Brasil - Da C & T À Política de Inovação Viotti

19/03/2017 Globelics
Pgina1
DocumentoapresentadoparaaVIConfernciaGlobelics,2224desetembrode2008,CidadedoMxico
Globelics
Brasil:DaC&Tpolticadeinovao?
Aevoluoeosdesafiosenfrentadospelaspolticasbrasileirasdecincia,
Tecnologiaeinovao *
EduardoB.Viotti **
1.Introduo
Nveiselevadosecrescentesdeprodutividadedotrabalhoestonocernedodesenvolvimentodeumanao.o
Crescimentodaprodutividadedotrabalhodequalquerpessoafunodasuacapacidadedeabsorver,
Ecriartecnologias.
Emboraaimportnciadodesenvolvimentotecnolgicotenhasidoreconhecida
Maioriadosdecisorespolticoseanalistasdepolticas,temsidogeralmente
Subprodutododesenvolvimentoeconmicoenocomoumrequisitoparaele.
Durantedcadas,osbrasileirosparecemteracreditadoqueodesenvolvimentotecnolgico
Fenmenosligadosemergnciaemultiplicaodadinmicatecnolgica
Empresassurgiriacomoumaconseqncianatural,inicialmentedoprocessodeindustrializao,
E,maisrecentemente,daliberalizaodaeconomia.
Aspolticasemmatriadecinciaetecnologia(C&T)estabelecidasno
formaoderecursoshumanoseproduodenovastecnologiascientficasetecnolgicas.
conhecimento.Estaspolticasforamquaseexclusivamentededicadasaoapoioainstitutosde
Investigaoeensinosuperior.Asempresasraramenteconstituamoalvodirectodaspolticase
Programas.Opapelreservadoaosetorprodutivofoiessencialmenteodeabsorvera
Conhecimentoerecursoshumanosfornecidospelosinstitutosdepesquisae
Educao.
Noentanto,desdeofinaldadcadade1990,osbrasileirostornaramseprogressivamente
ParaumapolticadeC&Tdiretamentevinculadaaoprocessodedesenvolvimentodopas.Apromoo
Inovaotecnolgicatornouse,portanto,umobjectivoexplcitoe
PolticabrasileiradeC&T.Noentanto,asempresasagenteschavedoprocessodeinovao
*EstaumaversorevisadadeumartigoescritoparaoSeminrioInternacionalsobreCincia,Tecnologiae
InnovationPolicyEvaluation,organizadopeloCentrodeGestoeEstudosEstratgicos(CGEE)erealizadaem
RiodeJaneiro,nosdias3e5dedezembrode2007.
**OdocumentofoiescritoenquantooautoreraumprofessorvisitantedoCentrodeEstudosBrasileiros,Institutode
EstudosLatinoamericanos,EscoladeRelaesInternacionaisePblicas(SIPA),UniversidadedeColumbia,NovaYork,
EUA.AtualmentepesquisadorepalestrantedoprogramademestradodoCentrodeDesenvolvimentoSustentvel
DesenvolvimentodaUniversidadedeBraslia(UnB),eestemlicenadesuaposiocomoconselheiro
OSenadobrasileirosobrepolticacientficaetecnolgica.Email:eduardo.viotti@uol.com.br.(Universidade
DeBraslia)
1
https://translate.googleusercontent.com/translate_f 1/29
Pgina2
Estoaindaaserefectivamenteintegradosnacincia,tecnologiaeinovao(ST&I)
Polticas,provavelmenteporseremtradicionalmenteconsideradosagentesexternosC&T
sistema.
Estedocumentotemtrsobjetivosprincipais.Aprimeiradelinearaevoluoda
PolticasdeST&Ieidentificarasuarelaocomaspolticasdedesenvolvimentoe
Processodedesenvolvimentodopas.Osegundoprocurarprovasqueconfirmema
ExistnciadamudanaproclamadadapolticatradicionaldeC&Tparauma
inovao.Porfim,otrabalhodescreveeanalisaosprincipaisdesafiosque
PolticadeST&InoBrasil.
Apsestaintroduo,otrabalhodivididoemduassees,comaseo2
SobreaevoluodapolticabrasileiradeST&Ieaseo3sobreosdesafioscomque
Devecontender.
Aprximaseoforneceumaanlisepanormicadaevoluonoapenasdaexplcita
PolticadeST&Idopas,mastambmdapolticaimplcitapresentenomodelode
Desenvolvimentodecadaumadasprincipaisfaseshistricasda
desenvolvimento.Naanlise,dadaespecialatenocontribuiodasempresasparaa
Oprocessodemudanatcnicaeinovao.
OperodopsSegundaGuerraMundialdivididoemtrsfases.Aprimeira,queseestendede
Aproximadamentede1950a1980,tratadonaseo2.1,chamada"Embuscadodesenvolvimento
Crescimento".Osegundo,correspondentesduasltimasdcadasdosculoXX,
Naseo2.2,sobottulo"Embuscadodesenvolvimentoatravsdaeficincia".
Altimafase,iniciadaemtornodaviradadosculoequeaindaestemcurso,abordada
Seco2.3sobaformadeumapergunta:"Embuscadodesenvolvimentoatravsdainovao?"
Apoiadopeloesforoanteriorparasistematizareanalisaraevoluodopsguerra
ApolticadeST&InoBrasil,naseo3,levantaosprincipaisdesafiosenfrentadospor
Faseatualdedesenvolvimento.Eletambmapontaparaofatodequeamudanaobservadarecentemente
Inovaoaindatemumlongocaminhoapercorrerparaconstituirumaverdadeirapolticadeinovao.Conseqentemente,
OdesafiomaisimportantequeenfrentaaactualpolticadeST&Ireforaratransioparaum
Verdadeirapolticadeinovaoe,porsuavez,transformlanumapolticadedesenvolvimentoeficaz.
Emboragerarumdesenvolvimentobaseadonavantagemtecnolgicasejaumatarefa
Asatuaiscondiesmacroeconmicasdaeconomiabrasileiraestocriandoumajanelahistrica
Oportunidadesparaqueessedesafiosejaalcanadocomxito.
2.EvoluodaST&Iepolticasdedesenvolvimento
OsesforosdedesenvolvimentobrasileirosdesdeaSegundaGuerraMundialpodemserdescritoscomocaindoemtrs
Diferentesfases.Aprimeirafase,queseestendeudeaproximadamente1950a1980,podeser
Caracterizadacomomarcadapelabuscadedesenvolvimentoatravsdeumcrescimento
industrializao. 1
1NoBrasil,odesenvolvimentobaseadoemcrescimentorpidodosetorindustrialfoirealmenteiniciadoantesMundial
Pgina3
Asegundafase,quecorrespondeaproximadamentesduasltimasdcadasdoXX
Sculo,caracterizousepelabusca(relutantenoincio,masprogressivamentemais
Determinado)paraaeficinciae,emltimaanlise,paraodesenvolvimento,atravsda
Foras.Nesseperodo,apercepodominanteeradequeaspolticaspblicasgeralmente
Maisdoqueajudaramnoprocessodedesenvolvimento.
Napresentefase,iniciadanaviradadosculoXXI,opasprocura
Paraumnovomodelodedesenvolvimento,queaindanofoiclaramentedefinido.Emboraos
Polticanovamentevalorizadacomoumaferramentanecessriaaodesenvolvimento,noocorreu
Relaoimportnciaatribudaaosmecanismosdemercado,nemhouvequalquertentativade
Pararestabelecerpolticasdedesenvolvimentocomoastpicasdoperododesubstituiodeimportaes.
Emboraaindanosejapossvelcaracterizarestafasecompreciso,possvel
Identificarumadesuascaractersticasmarcantes,quearelevnciasemprecedentes,ainovao
AssumirnoscomrefernciapolticadeC&T,mastambmemrelaoaoutros
Polticasindustriais,destinadasapromoverodesenvolvimento.Essestraos
Poderiaestaraapontarparaosurgimentodeumanovafasecaracterizadapela
Inovaocomocaminhoparaodesenvolvimento,emborasedevareconhecerqueeste
Aindanofoifundamentada.
Nestaseo,aintenonoapresentarumaanlisedetalhadadapolticaST&I
Medidasimplementadasemcadaumadastrsfaseshistricas,massimoferecerumbreve
Visopanormicadasprincipaiscaractersticasdacincia,tecnologiaeinovao
Polticasestabelecidasaolongodasdcadasprecedentes.Aapresentaoseguiruma
Abordagemevolutivaeserorganizadadeacordocomareestruturaodosperodospropostos
nessepapel.EsseesforodesistematizaodaspolticasbrasileirasdeST&Ienfocaos
Desenvolvimentotecnolgicodosectorprodutivo,bemcomoparaodesenvolvimentoglobal
opas.
Asprincipaiscaractersticasdecadaumadastrsfasesdedesenvolvimentosodelineadas,
DaspolticasST&Icorrespondentes.Tendoissosidofeito,osprincipais
Oprocessodedesenvolvimentodaspolticastpicasdecadaumadasduasprimeirasfasessodelineadas.
Porsuavez,aanlisedafaseatualconcluicomindicaessobreastendnciase
CaractersticasdepolticasrecentesdeST&Iquemerecematenoespecial.
GuerraII.Contudo,apenasnoinciodosanos50foiadoptadoumconjuntodemedidasquepoderiamser
EmergnciadeumaverdadeirapolticaC&T.Acriao,em1951,doConselhoNacionaldePesquisas(CNPq)e
ACampanhaNacionalparaaMelhoriadoEnsinoSuperior(CAPES)ummarconahistria
PolticabrasileiradeC&T.Emboraosatributoseatmesmoosnomesdessasinstituiesfossem
Mudaram,seusacrnimospermaneceramosmesmosesuaimportnciaparaST&Ipolticacontinuaatosdiasatuais.
3
Pgina4
2
2.1.Embuscadodesenvolvimentoatravsdocrescimento
Operodo19501980foicaracterizadopelaindustrializaodesubstituiodeimportaes(ISI).o
OEstadoprotegeuaindstriainfantil,apoiouoinvestimentoprivadoestrangeiroedomsticoe
Criouempresaspblicasemsetoresconsideradosestratgicosparaodesenvolvimentonacional
Masnoconseguiuatraircapitalprivado.Osprincipaisprincpiossubjacentesaestaabordagemforamderivados
Teoriasdedesenvolvimento,principalmentedaescoladepensamentoeconmicoelaborada
EconomistasecientistassociaisassociadosCEPAL, 3 TaiscomoRalPrebischeCelso
Furtado.Aindustrializaoeravistacomoumaformadetransferirastecnologiasmodernas,
Instituieserelaessociaiscaractersticasdaseconomiasdesenvolvidasemdesenvolvimento.
Odesenvolvimentofoiprofundamenteacreditadocomooresultadodaindustrializao.
Associadoaessemodelodedesenvolvimentoestavaumprocessoespecficodemudanatcnica,um
Quesupostamentegarantiriaodesenvolvimentotecnolgicodopas.o
Absoroegeraodetecnologiasforampercebidascomoconseqnciasnaturaisde
Industrializaodesubstituiodeimportaes,oquepodeserconsideradocomoapolticadeC&T
Implcitaaomodelodedesenvolvimentoemquesto.4 EssapolticaimplcitadeC&Tfoiconstituda
Dedoiselementos.Oprimeiro,entendidocomoomotordodesenvolvimentotecnolgico,
Absoroatravsdaindustrializaoextensivadascapacidadesnecessriasparaa
Produodebensmanufaturados. 5 Osegundoelementoreflectiaaexpectativadeque
Industrializao(ouseja,aassimilaodascapacidadesdeproduo)teriacomo
"Industrializao"damudanatcnica(isto,odesenvolvimentodainovao
Capacidades).Duranteestafase,amaioriadoseconomistas,decisorespolticosepolticos
Viso.
Entretanto,umapolticaexplcitadeC&Testavaaserconcebidaeimplementadaporactores
Einteressesperifricosaomodelodesubstituiodeimportaesdedesenvolvimento.Estapoltica
Deinvestigaoedesenvolvimento(I&D),em
Sobreacriaoeofortalecimentodeuniversidadeseinstitutosdepesquisa,
FormandoosrecursoshumanosnecessriosparaP&D.Destaforma,acrescenteofertade
ConhecimentocientficoetecnolgicoedepessoaldeI&Ddeveriaserutilizado
Empresascomoobjectivodegerarinovaes.
SubjacenteinterpretaodamudanatcnicaqueorientouapolticaexplcitadeC&Tna
TempoochamadoModeloLinear 6 Deinovao,segundooqualasempresasso
2InformaeseavaliaesdaspolticasdeCT&Ibrasileiroimplementadasduranteasduasprimeirasfasespode
PodemserencontradosemErber(1979),Brasil(1991),Galvo(1993),Gibbons(1995),Schwartzmanetal.(1995a,1995b,
1996ae1996b),Guimares(1996)eMCT/ABC(2001).
3CEPALasiglaparaComissoEconmicadasNaesUnidasparaaAmricaLatinaeoCaribe,
ComsedeemSantiagodoChile.
4NotequearefernciaaquiapolticadeC&Timplcitaparaomodelodedesenvolvimento,enocomoconceito
Maisusualnaliteratura,quedizrespeitospolticasdeC&Timplcitasemoutraspolticas
Relacionadasaosimpactosdaspolticasfiscaisecambiaissobreodesenvolvimentotecnolgicode
empreendimentos.
5VejaViotti(2002e2004)paraumacompreensodostrstiposbsicosdecapacidadestecnolgicas:
Produo,melhoriaeinovao.
6Emboraaideiadalinear(ou"cinciapush")omodeloestlongedesernova,asuainflunciaveioaprevalecercomodasua
SistematizaonochamadoRelatrioBush,intitulado"Cincia,aFronteiraSemFim"(Bush,1945).Umrigoroso
4
Pgina5
ExternosemrelaoaosistemadeC&T.Consequentemente,opapel
EmpresasodeutilizadoresouconsumidoresdosconhecimentosoferecidospelosinstitutosdeI&D,mesmo
