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Career Development &
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New Perspective for
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Introduction

Discussions about human competence have been occurring in academic and HR circles
since the ‘70s. However, because intellectual assets are now recognized as one of the
foundations for competitiveness, competence and competency management have become
strategic issues. The ability to implement strategy and achieve “bottom line” results requires
that organizations take stock of available competencies and manage them in a way that
increases the effectiveness of performance throughout the value chain.

Competence and Performance

While most people believe they know competence when they see it, they typically have
trouble defining it. In fact, it may be easier to think of competence in terms of what it is not. It
is not a specific set of behaviors, although these may be evidence of competence. One way
to define competence is as a “function of the ratio of valuable accomplishments to costly
behavior” (Gilbert, 1978). That is, a performer is competent to the extent he or she can
produce accomplishments that are of value to the organization without incurring more costs
than the accomplishment is worth. For example, a new performer may be able to produce a
desired accomplishment - but at what cost? How long does it take to do so? How many
times was it reworked before it was of acceptable quantity? If answers to questions reveal
that the accomplishment was produced at great cost, the organization may not have
achieved any real value. When someone is competent, they increase the value of
accomplishments while reducing the cost and energy put into the effort. The true nature of
competence is derived from the value of our accomplishments; as Gilbert noted,
competence is a comparative judgment about the worth of performance.

Finding competence that predicts exceptional performance in an organization or its value

producing network requires examining the top performers in specific job roles. They are able
to consistently produce outcomes or accomplishments that are valued by, and bring value to,
the organization. Not only do they consistently produce these accomplishments, but also are
able to do so in a manner that increases the value of the accomplishment to the
organization. Exemplary performance must consider the quality of the work (accuracy, etc.),
the quantity or productivity of the work (the rate, timeliness, volume), and the associated cost
(labor, material, management). Top or exemplary performers produce accomplishments that
meet or surpass a standard for quality, quantity, and cost.
Competencies and Other Factors Influencing Performance

Top performers are able to produce high-value accomplishments primarily because they
have the required competencies and they know how to do things more productively than
others. Competencies are abilities and traits that predict and enable effective or exemplary
performance of a job within a specific organizational context. To be deemed ‘competent’ in
an area a performer must have requisite skills, the appropriate body of knowledge, and traits
or personal characteristics that contribute to success. Some texts define competencies as
“skills, knowledge, and abilities or talents” or “skills, knowledge, and attitudes”. Others use
the terms “traits and personal characteristics” to encompass talents and abilities, which we
prefer. We can observe evidence of the existence of personal traits and characteristics, and
research has shown their impact on performance.

For example, one competency for the job of a project manager might be “customer
relationship management.” This could be defined as the ability to articulate project vision and
definition, define scope and success criteria, identify assumptions, and communicate to

Skills Knowldge Traits

ensure client satisfaction. Specific knowledge and skills would be required to enable an
individual to demonstrate this competency, such as: knowledge of the client’s business
need, and skills like listening and conflict resolution. Specific personal characteristics and
traits that would contribute to success include ‘interpersonal understanding’ and ‘client
focuses.

Competencies alone cannot ensure effective job performance, however. As Figure 1

illustrates, organizational support can make the occurrence of effective or exemplary
performance more or less likely. Organizational support includes the following, each of which
is known to influence performance:

• Motivation & incentives: what performers are motivated to do, based on their
compensation structure and incentives
• Environment & culture: the physical environment in which work occurs, and the
mindset and shared belief system of the organization (i.e., “the way we work”)
 • Job design: the way particular jobs are designed to spread responsibility and
accomplishments across the workforce
• Management practices: how management acquires, develops, reinforces, and retains
competencies.

Consequently, the existence of competencies alone does not ensure performance at the
desired level. Not only must requisite competencies be available, but also the organization
must do all it can to increase the likelihood that competent performers produce the desired
outcomes of value.

Competency Models

A competency model is a mechanism or framework to organize the skills, knowledge, and

traits that result in effective or exemplary performance of a specific job. Good competency
models can be extremely useful to an organization or enterprise as it attempts to accomplish
the following:

• Explicitly link performance to business results

• Develop a shared mindset about what is important in a job, what will be monitored,
and what should be measured
• Develop behavioral interviewing questions and a model against which to judge
candidates to ensure the organization acquires the needed competencies
• Identify priorities for development to fill the “gap” between the competencies an
individual has and those needed to perform a job at the desired level of proficiency
• Facilitate more effective performance feedback, review, and appraisal
• Help individuals plan career growth
• Provide links from a needed competency to learning resources or interventions.

Approaches to Competency Modeling

The two primary approaches to the development of a competency model can be envisioned
as a continuum. At one end of the continuum is a highly generic competency model, and at
the other end is a highly customized model. Generic competency models have been
developed and validated across a number of organizations. They can be purchased, typically
as a database of competencies. The purpose of these models is to present core
competencies of a job across organizations. While this can be a useful place to start, these
models often do not provide the level of detail required for exemplary performance within a
particular business context. Generic competency models typically cover approximately 50-
60% of what one must do to produce an accomplishment that would be considered
exemplary within a specific organization. They are most appropriate for upper management
positions, where well-understood leadership characteristics and traits are so crucial to
performance, or for positions that are relatively the same from organization to organization.

At the other end of the continuum is the organization-specific competency model. This
approach requires that a full competency assessment and analysis be conducted for each
position. One variation of this approach prescribes working with top performers only; another
prescribes working with both top and mediocre performers to identify differentiating
competencies. This approach most often requires analyzing the full spectrum of a job. A
competency model is developed to reflect performance within the specific organization, and
is validated by performers and their management. This validation typically includes focus
groups and trial ratings of existing employees using blind sorting to determine if the model
discriminates between exemplary and mediocre performers. This approach costs more and
takes more time to complete, but can have a higher payoff in terms of enabling the
organization to hire the right people and increasing the percentage of exemplary performers.

In the middle the spectrum is a combination approach. The organization purchases existing
competency models and refines them so they better represent their desired outcomes and
competencies. For example, the organization might perform a competency assessment on
top performers for critical jobs and analyze the information elicited to refine some of the
generic models.

