Objectives of the Testing and Commissioning (T&C) Works

The objectives of the T&C works are:-

(i) To verify proper functioning of the equipment/system after installation;

(ii) To verify that the performance of the installed equipment/systems meet with the specified design intent or
statutory requirements through a series of tests, measurements and adjustments; and
(iii) To capture and record performance data of the whole installation as the baseline for future operation and
maintenance.

Testing of transformers

ROUTINE TEST:

A Routine test of transformer is mainly for confirming operational performance of individual unit in a production
lot. Routine tests are carried out on every unit manufactured.

Insulation resistance Test.

Winding resistance Test.
Turns Ration / Voltage ratio Test
Polarity / Vector group Test.
No-load losses and current Test.
Short-circuit impedance and load loss Test.
 Continuity Test
Magnetizing Current Test
Magnetic Balance Test
High Voltage Test.
Dielectric tests
Separate source AC voltage.
Induced overvoltage.
Lightning impulse tests.
Test on On-load tap changers, where appropriate.

TYPE TEST:

These tests are done mainly in a prototype unit not in all manufactured units in a lot. Type test of transformer
confirms main and basic design criteria of a production lot.

All routine tests

Temperature rise test (IEC 60076-2).
Dielectric type tests (IEC 60076-3).
SPECIAL TEST:

Special tests of transformer are done as per customer requirement to obtain information useful to the user during
operation or maintenance of the transformer.
 Partial discharge
Radio interference
Vibration test
Zero-sequence impedance on three-phase transformers.
Short circuit withstand test
Tan delta test.

ROUTINE TESTS
Insulation resistance Test:

This test is performed at or above rated voltage to determine if there are low resistance paths to ground or between
winding to winding as a result of winding insulation deterioration. The test measurement values are affected by
variables such as temperature, humidity, test voltage, and size of transformer. This test should be conducted before
and after repair or when maintenance is performed. The test data should be recorded for future comparative
purposes. The test values should be normalized to 20C for comparison purposes. The general rule of thumb that is
used for acceptable values for safe energization is 1 M per 1000 V of applied test voltage plus 1 M. Sample
resistance values of good insulation systems are shown in Table below . The test procedures are as follows:
1. Do not disconnect the ground connection to the transformer tank and core. Make sure that the transformer
tank and core are grounded.
2. Disconnect all high-voltage, low-voltage, and neutral connections, lightning arresters, fan systems, meters,
or any low-voltage control systems that are connected to the transformer winding.
3. Before beginning the test, jumper together all high-voltage bushings, making sure that the jumpers are clear
of all metal and grounded parts. Also jumper together all low-voltage and neutral bushings, making sure
jumpers are clear of all metal and grounded parts.
4. Use a megohmmeter with a minimum scale of 20,000 M.
5. Resistance measurements are then made between each set of windings and ground. The windings that are to
be measured must have its ground removed in order to measure its insulation resistance.
6. Megohmmeter reading should be maintained for a period of 1 min. Make the following readings for two-
winding transformers:

a. High-voltage winding to low-voltage winding and to ground

 b. High-voltage winding to ground
c. Low-voltage winding to high-voltage winding and to ground
d. Low-voltage winding to ground
e. High-voltage winding to low-voltage winding

Megohmmeter readings should be recorded along with the test temperature (C). The readings should be corrected
to 20C by the correction factors shown in Table 2.1. If the corrected fi eld test values are one-half or more of
the factory insulation readings or 1000 M, whichever is less, the transformer insulation system is considered safe
for a hi-pot test.
FFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON insulation Resistance:

The resistance of insulating materials decreases markedly with an increase in temperature. As weve seen,
however, tests by the time-resistance and step voltage methods are relatively independent of temperature effects,
giving relative values. If you want to make reliable comparisons between readings, you should correct the readings
to a base temperature, such as 20C, or take all your readings at approximately the same temperature (usually not
difficult to do). We will cover some general guides to temperature correction.
One thumb rule is: For every 10C increase in temperature, halve the resistance; or, for every 10C decrease,
double the resistance. For example, a two-megohm resistance at 20C reduces to 1 / 2 megohm at 40C. Each type
of insulating material will have a different degree of resistance change with temperature. Factors have been
developed, however, to simplify the correction of resistance values.
Main components in the dc current in the insulation resistance measurement are
Idc=Ic+Ia+Ilc+Ils
Where Idc=Total lekage current seen by the megger
Ic=Charging currents of capacitance
Ia=Dielectric absorption current
Ilc=Conduction lekage current through insulation
Ils=Surface lekage current.
(Ic , Ia) flow for several secs or min depending upon the size and capacitance of insulation. Their magnitude goes on
reducing with time after a few min (Ic , Ia) become zero.
(Ilc, Ils) are constants for a given applied voltage & are the true indicators of insulation resistance.

Types of Insulation Resistance Tests:

Short-Time or Spot-Reading Test

In this method, you simply connect the Megger instrument across the insulation to be tested and operate it for a
short, specific time period (60 seconds is usually recommended). As shown schematically in Fig. 6, youve simply
picked a point on a curve of increasing resistance values; quite often the value would be less for 30 seconds, more
for 60 seconds. Bear in mind also that temperature and humidity, as well as condition of your insulation affect your
reading.
If the apparatus you are testing has very small capacitance, such as a short run of house wiring, the spot reading
test is all that is necessary. However, most equipment is capacitive and so your very first spot reading on equipment
in your plant, with no prior tests, can be only a rough guide as to how good or bad the insulation is. For many
years, maintenance professionals have used the one-megohm rule to establish the allowable lower limit for
insulation resistance. The rule may be stated: Insulation resistance should be approximately one megohm for each
1,000 volts of operating voltage, with a minimum value of one megohm. For example, a motor rated at 2,400 volts
should have a minimum insulation resistance of 2.4 megohms. In practice, megohm readings normally are
considerably above this minimum value in new equipment or when insulation is in good condition. By taking
readings periodically and recording them, you have a better basis of judging the actual insulation condition. Any
persistent downward trend is usually fair warning of trouble ahead, even though the readings may be higher than
the suggested minimum safe values. Equally true, as long as your periodic readings are consistent, they may be ok,
even though lower than the recommended minimum values.

Time-Resistance Method

This method is fairly independent of temperature and often can give you conclusive information without records of
past tests. It is based on the absorption effect of good insulation compared to that of moist or contaminated
insulation. You simply take successive readings at specific times and note the differences in readings (see curves,
Fig. 8). Tests by this method are sometimes referred to as absorption tests. Note that good insulation shows a
continual increase in resistance (less current see curve A) over a period of time (in the order of 5 to 10 minutes).
This is caused by the absorption current we spoke of earlier; good insulation shows this charge effect over a time
period much longer than the time required to charge the capacitance of the insulation. If the insulation contains
much moisture or contaminants, the absorption effect is masked by a high leakage current which stays at a fairly
constant value, keeping the resistance reading low
The time-resistance test is of value also because it is independent of equipment size. The increase in resistance for
clean and dry insulation occurs in the same manner whether a motor is large or small. You can, therefore, compare
several motors and establish standards for new ones, regardless of their horsepower ratings.
Fig. 9 shows how a 60-second test would appear for good and perhaps bad insulation. When the insulation is in
good shape, the 60-second reading is higher than the 30-second reading.
Dielectric Absorption Ratio
The ratio of two time-resistance readings (such as a 60-second reading divided by a 30-second reading) is called a
dielectric absorption ratio. It is useful in recording information about insulation. If the ratio is a 10-minute
reading divided by a 1-minute reading, the value is called the polarization index.
With hand-cranked Megger instruments, its a lot easier for us to run the test for only 60 seconds, taking first
reading at 30 seconds. If we have a line-operated Megger instrument, we will get best results by running the test 10
minutes, taking readings at 1- and at 10-minutes, to get the polarization index. Table below gives values of the
ratios and corresponding relative conditions of the insulation that they indicate.
In summary, DC test sets are employed almost exclusively for high-voltage maintenance and field testing for the
following reasons:
1. Lower cost
2. Lighter weight
3. Smaller size
4. Non-destructive
5. Better information, both in quality and quantity.