Quandoesseconhecimentogeradosemqualquervisodasnecessidadesefetivasde
7
Comercial.
OModeloLinearassumeaexistnciadeumarelaomaisoumenosdiretaentre
EsforosdeI&Deinovaotecnolgica,envolvendoumasriedeetapasquecomeam
pesquisa.Ainvestigaobsica,portanto,achaveparaoavanodoconhecimentocientfico,
Abrindoocaminhoinvestigaoaplicada,aodesenvolvimentoexperimentale,finalmente,inovao
PersePorestarazo,medidaqueapesquisaeodesenvolvimentoeparticularmenteapesquisabsica
Progresso,elasdevemsetornarocatalisadordeumareaoemcadeiaque
inovao.Omodelotambmpressupequeumpasquecontribuiparaoavanodoconhecimento
Maiscedooumaistardeobterrecompensasnaformadeprogressotecnolgicoouinovao.
Estavisodamudanatcnicaserviuparainspiraraimplementaodepolticas
Aumentandoaofertadeconhecimentoscientficosetecnolgicos.EstapolticadefornecimentodeC&T
Estavaessencialmentedesligadodapolticadedesenvolvimentoindustrialprevalecenteapartirdadcadade1950
Atadcadade1970.
Aesterespeito,importantemencionarqueoPlanoNacionaldeDesenvolvimentoII(IIPND),
ImplementadoduranteaadministraodeGeisel(19741979),incluiuexplicitamenteum
PolticadeC&Tcomoparteintegrantedapolticanacionaldedesenvolvimento.Contudo,aoferta
LgicadapolticadeC&Tnofoisignificativamentealterada,comoVermulmePaula(2006,pp.1011)
apontar:
Basicamente,apoltica[dapolticadeC&TdaeraPNDII]foifortementedirecionadopara
Institutosdeinvestigaoeformaoderecursoshumanosaltamentequalificados,
Paraaexpansosubstancialdecursosdepsgraduao.Opressupostoeraquea
Baixonveldedesenvolvimentotecnolgicodopasdeveuseaumadeficincia
Cientficaetecnolgica.Dasurgiuaprioridadedada
Apoiandoinstitutosdepesquisaeaformaoderecursoshumanosnops
Graduao.
Umaavaliaofinaldoperodoindicaqueasconsequnciasdaspolticas
Duranteestastrsdcadasforammisturadas.Industrializaodesubstituiodeimportaesfoi
Sucessonamedidaemqueconduziuaoestabelecimentodeummercadoindustrial
Parquenopas.Apolticaacelerouoprocessodecrescimentoeconmicoapontode
Aindustrializaobrasileirapassouaserconsideradaum"milagreeconmico"nadcadade1970,
SemelhanteaodaChinaedandianosprimeirosanosdosculoXXI.Contudo,
Finaldosanos70,ocrescimentoeconmicodopascomeaaperderdinamismodevidoaodeclnio
Oportunidadesdesubstituiodeimportaes,umprocessodeabsoro
AanlisedomodelolinearedesuasignificnciaparaaspolticasdeC&TpodeserencontradaemStokes(1997).
7Umaimportanteexceoaestaregrafoioesforotecnolgicolideradoporempresasestatais,comoaPetrobras
EaEmbraer,quedevemgrandepartedoseusucessosatividadesdeP&Deformaoderecursoshumanosdesenvolvidas
Comfinsespecficos,querinternamente,queremconjuntocominstituiesdeensinoeinvestigao.
5
Pgina6
Dependnciadaexpansodasubstituiodeimportaesedadesfavorvel
Ambientedodia.
OcrescimentoalavancadopelaindustrializaolevouoprimeiroelementodapolticaC&Timplcita
Nomodelodedesenvolvimento(ie,aabsorodascapacidadesnecessriasparaaproduo
Debensmanufaturados)paraumresultadobemsucedido.Noentanto,osegundoelemento(ouseja,o
"Industrializao"damudanatcnica)foiessencialmenteumfracasso.Esteelementofoimostrado
Basearsemeramenteemexpectativasirrealistasquantocapacidadedasempresasindustriais
Desenvolvimentodecapacidadesparagerarmelhoriaseinovaestecnolgicasapartir
Capacidadesdeproduorecentementeadquiridas.Damesmaforma,apolticadeC&Tvisava
Aumentaraofertadeconhecimentos(emboradesvinculadosdasnecessidadesdaindstria)
Parecetercontribudopoucoparaoreforodascapacidadesdasempresas
Melhoriatecnolgicaeinovao.Defato,comoosetorprodutivoraramente
Aproveitaraofertadeconhecimentosdisponibilizadosatravsdaimplementaodo
Poderiadizersequeaofertanotinhaencontradoasuaprocura.Odinamismotecnolgico
Dopascontinuaram,portanto,adependerprimordialmentedaabsorodetecnologias
Geradose/oumelhoradosnoexterior.Aomesmotempo,asrazeshabituaisparatalabsoro
osurgimentodenovossectoreseconmicosouocrescimentodomercadointernoforam
Perdendofora.
Comotempo,odesenvolvimentodecapacidadestecnolgicasparaamelhoriae
Produtoseprocessosseriamessenciaisparaaumentarabaixaprodutividadee
Competitividadedaeconomiabrasileira.Noentanto,aumentaressesnveis
Crescimentodaeconomiaumavezqueoprocessodesubstituiodeimportaestenhasido
Exausto,sejaatravsdaampliaodomercadointerno,aumentodarendaviaprodutividade
Ganhandoouconquistandonovosmercadosestrangeiros.
Emboraocrescimentoeconmicotenhasidoexcepcionalmenteforteduranteastrs
Desenvolvimentorevelouseindescritvel.Umavezqueasfontesdestecrescimentoestivessemesgotadas,
Aindanoforamadequadamentecomplementadosousubstitudosportecnologiasendgenas
Desenvolvimento,enquantoacapacidadedeabsorvertecnologiasexgenaseraaindalimitada.
Almdisso,osnveisdepobrezaedesigualdademantiveramseextremamenteelevadose
Compatvelcomasnormastpicasdaseconomiasdesenvolvidas.Aprimeirafase
Terminouemmeioacrisesmacroeconmicasefiscais,que,entreoutrosproblemas,
ComprometeramgravementeacapacidadedoEstadoparaimplementarodesenvolvimentoeaC&T
Polticasadaptadassnovascondiesestruturaisdaeconomiabrasileira.
2.2.Embuscadodesenvolvimentoatravsdaeficincia
NoBrasil,asegundafasededesenvolvimentodopsguerra,perodoquecorrespondeu
NasltimasduasdcadasdosculoXX,foimarcadapelaprogressivaliberalizaodo
economia.Inicialmentecomrelutncia,maseventualmentecomdeterminao(especialmenteapartirde1990
DuranteogovernoCollor),oaparatoinstitucionaleregulatriocriado
Dcadasanterioresdeapoioindustrializaofoigradualmentedesmantelada.Simultaneamente,
Aopiniogeraldoseconomistas,dospolticosedosformadoresdeopiniose
Prescriesbaseadasnasteoriasdedesenvolvimentodoperodoanterior.Naverdade,o
Pgina7
Polticasdeindustrializaobaseadasnessasteoriaspassaramaserculpadaspelosaltos
Ineficinciaeopersistenteatrasoeconmicoetecnolgicodopas,em
Outraspalavras,porsuafaltadedesenvolvimento.
Aprocuradeeficinciatornouseumadasprioridadesdapolticaeconmica.Apesarda
Conceitodeeficinciatendosidodefinido(deacordocomateoriaeconmicatradicional
Quedapoioliberalizao)dentrodeumcontextoessencialmenteesttico,ondenoh
Paraamudanatecnolgica,abuscapelaeficinciafoiapresentadacomoumadas
Principaismotoresdoprogressotecnolgico.Aordemdodiapolticochegouasertermos
Taiscomoaprivatizao,adesregulamentao,areduoouremoodesubsdiosedetarifasouno
Barreirastarifriasaocomrcioexterior,taxasdecmbiolivresefluxosdecapitaislivrescomo
InspiradopeloConsensodeWashington,oconjuntodereformaseconmicasrecomendado
Ospasesemdesenvolvimentoapartirdoinciodosanos80passaramaserchamados,como
FundoMonetrioInternacional,BancoMundial,BancoInteramericanodeDesenvolvimento,
Ogovernonorteamericanoeosprincipaisinstitutosdepesquisaeconmica("thinktanks")
Localizadonacidade. 8
Aaberturadaeconomiaaocomrciointernacionalpassouaserconsideradaachaveparaocrescimento
Desenvolvimento,atribuindoassimliberalizaoopapelanteriormentedesempenhado
Industrializaoemeconomiassubdesenvolvidas.Deacordocomessaconvico,quantomais
Economia,maioropotencialdecrescimento.
Aaberturadomercadointernodeprodutos,serviosecapitaisdoexteriortambmfoi
TcitamenteentendidocomooprincipalinstrumentodapolticaimplcitadeC&Tligada
9 Oaumentodapressoconcorrencialdecorrentedaliberalizao
Novomodelodedesenvolvimento.
Queeliminariaaproteoquepermitiasempresasqueempregavamestagnaoou
Tecnologiasantiquadasparalucrar,forandoosassimainovar.Aomesmotempo,o
Aaberturadomercadotambmdeveriafacilitareacelerarastransfernciastecnolgicas
Estrangeiroatravsdoinvestimentodirectoestrangeiro(IDE).
Atcertoponto,apolticaexplcitadeC&TdapocamanteveatradiodepromoveraP&D
actividades.Noentanto,aprolongadacrisefiscaleaabordagemacurtoprazoda
Administraodepolticaspblicaslevaramaflutuaessignificativasemrelaoao
OfereceuatividadeseinstituiesdeP&Dnosanos80e90.Duranteosanos90,
Porexemplo,osinvestimentosfederaisemP&Dsubiramatmeadosdadcada,
Apenasligeiramenteacimadaquelasnoinciodoperodo(MCT2001,p.23).Comoumresultado,
8Valeapenanotar,comofezWilliamson(1990,p.20),queconsagrouonomedadoutrina,que,
Surpreendentemente,essaprescrioparaaseconomiassubdesenvolvidasfoielaboradasemlevarem
Umanicaideiadaliteraturasobreteoriadodesenvolvimentoouqualquertrabalhodedicadoadiscutilaouquestionla.
9Porexemplo,GustavoFranco,diretordoBancoCentraldoBrasilnomomentoeidelogoimportantede
Oprocessodeliberalizaobrasileiro,expressouclaramenteaopiniodeque"precisamenteoprocessodeabertura,
Pormeiodeseusefeitossobreodinamismotecnolgicodopas,oquedefinirabasedonovo
Crescimento".Eletambmafirmaaimportnciadaaberturadaeconomiacomo"essencialparao
Crescimentodaprodutividadee,portanto,omecanismoquepermitiria...aconstruodeumcrescimento
Modelocapazdereduziradesigualdadesocialsemimpactosinflacionrios"(Franco1996,p.2)
7
Pgina8
Muitosinstitutosdeaprendizagemedeinvestigaoenfrentaramproblemasoramentais,cortesnossalrioseredues
Nonmerodeprofessores,investigadoresepessoaltcnico. 10
Apesardestasdificuldades,aoutrareatradicionalorientadapelapolticadeC&Taformao
Recursoshumanosparapesquisaedesenvolvimentosurpreendentementeavanadoem
Emodaacelerada.Assim,osistemadepsgraduaobrasileiroexpandiuse
Consolidadoduranteesseperodo.
AlmdosdoisaspectostradicionaisdapolticaC&T,cinconovosaspectossurgiramou
Ganhouimportnciaduranteessesanos.
Aprimeirareferesemaiorimportnciaatribuda,pelomenosnoquedizrespeitopreocupao
Ouodiscursopoltico,questodaqualidadeeexpansodaeducao
Especialmentedaeducaobsica.Chamouseaatenoparaofatodequeumbem
Educacionaleracondioprviaparaoaumentodascapacidadestecnolgicasdos
empreendimentos.Muitasvezes,noentanto,otemafoiabordadodeformaexcessivamentesimplista
Comoseaeducaoporsisfossesuficienteparaodesenvolvimento,ouumapanaciauniversal
Capazdesubstituirtodasasoutraspolticas(incluindoaquelasvoltadasparaC&T).
Osegundoaspectonovotemavercomareformadoregimedepropriedadeintelectual(PI)
AfimdesatisfazerosregulamentosdoAcordoTRIPSdaOrganizaoMundialdoComrcio
(OMC)eatendersfortespressesdogovernonorteamericano. 11 Longo
AntesdacriaodaOMC(1995)edaaprovaodanovaleidepatentes(1996),a
Areformajhaviacomeadocommedidasqueimpediama
(INPI)emsuastentativasdeaplicaroregimeanterior,eespecialmenteasdisposies
Comvistaaconcedersempresasbrasileirasumpoderdenegociaomaisforteou
12 Aintenodareformaeratransformaros
Transfernciastecnolgicas.
Conhecimentotecnolgicodeumbemessencialmentepblico(oquelhepermite
Simultaneamenteporvriosutilizadores)numbemessencialmenteeconmico(o
Concessodedireitosmonopolsticosdeexploraomaislongoseduradouros
Proprietrios).Houveassimumamudanaevidenteparaavantagemdosinovadores,queforam
Empresasestrangeiras,eemdesvantagemparaaquelesqueabsorveramonovo
Tecnologias,queeramgeralmenteempresasnacionais.Oobjetivodonovoregimeera
Estimularainovaoentreasempresasestabelecidasnopas,independentementedasua
Origemdocapital.Foitambmpretendidoaumentaronmeroemelhorara