Typical Problems with Competency Assessment and Modeling

People often encounter a similar set of problems when working through a competency
assessment and modeling activity. One of the most common problems is that they rarely
understand up front the true size of the endeavor and the amount of labor required to do it
well. Because they tend to underestimate it, they often fail to produce the results promised
within the timeframe required, and may lose their focus, funding, or both. Another typical
problem is that management may consider the project too “academic” or impractical if any of
the following conditions exist:

The resulting list of competencies for a job is too long to be practical or manageable. For
example, one model we reviewed had 54 competencies for one job, some of which were
obviously trivial and not likely to produce an accomplishment of great value.

The methodology is too arduous, takes too long, or is too costly. Some businesses will not
tolerate a methodology that can’t show results quickly, or one that takes months to analyze
mounds of statistics. The project dies a slow death.
Analysis paralysis sets in. Because the team does not approach the task looking for
accomplishments that matter, they don’t know where to focus. They try to cover the whole
job and each miniscule task instead of focusing on the competencies that produce the
accomplishments of value. Or in an effort to be diplomatic, they attempt to talk to people
performing the job from all over, without regard to who is doing it well. They end up with too
much data that is too hard to manage, compile, or analyze. The project stalls.

The competency model is developed using a flawed methodology. For example, the process
produces models that would “clone” current employees in a position without regard to the
changing business strategies and new capabilities needed. Or the team purchased and
fielded generic competencies without regard to their ability to address specific needs of the
business. Perhaps the process did tap workers within the specific organization during the
competency assessment process, but failed to focus on top performers. The resulting
competency model might succeed in developing average performers, but will not increase
the percentage of exemplary or top performers.

Cognitive Technologies’ Solution to Competency Modeling

Cognitive Technologies believes that it may be pragmatic for a company to purchase generic
competency models and databases, or to develop organization-specific models. However,
we strongly suggest that groups choosing generic models for key technical and professional
positions consider refining these models to reflect the accomplishments and performance
that their company and its clients value. We applaud attempts to develop organization- or
enterprise-specific models, but caution those who undertake to carefully consider the
methodology they use and the problems that can occur.

We have developed a methodology to help clients interested in developing their own specific
competency models, or in refining generic models they may have purchased. Our
Performance-Centered Competency Assessment (PCCA) methodology is based on the
principles and guidelines that follow:

• Start with the company’s mission and strategy, and an understanding of the business
context in which it competes.
• Spend valuable resources wisely. Start with key job positions—those that are
strategic in nature and critical in terms of being able to accomplish strategy and
business goals.
• Identify and document the primary accomplishments and outcomes of value; link
accomplishments to business strategy and goals.
 • Document the primary events and activities that are performed to produce the
desired outcomes of value; do not attempt to capture every possible task involved in
a job.
• Analyze primary events and activities and work with top performers to understand the
required skills, knowledge, and personal characteristics or traits that predict or enable
effective performance.

The output of the PCCA methodology is a preliminary model that can be validated both
internally (with staff and managers) and externally (through benchmarking). The result is a
valid, job-specific competency model that addresses accomplishments of value that are
important to the organization. Benefits of the PCCA include avoidance of some of the typical
problems associated with competency modeling. For example, the “analysis paralysis”
phenomenon can be avoided, and the model can be constructed in a timely fashion.
Additionally, the PCCA methodology results in the definition of outcomes for which metrics
can be defined to measure job performance. Furthermore, the PCCA focuses on top
performers to identify the accomplishments and outcomes that are valued by the
organization. Consequently, it eliminates the need to interview and analyze mediocre
performers to determine discriminating competencies. The PCCA supports the development
of competency models that are appropriate to the client’s value-producing network. These
models have high fidelity (e.g., they represent how specific jobs are performed within a
specific organization or enterprise) and reflect good coverage of the competencies required
within this context. As a result, the PCCA methodology can be a very cost effective approach
to the development of organization specific models.

Apply What We Know

Cognitive Technologies is available to assist clients in using the PCCA methodology to

develop or refine their competency models. Our preferred engagement model is to begin by
working with senior management on strategy, vision, and challenges that impact business
success. Using this information we will work with the client team to select job positions that
are critical to the realization of strategy. Next, we provide team training on the background
and use of the PCCA methodology. After the initial training, we coach and support the team
as its members use it to assess and analyze one of the selected job positions. This enables
us to model and monitor the use of specific techniques for:

• Eliciting critical information and performing the analysis that results in a preliminary
model, or refinements to an existing model
• Compiling the information into a usable format
 • Validating the information using individual and group techniques, after the
competency model has been completed and validated for the selected job position,
Cognitive Technologies can provide follow-on review and coaching, if necessary, as
the client team builds models for other key positions within their organization or value
producing network.

Role of the Human Resource Manager

The role of the Human Resource Manager is evolving with the change in competitive market
environment and the realization that Human Resource Management must play a more
strategic role in the success of an organization. Organizations that do not put their emphasis
on attracting and retaining talents may find themselves in dire consequences, as their
competitors may be outplaying them in the strategic employment of their human resources.

With the increase in competition, locally or globally, organizations must become more
adaptable, resilient, agile, and customer-focused to succeed. And within this change in
environment, the HR professional has to evolve to become a strategic partner, an employee
sponsor or advocate, and a change mentor within the organization. In order to succeed, HR
must be a business driven function with a thorough understanding of the organization’s big
picture and be able to influence key decisions and policies. In general, the focus of today’s
HR Manager is on strategic personnel retention and talents development. HR professionals
will be coaches, counselors, mentors, and succession planners to help motivate
organization’s members and their loyalty. The HR manager will also promote and fight for
values, ethics, beliefs, and spirituality within their organizations, especially in the
management of workplace diversity.

Workplace Diversity

Dimensions of workplace diversity include, but are not limited to: age, ethnicity, ancestry,
gender, physical abilities/qualities, race, sexual orientation, educational background,
geographic location, income, marital status, military experience, religious beliefs, parental
status, and work experience.