A megohmmeter usually is equipped with three terminals. The "LINE" (or "L") terminal is the so-called "hot"
terminal and is connected to the conductor whose insulation resistance you are measuring. Remember: These tests
are performed with the circuit de energized.

The "EARTH" (or "E") terminal is connected to the other side of the insulation, the ground conductor.

The "GUARD" (or "G") terminal provides a return circuit that bypasses the meter. For example, if you are
measuring a circuit having a current that you do not want to include, you connect that part of the circuit to the
"GUARD" terminal.

Fig. 2 shows a connection for testing a transformer bushing, without measuring the surface leakage. Only the
current through the insulation is measured, since any surface current will be returned on the "GUARD" lead.
Winding Resistance Test:
Test Purpose:
Transformer winding resistance is measured.
To check any abnormalities like loose connections, broken strands and High contact resistance in tap
changers
To Calculate I2R losses in transformer.
To calculate winding temperature at the end of temperature rise test of transformer.
Test Instrument:
The Resistance of HV winding LV winding between their terminals are to be measured with Precision
milliohm meter/ micro ohm meter. OR
Wheatstone bridge or Kelvin bridge.

Method No: 1 (Kelvin Bridge Method for measurement of winding resistance)

Test Procedure:
The main principle of bridge method is based on comparing an unknown resistance with a known resistance.
 When electric currents flowing through the arms of bridge circuit become balanced, the reading of
galvanometer shows zero deflection that means at balanced condition no electric current will flow through
the galvanometer.
Very small value of resistance (in milliohms range) can be accurately measured by Kelvin Bridge method
whereas for higher value Wheatstone bridge method of resistance measurement is applied. In bridge method
of measurement of winding resistance, the error is minimized.
All other steps to be taken during transformer winding resistance measurement in these methods are similar
to that of current voltage method of measurement of winding resistance of transformer.

Method No: 2 (current voltage method of measurement of winding resistance)

Test Procedure:
The resistance of each transformer winding is measured using DC current and recorded at a ambient temp.
In this test resistance of winding is measurement by applying a small DC voltage to the winding and
measuring the current through the same
The measured resistance should be corrected to a common temperature such as 75C or 85C using the
formula: RC=RM x ((CF+CT)/(CF+WT))
 Where,
RC is the corrected resistance, RM is the measured resistance
CF is the correction factor for copper (234.5) or aluminum (225) windings
CT is the corrected temperature (75C or 85C)
WT is the winding temperature (C) at time of test

Before measurement the transformer should be kept in OFF condition at least for 3 to 4 hours so in this time
the winding temperature will become equal to its oil temperature.
To minimize observation errors, polarity of the core magnetization shall be kept constant during all resistance
readings.
Voltmeter leads shall be independent of the current leads to protect it from high voltages which may occur
during switching on and off the current circuit.
The readings shall be taken after the electric current and voltage have reached steady state values. In some
cases this may take several minutes depending upon the winding impedance.
The test current shall not exceed 15% of the rated current of the winding. Large values may cause
inaccuracy by heating the winding and thereby changing its resistance.
For Calculating resistance, the corresponding temperature of the winding at the time of measurement must be
taken along with resistance value.