Tecnologiasemarcasparaasquaisaslicenasparaoperarnomercadobrasileiro
Estesobjectivosdevemseratingidosgraasaumnovoenquadramento
Maisgarantias,maisdireitose,conseqentemente,maioreslucrosparaaquelesquedetma
Licenas.
10Emgrandeparte,essasreduesforamdevidasamuitosdeseaposentarquandoconfrontadoscomaperspectivadesociaisprejudicial
Reformasdesegurana,bemcomoasuanosubstituioporpessoalnovo.
11AreformaIPfoiconsolidadaatravsdepromulgaodeleisrelativaspropriedadeindustrial(Lein9.279de
1996),direitosdevariedadesagrcolas(Lein9.456de1997),direitosautorais(Lein9.610de1998)esoftware
(Lein9.609,de1998).
12IstoocorreudevidoaosatosnormativosdoprprioINPI,ouseja,arevogaodoAtoNormativon15de
1995,promulgadaatravsdaLeiReguladoran22em1990,eapromulgaodaLeiReguladoran120em1993.
8
Pgina9
OterceironovoaspectodapolticadeC&Tfoioincioeaconsolidaodoprocessode
Disseminaodeprticasdecontroledequalidade,estimuladaspelacriaoda
ProgramadeQualidadeeProdutividade(PBQP)em1990. 13Umprogramademobilizao
Tempo,foiconcebidoparaencorajarasempresasaadoptarasmelhoresprticas,mesmo
Defundosespecificamentedestinadosaessefim.Noentanto,maisprovvelqueo
ApropagaodetaisprticasrefletiumenososesforosdoPBQPdoqueaspresses
Empresasbrasileiras.Diantedeumambientemacroeconmico
Queademandaestavaestagnada,ocrditoextremamenteescassoeapressocompetitivaemascenso,
Muitasempresasrecorreramaestratgiasdefensivas,entreasquaisagestodaqualidade
ErafrequentementeconsideradaamelhoropoVistoserumaformadereforaracompetitividade
Ecortarcustossemanecessidadedenovosinvestimentos.
Odinamismodadisseminaodasmelhoresprticasdegestopodeserinferido
Umenormecrescimentononmerodeentidadespblicaseprivadasquevieramoperar
ComacertificaoISO9000concedidapelaOrganizaoInternacionalde
Estandardizao.Considerandoqueapenas19instituiesbrasileirasforamcertificadaspelaISOemjaneirode1993,
Onmeroaumentoupara6.719em31deDezembrode2000.Almdisso,onmerode
Aumentou25vezesmaisrpidonoBrasildoquenomundocomoumtodo(ISO2001).Isto
Importantenotar,noentanto,queosavanosnaqualidadedaproduobrasileirano
Esperadoparaalavancareassimacelerarainovao.Oquemaisprovvelqueessesavanos
Reforarascapacidadesdeproduodasempresas,melhorandoassima
Permitindolhesmelhorarosprodutoseprocessoseenvolverseeminovaoincremental.
OquartoaspectodapolticaexplcitadeC&Tdiziarespeitoaoestmuloaoempreendedorismo
Eoestabelecimentodeincubadoraseparquestecnolgicos.Emboramuitosdesses
Incubadorasecomplexosapenasestimularamacriaodepequenasempresasem
Contriburamapenasmarginalmenteparaoaumentodasnormastecnolgicasexistentes,
Umnmerorazoveldessasinstituiessededicouapromoverempreendimentosverdadeiramenteinovadores.
Amaioriadosprogramasemedidaspblicasdestinadosafomentarincubadorase
Oscomplexossurgiraminicialmentenofinaldosanos80eganharamforaduranteadcadaseguinte.
DeacordocomasestimativasdaAssociaoNacionalparaaPromoode
Atividades,onmerodeincubadorasnoBrasilsubiudeapenasdoisem1988para
2000e359em2006(Anprotec2006).Nomesmoano,aAnprotecidentificouaexistnciade
De44parquestecnolgicosdopas.
Oquintoaspectosemprecedentesfoitratarainovaocomoumobjetivodepoltica.Erapossvel
Inovaoparasuperarasbarreirasimpostaspelosliberaisnodebate
Polticapblicaporquenopoderiaserassociadocomoexexecradoento
Polticasdedesenvolvimento,podendose,defacto,considerarasideiasdelivreiniciativae
Empreendedorismo,quesoconceitosqueridosaoliberalismo.Aesterespeito,osliberais
Aceitaramainovaonadiscussoporqueentenderamqueelaeramaisoumais
Resultadosmenosnaturaisdasrecompensasepuniesadequadasqueacompanhama
Liberalizaodomercado.Contudo,medidaqueotempopassavaeafrustraocresciaem
Elevadasexpectativasassociadasliberalizao,ainovaoganhouforacomo
13Em2001,asresponsabilidadesdoPBQPforamtransferidosparaoMovimentodeCompetitividadedoBrasil,um
ONGdeinteressepblicohttp://www.mbc.org.br).
9
Pgina10
Polticaspblicas.Comoresultado,ainovaotornousecadavezmaissignificativa
NosnombitodaC&Tperse,mastambmnapolticadedesenvolvimentoregional,estadualemunicipal
tambm.Nofinaldosanos90,ainovaojeraconsideradaparteintegrantedo
Polticasdecinciaetecnologia,oupelomenosumdeseusobjetivosexplcitos.
Noentanto,aintroduodainovaonadiscussopolticarevelousemuitomaisfcildoque
Prticapoltica,poisoModeloLinearaindatinhaforteinfluncia,especialmenteno
Crculosacadmicos.Emparte,issotinhaavercomaenormeinflunciaqueoacadmico
(Econtinuaaexercer)naformulaodapolticabrasileiradeC&T.isto
isimportanttonotethattheextentofthisinfluenceispartlyowingtothelimited
participationofothersocialsectors,andspecificallymembersoftheproductivesector,in
S&Tpolicymaking.AnotherreasonforthepersistenceoftheLinearModelisrelatedtoits
longtraditionandthefamiliarityofindividualsandinstitutions(includingregulatory
entities)withtheprogramsandmechanismstypicalofthelinearsupplymodel.Nomesmo
time,actualpolicymakinghaveshownimportantdifficultiesintheprocessofdesigningand
implementingprogramsandmechanismsbettersuitedtoagenuineinnovationpolicy. 14
Inthisrespect,Pacheco(2007,p.9)contendsthat:
Examinationofthepoliciesrevealsthatthesuccessofpostgraduatecourses,
comparedtothedismalperformanceoftheprivatesector,reinforcedthe'supply'
sideofthepolicyandtheasymmetryofthesystem.Theconsolidationofpost
graduatecoursesreflectedatremendousefforttoqualifypersonnelandfortify
academicresearchandwhileitshouldhavebeenaccompaniedbythe
technologicalstrengtheningofenterprises,thishadalwaysbeentheweaksideof
themodel.Thus,insteadofleadingtorevisionofthepolicy,itreinforcedthe
'academic'sideandcametoleanintwodirections:thesuccessofthepost
graduatesystemcreatedstrongpressureontheallocationofpublicfunds,whilethe
policiesandmeasuresaimedatsupportingR&Datthefirmlevelcametobe
thoughtofinthesametermsasthosedirectedtosupportingacademicresearch,
ratherthanbeingseenasbelongingtothesphereofeconomicpolicy.
Finalassessmentoftheperiodindicatesthatthepoliciesadoptedinthe1980sand1990s
wereconsiderablylesssuccessfulthananticipated.Althoughhighlyqualifiedhuman
resourceswithMaster'sdegreesandPhDswereformedandscientificproduction
14Thatthetraditionaleconomists(thosebelongingtotheneoclassicalschool)prevailedinthedebate
concerningpublicpolicyalsocontributedtoextendingthelifeoftheLinearModel.Fortheseeconomists,the
onlyjustificationfortheexistenceofpublicpolicieswastheneedtocorrectmarketfailures,atypicalcase
beingthatinvolvingtheproductionofscientificandtechnologicalknowledge,principallyinthestageofbasic
pesquisa.Sinceagreatpartoftheresultsoftheinvestmentsinsuchactivitieswouldultimatelybe
appropriatedbypartiesotherthanthosewhopaidforthem,Stateinterventionwouldberequiredinorderto
raisethevolumeofR&Dinvestmentstolevelscompatiblewiththemaximizationofefficiencyandsocial
Bemestar.Bydefinition,thismarketfailureisspecificallylinkedtoresearchthathasnoimmediateuseor
applicationasitsobjective,ie,tobasicresearch.Obviously,thesamelogicdoesnotapplytopolicies
directlytargetedatstimulatinginnovation.Forthisreason,thelatterareheldtodestabilizethemaximum
efficiencyandwellbeingequilibria,whichareassumedtobenaturallymaintainedbymarketforces.
10
Pgina11
PaperpresentedfortheVIGlobelicsConference,September22242008,MexicoCity
expandedatelevatedrates,technologicaldevelopmentandinnovationdidnotkeeppace,
apparentlyhavingregisteredlessthansignificantevolution.
In1987,forexample,3,647Master'sdegreesand868PhDsweregrantedbyBrazilian
institutions,butbytheendofthephase,intheyear2000,thecorrespondingfigureshad
risento18,373Master'sdegreesand5,335doctorates(CAPES2004,p.2930).este
increaseinpostgraduatedegreeswasaccompaniedbyasimilarincreaseinthenumberof
articlespublishedbyBraziliansininternationalscientificjournals.Whereasin1981
Brazilianshadauthoredonly1,891articles,correspondingto0.44%ofthetotalindexed
worldwidebytheInstituteforScientificInformation(ISI),by2000theywereproducing
400%more,with9,591articlesand1.33%ofthetotal. 15
Thoughalongerperiodoftimemayberequiredtoadequatelyappraisethem,thechanges
intheindustrialpropertyregimedonotappeartohavetheexpectedresultswithintheinitial
timeframe.Between1990and2000,thenumberofpatentsgrantedtoBrazilianresidents
roseamere30%,whilethenumbergrantedtononresidentsincreasedby154%.
Consequently,therelativeshareofpatentsgrantedtoBrazilians(alreadylowat30%)fell
to18%overa10yearperiod(INPI/MCT2007).Duringthe1990s,over100thousand
patentsforinventionswereregisteredbynonresidents.Therighttousethisincreasedand
hugenumberofpatentedinventionsobviouslydependedontheconcessionoflicensesby
theirowners,interestinglythoughthenumberoflicenseapplicationssubmittedtoINPI
droppedfromanalreadyextremelylow134in1990tonomorethan34in2000(INPI
2008). 16 Ifthisnumbercanbetakenasanindicatorofthemagnitudeoftechnological
transferstothecountry,thenewintellectualpropertyregimecanbesaidtohavehadresults
contrarytoexpectations.
TheaverageproductivityofBrazilianlabor(measuredasGDPatconstantpurchasing
powerparitypricesdividedbythenumberofworkersemployed)stagnatedthroughoutthe
1980sand1990s(Viotti2004).Inspiteoftheoverallaveragehavingremainedbasically
constant,certainsectorsoftheeconomyrecordedpositiveproductivitygains.tem
indications,however,thatthegreaterpartoftheriseinproductivityinthesesectorswas
duemoretotheacquisitionofcapitalgoodsandchangesinsectoralcompositionthanto
innovationandtechnologicalchangeperse.AsKupferandRocha(2005,p.75)emphasize,
themodernization[ofindustry]wasbasednotonsustainablelongtermstrategiessuch
astheinstallationofnewproductionunitsbutontherenewalofequipmentviathe
importationofcapitalgoodsandtherestructuringofownershipthroughmergersand
acquisitions.Theproductivitygainsobservedintheindustrialsectorthereforereflecteda
concentrationofoutputamongtheleadingenterprises(whichhadrelativelyhigh
productivityandwereincreasinglyunderthecontrolofforeigncapital),ariseinthe
coefficientforimportedinputsandcomponents,andadropinthesignificanceofindustrial
15In2007,Brazilianspublished19,428scientificarticles,correspondingto2.02%oftotalworldproduction.
Whereasworldwidescientificproductiondoubledovertheperiod19812006,Brazilianoutputincreased
ninefold(CAPES2008).
16Article62oftheIndustrialPropertyLaw(Lawn9.279of1996)requiresthatthirdpartiesbelicensedby
INPI.However,itdoesnotrequirethattherighttoexploitpatentsbelicensedbytheInstitute,unlesstheparty
concernedwishestoclaimtaxdeductionsreferringtothepaymentofpatentlicenses,inwhichcase
registrationisnecessary.
11
Pgina12
emprego.Incompensation,informalemploymentincreasedsubstantiallyinthe
economyasawhole.
ThestructureofBrazilianforeigntradechangedsignificantlyduringtheopeningofthe
economia.However,asidefromtheexceptionalperformanceofEmbraer(anaircraft