The Challenges of Workplace Diversity

The future success of any organizations relies on the ability to manage a diverse body of
talent that can bring innovative ideas, perspectives and views to their work. The challenge
and problems faced of workplace diversity can be turned into a strategic organizational asset
if an organization is able to capitalize on this melting pot of diverse talents. With the mixture
of talents of diverse cultural backgrounds, genders, ages and lifestyles, an organization can
respond to business opportunities more rapidly and creatively, which must be one of the
important organizational goals to be attained. More importantly, if the organizational
environment does not support diversity broadly, one risks losing talent to competitors. The
future success of any organizations relies on the ability to manage a diverse body of talent
that can bring innovative ideas, perspectives and views to their work. The challenge and
problems faced of workplace diversity can be turned into a strategic organizational asset if
an organization is able to capitalize on this melting pot of diverse talents. With the mixture of
talents of diverse cultural backgrounds, genders, ages and lifestyles, an organization can
respond to business opportunities more rapidly and creatively, which must be one of the
important organizational goals to be attained. More importantly, if the organizational
environment does not support diversity broadly, one risks losing talent to competitors.

This is especially true for multinational companies (MNCs) who have operations on a global
scale and employ people of different countries, ethical and cultural backgrounds. Thus, a HR
manager needs to be mindful and may employ a ‘Think Global, Act Local’ approach in most
circumstances. The challenge of workplace diversity is also prevalent amongst Singapore’s
Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs). With a population of only four million people and the
nation’s strive towards high technology and knowledge-based economy; foreign talents are
lured to share their expertise in these areas. Thus, many local HR managers have to
undergo cultural-based Human Resource Management training to further their abilities to
motivate a group of professional that are highly qualified but culturally diverse. Furthermore,
the HR professional must assure the local professionals that these foreign talents are not a
threat to their career advancement. In many ways, the effectiveness of workplace diversity
management is dependent on the skilful balancing act of the HR manager.

One of the main reasons for ineffective workplace diversity management is the
predisposition to pigeonhole employees, placing them in a different silo based on their
diversity profile.

In the real world, diversity cannot be easily categorized and those organizations that respond
to human complexity by leveraging the talents of a broad workforce will be the most effective
in growing their businesses and their customer base.

The Management of Workplace Diversity

In order to effectively manage workplace diversity, HR Manager needs to change from an

ethnocentric view "our way is the best way" to a culturally relative perspective "let's take the
best of a variety of ways". This shift in philosophy has to be ingrained in the managerial
framework of the HR Manager in his/her planning, organizing, leading and controlling of
organizational resources.

There are several best practices that a HR manager can adopt in ensuring effective
management of workplace diversity in order to attain organizational goals. They are:

Planning a Mentoring Program

One of the best ways to handle workplace diversity issues is through initiating a Diversity
Mentoring Program. This could entail involving different departmental managers in a
mentoring program to coach and provide feedback to employees who are different from
them. In order for the program to run successfully, it is wise to provide practical training for
these managers or seek help from consultants and experts in this field. Usually, such a
program will encourage organization’s members to air their opinions and learn how to
resolve conflicts due to their diversity. More importantly, the purpose of a Diversity Mentoring
Program seeks to encourage members to move beyond their own cultural frame of reference
to recognize and take full advantage of the productivity potential inherent in a diverse
population.

Organizing Talents Strategically

Many companies are now realizing the advantages of a diverse workplace. As more and
more companies are going global in their market expansions either physically or virtually (for
example, Ecommerce- related companies), there is a necessity to employ diverse talents to
understand the various niches of the market. For example, when China was opening up its
markets and exporting their products globally in the late 1980s, the Chinese companies
(such as China’s electronic giants such as Hailer) were seeking the marketing expertise of
Singaporeans. This is because Singapore’s marketing talents were able to understand the
local China markets relatively well (almost 75% of Singaporeans are of Chinese descent)
and as well as being attuned to the markets in the West due to Singapore’s open economic
policies and English language abilities.

With this trend in place, a HR Manager must be able to organize the pool of diverse talents
strategically for the organization. She/he must consider how a diverse workforce can enable
the company to attain new markets and other organizational goals in order to harness the full
potential of workplace diversity. An organization that sees the existence of a diverse
workforce as an organizational asset rather than a liability would indirectly help the
organization to positively take in its stride some of the less positive aspects of workforce
diversity.
 Leading the Talk

A HR Manager needs to advocate a diverse workforce by making diversity evident at all

organizational levels. Otherwise, some employees will quickly conclude that there is no
future for them in the company. As the HR Manager, it is pertinent to show respect for
diversity issues and promote clear and positive responses to them. He/She must also show
a high level of commitment and be able to resolve issues of workplace diversity in an ethical
and responsible manner.

Control and Measure Results

A HR Manager must conduct regular organizational assessments on issues like pay,

benefits, work environment, management and promotional opportunities to assess the
progress over the long term. There is also a need to develop appropriate measuring tools to
measure the impact of diversity initiatives at the organization through organization-wide
feedback surveys and other methods. Without proper control and evaluation, some of these
diversity initiatives may just fizzle out, without resolving any real problems that may surface
due to workplace diversity.

Motivational Approaches

Workplace motivation can be defined as the influence that makes us do things to achieve
organizational goals: this is a result of our individual needs being satisfied (or met) so that
we are motivated to complete organizational tasks effectively. As these needs vary from
person to person, an organization must be able to utilize different motivational tools to
encourage their employees to put in the required effort and increase productivity for the
company.

Why do we need motivated employees? The answer is survival. In our changing workplace
and competitive market environments, motivated employees and their contributions are the
necessary currency for an organization’s survival and success.

Motivational factors in an organizational context include working environment, job

characteristics, and appropriate organizational reward system and so on.

The development of an appropriate organizational reward system is probably one of the

strongest motivational factors. This can influence both job satisfaction and employee
motivation. The reward system affects job satisfaction by making the employee more
comfortable and contented as a result of the rewards received. The reward system
influences motivation primarily through the perceived value of the rewards and their
contingency on performance. To be effective, an organizational reward system should be
based on sound understanding of the motivation of people at work.