Required Precaution:

According to IEC 60076-1, in order to reduce measurement errors due to changes in temperature, some precautions
should be taken before the measurement is made.
For Delta connected Winding: for delta-connected transformer, the resistance should be measured for each
phase (i.e. R-Y , Y-B & B-R) . Delta is composed of parallel combination of the winding under test and the
series combination of the remaining winding .It is therefore recommended to make three measurements for
each phase to-phase winding in order obtain the most accurate results.
 For Delta connected windings, such tertiary winding of auto-transformers measurement shall be done
between pairs of line terminals and resistance per winding shall be calculated as per the formula: Resistance
per Winding = 1.5 X Measured Value
For Star connected winding: the neutral brought out, the resistance shall be measured between the line and
neutral terminal (i.e. R-N , Y-N,B-N) and average of three sets of reading shall be the tested value. For Star
connected auto transformers the resistance of the HV side is measured between HV terminal and IV terminal,
then between IV terminal and the neutral.
For Dry type transformers: the transformer shall be at rest in a constant ambient temperature for at least
three hours.
For Oil immersed transformers: the transformers should be under oil and without excitation for at least
three hours. In case of tapped windings, above readings are recorded at each tap. In addition, it is important
to ensure that the average oil temperature (average of the top and bottom oil temperatures) is approximately
the same as the winding temperature. Average oil temperature is to be recorded. Measured values are to be
corrected to required temperatures.
After the current is applied to the circuit, it should be waited until the current becomes stationary (complete
saturation) before taking measurements, otherwise, there will be measurement errors.
The values shall be compared with original test result which varies with the transformer ratings.
Test Acceptance criteria:

DC Resistance Should be<=2% Factory Test.

Test Current <10% Rated Current
Test can detect:

Shorted Turns
Loose Connection of bushing
Loose Connection or High Contact Resistance on Tap Changer.
Broken winding stands
Transformer Ratio Test
The performance of a transformer largely depends upon perfection of specific turns or voltage ratio of
transformer.
Turns Ratio Test / Voltage Ratio Test are done in Transformer to find out Open Circuited turns, Short
Circuited turns in Transformer winding.
The voltage ratio is equal to the turns ratio in a transformer (V1/V2=N1/N2). Using this principle, the turns
ratio is measured with the help of a turns ratio meter. If it is correct, then the voltage ratio is assumed to be
correct.

Method 1 Transformer Turns Ratio Meter (TTR):

Test Procedure:

Transformer ratio test can be done by Transformer Turns Ratio (TTR) Meter. It has in built power supply,
with the voltages commonly used being very low, such as 8, 10 V and 50 Hz.
The HV and LV windings of one phase of a transformer (i.e. R-Y & r-n) are connected to the instrument, and
the internal bridge elements are varied to produce a null indication on the detector.
Values are recorded at each tap in case of tapped windings and then compared to calculated ratio at the same
tap.
The ratio meter gives accuracy of 0.1 per cent over a ratio range up to 1110:1. The ratio meter is used in a
bridge circuit where the voltages of the windings of the transformer under test are balanced against the
voltages developed across the fixed and variable resistors of the ratio meter.
Adjustment of the calibrated variable resistor until zero deflection is obtained on the galvanometer then
gives the ratio to unity of the transformer windings from the ratio of the resistors.
Bridge circuit:

Theoretical Turns Ratio = HV winding Voltage / LV Winding Voltage

% Deviation = (Measured Turn Ratio Expected Turns Ration) / Expected Turns Ration
Out-of-tolerance, ratio test of transformer can be due to shorted turns, especially if there is an associated
high excitation current.
Open turns in HV winding will indicate very low exciting current and no output voltage since open turns in
HV winding causes no excitation current in the winding means no flux hence no induced voltage.
But open turn in LV winding causes, low fluctuating LV voltage but normal excitation current in HV
winding. Hence open turns in LV winding will be indicated by normal levels of exciting current, but very
low levels of unstable output voltage.
 The turn ratio test of transformer also detects high resistance connections in the lead circuitry or high contact
resistance in tap changers by higher excitation current and a difficulty in balancing the bridge.