manufacturerfoundedanddevelopedbytheStatebutunderprivatecontrolatthetime),the
technologicalcontentofBrazilianexportswasgenerallyimpoverished.Infact,thetrend
wastowardsregressivespecializationoftheexportcontent,insofarasthesharesofnatural
resourceandlaborintensivegoodsonceagainincreased.Regardingthispoint,Viottiand
Macedo(2003,p.xxxiv)confirmed(onthebasisofSartiandSabbatini2003,p.400)that
theproductgroupthatcontributedmosttotheoverallgrowthofBrazilianexports[inthe
period19892001]wascomprisedofprimarycommodities,amongwhichmeat,sugarand
soybeanoilstoodout,accountingfor24%ofthetotalincreaseinBrazilianexports. 17 o
factthatthesethreeproductswereresponsibleforonly0.5%ofthegrowthofworldexports
overthesameperiodservestounderlinethelimitationsofagrowthstrategybasedon
primarycommodities.
Insum,theeconomywasliberalized,butitsgrowthwasmediocreuptotheendofthe
perodo.Noteventhestrongincreaseincompetitivepressure,theopeningoftheeconomyto
foreigninvestmentandthestrengtheningofintellectualpropertyrightshadthecapacityto
effectivelystimulatethedevelopmentofatrueinnovationdynamicamongBrazilian
empreendimentos.Inotherwords,theimplicitS&Tpolicylinkedtothesearchfordevelopment
throughefficiencyisapparentlygroundedonanoverlysimplisticaswellasoverly
optimisticinterpretationoftheprocessoftechnicalchange,beingsimilarinthisrespectto
thepolicyunderlyingtheindustrializationmodel.
Moreover,withtheeconomyslowingdownandpovertyandinequalityremainingat
unacceptablyhighlevels,disillusionwiththepromisesoftheWashingtonConsensuswas
ontherise.Thisdisillusionwasamongthefactorsthatcontributedtotheelection,atthe
endof2002,ofanadministrationthatofferedaplatformconsiderablydifferentfromthe
agendasetforthbytheWashingtonConsensus.Thenewplatformproposedanothertypeof
development,onelessconcernedwithcompetitionandefficiencyandmorestrongly
committedtosocialinclusion.
2.3.Insearchofdevelopmentthroughinnovation? 18
Thethirdpostwardevelopmentphasebeganaroundtheoutsetofthe21stcenturyandhas
beenmarkedbythesearchforanewtypeofdevelopment.Ingreatpart,thefoundations
thathadinspiredthepoliciestypicaloftheagendaintheprecedingphaseweremaintained,
17ItshouldbeemphasizedthatthesuccessoftheseagriculturalexportswasingreatpartduetotheR&D
effortsofEmbrapa.Anetworkofagriculturalinstitutesfoundedbythefederalgovernmentinthelatterpart
ofthe1970s,Embrapahasconsolidateditspositionoverthelastthreedecadesandmeritsanalysisapart.
18ForadiscussionofrecentBrazilianST&Ipolicy,seeArruda,VermulmandHollanda(2006),particularly
thechapteronthenewinstrumentsoftechnologicalpolicyonp.82114.AlsoseeMCT(2002),Brasil(2003),
Guimares(2006),ABDI(2006and2007),SalernoandDaher(2006),VermulmandPaula(2006),MCT
(2006),SuziganandFurtado(2006),Pacheco(2005and2007)andMCT(2007).
12
Pgina13
withthetriofloatingexchangerate,inflationtargetandprimarysurpluscontinuingtolie
atthecoreofeconomicpolicy.However,experimentscametobeconductedinanattempt
tostrengthencertainpublicpoliciesnotpreciselyalignedwiththeformeragenda.
Thediminishingbeliefintheliberalplatformhasallowedforgradualrevalorizationofthe
roleofactivepublicpoliciesasatoolnecessaryforthepromotionofdevelopment. 19 isto
mustberecognized,nonetheless,thattheextenttowhichsuchpoliciescanbeformulated
andimplementedhasbeenconsiderablyreducedbythecurrentmobilityofcapital,goods
andservices(characteristicofglobalization),aswellasbytheregulationsoftheWTO,
whichwentintoeffecttogetherwithitscreationin1995.Giventhenewenvironment,many
formerpolicypracticeshavebecomeeitherobsoleteorunfeasible.
Atthesametime,thesignificantstrengtheningofsocialandcompensatorypoliciesasof
thebeginningofthenewphaseclearlyreflectsarevalorizationoftheroleofpublicpolicy.
AnoutstandingexampleistheBolsaFamliaprogram,whichin2008guaranteeda
minimumincometomorethan40millionBraziliansbelowthepovertyline.
Thesearchforanewdevelopmentmodelstilllacksaclearlydefinedpolicyparadigm.
Instead,itcontinuestobeinfluencedbyessentiallymixedandsometimesdivergent
Abordagens.Somecharacterizeitasaacombinationofaconservativeapproachto
economicpolicytogetherwithaprogressiveapproachtosocialpolicy. 20
Inacontextmarkedbythelackofaunifyinglogic,itisnotyetpossibletodiscernthe
emergenceofanimplicitS&Tpolicywithwelldefinedfeatureswithinthenew
developmentmodel.However,continuingtofollowaconservativemonetarypolicy
(exclusivelycommittedtoachievinginflationtargetswithnoconcernforvariationsin
investment,employmentandincomelevels)hasunquestionablyhadastrongindirect
impactonthetechnologicaldevelopmentdynamicofenterprises.
Measuredinrealterms,thebasicinterestrateoftheBrazilianeconomyremainedat
extremelyhighlevelsthroughoutthefirstyearsofthe21stcentury,beingthehighestinthe
worldduringagreatpartoftheperiod.Simultaneously,theexchangerate,influencedby
variousfactors,includingmonetarypolicyitself,wasinitiallydevalued(upto2003),but
rapidlyrevaluedthereafter.Thiscombinationofhighinterestratesandovervaluationofthe
nationalcurrencyhashinderedproductiveinvestmentingeneral,andespeciallyinvestment
inactivitieswithlongrangereturns,suchasR&Dandinnovation.Enterprisesandlinksin
19Inthisrespect,oneshouldremember,asdoLallandTeubal(1998)intheirinterestingandinstructive
analysis/proposalfortechnologicalpoliciesindevelopingcountries,thatactivepoliciesarenotnecessarily
Stateattemptstosubstitutethemarket.Inotherwords,despitewhatcertaincriticsclaim,theyarenotanti
marketpolicies.Asarule,theyareactuallymarketstimulatingpolicies,asshownbytheexperienceofthe
EastAsiancountriesanalyzedbyLallandTeubal.
20Thisinterpretationwasused,forinstance,byMichaelReid,editoroftheAmericassectionofThe
Economist,inhisarticleYaesmaanaenBrasil,publishedintheMadridnewspaperElPasonJune19,
2008(http://www.elpais.com/articulo/opinion/manana/Brasil/elpepiopi/20080619elpepiopi_12/Tes).Dentro
supportofhisassessment,ReidcitesthePresidenthimself:DuringapressconferencepromotedbyThe
EconomistinBrasliaLuizIncioLuladaSilvaaddressedawellphrased,goodhumoredspeech,inwhich
hetransmittedasimplemessage,toanaudienceofbusinessmen.Hesaidthathispoliticalformulareliedon
being'conservativeineconomicmatters'and'audaciousinsocialmatters'.
13
Pgina14
productivechainsdedicatedtoactivitieswithhighvalueaddedhavebeenparticularly
Afetados.Incontrast,enterprisesthatoperateinsectorsintensiveinnaturalresources
(specificallycommoditiessectors)andwhosecompetitivestrategieshavelittledependence
oninvestmentinR&Dandinnovationhavebeenrelativelyfavored.
However,incontradictiontotheS&Tpolicyimplicitinthepreviousdevelopmentmodel,
awarenesshasbeengrowingastonaivetyofthebeliefthatopeningtheeconomy,
strengtheningintellectualpropertyandencouragingforeigninvestmentwould
automaticallyleadtoextensivefirmlevelinnovation. 21 Asaresultofthisawareness,the
adoptionofactivepoliciestostimulateinnovationhasassumedgrowingimportanceinthe
economic,industrialandS&Tpolicydebate.Inthisregard,explicitS&Tpolicy,similarto
socialpolicy,hasbecomeafertilefieldforpolicyexperiments.Animportantandcomplex
setofS&Tpolicymeasureswasinstitutedatthestartofthemostrecentdevelopment
Estgio.Amongthese,thefollowingstandout:theSectoralFunds,theLawofInnovation,
theIndustrial,TechnologicalandForeignTradePolicy(PITCE),andalawgrantingfiscal
incentivestofirmsthatengageinR&Dandtechnologicalinnovation(LeidoBem).
TheSectoralFundsinSupportofScientificandTechnologicalDevelopmentwere
establishedduringthefinalyearsoftheCardosoadministration.Theintentionwastoassure
theavailabilityandgrowthofresourcesforscientificandtechnologicaldevelopmentand
innovationinBrazil.Thefundsarefinancedbysharesoftheroyaltiesontheoilandgas
producedinthecountryandcontributionsleviedontherevenuesofenterprisesingiven
sectorsoroncertaintypesoftransactions,suchasthosereferringtopaymentfortheuseor
acquisitionofforeigntechnology.Therearecurrently16sectoralfunds,14referringto
individualsectorsandtwoinvolvingmorethanonesector(MCT2008). 22
IntheopinionofArruda,VermulmandHollanda(2006,p.102):
Theresourcesprovidedbytherevenuesearmarkedforthesectoralfundswere
indeedsignificantandhaltedthedecliningtrendobservedintheMCT[Ministryof
ScienceandTechnology]budgetthroughoutmostofthe1990s.Between1999and
2005,thebudgethandledbytheMinistryrosefrom[R$]1.397billionto[R$]3.589
billion,correspondingtoarealgrowthofapproximately27%overtheperiodand
anaverageannualgrowthrateof4.5%.Thesectoralfundsaccountedforalmost
80%ofthisgrowth.
InspiredbytheNorthAmericanBayhDoleActandtheFrenchinnovationlaw,bothaimed
atstimulatingthecontributionofpublicuniversityandresearchinstitutestotheinnovation
process,theBrazilianLawofInnovation 23 wasenactedduringthefirsttermofPresident
LuizIncioLuladaSilva.Thelawregulatesthetransfertoprivateenterprisesofthe
21Itshouldbenotedinpassingthat,aspreviouslymentioned,thefirstphaseofpostwarBrazilian
developmentwasalsomarkedbyacertainnaivety.Duringtheimportsubstitutionperiod,itwasbelievedthat
technologicaldevelopmentwouldbethenaturaloutcomeofthemereabsorptionofthecapacitytoproduce
manufacturedgoods,ie,wouldbeabyproductofindustrialization.
22Ofthelatter,oneofthefundsisaimedatstimulatinguniversityindustrycollaboration,whiletheotheris
directedtowardsmodernizingandexpandingtheinfrastructureandservicesrequiredbypubliclearningand
researchinstitutions.
23Lawn10.973of02/12/2004.
14
Pgina15
technologiesgeneratedbypublicinstitutions,aswellasallowingthelattertosharetheir
infrastructure,equipmentandhumanresourceswiththeformer. 24 Italsoauthorizesthe
federalgovernmenttoholdminoritysharesinthecapitalofprivateenterprisesconstituted
asspecificpurposescompaniesontheconditionthatthelatterarededicatedtoinnovation.
Likewise,thelawallowsthegovernmenttosubsidizeenterprisesbygrantingthem
financialresourcesforthepurposeofdevelopinginnovativeproductsand/orprocesses.
Finally,itauthorizespublicadministratorstosolicitthedevelopmentoftechnological
solutionswheninnovativeproductsorprocessesarerequiredtoattendtothepublicinterest.
Otherlegislation,curiouslytermedtheGoodLaw(LeidoBem), 25 consolidatedand
amplifiedexistingfiscalincentives,aswellasextendingsubstantialnewincentives,to
enterprisesthatengageinR&Dandtechnologicalinnovation.Inaddition,thelaw
authorizesthefederalgovernmenttograntsubsidiestofirmsthatcontractresearcherswith
Master'sordoctoraldegreesforthepurposeofundertakingR&Dandtechnological
innovationactivities.
ThebasesofthenewIndustrial,TechnologicalandForeignTradePolicywerelaidthrough
publicationoftheguidelinesattheendof2003(Brasil2003).Accordingtothese
guidelines,thegoalsofPITCEweretoincreasetheefficiencyoftheproductivestructure,