Gain-sharing

Gain-sharing programs generally refer to incentive plans that involve employees in a

common effort to improve organizational performance, and are based on the concept that
the resulting incremental economic gains are shared among employees and the company. In
most cases, workers voluntarily participate in management to accept responsibility for major
reforms. This type of pay is based on factors directly under a worker’s control (i.e.,
productivity or costs).

Gains are measured and distributions are made frequently through a predetermined formula.
Because this pay is only implemented when gains are achieved, gain-sharing plans do not
adversely affect company costs.

Managing Gain-sharing

In order for a gain-sharing program that meets the minimum requirements for success to be
in place, they are as follows:

• A HR manager must ensure that the people who will be participating in the plan are
influencing the performance measured by the gain-sharing formula in a significant
way by changes in their day-to-day behavior. The main idea of the gain sharing is to
motivate members to increase productivity through their behavioral changes and
working attitudes. If the increase in the performance measurement was due to
external factors, then it would have defeated the purpose of having a gain-sharing
program.
• An effective manager must ensure that the gain-sharing targets are challenging but
legitimate and attainable. In addition, the targets should be specific and challenging
but reasonable and justifiable given the historical performance, the business strategy
and the competitive environment. If the gain-sharing participants perceive the target
as impossibility and are not motivated at all, the whole program will be a disaster.
• A manager must provide useful feedback as guidance to the gain-sharing
participants concerning how they need to change their behavior(s) to realize gain-
sharing payouts. The feedback should be frequent, objective and clearly based on
the members’ performance in relation to the gain-sharing target.
• A manager must have an effective mechanism in place to allow gain-sharing
participants to initiate changes in work procedures and methods and/or requesting
 new or additional resources such as new technology to improve performance and
realize gains. Though a manager must have a tight control of company’s resources,
reasonable and justifiable requests for additional resources and/or changes in work
methods from gain-sharing participants should be considered.

The role of the HR manager must parallel the needs of the changing organization.
Successful organizations are becoming more adaptable, resilient, quick to change directions,
and customer-centered. Within this environment, the HR professional must learn how to
manage effectively through planning, organizing, leading and controlling the human resource
and be knowledgeable of emerging trends in training and employee development.

Job analysis

Job analysis is a process used to capture information about jobs, particularly tasks; duties;
knowledge, skills and abilities (KSAs); and competencies. A job analysis may be used for
multiple purposes, such as selection, compensation, and performance management. Each
type has different goals and uses as described in the next paragraph. Many focuses are
possible in a job analysis, but considerably more time and resources are required for a more
thorough multipurpose job analysis than for a single-purpose job analysis.

Selection-oriented job analysis techniques focus on identifying important work behaviors and
the tasks associated with them. This includes an analysis of the important work behavior(s)
required for successful performance and their relative importance and, if the behavior results
in work product(s), an analysis of the work product(s). The information produced from this
type of job analysis is most useful for making decisions on selection, performance
management, and training.

In contrast, a classification-oriented job analysis may focus on relevant compensable factors

(e.g., decision making, complexity), describing work behaviors in a way that distinguishes
among levels within these factors. This type of job analysis is often is a foundation for
compensation decisions based on similar work of all jobs in a class.

The information published in this document addresses the type of job analysis conducted for
the purpose of employee selection. The selection-oriented job analysis is the basis for
development of valid selection instruments that are used to differentiate between potentially
good and poor workers. A job analysis that produces a valid examination should identify the
job characteristics that distinguish among different levels of work performance, are not easily
learned on the job, and are present to at least a moderate extent in the applicant pool. It is
critical that the examination plan and examination(s) are not finalized until after the job
analysis is completed.

Any job analysis should focus on the work behavior(s) and the tasks associated with them. If
work behavior(s) are not observable, the job analysis should identify and analyze those
aspects of the behavior(s) that can be observed and the observed work products. The work
behavior(s) selected for measurement should be critical work behavior(s) as measured
by importance and difficulty to learn, and/or frequent work behavior(s)
constituting most of the job.

Information Collection

The HR specialist collects details about the job and performance levels and then groups that
information into general factors that are important for successful job performance. The
following are six basic techniques used to gather information about a job:

• Literature review
• Direct experience
• Interviews
• Worker logs
• Questionnaires
• Observation

Regardless of the technique, the information collected must be analyzed and its link to
elements of the selection process documented.

Characteristics of Job Analysis

An appropriate job analysis consists of four key elements: reliability, validity; quantification;
and adaptability. These are described below.

Reliability

Reliability refers to the extent to which a process or a result can be replicated. A reliable job
analysis procedure is one that provides essentially the same results when it: (1) is applied to
the same job by another HR Specialist; (2) relies on a different sample of job experts; or (3)
is applied at a different time. Reliability of a job analysis procedure does not guarantee its
validity.

Standardized job analysis methods produce acceptable to high levels of reliability.

Particularly high levels of reliability can be demonstrated for methods that rely on structured
questionnaires such as worker-oriented questionnaires, job inventories, or checklists. This is
especially true if the structure of these instruments carefully controls the usage and meaning
of the language.

Validity

Validity is the extent to which the analysis measures what it was designed to measure. It is a
separate requirement from reliability. The validity of a procedure depends on its purpose. A
job analysis can only be valid for examination development and selection if it identifies those
factors that differentiate among levels of performance in the particular job. A job analysis
method that simply describes what is done and does not evaluate levels of performance is
not valid for development of an examination.

Quantification

Quantification is an important aspect of most major job analysis methods. Quantification

involves assigning a numeric value to the data in order to differentiate relative importance of
items, analyze large amounts of data, and provide a defensible basis for selection decisions.

However, the HR professional must utilize professional judgment acquired through study and
practice to appropriately interpret the significance and use of results.

Adaptability

Adaptability refers to the extent to which the results of an analysis are adaptable or useful in
other contexts. Generally, procedures that are narrative and subjective are low in
adaptability.

Structured instruments that use a similar format and process for a variety of applications
tend to be high in adaptability.

Objective of Selection-Oriented Job Analysis

When developing a job analysis for selection purposes, there are three basic considerations:
validity, defensibility, and minimizing time and resources. These are described below.

