement and water. Depending on the availability of the
resources different types can be achieved. Organic fibres can be vegetal based on cellulose or
animal base in proteins. Fibres can be divided into four categories: steam, leaf, fruit hair and wood
fibres. Long and short fibres can be used, chopped are most commons ones. The problem with
natural fibres is their weakening and decay; expensive methods are performed by adding alumna
and silica (high active puzzonlana) to diminish the alkalinity that causes the decay.
Synthetic fibre concrete: sand, water, cement and synthetic fibres. The type of the fibre, amount of
sand, water and cement gives different characteristic to the mixture. The methods of mixing,
placing and curing requires skill and control.
Foam concrete: light weight concrete with density between 400 and 1800 kg/m3. Is made up of
cement, water and foam. In most cases, it is combined with polypropylene fibre, glass fibre or steel
mesh to give more resistance. The characteristics of this concrete are good thermal and acoustic
performance. Cost is lower than reinforced concrete but it needs special fabrication. The
application does not need vibration; it is environmentally friendly and fire resistant (Efrem &
Rogriguez, 2001).

Applications:
Plain mass concrete: for foundations, floors, paving, monolithic walls, bricks, tiles, hollow blocks,
pipes.
Reinforced concrete: with steel bars for slabs, beams, walls, columns, stairs, framed structures,
long-span elements, angular and curve structures, etc.
Corrugated roofing sheets and panels
Flat tiles for floor and pavements
Light wall panels
Door and window jambs and sills
Others non structural uses
Slabs, beams, trusses, large-span units.

EARTH/SOIL
Soil is a loose material on the surface that results from the transformation of the underlying parent rock
by the more or less simultaneous interaction of climatic factors and chemical changes. The
characteristics are mineral component (rock of origin) and organic component (vegetal layer). The
classification of soils is based on morphology and composition e.g. size of particles, colour and
chemical characteristic. The properties help to visualise the behaviour when interacting with other
substances such air and water, which can diminished the strength capacity.

r
 Appendix IV
Most soils are suitable as building materials, though the addition or removal of certain constituents is
required to improve their quality (Stulz & Mukerji, 1981, p.9). Construction methods vary from country
to country, depending on local conditions (availability, available skills, climate, etc.). Nevertheless they
can be classified as: Structure (slabs for shelter space, fill-in in walls, mixed with straw, daubed on
supporting structure), monolithic (dug out, poured earth into moulds, stacked for floors, direct shaping,
rammed earth), brickwork (hollow blocks, pressed blocks, machine and/or hand moulded adobe).

Applications:
Foundations of good size particle distribution, as aggregate in concrete or cement.
Walls by direct moulding, rammed, straw-clay and masonry or as accessory for painting or binders.
Floors in dry conditions, use clay covered with gravel or sand, stabiliser or mix with cement, mix
with cow dung.
Roofs in dry regions, soil mixed with timber structure, mixed with bitumen coat, vaults and for all
climate grass roofs with water and root proof membrane.

FERROCEMENT
Consist of a reinforced concrete without coarse aggregated. Mortar is cement, normally Portland, inert
sand and water free from organic matter. Reinforcement is a mesh that can be different kinds, but the
main requirement is to be flexible (hexagonal wire, square woven, etc.).

Applications:
Embankment protection
Irrigation channels and drainage systems and water storage tanks
Accessories such as pipes, toilet bowls, washbasin and furniture
Walls, roofs and other building components

CLAY PRODUCT
The amount of clay in the soil will determine the plasticity and it is suitable for construction purposes.
The reaction under fire is irreversible and it can be performed in large or small-scale production. It is
mostly used in developing countries mainly because of accessibility and lower cost compared with
processed building materials (more technically advanced).
Methods for clay selection, preparation, moulding, drying and burning may vary from non-mechanised
to mechanised techniques and it has been subjected to many investigations and testing.

Applications:
Bricks (moulded or extruded) for masonry, including floors, walls, arches, vaults and domes.
Roof and floor tiles
Special products as refractory bricks, acid resisting bricks and tiles, pipes, filler in walls and floor
cavities

GLASS
It is produced by melting sand, limestone, dolomite, aluminia silica and other ingredients, at about
1500C. In the olden days, glass was used for ceramic and jewel, but about two hundred years ago it
has been used in buildings. Though it is not a structural material, it can be added to improve the quality
of other materials.

Applications:
Flat glass for windows, solar collector green houses.
Hollow glass blocks for non-bearing walls or screens.
Waste glass, crushed mix with clay, for bricks
Glass fibre with cement, polyester for lightweight roofing materials or fill in walls panels, sun
shades.
Glass fibre impregnate with resins for electrical uses.
Glass fibre impregnate with plastic for high impact resistance.
Glass wool, glass fibre sprayed with a binder and formed into boards as thermal insulation material

s
 Appendix IV
LIME
Lime is obtained by burning limestone at temperatures above 900C to produce quicklime, which is
subsequently slaked with water to produce hydrated lime. Each type of limestone yields different
quality of lime and impurities, these can influence the final quality of the product. It is also obtain by
product in the form of sludge lime from sugar manufacture and paper industries.