enhancetheinnovativecapacityofBrazilianenterprisesandexpandexports(Brasil2003,
P.2).Arruda,VermulmandHollanda(2006,p.8384)havecalledattentiontothefactthat
thedocumentseekstodifferentiatePITCEfromtheindustrialpoliciesofthe60sand70s,
whichfocusedonexpandingthephysicalcapacityoftheindustrialcomplex,aswellas
fromthepoliciesofthe90s,whichsoughttopromotecompetitivenessbutwerenotdirectly
tiedtoanyindustrialdevelopmentpolicy.
Bothcomplexandambitious,PITCEsetprioritiesonthreefronts:1)innovationand
technologicaldevelopment,modernizationoftheindustrialsectorandimprovementofthe
institutionalenvironment2)enhancementofproductioncapacity/scaleandstrategic
options(semiconductors,software,capitalgoods,pharmaceuticalandmedicalproducts)
and3)futurebearersectors(biotechnology,nanotechnology,biomassandrenewable
energy).Moreover,numerousinstitutionalandregulatorymeasures,programs,activities
andcreditlineswerecreated,reorientedandimplementedbyseveralgovernmental
institutionswithinthelooseumbrellaofPITCE. 26 Ashardasithasoftenbeentoachieve
theobjectivesofPITCEinthefaceofnumerousobstaclesandlimitations,anddespiteits
prioritieshavingbeenconsiderablyredefinedrecently, 27 thepolicyhasrecordedatleast
24Inthisrespect,theLawofInnovationreflectshighexpectationsinrelationtotheroleofpublicuniversities
andresearchinstitutesintheinnovationprocess.Attimes,certainenthusiastsofthelawseemtoexaggerate
thepotentialcontributionoftheseinstitutionsbyportrayingthemasascapableofoffsettingthelimited
numberoftrulyinnovativefirmsinthecountry.
25Lawn11.196of21/11/2005.
26SalernoandDaher(2006)presentalonglistofthemeasuresimplementedbyPITCEsincethepublication
ofitsguidelinesinNovember2003untilJune2006.
27Whenthispaperwaswritten,anewindustrialpolicywasonthevergeofbeingannounced.Infelizmente,
giventhetiming,itwasimpossibletoanalyzethenewpolicyinthecontextofthisstudy.Thesameappliesto
akeydocumentpublishedattheendof2007:theMCTPlanofActionfor20072010:Science,Technology
andInnovationforNationalDevelopment.
15
Pgina16
twosignificantvictories.Firstly,PITCEresuscitatedindustrialpolicy,whichhadbeen
abandonedduringtheprecedingdevelopmentphase.Secondly,itrepresentedthefirst
explicitattemptinBraziltoalignindustrialandtechnologicalpolicy.
Inadditiontothesefourinitiatives,themostsignificantoftheexplicitS&Tpolicyofthe
period(theSectoralFunds,LawofInnovation,GoodLawandPITCE),fourrecenttrends
thatdeservementionare:1)thegrowthofmediainterestinST&Iissues2)theincreasein
thenumberofstatesandmunicipalitiesstrivingtoformulatetheirownST&Ipolicies3)
theefforttodesignanST&Ipolicyaimedatpromotingsocialinclusionand4)the
adoptionofLocalProductiveArrangements(LPAs)asatoolforguidinganalysesand
interventionsaimedatstimulatinglocalizedinnovation,technologicalandproductive
desenvolvimento.
Whilenoteasytomeasure,itiseasytoperceivethegrowinginterestoftheBrazilianmedia
inthemesrelatedtoscience,technologyandinnovation.Atthesametime,thelevelofthis
interestisstillrelativelylimitedcomparedtothatincountriesengagedinaccelerated
catchingupprocesses,suchasSouthKorea.
TheFederalDistrict,thestatesandanincreasingnumberofmunicipalitiesarealso
becomingincreasinglyinterestedinthetheme.Variousstateshavesetupsecretariatsand
manyhaveprogramsandpoliciesexclusivelydedicatedtoST&I.Thephenomenongained
impetuswiththeConstitutionof1988,whichauthorizedstatestosupportsuchactivitiesby
earmarkingstatetaxfundsforthepurpose,apioneerexperiencealongtheselinesbeingthe
ResearchSupportFoundationoftheStateofSoPaulo(FAPESP).However,themost
recentevidenceofthetrendistheappearanceofinterestonthepartofcities.Similartothe
states,variousmunicipalitieshavecometoviewinnovationasawaytopromoteregional
andlocaldevelopment.ThisinvolvementofstatesandmunicipalitiesinST&Ipolicyis
nowbeingformalizedintheshapeofnationalinstitutionsforthesakeofsharing
experiencesanddefendingcommoninterests.AmongtheseinstitutionsaretheNational
CouncilofStateST&ISecretariats(http://www.consecti.org.br)andtheNationalForumof
MunicipalScienceandTechnologySecretariats(http://www.forummunicipal.org.br).
AnewspecificsegmentoftheST&IpolicyaimsatplacingS&Tattheserviceofsocial
incluso.Tothisend,theMinistryofScienceandTechnology(MCT)createdtheScience
andTechnologySecretariatforSocialInclusion(SECIS)in2003. 28 Sofar,SECIShas
promotedactivitiestopublicizeanddisseminatesocialtechnologies, 29 improvescience
teachingintheschoolsandpopularizescientificknowledge. 30 Nonetheless,sincethe
28Interestingly,theMCThasonlyfoursecretariats,ofwhichthisisone.Theotherthreearededicated,
respectively,toinformatics(reflectingtheimportanceoftheITpolicythemeintherecentpast),toR&D,and
totechnologyandinnovation.
29Actually,theconceptofsocialtechnologyisstillunderconstruction.Dagnino,BrandoandNovaes(2005)
presentananalysisoftheconceptualframeworkonwhichthenotionrests.TheBrazilianSocialTechnology
Network(RTS)adoptsthefollowingdefinition:SocialTechnologyinvolvesreplicableproducts,techniques
andmethodsdevelopedthroughinteractionwiththecommunityandcharacterizedbytheirabilitytoprovide
effectivesolutionsforsocialtransformation(http://www.rts.org.br/tecnologiasocial).
30AmongthemostsuccessfulactivitiesalongtheselineshavebeentheannualmathOlympicsandother
initiativesaimedatstrengtheningthelearningofmathematicsatthesecondarylevel.The2008Olympicsare
16
Pgina17
solutionstothesocialproblemsofBrazilprobablydependfarmoreonfactorsotherthan
thegenerationanddisseminationofscientificknowledge,thislineofpolicyhascome
undercriticismfromthosewhodonotseesocialinclusionasbeingwithinthesphereof
ST&Ipolicy.Althoughthescopeandefficacyofsuchinstrumentscanalsobequestioned,
thislineofpolicyhadthemeritofeffectivelyintroducingtheissueofST&Icontribution
foraggravatingoralleviatingthesocialconditionsofthegreaterpartoftheBrazilian
populaceintotheBrazilianpolicyagenda.
WhilenotalwaysobservingapreciseunderstandingoftheconceptofLocalProductive
Arrangements(APLs,initsPortugueseacronym),theapproachlinkedtothisrelativelynew
concepthasproventobeanextremelyusefultoolforanalyzingandguidinginterventions
focusedontechnologicalchangeandinnovation.Oneofthemostimportantaspectsofthis
approachisitsemphasisoncooperationandnetworkingamongsuppliers,producers,
serviceproviders,enterpriseandlaborassociations,localgovernments,universitiesand
otherpublicandprivateinstitutions.Agreatnumberoffederal,stateandmunicipal
programsandagencies,aswellastradeandindustryassociations,arecurrentlyworking
withAPLs. 31 Assumingthattheabusespracticedintheirnamedonotunderminethe
potentialoftheAPLs,theymaywellconsolidateasaneffectivemeansofstrengthening
practicescapableofleadingtoapolicyparadigmnolongerbasedontheLinearModel,but
ratheronasystemicapproach.Suchaparadigmwouldallowforthecollectiveinclusionof
micro,smallandmediumenterprisesintechnologicalandinnovativeefforts,astep
unquestionablyrepresentinganadvancegiventhehistoricaldifficultyofdealingwiththis
segmentviaprogramsthatsoughttoreachitonafirmbyfirmbasis.Itwouldalsoserveto
overcomethegeneralnotionthatissuesconnectedtoST&Iareonlyofinteresttoasmall
elitecomposedofscientists,researchers,universityprofessorsand,ultimately,oflarge
enterprisesendowedwithstateofthearttechnologies. 32
Insum,thetraditionalapproachestoS&TpolicysupporttoR&Dandtheformationof
professionalswithMaster'sanddoctoraldegrees(bothofwhichreflectthelinearsupply
model)havecontinuedtoadvanceinapatternsimilartothatoftheformerdevelopment
Estgio.Theyhavecometobeaccompanied,however,byanexpressivesetofnewmeasures
andtrends,eachofwhichinonewayoranotherdivergesfromthepoliciestypicalofthe
paradigminspiredbytheLinearModel.
TheSectoralFunds,theLawofInnovationandtheGoodLaw,aswellastheformulation
ofapolicythatissimultaneouslyindustrialandtechnological(PITCE)allindicatethat
BrazilianS&Tpolicyisshiftingtowardstheenterpriseandtheproductivesector.Similarmente,
thediscoveryofST&Ipolicyasapotentialtoolfortheregionalandlocaldevelopmentof
statesandmunicipalities,togetherwiththerecognitionoftheutilityoftheAPLapproachas
aninstrumentfororganizinglocalsystemsforproductionandinnovation,confirmthe
notionthatinnovationisassumingamoreimportantroleinpoliciesdirectedtothe
expectedtoinvolvemorethan18millionstudentsandover4thousandschoolsrepresentingnearlyallthe
municipalitiesinthecountry(http://www.obm.or.brandhttp://222.obmep.org.br).
31AGooglesearchusingthetermArranjosProdutivosLocais(inPortugueseandbetweenquotationmarks)
identifiedapproximately120thousandpagesonthesubjectontheInternet.
32RegardingAPLs,see,forexample,SeminrioDezAnosdeArranjoseSistemasProdutivoseInovativos
Locaisathttp://www.redesist.ie.ufrj.br/redesist10/.
17
Pgina18
scientificandtechnologicaldevelopmentofthecountry,inaccordancewiththeconceptof
aNationalInnovationSystem,orsocalledSystemicModel.
Hence,thereareindicationsthatS&Tpolicy,inthisthirdpostwarphaseofBrazilian
development,ismovinginthedirectionoftechnologicalinnovation.Assumingthistobe
thecase,twoquestionsarise:1)IsBrazileffectiveshiftingfromanessentiallylinear,
supplysideS&Tpolicytoatruesystemic,innovationbasedpolicy?2)Willthecountry
havetheopportunitytoenteranotherdevelopmentphaseinwhichthegrowthofincome
andthequalityoflifeofthepopulationcomestodepend,aboveall,oninnovationand
technologicalcapabilities,asinthedevelopedeconomies? 33
3.Challengestothebuildingofaneffectiveinnovationpolicy
AneffectiveinnovationpolicyisprerequisitetobuildingthefoundationsofBrazilian
desenvolvimento.
Intheclosingyearsofthe20thcenturyandtheopeningyearsofthe21st,therewere
significantadvancestowardscreatinganenvironmentfavorabletomountinganinnovation
policyinBrazil.Theseadvancesinvolvednotonlyideas,butinstrumentsandstructural
Condies.Inthesphereofideas,doctrinesandscientifictheory,neoliberalthought
whichhadcondemneddevelopingcountriestoresigningthemselvestodestiniesdetermined
bythemarketandtoabdicatingtherighttoinvestintheirprojectoffuturebyimplementing
activepoliciesloststeam.Thecomprehensionofthefactthattechnicalchangeliesatthe
coreofanytruedevelopmentprocessbecamemorewidespreadbecauseofthegradual
introductionofthisvariablewithinconventionaleconomics,whichwasoriginallytookasa
variableexogenoustoitstheoreticalcore.Meanwhile,evolutionaryorneoSchumpeterian
theoriesadvancedsignificantlytheunderstandingofthephenomenonoftechnological
innovationandcontributedtoformulatingthereferenceframeworkfortheconceptionof
modernST&IpolicieswiththedevelopmentoftheNationalInnovationSystemsapproach.
Withregardtoinstruments,asseenintheprecedingsection,asetofdiversifiedand