Validity

The five commonly used job analysis methods described above are intended to form the
basis of content validity. An examination can claim content validity if the domain of job
performance is adequately sampled by the examination. The job analysis should lead to
development of a content-valid selection device that differentiates among performance levels
in the areas selected for evaluation.

Defensibility

Documentation is the key to defensibility. The analysis should provide as much

documentation as is practical given the demands for validity and the limitations of time and
resources. Reliability also contributes to the defensibility of a job analysis.

Minimizing Time & Resources

Minimizing administrative time and resources should always be a consideration. This

consideration will limit the other two objectives. In general, the more time and resources that
are devoted to the job analysis, the more valid and defensible the resulting examination will
be.

Selecting a Job Analysis Method

Choosing a job analysis method for development of any particular examination is not simple.
It requires a great deal of professional judgment and analysis. The following provides a
summary of the considerations in selecting a job analysis technique:

• The required level of validity and defensibility of the exam based on characteristics of
the position(s) being filled (i.e., position level, likelihood the exam will be challenged,
consequence of a poor hire or amount of time the position is left vacant, etc.)
• Time and resources required to develop and administer the job analysis method and
exam
• Preliminary identification of competencies
• Preliminary examination plan

Documentation

The amount and extent of the documentation produced for a job analysis depends on the
method used. Listed below are the key elements that need to be included in the
documentation at a minimum, regardless of the method:

• A description of the job analysis method used

• The work behavior(s), associated tasks, and if the behavior results in a work product,
a complete description of the work product.
• Criticality and/or importance of the work behavior(s).
• For each key work behavior, a link to the corresponding KSAs and the level required.
 • A completed SME Information Sheet for each SME that participated in the process.

Job Descriptions

Job descriptions are essential. Job descriptions are required for recruitment so that you and
the applicants can understand the role. Job descriptions are necessary for all people in work.
A job description defines a person's role and accountability. Without a job description it is not
possible for a person to properly commit to, or be held accountable for, a role.

As an employee you may have or be given the opportunity to take responsibility for your job
description. This is good. It allows you to clarify expectations with your employer and your
boss.

The process of writing job descriptions is actually quite easy and straight-forward. Many
people tend to start off with a list of 20-30 tasks, which is okay as a start, but this needs
refining to far fewer points, around 8-12 is the ideal.

Smaller organisations commonly require staff and managers to cover a wider or more mixed
range of responsibilities than in larger organisations (for example, the 'office manager' role
can comprise financial, HR, stock-control, scheduling and other duties).

Therefore in smaller organisations, job descriptions might necessarily contain a greater

number of listed responsibilities, perhaps 15-16. However, whatever the circumstances, the
number of responsibilities should not exceed this, or the job description becomes unwieldy
and ineffective.

Any job description containing 20-30 tasks is actually more like a part of an operational
manual, which serves a different purpose. Job descriptions should refer to the operational
manual, or to 'agreed procedures', rather than include the detail of the tasks in the job
description. If you include task detail in a job description you will need to change it when the
task detail changes, as it will often do. What would you rather change, 100 job descriptions
or one operational manual?

Similarly, lengthy details of health and safety procedures should not be included in a job
description. Instead put them into a health and safety manual, and then simply refer to this in
the job description. Again, when your health and safety procedure changes, would you
rather change 100 job descriptions or just one health and safety manual?

A useful process for refining and writing job descriptions responsibilities into fewer points
and ('responsibilities' rather than 'individual tasks'), is to group the many individual tasks into
main responsibility areas, such as the list below (not all will be applicable to any single role).
Bold type indicates that these responsibility areas would normally feature in most job
descriptions:

Bold type indicates that these responsibility areas would normally feature in most job
descriptions:

• Communicating (in relation to whom, what, how - and this is applicable to all below)
• Planning and organizing (of what)
• Managing information or general administration support (of what)
• Monitoring and reporting (of what)
• Evaluating and decision-making (of what)
• Financial budgeting and control (of what)
• Producing things (what)
• Maintaining/repairing things (what)
• Quality control (for production roles normally a separate responsibility; otherwise this
is generally incorporated within other relevant responsibilities) (of what)
• Health and safety (normally the same point for all job descriptions of a given staff
grade)
• Using equipment and systems (what)
• Creating and developing things (what)
• Self-development (normally the same point for all job descriptions of a given staff
grade)

Plus any responsibilities for other staff if applicable, typically:

• Recruiting (of direct-reporting staff)

• Assessing (direct-reporting staff)
• Training (direct-reporting staff)
• Managing (direct-reporting staff)

Senior roles will include more executive aspects:

• Developing policy
• Duty of care and corporate responsibility
• Formulation of direction and strategy

You will find that you can cluster most of the tasks on your (initially very long) list into a list of
far fewer broad (but still specific) responsibilities according to the above examples of typical
job description activity areas.
Obviously the level of authority affects the extent of responsibility in the job description for
determining strategy, decision-making, managing other people, and for executive roles,
deciding direction, policy, and delivering corporate performance.

Wherever possible refer the detail of standards and process to your 'operational manual' or
'agreed procedures' or 'agreed standards' rather than allowing the job description to become
a sort of operating manual. If your boss or employer is asking for you to detail your tasks at
length in a job description, encourage him/her/the organization to put this level of detail into
an operational manual - it will save a lot of time.

Writing or re-writing a job description is a good opportunity to frame the role as you'd like it
as well as reflect how it is at the moment, so try to think outside of the normal way of
thinking, and if this is difficult seek the input of somebody who is less close to things.

Job descriptions are Important

Job descriptions improve an organization’s ability to manage people and roles in the
following ways:

• Clarifies employer expectations for employee

• Provides basis of measuring job performance
• Provides clear description of role for job candidates
• Provides a structure and discipline for company to understand and structure all jobs
and ensure necessary activities, duties and responsibilities are covered by one job or
another
• Provides continuity of role parameters irrespective of manager interpretation
• Enables pay and grading systems to be structured fairly and logically
• Prevents arbitrary interpretation of role content and limit by employee and employer
and manager
• Essential reference tool in issues of employee/employer dispute
• Essential reference tool for discipline issues
• Provides important reference points for training and development areas
• Provides neutral and objective (as opposed to subjective or arbitrary) reference
points for appraisals, performance reviews and counseling
• Enables formulation of skill set and behavior set requirements per role
• Enables organization to structure and manage roles in a uniform way, thus increasing
efficiency and effectiveness of recruitment, training and development, organizational
structure, work flow and activities, customer service, etc
 • Enables factual view (as opposed to instinctual) to be taken by employees and
managers in career progression and succession planning (The list is not exhaustive.)