Application:
Use as stabiliser in soils constructions
Mix with puzzolana to produce hydraulic binder
Mix with cement mortar and plasters to make it more workable

METAL
Metals used in construction can be divided into two: ferrous metals and non-ferrous metals. The ferrous
metals are: cast iron (in excess of 1,7% carbon content), wrought iron (with 0,02 to 0,03% carbon
content), low carbon steels (less than 0,15% carbon content), mild steel (with 0,15 to 0,25% carbon
content), medium carbon (up to 0,25% carbon content) and high carbon steel (up to 1,5% carbon
content). The non -ferrous metals are: aluminium, copper, lead, nickel, tin, zinc, cadmium and
chromium.

Applications:
Structural steel components: column, beams, joints, hollow sections
Sheets, usually corrugated for stability, for roofs and walls
Plates, fastenings and facing
Steel rods, mats, wire mesh for reinforcement in concrete and ferrocement
Wires, galvanised or not
Nails, screws, bolts, nuts, etc.
Profiles for doors, windows frame, grilles
Pipes, channels, troughs for sanitary, electrical, gas installation
Construction tool equipment
Miscellaneous metal component, tanks, furniture and non-constructions elements

NATURAL AND ANIMAL FIBRE, GRASS, LEAV

The common feature of naturals fibres (cellulose based) is their renewability and their low compressive
strength, impact resistance and durability. There are four main types of natural fibres:
o Seed fibre (cotton)
o Fibres that grow between the crust and the stem (textiles and ropes)
o Fibres from the leaves (ropes and string)
o Stem fibres (strings)
They can be used as structural elements when they are used in large quantities and twisted and /or
compressed. They also could be combined with other materials to improve their qualities.
Animal fibre from a chemical point of view is based on proteins resistant to organic acid but not
resistant to alkalis reactions. Most of the animal fibres (goat, sheep, etc.) are mainly used for textile
purposes and they are hardly found in constructions applications.

Application:
Natural fibres: reinforcement in soil constructions, reinforcement for concrete, ropes, roof and tie
building elements, sun screens,
Straw and leaves for thatch roofs and panels

POLYMER
Artificial resin developed since the beginning of the 90s. Polymers are big molecules composed by
other smaller (monomers), the degree of repetition of these units is called polymerisation. Polymers can
be: linear, branch out or inter-cross. The process of polymerisation is formed by two types of reaction:
- Condensation E.g. polonium, polyurethane, polyesters
- Addition E.g. polyethylene, polypropylene, chloride of vinyl (PVC), polystyrene
During fabrication, additives are incorporated to give chemical (pigments, antioxidants) or strength
properties (fibre reinforcement).

t
 Appendix IV
All plastics are polymer and synthetic plastics are based on carbon compound derived from petroleum
and to a small extend from coal. They can be classified as:
- Thermoplastic, soften on heating without undergoing chemical changes
- Thermosets, undergo irreversible chemical changes during moulding, can not be recycled
Plastic are characterised by their relation strength/high density, they have excellent thermal properties
and good resistance to acids. They are not essential materials in constructions but they can substitute
or protect other materials.

Applications:
Rigid plastic used in water supply and sanitation accessories
Fibre reinforced plastic for self supporting walls and roof elements
Plastic membranes covering for concrete curing
Fibre plastic concrete roofing elements
Foamed plastic for thermal insulation materials
Synthetic adhesives and resins for composite elements
Emulsion paints and varnishes
Sealant for movement joint, water and waterproof joints
Polyethylene bubble fold laminated with aluminium foil or alternative one side of aluminium and
other with polyethylene, for ceiling with good thermal resistance
Polystyrene in foam form mix with cement for isolation purposes
PVC and polyethylene high density for piping and accessories

PUZZOLANA
Puzzolana is natural or artificial material, which contains silica and /or aluminia. It is not cementitious
itself but when finely ground and mixed with lime and water, can harden at ordinary temperatures.
Puzzolanas can replace the content of cement between 15 to 40% by weight (Stulz & Mukerji, 1981,
p.33).

Volcanic ashes were the first natural puzzolana to be used as building material but nowadays their use is
limited to only few areas in the world. Natural puzzolanas are also burnt clay, fly ash (coal), ground
granulated blast furnace slag and rice husk ash. Artificial puzzolanas result from industrial and
agricultural processes, usually as by-products.