importantpolicymeasureswereexplicitlyadoptedwiththegoalofstimulatinginnovation
inthecountry.Intheevaluationofsomeanalysts,themountingoftheinnovationpolicy
apparatushasessentiallybeenconcluded.Thisappears,forexample,tobetheopinionof
Arruda,VermulmandHollanda(2006,p.106),whentheyaffirmthat:
Thereisnodoubtthat,inrecentyearsandinspiredbyinternationalexperience,the
countryhasadvancedconsiderablytowardcreatinganinstitutionalapparatus
bettersuitedtostimulatinginnovation.WhentheinstrumentsexistinginBrazilare
comparedtothoseinmoredevelopedcountries,nothingappearstobelacking,
despitetherestillbeinggapsandaneedtoimprovecertainaspectsofthelegal
estrutura.Wenowhaveaccesstoabroadrangeofnewinstrumentsdesigned
33SeeViotti(2004)foranexplanationofwhydevelopmentdependsonauthenticcompetitiveness(basedon
technologicalgains),whileunderdevelopmentreflectsspuriouscompetitiveness(basedonprotectionism,
cheaplaborandpredatoryexploitationofnaturalresources).
18
Pgina19
accordingtointernationalbestpractices,aswellastoasignificantvolumeof
resourcesforsupportingtheR&Dandinnovationprojectsofenterprisesinvarious
waysandindiversestages.
Evenso,thesesameauthorsrecognizethatitisextremelyhardtoputthenewinstruments
intooperation(Arruda,VermulmandHollanda2006,p.10712).
Itisadmittedlynotaneasytasktosubstitutetheconviction,prevalentfordecades,that
research,andespeciallybasicresearch,isthekey,theverycatalyst,oftechnological
desenvolvimento.Consequently,asrecentST&Ipolicyhasdemonstrated,itiseasierto
formulategoals,justificationsandprogramsinspiredbythesystemicapproachthanto
executethemwhileleavingasidethetraditionalpracticesinspiredbytheLinearModelfor,
intheend,thelatterinfluenceordominatetheimplementationoftheformer.
Unfortunately,sincetheLinearModelhasbeenneitherreplacednorentirelydisplaced,it
continuestoexertstronginfluence,particularlyamongscientistsandscholars. 34 Considerandoa
forceofinertia,R&DobjectivessupposedlyinspiredbytheSystemicModelareultimately
implementedthroughmeansassociatedwiththeLinearModel. 35 Forexample,arelatively
smallproportionoftheresourcesappliedbytheSectoralFundsisdirectedtosupportingthe
innovationeffortsofenterprises. 36 Alltoooften,theselectionprocessesforsupport
34ItshouldbestressedthattheWTOregulationsalsocontributetothis.TheOrganizations
generalprohibitionofsubsidiesandotherformsofprotectionsignificantlydiminishesthe
extenttowhichpoliciescanactivelysupportenterprises.Atthesametime,itsexcepting
subsidiesforR&D,butnotforothertypesofinnovationactivities,clearlyreinforcesthe
adoptionofpolicymeasuresalignedwiththeLinearModel.
35 Inpractice,thedifficultiesinvolvedinconsolidatingpoliciesbasedonthesystemic
approacharenotaBrazilianproblemalone.Despitethedifferences,asimilarproblem
existsinEurope.ArundelandHollanders(2006,p.2)pointoutthatthoughreferenceisno
longermadetothesciencepushorlinearmodelbasedonR&D,closeanalysisofthemain
policydocumentsindicatesthattheconceptofinnovationinuseisprimarilyR&D.
Moreover,themaininnovationpolicyinstrumentsinallEuropeancountrieseither
subsidizeR&DorarelinkedtoR&D(ArundelandHollanders2006,p.3).Dentro
confirmationofthisassessment,Arundel(2006,p.4)estimatesthat,inEurope,programs
thatdonotinvolveR&Dprobablyaccountforlessthan5%ofallgovernmentsupportfor
innovation.AnOECD(2005,p.7)reportcomestoasimilarconclusion:Theinnovation
policyoftheOECDcountrieshasbeenseenasanextensionofR&Dpolicy.Assuchithas
beenlinkedtoresearchandtechnologicaldevelopment.Thisremainstobethecase,even
thoughthesystemicapproachdevelopedunderthelabelof'NationalInnovationSystems'
(NIS)duringthe1990'sexpandedthisperspectivetoincludeinteractivelinkagesinthe
innovationsystem.
36 Thoughsomewhatdated,thisistheconclusionoftheknownevaluationsoftheSectoral
Funds(IEDI2005andPereira2005).IEDI(2005),forexample,statesthatthefundswere
mainlyallocatedtorenewalofthepublicresearchinfrastructureandacademicresearch,
withnoclearconnectiontosectoralornationalpriorities,ortotheformationofhuman
resources,thuscomplementingCAPESandCNPq.Aconsiderableportionofthefundswas
alsodirectedtoactivitiessuchasplanning,studiesandstructuringofresearchnetworks.
19
Pgina20
theoreticallyintendedtopromotefirmlevelinnovationsimplyadoptcriteriabettersuitedto
academicproposalsowingtotheevaluatorsalreadybeingacquaintedwiththeprocedures.
ThedifficultyofassimilatingtheSystemicModelisexpressedbyPacheco(2005,p.20)as
Seguinte:
Theplayershavelittleunderstandingofthesystemicnatureofthesepublicpolicies
orofthecomplementarynatureoftheinvestmentsrequired.Curiously,anacademic
biascanbeobservednotonlyinthedemandforresourcesandrequestsforsupport
ofuniversitiesandpostgraduatestudies,butalsointhesuggestionsforpoliciesin
supportoftheprivatesector.InBrazil,proposals,includingthoseinsupportof
industry,areoftenformulatedfromtheperspectiveofacademicresearch:financing
foractivitieswithnoimmediatereturns,grantsforinvestmentinhumanresources,
andholdingthepublicsectorresponsibleforpromotingprivatesectorresearch
actividades.[Incontrast],littleadvancehasbeenmadeinrelationtoplacingtypically
economicorindustrialpoliciesontheagenda,suchasofferingnewcreditlinesand
supportingfirmsintheireffortstointernationalize,acquirecertification,or
improvetheirproductsand/orprocesses.
BeyondwhatPachecotermsacademicbias,otherobstaclesexisttotheimplementation
ofinnovationpolicyduetothefactthatitsnaturediffersfromthatofthepreviouspolicy,
asdoitsprimaryagentsandproposals.WhereastraditionalS&Tpoliciesinvolvemainly
publicuniversitiesandresearchinstitutes,innovationpoliciescenteronenterprisese
differentfromlearningandresearchinstitutions,whosemainobjectivesaretoformhuman
resourcesandproducescientificarticles,enterprisesproduceandcommercializegoodsand
servicesinordertoearnprofit.Whetherowingtothisdifferenceinnatureortolong
institutionalpractice,itiseasyforpublicagenciestodealwith,supportandstimulate
learningandresearchinstitutions,butextremelyhardforthemtointeractwithenterprises
inasimilarmanner.Thisdifficultlyhasmarkedtheeffortstoimplementpolicyinstruments
specificallyaimedatpromotinginnovation,suchasofferingsubsidiesorrequisitioning
innovativeproductsandprocesses.
Theproblemsinvolvedinimplementinginnovationpolicybecamehighlyevidentduring
the2006InnovationandJurisprudenceSeminarsponsoredbytheIndustrialFederationof
theStateofSoPaulo(FIESP)andtheCenterforStrategicManagementandStudies
(CGEE).Duringtheseminar,theproblemsfacedbybothpolicyadministratorsand
corporatemanagerswerediscussed(CGEE2007).Allfeelthelackofaregulatorynet
enablingthemtosafelytakeadvantageoftheopportunitiesofferedbythenewinnovation
poltica.Giventhatcertainclausesoftheexistinglegislationarequiterestrictive,those
responsibleforimplementingthepoliciesfacetheriskoflegalexposure.Bywayof
example,governmentpurchasesarerigorouslysubjecttothelowestpricelaw,thusmaking
itnearlyimpossibletousethepurchasingpowerofthegovernmentasatooltostimulate
inovao.Inthiscase,recommendingthatthegovernmentpurchaseanitemevenone
authorizedunderthenewLawofInnovationmightattracttheattentionofaninspection
agencyandleadtocancellationofthepurchaseorevencondemnationofthosewho
requisitionedit.Anotherexamplereferstothelegallimitsofthenewfiscalincentive
20
Pgina21
legislation,sincefromthelegalstandpoint,aconsensushasnotyetbeenreachedasto
whichtypesofR&Dandinnovationactivitieshavetherighttoincentives.
SuziganandFurtado's(2006)evaluationoftheindustrial,technologicalandtradepolicy
(PITCE)implementedduringtheperiod20032006washarshlycritical:
Although[PITCE]hascertainpositiveaspects,suchasitsfocusoninnovation,
clearlydefinedgoalsandnewinstitutionalorganization,itfailsasadevelopment
policyduetoweaknessessuchasitslackofcompatibilitywithmacroeconomic
policy,lackofconsistencyamongitspolicyinstruments,weaknessesinthe
infrastructureandoverallsystemforscience,technologyandinnovation,lackof
coordinationandlackofpoliticalwill.(SuziganandFurtado2006,p.163)
Inspiteofbelievingthatthemajorityofinstrumentsnecessarytotheinnovationpolicy
havealreadybeencreated(asalreadyindicated),Arruda,VermulmandHollanda(2006,p.
109)arealsohighlycriticalastothemanagementofthepolicy:
Whathasbeenobservedtodateisagreatlackoforganizationinrelationtothe
executionofpolicymeasuresintheareaofscience,technologyandinnovation.o
financialresourcesavailablearefarfromsufficientandallocatedinanunplanned,
pulverizedway,thusmakingitimpossibletoachievethestructuralchange
necessrio.Ontheonehand,theprivatesectorlacksthetechnologicalcapabilities
requiredtotransform[Brazil]intoamoredynamicindustrialeconomyonthebasis
ofinnovationontheother,ifthisistohappen,thepublicsectorwillhaveto
participateinaproperandmorecompetentmanner.
Awarenessoftheseobstaclestotheeffectiveimplementationoftheinnovationpolicyleads
totheconclusionthatmuchisyettobedoneforthepolicytobearsignificantfruit.
Overcomingthelimitationsimposedbytheseobstacleswillunquestionablyrequiremuch
timeandenergy.
Thegreatnumberofmeasures,initiativesandguidelinesthatcurrentlyexistneedto
convergetoamorereducedandmanageablesetofstrategicprioritiesandgoals,and
simultaneouslyitisalsonecessarytorecoverthecountry'scapabilityforplanningand
coordinatinglongtermactionsandpolicies.
Inaddition,thelackofcoordinationandsynergyamongthevariousinstitutionsincharge
ofcarryingoutinnovationpoliciesalsocompromisetheirefficacy.Theneedfor
coordinationappliesnotonlytotheinstitutionstypicallylinkedtoinnovation,butalsoto
otherinstitutions,aswellastoothergovernmentalspheresandtheirextensions.Nisso
regard,itisworthcallingattentiontothefactthatthereislittleneedforcoordinationwhen
apolicyisfocusedexclusivelyonresearch(especiallybasicresearch)orontheformation
ofhumanresources,sincethesetwoareasaresubjecttoverticalrelationswithtypicalS&T
Instituies.Inthecaseoftrueinnovationpolicy,however,thesituationisconsiderably
different,giventhattheinnovationsareinareasnottypicaloftraditionalS&Tpolicy,such
asagriculture,industry,defense,healthandtelecommunications.Hypothetically,for
example,itisoflittleusetodevelopatechnologyinthefieldoftelecommunicationsifits
21
Pgina22
utilizationisneitherpermittednorvalidatedbythesectorregulation.Aomesmotempo,o
successofmanyinnovationsdependsonmeasuresordecisionsrelatingtogovernment
purchases,taxes,financing,tariffs,sanitarycontrols,biologicalsafetyorenvironmental
controls,noneofwhicharewithinthesphereofS&T.Forthisreason,theneedfor
coordinationbecomesabsolutelyessentialwhenthequestionisoneoftransitionfrom
traditionalS&Tpoliciestoinnovationpolicies.
Whilethedefinitionofareducedsetofstrategicobjectivesfacilitatescoordination,itwill