Here you'll find job descriptions structure and template, and samples of various job
descriptions. Be very careful to adhere to relevant employment and discrimination law when
compiling job descriptions, job adverts and person-profiles. In the UK this means that you
must not specify a preference according to gender, race, creed, religion, or physical ability. If
you find yourself writing a job description with a bias in any of these areas you should ask
yourself why, as none can be justified.

Job Evaluation

Job evaluation is the process of methodically establishing a structure of jobs within an

organization based on a systematic consideration of job content and requirements. The
purpose of the job evaluation is to provide a basis for the pay structure.

We may define job evaluation as. a process of analyzing and describing positions, and
determining their relative value by comparing the duties of different person’s in terms of their
responsibilities and requirements.

• It is the quantitative measurement of relative job worth for the purpose of establishing
Consistent wage rate differentials by objective means. It measures the differences
between job differences between job requirements, the objective being the setting of
pay for wage administration purposes.
• It does not set the price of a job; it merely fixes its relative worth.
• It presents an effort to determine the relative value of every job in a plant, and to
determine what the fair wage for such a job should be. It is not evaluating the merit of
the worker who is the work. It rates the job and not the qualities of the individual
worker on which is the task of employee rating.

Conceptual Discussion

Job evaluation developed out of civil service classification practices. Job analysis applied to
time study and selection, and some early employer job and pay classification systems.
Whether formal job evaluation began with the United States Civil Service Commission in
1871 or with Frederick W. Taylor in 1881, it is about 100 years old.

The first point system was developed in the 1920s. Employer associations have contributed
greatly to the adoption of certain plans. The spread of unionism has influenced the
installation of job evaluation in that employers gave more attention to rationalized wage
structures as unionism advanced. The War Labor Board during World War II encouraged the
expansion of job evaluation as a method of reducing wage inequities.

Job evaluation has received a good deal of attention in recent years as a result of social
concern regarding discrimination.

A study of job evaluation as a potential source of and/or a potential solution to sex

discrimination in pay was made by the National Research Council under a contract from the
Equal Employment Opportunity Commission.

The study suggested that jobs held predominantly by women and minorities may be
undervalued. Such discrimination may result from the use of different plans for different
employee groups, from the compensable factors employed, from the weights assigned to
factors, and from the stereotypes associated with jobs.

Although the preliminary report failed to take a position on job evaluation, the final report
concluded that job evaluation holds some potential for solving problems of discrimination.

Why to do Job evaluation?

Organizations usually begin the process of designing a wave structure by determining their
job structure. Two often-cited principles of compensation are

• Equal pay for equal work

• More pay for more important work. Both imply that organizations pay employees for
contributions required by jobs.

Most organizations utilize job assignment as a major determinant of employee contributions.

A formal wage structure, defined as a rate or range of rates established for job
classifications, seems to be standard organization practice, except in very small
organizations. Formal job evaluation or informal comparison of job content is the almost
universal base of pay rates. Job evaluation is concerned with jobs, not people. A job is a
grouping of work tasks. It is an arbitrary concept requiring careful definition in the
organization. Job evaluation determines the relative position of the job in the organization
hierarchy. It is assumed that as long as job content remains unchanged, it may be performed
by individuals of varying ability and proficiency.
Objectives of Job Evaluation

The general purpose of job evaluation may include a number of more specific goals:

• To provide a basis for a simpler, more rational wage structure

• To provide an agreed-upon means of classifying new or changed jobs
• To provide a base for individual performance measurements
• To reduce pay grievances by reducing their scope and providing an agreed-upon
means of resolving disputes
• To provide incentives for employees to strive for higher-level jobs
• To provide information for wage negotiations
• To provide data on job relationships for use in internal and external selection,
personnel planning, career management, and other personnel functions

The principle upon which all job evaluation schemes are based is that of describing and
assessing the value jobs in the firms in terms of a number of factors, the relative importance
of which varies from job to job:

• To secure and maintain complete, accurate and impersonal descriptions of each

distinct job or occupation in the entire plant
• To provide a standard procedure for determining the relative worth of each job in a
plant
• To determine the rate of pay for each job which is fair and equitable with relation to
other jobs in the plant, community or industry?
• To ensure that like wages are paid to all qualified employees for like work
• To promote a fair. And accurate consideration of all employees for advancement and
transfer
• To provide a factual basis for the consideration of wage rates for similar jobs in a
community and in an industry
• To provide information for 'work organization, employees' selection, placement,
training and numerous other similar problems

In fact, the primary purpose of job evaluation is to set wages and salary on the basis the
relative work or jobs in the organization. It goes this by providing a ground for the following
matters:

• Equity and objective of salary administration, i.e., paying the people whose work is
alike the same wages, and establishing appropriate wage differentials between jobs
calling for different skills and responsibilities
 • Effective wage and salary control
• Union-management negotiations on wages
• Comparison of wage and vary rates with those of other employees

Besides setting wages, job evaluation also helps in:

• Providing standardization of, and improvement in, working conditions

• Clarifying the functions, authority and responsibility of employees
• Establishing references for the settlement of grievances arising out of individual rates
and for negotiations with a trade union on internal wage structure and differentials
• Developing machinery for a systematic reviewing of job rates as job contents change
• Developing personnel statistics.