Applications:
Different types of mortar for masonry
Different mixtures (e.g. with lime) can be used for foundations and general concreting work
When mix with Portland cement it produces mortar resistant to chemical attacks.
It is also suitable for pre-stress concrete

SOIL STABILISER
The choice of the stabiliser depends on local conditions, availability and cost. The most common
natural available stabilisers are: sand, clay, straw, plants fibres, plant juices, wood ashes, and animal
excreta, and other animal products such as hair and blood. The most common manufacturing stabilisers
are: lime and puzzolanas, Portland cement, gypsum, bitumen, resins, molasses.

Applications:
Increase the compressive strength and impact resistance of the soil constructions
Reduce the tendency to cracks and shrinks of soils constructions
Reduce water absorption of soils constructions

STONE
The oldest and most commonly used building material. Three geological groups of stones can be found:
igneous (E.g. granites, volcanic stones), sedimentary (E.g. sandstone, limestone) and metamorphic (E.g.
slates, marble, quartzite). Some of the uses are:
Igneous, such as granites use for walls, floors, cladding, plinths and stairs
Sedimentary, such as Limestone use for cement production; sandstone use for walls, floors,
cladding, plinths and stairs

u
 Metamorphic, such as marbles for windows, floors and finishing; slates for decoration; quartzite
for floors, paving and stairs

Exploitation techniques and equipment varies, harder rocks need more sophisticated machinery. Stones
constructions do not required maintenance but availability can make a cost difference. Durability
depends on thermal performance and resistance to chemicals.

Applications:
Foundations, Floor, walls, some type of roof structures, all with or without mortar.
Crushed or shaped stones for masonry
Gravel and stone chipping as aggregates
Granules for surfacing bituminous felt
Powder for extending paints

SULPHUR
Sulphur comes from the desulphurization of the petroleum and natural gases but may also occur
naturally in volcanic areas. Sulphur is known for its application in medicine, photography, as fertiliser,
insecticide and building material. Some products are:
- Sulphur concrete, comprising elemental sulphur and coarse fine inorganic aggregate, forms
concrete-like material that can be moulded. It contain neither water or cement
- Sulphur coating on weak materials, makes them strong, rigid and waterproof.
- Sulphur bonding, as adhesive applied externally.
- Sulphur foam, adding foam result good thermal, low absorption and low shrinkage material.
- Sulphur asphalt, in which either the aggregate or the asphalt is replaced by sulphur, raising
viscosity at high temperatures or lowering it at lower temperatures.
- Sulphur-infiltrated concrete, produced by introducing molten sulphur into moist-cured
concrete to increase strength and water resistance.

Applications:
Blocks, bricks, tiles for floors, pavements
Impregnation of weak and porous materials to increase strength and waterproof
Coating for concrete walls
Lightweight non-bearing load walls and ceiling panels
Paving of courtyards or other outdoor surfaces
Pipes

TIMBER
Timber has been used as fuel and for construction purposes. Timber is a very complex material. There
are many species with different properties (resistance, hardness, stiffness and density). Timber is
suitable for any kind of construction, but it needs knowledge and guidance to achieve good results.

Timber is classified as:

Hardwoods from broad leaves trees usually deciduous
Softwoods from coniferous trees, found in temperate zone.

Special treatments must be performed to limit the content of water (drying process) and fungus attack
(chemical treatment). From environmental point of view deforestation causes irreversible damage to
the ecosystem, thus, large scale used of timber must be accompanied by reforestation programs.
Timber main products are: pole, sawn, plywood, block board, glue-laminated board, particleboard,
fibreboard, wood-wool slabs and sawdust.

Applications:
Complete or partial building and roof frames structures
Structural and non structural floors, walls, ceilings or roofs
Insulating panels
Doors and windows frames, door leaves, blinds, shutters, sun-screens, window sills, stairs, frame
work for concrete and similar building elements
Furniture and other non construction elements

v
 Appendix IV
WASTE AND RECYCLED MATERIAL
Waste and recycled materials can be organic and inorganic wastes. As a further sub division, organic
wastes are generally agricultural or forestry by-products and also household and urban wastes, whilst
inorganic waste are mainly obtained from industrial processes and demolition of buildings.
By-products can be:
- Agricultural: dung, crop leftovers
- Industrial: ashes, construction such as demolition of buildings, chemical products, slag
- Commercial and domestic: organic fuel such as paper, wood, textile and non fuel such as
metals, glass and ceramic
Waste can be a valuable alternative resource of energy and if mix with other materials can substitute
conventional building materials.

Applications:
Boards
Thermal insulation materials and light weight aggregate in concrete
Replacement of aggregates in concrete
Materials for cement production
Additives in clay brick productions
Corrugated roofing sheets
Adhesives and surface protection coating
Bricks, blocks for masonry