alsobenecessarytorestructureandqualifytheinstitutionalapparatusinordertoimprove
itsabilitytodealwiththeveryprocessofprioritysetting,exercisingcoordination,
evaluationandexecutingplansandpolicies.Withinthisperspective,someinstitutionswere
created,onebeingtheBrazilianAgencyforIndustrialDevelopment(ABDI).Asarule,
however,theseinstitutionshaveprovenfragileandillpreparedforthedemandsplacedon
eles.Consequently,theyneedtobestrengthenedand/orrestructured.Therestructuring
andqualificationoftheNationalIndustrialPropertyInstitute(INPI)currentlyunderwayisa
stepintherightdirection.However,otherinstitutionssuchastheveryMinistryofScience
andTechnology(MCT),itsFinancingAgencyforStudiesandProjects(FINEP),the
NationalCouncilforScientificandTechnologicalDevelopment(CNPq)stillhavemuchto
doinordertobecomeadaptandqualifiedfortheeffectiveimplementationofainnovation
poltica.
Itmustberecognized,however,that,apriori,noinstitutions,instrumentsorevenpolicies
areidealforthepromotionofinnovation.Norarethereinternationalmodelsthatcanbe
copiedintheirentirety,forthemodelshouldbeconstructedinaccordancewiththe
historicalconditionsandthestrategicneedsofthecountryinquestion.Whatinternational
experiencedoesreveal,however,isthatsuccessfulmodelsreflectacontinuouseffortto
adapt,learnfromandimprovethepoliciesinvolvedinotherwords,theyhavebuiltin
mechanismsforpolicylearning(OECD2005).Infact,atthepresentstageofBrazilian
ST&Ipolicy,anyadvanceinthedirectionofapolicythatlearnswouldbemost
opportune,thereasonbeingthattheitiscurrentlymarkedbyacertaindegreeof
experimentalismwherenumerousapproaches,programs,plans,policies,instrumentsand
measuresarebeingtested,buttheyarenotalwaysinterconnectednordotheyalwaysreflect
theprioritythatthenewpolicyascribestoinnovation. 37
Oneofthefactorsthatmakesapolicyintelligentandenablesittolearnfromexperienceis
theexistenceofanevaluationsystem.Inthisrespect,muchremainstobedoneinBrazil.
Amongthesystemsinoperationinthecountry,thatwhichprovidesfeedbacktoCAPES
standsoutforitscapacitytoguidehigherlearningandresearchandinformthegeneral
public.However,mostoftheexistingmonitoringsystemsareoverlyfocusedonevaluating
individualprojectsapriori,anactivitywhichisevidentlyoflimitedvalueintermsof
betteringpolicies.Forthispurpose,itisessentialtoimprovetheassessmentofpolicies,
plans,programs,toolsandmeasuresingeneral.Moreover,suchassessmentsmustbe
37 ThisisevidentfromthemenuofpossibilitiesofferedontheInternetbyfederal
ministries,statesecretariats,regulatoryagencies,financingagenciesandotherentities
directlyorindirectlyinvolvedinST&I.
22
Pgina23
conceivedandemployedwithaviewtoreformulatingandimprovingpolicies,without
beingallowedtobecomeanendinthemselves.
Theongoingefficacyofaninnovationpolicydepends,however,onfarmorethan
modifyingandimprovingtheregulations,managementandinstitutionalframeworkofthe
poltica.Theseedsofinnovationmustbeplantedonfertilegroundandforthistooccur,the
learningandresearchinstitutes,and,aboveall,theenterprisesinvolved,mustbeadequately
preparado.
Achievingthedesiredtransformationoflearningandresearchinstitutionsgoesbeyond
relaxingtheregulationsthatguidethemandsettinguptechnologytransfercentersfor
intellectualpropertyprotectionandcommercialization,asprescribedbytheLawof
Innovation.Itisalsoofvitalimportancetomodernizegraduateandpostgraduatecoursesby
updatingtheircurriculainsuchawayastopreparetheirstudentsalsotoengagein
technologicalinnovation. 38 Evenatthepostgraduatelevel,whichhasexcellentcredentials
intermsofgrowth,diversificationandquality,morehastobedonetomeetthedemandsof
amarketthatshouldbelessconcentratedintheuniversitiesthemselves,researchinstitutes
andpublicadministration. 39 Inotherwords,technologicalchangeandinnovation,both
currentandprojected,shouldplayamoreimportantroleindeterminingthedevelopmentof
Brazilianpostgraduateprograms.
Atthesametime,Brazilianenterprisesgenerallyhavelittlefamiliaritywithinnovation 40
andwhentheyhavepassivetechnologicalstrategiesorlackthecapacityforactive
technologicallearningandinnovation,asisthecaseofthemajorityofBrazilianindustrial
enterprises, 41 theefficacyaswellastheefficiencyofthestimuliofferedbyinnovation
policiesisevidentlycompromised,nottomentiontheabilityoftheenterprisestohelp
38 ThereareindicationsthatBrazilianPhDsaredirectlycontributingfarlessthanpossible
tofirmlevelinnovation.TheBrazilianInnovationSurvey(PINTEC)estimated,for
example,thatlessthan3thousandworkerswithpostgraduatedegreeswereengagedin
R&Dactivitiesatinnovativefirmsin2000,ayearinwhichBrazilianuniversitiesconferred
18thousandMaster'sand5thousanddoctoraldegrees(Viottietal.2005).Regardingthis
subject,alsoseeViottiandBaessa(2008).
39 AccordingtoViottiandBaessa(2008),ofthealmost26thousandBrazilianswho
receiveddoctoraldegreesintheperiod19962003andwereformallyemployedduring
2004,65.96%wereworkingintheeducationalsector,18.27%inpublicadministration,
defenseorsocialsecurity,andonly1.24%inindustrialmanufacture.
40 Viotti(2205and2007)offersarelativeideaofhowlimitedinnovationisinBrazilby
comparingtheinnovativeperformanceofBrazilianindustrialenterprisestothatof
ArgentineandEuropeanenterprises.ThecomparisonisbasedondatafromtheBrazilian
innovationsurvey(PINTEC2000)andthethirdroundofthesurveysconductedbythe
EuropeanCommunity(CIS3).
41 Theconceptsofpassiveandactivetechnologicallearning,asdifferentiatedfrom
innovation,wereintroducedbyViotti(1997and2002)andfurtherelaboratedina
subsequentwork(Viotti2004).Empiricaldataindicatingthatthepassivetechnological
learningstrategyprevailsamongBrazilianindustrialenterprisesaretobefoundinViotti
(2005and2007).
23
Pgina24
shapetheverypoliciesthataffectthem.Thislimitationismainlyduetothehistoryof
Brazilianindustry,thestructureoftheenterprisesandthemacroeconomicenvironmentin
whichtheyoperatedoroperate.Factorslinkedtothestructureoftheproductivesectoralso
conditionorlimittheinnovationprocessofthecountryasawhole.Forinstance,thereare
relativelyfewBrazilianenterprisesinthemoretechnologicallydynamicsectors,which
tendtobeledbyforeignenterprises, 42 andfewBrazilianundertakingsarecompetitivein
globalmarkets.Thus,policies,businessstrategiesandthedomesticenterprisesthemselves
allneedtoberedirectedtowardsrestructuringtheproductivesectorsoastomakeitmore
favorableforinnovation.
Undoubtedly,themacroeconomicenvironmentisamongthefactorsthatmoststrongly
influencetheproductivestructureandthepropensitytoinnovate.Althoughchangingthis
environmentisataskofhistoricproportions,itisonethatthecountrymustundertake.
Duringtheimportsubstitutionperiod,theindustrialsectorwasessentiallycommittedto
absorbingproductivecapacity,whichisassociatedwithpassivetechnologicallearning.
Thereafterduringthelasttwodecadesofthe20thcenturyandthefirstyearsofthe21st
centurythemacroeconomicenvironmentwashostiletoinvestment,andespeciallytothe
typeofinvestmentthatinvolvedriskorwasofalongtermnature,suchasinvestmentin
inovao.
Fortunately,however,thelastfewyearshavebeenonesofsignificantprogressinthe
Brazilianmacroeconomicscenario.Amongtheadvanceswitnessedarethesubstantial
reductionsintheexternalvulnerabilityoftheeconomy,inthevolatilityofprices,inthe
nearchronicinstabilityoftheeconomyandintheresultinglackofpredictablehorizons,all
ofwhichformerlyledtoashorttermoutlookanddefensivestrategies,which,inturn,
discouragedinvestment.
Evenso,theinvestmentssovitaltoinnovationarestillextremelylimited.Thehistoric
dimensionofthechallengerepresentedbytheneedtorecovertheoverallinvestmentlevels
oftheeconomybecomesclearlyvisibleonanalyzingtheevolutionoftheratesof
investmentinBrazil.Theaveragerateofinvestmentstoodat21.6%ofGDPinthe1970s
22.2%inthe1980sfellto18.2%inthe1990sandthendroppedtoamere16.4%inthe
period20002007.Itwasstillverylowduring2007whenitachieved17.6%, 43 butitis
relevanttonotethatthegrowthofinvestmenthasbeensustainedduringthelastthreeyears.
Theselevelofinvestmentseemtobeincompatiblewithanystrongprocessofdevelopment
andthisfactbecomesobviouswhentheyarecomparedwiththoseofeconomiesonthe
catchinguppath,suchasChina,wheretheratesoverthelastseveralyearshave
approached40%ofGDP.Fortheratesofinvestmenttoriseandtheeconomytogrowata
42 ViottiandBaessa(2007,p.223)havefoundindicationsthattheforeignenterprisesin
Brazilarelessinnovativeintechnologicallyadvancedsectors(whichtheydominate)than
inmoretraditionalsectors.Inturn,Arajo(2005)hasfoundevidencethatfirmsize,
sectoraldistribution,etc.,havingbeencontrolledfor,theforeignenterprisesinBrazilinvest
significantlysmallerproportionsoftheirturnoverinR&Dthandothedomesticenterprises.
43 ThesedatawerecomputedfrominformationpresentedinthetableTaxade
InvestimentosaPreosCorrentes%doPIB,updatedon12March2008
(http://www.ipeadata.gov.br).
24
Pgina25
fasterpace,henceallowingformorevigorousinnovationefforts,thecurrentinterestrates,
aswellasthenowovervaluedexchangerate,willhavetobesubstantiallylowered.
Inspiteofthemagnitudeofthetaskofframingamacroeconomicenvironmentcapableof
stimulatinginnovation,thestructuralconditionsarenowincomparablymorefavorablethan
theywereinrecentdecades.Thestabilityoftheeconomyandthedemocraticprocesshave
apparentlybeenconsolidated.Asaresultofthisstabilityandrecentsocialpolicies,the
domesticmarketisinfrankexpansion.Thecurrentenergycrisisisnotlikelytohavethe
shatteringimpactonthegrowthofthecountrythatformercriseshadonthecontrary,
Brazilappearstobeinapositiontobenefitfromthecrisisduetopromisingopportunities
foritsethanolandoiloutput.Thecountryisnowinthetechnologicalleadinrelationtothe
productionanduseofethanolforfuelcombustionengines,anapplicationwhichhelps
reducetheemissionofgasesthatcontributetothegreenhouseeffect.Almdisso,o
countryhasbecomeselfsufficientinoilandhasrecentlydiscoverednewsuperfields.
Lastly,Brazilisinanexcellentpositiontobenefitfromtherapidgrowthoftheworld
demandforfood,aswellasfromthespiralingpricesforfoodandmineralproducts.
ThisalignmentofthestarsintheworldeconomyinfavorofBrazilclearlyrepresentsa
windowofopportunityfortheframingofasuccessfuldevelopmentpolicy.Thegreatest
challengefacingthecountryisnottobecomecomplacentinthefaceofthepassing
bonanza,buttotakeadvantageofthishistoricopportunitytoimplementasetofactive
policiestoanchorthegrowthanddevelopmentofthecountryoncompetitiveadvantages
basedontechnologicaladvantagesratherthanontheunsustainableexploitationofnatural
resourcesandcheaplabor.Inotherwords,thegreatestchallengefacingBrazilisto
transformS&Tpolicyintoaneffectiveinnovationpolicyandconvertitinthebasisforthe
newdevelopmentpolicy.
Referncias
ABDI. 2007. Resumo Da PITCE. Braslia. (March).