Career Planning and Development

Until recently, employees could join an organization fully expecting to stay with it for their
entire career. Now, life-long careers are a thing of the past. Some naive employees still feel
that they are immune to the ongoing reductions because they are doing good work and
adding value to the organization. However, increasing competition, rapid technological
change, relentless restructuring and downsizing mean that high performance no longer
protects employees from dismissal. People increasingly will move from opportunity to
opportunity without regard for traditional job boundaries. Some experts predict that soon full-
time careers will no longer be the norm. Realistic career planning forces employees to be
proactive and to anticipate problems and opportunities. It does this by making them establish
and examine their career objectives. Career planning and development involves two
processes — career planning (employee centered) and career management (organization
centered). Career management is integral to HR planning, but HR planning and/or career
management do not exist or are not integrated in some organizations.

Ideally, career planning and development should be seen as a process that aligns the
interests and skills of employees with the needs of the organization. This means that careers
must be managed strategically so the skills demanded by the organization’s strategic
business objectives are understood and a work force with a matching profile of skills is
developed. Career planning and development play a major part in ensuring that the
organization has a competitive and knowledgeable work force.
HR planning and career planning and development

Employees and organizations are paying more attention to career planning and development
because: employees are increasingly concerned about their quality of life there are EEO
legislation and AA pressures educational levels and employee aspirations are rising workers
are making the transition from vertical careers to lateral careers organizations have an
increasing sense of obligation to employees.

Employee’s Responsibility

Every employee should be concerned about his or her own career planning and
development. Unfortunately, many employees ignore this responsibility, preferring to leave it
to the organization. By adopting such a passive stance, employees give up control of their
career, limit their future employability and reduce their chances of achieving their career
goals.

Although some organizations provide in-house career planning and development, this is
often geared to the organization’s needs and not those of the individual employee.
Individual career planning means that the employee must critically examine his or her
personal and vocational interests, personal and career goals and present skill and ability
levels.

HR department’s Responsibility

Proactive HR managers recognize the importance of career planning and development in

satisfying individual and organizational needs. If the HR department is fully aware of the
organization’s future HR needs, career chances and training and development opportunities,
then it is well placed to promote career planning among employees.

Factors in Career Development

Individual employees must accept the responsibility for their own career development.
Failure to do so will prevent smooth and optimal career progression. Factors that are
important to successful career development and growth include:

• Performance - Employees who perform badly are rarely considered for training and
development opportunities, international assignments or promotion.
• Exposure - If an employee is to succeed, he or she must become known to senior
management. Employees can become known to the organization’s decision makers
 through superior performance, report writing, presentations, and involvement in
company training and development programs and social activities.
• Qualifications - US research indicates that a strong correlation exists between
graduate earnings and the quality of the university they attended.
• Employer reputation - Some organizations have a ‘star’ reputation as breeding
grounds for high-potential employees. Consequently, getting a job with the right
company can be an important factor in career success and long-term employability.
• Nepotism - Thirty per cent of publicly listed companies in Hong Kong have boards of
directors on which half or more of the executive directors are related as family
members.
• Mentor - Successful managers usually have a mentor or sponsor who helps advance
their career by offering advice, giving instruction and opening up career opportunities.

Benefits of Mentoring

The protégé, by developing more skills and self-confidence, performs better and provides
longer service to the organization.

• Mentoring, by identifying talent, helps companies encourage and capitalize on

diversity.
• Mentoring provides a structure for the growth and development of all employees.
• Mentoring helps inculcate corporate values.
• Mentoring improves employee job satisfaction and motivation.
• Mentors can buffer women from discrimination and help them overcome gender-
related barriers to advancement.

Unfortunately women and minorities often find themselves excluded from mentoring
relationships. This is because mentoring is frequently based on personal relationships built
up outside working hours.

• Ingratiation - Ingratiation may be an effective career strategy, especially when

associated with competence.
• Development - Ongoing expansion of skills and knowledge makes an employee
more valuable and, therefore, more attractive to the organization.
• International experience - International experience is increasingly a key to career
success (particularly for those aspiring to top management).
• Language skills - The internationalization of business and the development of global
business centers demand that fast-track managers possess not only good English
skills but competency in a second (or third) language.
 • Computer and Keyboard skills - To have a competitive advantage, computer
literacy is a must. High skilled employees must be “technology capable”.
• Networking - It is extremely important for an employee to build a network of contacts
who are likely to be useful to his or her career development.
• Goal setting - ‘successful career planners are self motivated, self starters who are
hard working and most important of all, goal directed. They have established what
goals they want to achieve and how to go about it’.
• Financial Planning Skills - Today savvy employees know there is no lifelong
employment guarantees.
• Golf - Golf is at the centre of business, especially in Asia where most major business
deals are concluded on the golf course. The golf course is now called the boardroom
of the new millennium because business discussions that start on the golf course
often end up in the boardroom.
• Appearance - There is ample evidence to indicate that appearance plays an
important role in compensation and career success.

Careers in HRM

Those contemplating a career in HRM need to think carefully about their career objectives
and how they plan to achieve them. HRM offers many exciting opportunities but also has its
limitations. Few HRM practitioners, for example, become managing directors or achieve the
same status and income as their counterparts in line management. To enhance personal
satisfaction and professional success, individuals should thoroughly assess their own needs
and expectations, and gather as much information as they can about HR work, career paths,
opportunities, rewards and so on.

• Job variety - Job opportunities exist for both generalists and specialists in HRM.
• Remuneration - Remuneration for HRM employees has lagged behind that paid to
employees in functions such as finance and marketing; Australian and US data
suggest that the median earnings of full-time HR professionals are in decline and that
male HR professionals, on average, still earn more than their female counterparts.
However, as HRM moves away from its traditional status of cost centre to that of
profit contributor and strategic business partner, the magnitude of the monetary
differential is reducing (particularly in banking and financial services and hi-tech
companies).
• Working conditions - HR departments are frequented by applicants, employees,
union officials, government inspectors and visitors, so they need to present a
 favorable image of the organization as a place of employment. Consequently, most
HR offices tend to be clean and pleasant places in which to work.
• Career preparation — education - Some people work in HRM without academic
qualifications, but it is evident that the increasing demands by employers for
professional competence and know-how make tertiary education essential.
•
Career preparation — competencies - Ulrich argues that the HR manager of the
future should be a strategic business partner, an administrative expert, a champion
for employees and a change agent. This, says Ulrich, demands competence in
knowledge of the business, knowledge of HR, change management, and credibility
• Career preparation — experience - Probably the most beneficial entry to HRM is
from a line management function such as marketing. This enables the individual to
better understand the problems faced by line managers and to appreciate the
importance of bottom-line impact. It also promotes flexibility and provides increased
career opportunities outside HRM.
• Accreditation - Admission to the AHRI is open to graduates and non-graduates.
• HRM as a profession - Whether or not HRM is a profession has long been debated.
What is not questioned is or not that HR managers should be ‘professional’ in terms
of their qualifications and performance.
• Professional associations - the professional association with the largest
membership is the AHRI

Knowledge Process Management

Knowledge processes cannot be managed following the standard business process

management paradigm. In the following article some guidelines are given for organizations
willing to better manage their knowledge processes.

In the last few years a lot has been written about Business Process Management, and about
technologies supporting it such as BPMS, SOAP and Web Services. Most of these theories,
tools and techniques refer to processes of a highly structured nature.

Typically, BPM theorists and practitioners have focused on highly structured processes, like
back-office processes of industrial or administrative nature. These processes are highly
standardized and repeatable, produce a consistent output and are likely to be automated in
part or end-to-end (STP). All process instances are executed in a very similar way and it is
easy to draw a flowchart detailing the sequence in which tasks are executed. It is also
possible to formalize the business rules that guide decisions, normally based on the
evaluation of some process variables.
But recently other kinds of processes have caught the attention of process management
specialists. They are known as knowledge processes, or knowledge-based processes.

Knowledge processes can be defined as "high added value processes in which the
achievement of goals is highly dependent on the skills, knowledge and experience of the
people carrying them out". Some examples could be management, R&D, or new product
development processes.

Knowledge workers carry out these processes by taking into account multiple inputs
(generally a wide set of unstructured data and information) to perform difficult tasks and
make complex decisions among multiple possible ways of doing the work, each one implying
different levels of risk and possible benefits. They are dependent on individuals and it is not
possible to automate them.

One example of a knowledge process is "Marketing a new product". The same steps are
followed each time a new product is launched (benchmarking competitors, deciding pricing
strategy, planning promotion, etc...), but it is the experience, knowledge and intuition of the
people that drive the process to success.

Multiple inputs to the process exist

Some of them would be competition, lifecycle stage of the market, brand image, budget,
etc...

Complex decisions are made

There are many possible ways to achieve the process objectives (reach planned sales,
leverage brand image, etc...)

Each decision implies different levels of risk and potential benefits

It is the responsibility of the worker to choose the best one (low price strategy, aggressive
advertising campaign, etc...)

There are three main characteristics that make knowledge processes different from highly
structured processes:

Focus is on communication instead of automation

The key to process improvement is to clearly communicate process definitions (the way in
which the company wants the processes to be carried out) to the people in charge of their
execution (through training, process descriptions publication, etc...). The better process
participants understand the process definition, the higher the probability that the process is
carried out according to it.

They are more difficult to implement through discipline than administrative human centric
processes (although some discipline is needed). It is better to focus on obtaining buy-in from
the people affected by the processes through early involvement, communication and
expectations management. It is a known fact that knowledge workers are reluctant to change
their habits. Some say knowledge workers don't like following procedures because they feel
it limits their creativity; but most of the time they will be happy to follow a procedure as long
as they see value in it, perceiving that it helps them work better and produce a better
process output.

Processes can only be defined up to a certain level of detail, and it is difficult to provide low
level work instructions or to automate decisions. Because they cannot be formalized in
detail, process simulation is rarely possible. Decisions are highly subjective and too complex
to be expressed in a formal language, as they are taken based on intuition and not on rigid
business rules.

It is extremely important to continuously improve knowledge processes, by creating an

environment through which they can evolve. This can only be achieved through coordination
of diverse disciplines such as knowledge management, change management, expectations
management, etc... It is crucial to establish an adequate process context (the combination of
technologies, procedures, people, etc... that supports the processes). The process context
must incorporate feedback mechanisms, change evaluation procedures, process
improvement methods and techniques and must be flexible; in order to be able to
incorporate enhancements in an agile but controlled way. If the process is instantiated
frequently and the instances are homogeneous, it is possible to create great process models
that dramatically increase the efficiency of the process.

The best way to ensure process improvement is to generate an environment in which people
are motivated, enthusiastic and passionate about process management.

Most of the time, knowledge processes are collaborative. By performing a process

collaboratively it is possible that each task is carried out by the most specialized,
experienced and knowledgeable worker in that specific area. Having a net of relations within
the organization is a very important asset for people executing knowledge processes.

In the last years some organizations have emerged with the aim of creating professional
communities around specific disciplines such as Software Development (SEI, ESI, etc...),
Project Management (PMI), Business Process Management (BPMI), IT Service
Management (ITSMF), etc... One of the objectives of these groups is to develop a body of
knowledge that compiles the discipline's best practices in the form of reference frameworks,
methodologies and maturity models. These assets should be considered by any organization
interested in knowledge process management.

It is usual that knowledge processes take the form of projects to manage their execution. If
the output of the process is a unique product, managing work as a project will result in
obvious advantages.

There are certain guidelines that can help an organization willing to improve their knowledge
processes:

Provide process description on how to approach work

Try to figure out the best way to carry out a knowledge process, by making the best
practices existing in your organization (or in your industry) explicit. Publish process
definitions in a format that is easy to consult and understand.

Provide tools that facilitate and standardize work

Decide which tools are best to help knowledge workers carry out their work. Involving all
affected knowledge workers in the process of deciding which tools will be used is very
convenient, in order to obtain user buy in. It is a good idea to choose a champion for each
tool who will master its use.

Assign owners to processes

Choose a person with leadership skills and the appropriate level of responsibility and
influence and make him/her accountable for continuous improvement of the process. Give
him/her a clear objective to achieve and an incentive to reach the goal.

Encourage feedback for process improvement

To ensure that the flow of information between executors and the process owner is fluid,
encourage people to contribute to process enhancement through incentives. Use your
imagination to reward contributors (consider not only monetary incentives).