http://www.abdi.com.br/abdi_redesign/publicacao/download.wsp?tmp.arquivo=400.
________.2006. BalanodaPITCE2005.Braslia.(April4).
http://www.desenvolvimento.gov.br/arquivo/ascom/imprensa/20060404balancoPIT
CE.pdf(accessedNovember27,2007).
Anprotec.2006.PanoramadeIncubadorasdeEmpresaseParquesTecnolgicos2006.
http://www.anprotec.org.br/ArquivosDin/Graficos_Evolucao_2006_Locus_pdf_59.pdf.
Arajo,RogrioDiasde.2005.EsforosTecnolgicosdasFirmasTransnacionaise
Domsticas.InInovaes,PadresTecnolgicoseDesempenhodasFirmas
IndustriaisBrasileiras,ed.JADeNegriandMSSalerno,11970.Braslia:
Ipea.
Arruda,Mauro,RobertoVermulmandSandraHollanda.2006.InovaoTecnolgicano
Brasil:AIndstriaemBuscadaCompetitividadeGlobal.SoPaulo:Anpei.
http://www.anpei.org.br/download/estudo_anpei_2006.pdf(accessedJune10,
2007).
25
Pgina26
Arundel,Anthony.2006.InnovationIndicators:AnyProgressSince1996?OrHowto
Addressthe'OsloParadox'.PaperpresentedattheIIBlueSkyConference:What
IndicatorsforScience,TechnologyandInnovationPoliciesinthe21stCentury,
organizedbytheOECD,NSFandIndustryCanada,Ottawa,September2527.
http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/24/28/37436234.pdf[AlsoavailableinOECD.2007,
Chapter4].
Arundel,AnthonyandHugoHollanders.2006.TrendChartMethodologyReport
SearchingtheForestfortheTrees:'Missing'IndicatorsofInnovation.Paper
presentedattheMERITConference,organizedbytheMaastrichtEconomic
ResearchInstituteonInnovationandTechnology,July1.http://www.proinno
europe.eu/doc/eis_2006_methodology_report_missing_indicators.pdf. (accessed
September30,2007).
Brasil.CasaCivil,MDIC,MF,MPOG,MCT,IPEA,BNDES,FINEPandAPEX.2003.Diretrizes
dePolticaIndustrial,TecnolgicaedeComrcioExterior(PITCE).(November23).
http://www.abdi.com.br/abdi_redesign/publicacao/download.wsp?tmp.arquivo=107.
Brasil.PresidnciadaRepblica,SecretariadeCinciaeTecnologia.1991.APoltica
BrasileiradeCinciaeTecnologia1990/95.2aed.Braslia.
Bush,Vannevar.1945.ScienceTheEndlessFrontier:AReporttothePresidentona
ProgramforPostwarScientificResearch.Washington,DC:UnitedStates
GovernmentPrintingOffice.Reprinted1990.Washington,DC:NationalScience
Fundao.http://www.nsf.gov/od/lpa/nsf50/vbush1945.htm(accessedSeptember
29,2007).
CAPES.2008.ProduoCientficaBrasileiraa15emTodooMundo.Braslia.(July
8).http://www.capes.gov.br/servicos/salaimprensa/noticias/noticia_0882.html.
________.2004.PlanoNacionaldePsGraduao(PNPG)20052010.Braslia.
(December).
http://www.capes.gov.br/opencms/export/sites/capes/download/editais/PNPG_2005_20
10.pdf.
CGEE.2006.SeminrioInovaoeSeguranaJurdica:ContribuiesaoDebate,So
Paulo,December13,2006.http://www.cgee.org.br/arquivos/sisj.pdf.
Cimoli,Mario,JooCarlosFerrazandAnnalisaPrimi.2005.ScienceandTechnology
PoliciesinOpenEconomies:TheCaseofLatinAmericaandtheCaribbean.UN
ECLACProductiveDevelopmentSeries165.SantiagodeChile.(October).
http://www.eclac.org/publicaciones/xml/3/23153/DP165.pdf.
Dagnino,Renato,FlvioCruvinelBrandoandHenriqueTahanNovaes.2004.Sobreo
MarcoAnalticoconceitualdaTecnologiaSocial.InTecnologiaSocial:Uma
EstratgiaparaoDesenvolvimento,1565.RiodeJaneiro:FundaoBancodo
Brasil.
http://www.rts.org.br/publicacoes/arquivos/tecnologia_social_uma_estrategia_de_d
esenvolvimento.pdf
26
Pgina27
Erber,FbioStefano.1979.PolticaCientficaeTecnolgicanoBrasil:UmaRevisoda
Literatura.InResenhasdeEconomiaBrasileira,org.JooSayad,11797.So
Paulo:Saraiva.
Fajnzylber,Fernando.1988.CompetitividadInternacional:EvolucinyLeciones.Revista
delaCEPAL,36(December):723,
Falkenheim,JaquelinaC.2007.USDoctoralAwardsinScienceandEngineering
ContinueUpwardTrendin2006.NationalScienceFoundationInfoBriefNSF08
301.(November).<http://www.nsf.gov/statistics/infbrief/nsf08301/nsf08301.pdf
(accessedJuly4,2008).
FrancoGustavoHB1996.AInseroExternaeoDesenvolvimento.BancoCentraldo
Brasil,DiretoriadeAssuntosInternacionais.(June19).Mimeographeddocument.
http://www.econ.pucrio.br/gfranco/insercao.pdf.[PublishedinRevistade
EconomiaPoltica,18(3):12147].
Galvo,AntnioCarlos.1993.C&TnoBrasil:AvanoseRetrocessosnaDcadade80.
Braslia.Mimeographeddocument.
Gibbons,Michael.1995.CommentsonScienceandTechnologyinBrazil.InScience
andTechnologyinBrazil:ANewPolicyforaGlobalWorld,org.Simon
Schwartzman,Vol.1,5771.RiodeJaneiro:FundaoGetlioVargas.
Guimares,EduardoAugusto.2006.PolticasdeInovao:FinanciamentoeIncentivos.
Texto pra Discusso 1212. Braslia: Ipea.
http:/www.ipea.gov.br/sites/000/2/publicacoes/tds/td_1212.pdf(accessedNovember
27,2007).
________.1996.AExperinciaRecentedaPolticaIndustrialnoBrasil:UmaAvaliao.
Texto pra Discusso 409. Braslia: Ipea.
http://www.ipea.gov.br/pub/td/1996/td_0409.pdf
IEDI.2005.OsFundosSetoriaisdeC&T:DesafiosePerspectivaspara2005.Carta
IEDI, 161 (June 24).
http://www.iedi.org.br/cgi/cgilua.exe/sys/start.htm?from%5Finfo%5Findex=161&
sid=20&infoid=1293.
INPI.2008.TabelaCertificadosdeAverbaoporCategoriaContratual.(March9).
http://www.inpi.gov.br/menu
esquerdo/instituto/resolveUid/cde3cce80d7dd38274b115ae51f03bee.
INPI/MCT.2007.Tabela6.1Brasil:PedidosdePatentesDepositadosnoInstituto
NacionaldePropriedadeIndustrial(INPI),segundoTipoeOrigemdoDepositante,
19902006. [Data updated em setembro 4, 2007].
http://www.mct.gov.br/index.php/content/view/5688.html(accessedMarch12,
2008).
ISO.2001.AnnexA:ISO9000CertificationsWorldwide:Growthfrom1995toEndof
2000.InTheISOSurveyofISO9000andISO14000CertificatesTenthCycle:
UptoandIncluding31December2000,1215.Geneva:InternationalOrganization
forStandardization.http://www.iso.org/iso/survey10thcycle.pdf.
27
Pgina28
Kupfer,DavidandFredericoRocha.2005.ProductividadyHeterogeneidadEstructuralen
laIndustriaBrasilea.InHeterogeneidadEstructural,AsimetrasTecnolgicasy
CrecimientoenAmricaLatina,ed.MarioCimoli,70100.SantiagodeChile:
CEPAL.http://www.eclac.org/iyd/noticias/paginas/4/31434/W35_CIMOLI.pdf.
Lall,Sanjaya,andMorrisTeubal.1998.'MarketStimulating'TechnologyPoliciesin
DevelopingCountries:AFrameworkwithExamplesfromEastAsia.World
Development,26(8):136985.
MCT/ABC.2001.Cincia,TecnologiaeInovao:DesafioparaaSociedadeBrasileira
LivroVerde,org.CylonGonalvesdaSilvaandLciaCarvalhoPintodeMelo.
Braslia:MinistriodaCinciaeTecnologiaeAcademiaBrasileiradeCincias.
http://www.mct.gov.br/index.php/content/view/18843.html.
MCT.2002.LivroBranco:Cincia,TecnologiaeInovao.Braslia:MinistriodaCinciae
Tecnologia.http://www.cgee.org.br/arquivos/livro_branco_cti.pdf.
MCT.2006.MinistriodeCinciaeTecnologia:RelatriodeGesto20032006,.Braslia.
(December).http://http://agenciact.mct.gov.br/upd_blob/0041/41018.pdf.
MCT.2007a.Cincia,TecnologiaeInovaoparaoDesenvolvimentoNacional:Planode
Ao20072010InvestireInovarparaCrescer.Braslia.(November).
http://www.mct.gov.br/upd_blob/0021/21439.pdf.
MCT.2007b.TabelaNmerodeArtigosBrasileiros,daAmricaLatinaedoMundo
PublicadosemPeridicosCientficosInternacionaisIndexadosnoInstitutefor
Scientific Emformao (ISI), 19812006. Braslia. (September).
http://www.mct.gov.br/index.php/content/view/8499.html(accessedJuly6,2008).
MCT.2007c.TabelaBrasil:AlunosNovos,MatriculadosaoFinaldoAnoeTitulados
nosCursosdeMestradoeDoutorado,19872006.Preparedonthebasisofdata
fromCAPES,MinistryofEducation(MEC).Braslia.(August).
http://www.mct.gov.br/index.php/content/view/6629.html.
MCT/FNDCT. 2008. Fundos Setoriais. Braslia.
http://www.mct.gov.br/index.php/content/view/725.html#.
OCDE.2005.GovernanceofInnovationSystems.Volume1,SynthesisReport.Paris.
http://213.253.134.29/oecd/pdfs/browseit/9205121E.PDF.
OCDE.2006.Science,TechnologyandInnovationIndicatorsinaChangingWorld:
RespondingtoPolicyNeeds.ProceedingsoftheIIBlueSkyConference,Ottawa,
setembro 2527. Paris.
http://www.oecd.org/document/12/0,3343,en_2649_33703_39369868_1_1_1_1,00.
html(accessedSeptember30,2007).
Pacheco,CarlosAmrico.2005.PolticasPblicas,InteresesyArticulacinPoltica:Cmose
GestaronlasRecientesReformasalSistemadeCienciayTecnologaenBrasil.Serie
PoliticasSociales103.SantiagodeChile:CEPAL.
http://www.eclac.cl/publicaciones/xml/8/20848/sps103_lcl2251.pdf
28
Pgina29
Pacheco,CarlosAmrico.2007.AsReformasdaPolticaNacionaldeCincia,Tecnologiae
InovaonoBrasil(19992002).SantiagodeChile:CEPAL.
http://www.cepal.org/iyd/noticias/paginas/5/31425/carlosamericop.pdf
Pereira,NewtonMller.2005.FundosSetoriais:AvaliaodasEstratgiasde
ImplementaoeGesto.TextoparaDiscusso1136.Braslia:Ipea.
http://www.ipea.gov.br/pub/td/2005/td_1136.pdf
Salerno,MarioSergio,andTalitaDaher.2006.PolticaIndustrial,Tecnolgicaede
ComrcioExteriordoGovernoFederal(PITCE):BalanoePerspectivas.Braslia:
ABDI.Mimeographeddocument.
Sarti,Fernando.,andRodrigoSabbatini.2003.ContedoTecnolgicodoComrcio
ExteriorBrasileiro.InIndicadoresdeCincia,TecnologiaeInovaonoBrasil,
Ed.E.ViottiandM.Macedo,377422.Campinas:EditoradaUnicamp.
Schwartzman,Simonetal.1995a.ScienceandTechnologyinBrazil.Vol.1,ANewPolicy
foraGlobalWorld.RiodeJaneiro:FundaoGetlioVargas.
http://www.schwartzman.org.br/simon/scipol/summ1.htm.
________.1995b.CinciaeTecnologianoBrasil.Vol.2,PolticaIndustrial,Mercadode
TrabalhoeInstituiesdeApoio.RiodeJaneiro:FundaoGetlioVargas.
________.1996a.CinciaeTecnologianoBrasil.Vol.3,ACapacitaoBrasileiraparaa
PesquisaCientficaeTecnolgica.RiodeJaneiro:FundaoGetlioVargas.
_______.1996b.ScienceandtechnologyinBrazil:anewpolicyforaglobalworld.Dentro
SimonSchwartzman(org.)ScienceandtechnologyinBrazil:anewpolicyfora
globalworld,(Vol.1)RiodeJaneiro,FundaoGetlioVargas,1995,pp.156.
<www.schwartzman.org.br/simon/scipol/newpol.htm>
Stokes,DonaldE.1997.Pasteur'sQuadrant:BasicScienceandTechnologicalInnovation.
Washington,DC:BrookingsInstitutionPress.
Suzigan,WilsonandJooFurtado.2006.PolticaIndustrialeDesenvolvimento.Rev.
Econ.Polit.,26(2):16385.http://www.scielo.br/pdf/rep/v26n2/a01v26n2.pdf.
[PublishedinEnglishinCEPALReview,89(August):6884andinSpanishin
RevistadelaCEPAL,89(August):7591].
Thurgood,Lori,MaryJ.GolladayandSusanT.Hill.2006.USDoctoratesinthe20th
Century.NationalScienceFoundationSpecialReport.(June).
http://www.nsf.gov/statistics/nsf06319/pdf/nsf06319.pdf(accessedJuly4,2008).
USPTO.2007.ExtendedYearSetHistoricPatentsbyCountry,State,andYear:Utility
PatentsGranted01/01/196312/31/2007.PatentTechnologyMonitoringTeam
Report(December).http://www.uspto.gov/web/offices/ac/ido/oeip/taf/cst_utlh.htm
(accessedApril6,2008).
Vermulm,Roberto,andTomsBruginskidePaula.Forthcoming[2006].APoltica
TecnolgicanoBrasileaExperinciaInternacional.SoPaulo:IEDI.
29
Pgina30
Viotti,EduardoB.andAdrianoBaessa.Forthcoming[2008].CaractersticasdoEmprego
dosDoutoresBrasileiros:Caractersticasdoempregoformalnoanode2004das
PessoasqueObtiveramTtulodeDoutoradonoBrasilnoPerodo19962003.
Braslia:CGEE.
Viotti,EduardoB.,andAdrianoBaessa.2007.InnovationinBrazilian,Argentineand
EuropeanIndustries:AComparisonofInnovationSurveys.InTechnological
InnovationinBrazilianandArgentineFirms,ed.JooAlbertoDeNegriand
Lenita Turchi, 22344. Braslia: Ipea.
http://www.ipea.gov.br/sites/000/2/livros/technological_innovation_ingles.pdf
Viotti,EduardoB.,A.BaessaandP.Koeller.2005.PerfildaInovaonaIndstria
Brasileira:UmaComparaoInternacional.InInovao,PadresTecnolgicose
DesempenhodasFirmasIndustriaisBrasileiras,org.MarioS.SalernoandJoo
Alberto De Negri, 65387. Braslia: Ipea.
http://www.ipea.gov.br/sites/000/2/livros/Inovacao_Padroes_tecnologicos_e_desempe
nho.pdf.
Viotti,Eduardo.2004.B.TechnologicalLearningSystems,Competitivenessand
Development. Texto pra Discusso 1057. Braslia: IPEA.
http://www.ipea.gov.br/pub/td/2004/td_1057.pdf.
Viotti,EduardoB.,andMarianodeM.Macedo.2003.IndicadoresdeCincia,Tecnologia
eInovao:UmaIntroduo.InIndicadoresdeCincia,TecnologiaeInovaono
Brasil,ed.E.ViottiandM.Macedo,1939.Campinas:EditoradaUnicamp.
Viotti,EduardoB.2002.NationalLearningSystems:ANewApproachonTechnical
ChangeinLateIndustrializingEconomiesandEvidencesfromtheCasesofBrazil
andSouthKorea.TechnologicalForecastingandSocialChange,69:65380.
Viotti,EduardoB.1997.PassiveandActiveNationalLearningSystems.PhDdiss.o
NewSchoolforSocialResearch,NewYork.
Williamson,John.1990.WhatWashingtonMeansbyPolicyReform.InLatinAmerican
Adjustment:HowMuchHasHappened?Ed.J.Williamson.WashingtonDC:
InstituteforInternationalEconomics.
30

Brasil - Da C & T À Política de Inovação Viotti

Transféré par

Informations du document

Titre original

Copyright

Formats disponibles

Partager ce document

Partager ou intégrer le document

Options de partage

Avez-vous trouvé ce document utile ?

Ce contenu est-il inapproprié ?

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

Brasil - Da C & T À Política de Inovação Viotti

Transféré par

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

19/03/2017 Globelics

ABDI. 2007. Resumo Da PITCE. Braslia. (March).

Vous aimerez peut-être aussi