Method No 2 Voltage Ratio Testing:

This test is done to check both the transformer voltage ratio and tap changer.
When Turns Ratio meter is not available, Voltage Ratio Test is done at various tap position by applying 3
phases LT (415V) supply on HT side of Power transformer. In order to obtain the required accuracy it is
usual to use a ratio meter rather than to energies the transformer from a low-voltage supply and measure the
HV and LV voltages.
At Various taps applied voltage and Resultant voltages LV side between various Phases and phases& neutral
measured with precision voltmeter & noted.

Test Procedure:

With 415 V applied on high voltage side, measure the voltage between all phases on the low voltage
side for every tap position.
First, the tap changer of transformer is kept in the lowest position and LV terminals are kept open.
Then apply 3-phase 415 V supply on HV terminals. Measure the voltages applied on each phase
(Phase-Phase) on HV and induced voltages at LV terminals simultaneously.
After measuring the voltages at HV and LV terminals, the tap changer of transformer should be raised
by one position and repeat test.
Repeat the same for each of the tap position separately.
At other taps values will be as per the percentage raise or lower at the respective tap positions.
In case of Delta/Star transformers the ratio measure between RY-rn, YB-yn and BR-bn.
Test Acceptance Criteria:

Range of measured ratio shall be equal to the calculated ratio 0.5%.

Phase displacement is identical to approved arrangement and transformers nameplate.
The IEEE standard (IEEE Standard 62) states that when rated voltage is applied to one winding of the
transformer, all other rated voltages at no load shall be correct within one half of one percent of the
nameplate readings. It also states that all tap voltages shall be correct to the nearest turn if the volts per
turn exceed one half of one percent desired voltage .The ratio test verifies that these conditions are met.
The IEC60076-1 standard defines the permissible deviation of the actual to declared ratio
Principal tapping for a specified first winding pair: the lesser 0.5% of the declared voltage ratio or 0.1
times the actual short circuit impedance. Other taps on the first winding pair and other winding pair must
be agreed upon, and must be lower than the smaller of the two values stated above.
Measurements are typically made by applying a known low voltage across the high voltage winding so
that the induced voltage on the secondary is lower, thereby reducing hazards while performing the test
.For three phase delta/wye or wye/delta transformer, a three phase equivalency test is performed, i.e. the
test is performed across corresponding single winding.

Test can detect:

Shorted turns or open circuits in the windings.

 Incorrect winding connections ,and other internal faults or defects in tap changer

Polarity test:
Polarity means the direction of the induced voltages in the primary and the secondary winding of the transformer.
In practice, Polarity refers to the way the leads are brought out of the transformer. If the two transformers are
connected in parallel, then the polarity should be known for the proper connection of the transformer. There are
two types of polarity one is Additive, and another is Subtractive.

An understanding of polarity is essential to correctly construct three phase transformer banks and to properly
parallel single or three phase transformers with existing electrical systems. Knowledge of polarity is also required
to connect potential and current transformers to power metering devices and protective relays. The basic theory of
additive and subtractive polarity is the underlying principle used in step voltage regulators where the series
winding of an autotransformer is connected to either buck or boost the applied line voltage.

Bushing Arrangement: The position of the High Voltage Bushings is standardized on all power and instrument
transformers. The rule is this: when facing the low voltage bushings, the Primary Bushing H1 is always on the left-
hand side and the Primary Bushing H2 is on the right-hand side (if the transformer is a three-phase unit, H3 will be
to the right of H2).

Distribution Transformers are Additive Polarity and the H1 and X1 bushings are physically placed diagonally
opposite to each other. Since H1 is always on the left, X1 will be on the right-hand side of a distribution
transformer. This standard was developed very early in the development of electrical distribution systems and has
been adhered to in order to prevent confusion in the field when transformers need to be replaced or paralleled with
existing equipment.
Instrument Transformers (PTs and CTs) and large substation transformers are Subtractive Polarity, so the H1 and
X1 Bushings will be on the same side of the transformer. This standard was later adopted to make it easier to read
electrical schematics and construct phasor diagrams.
Test procedure:

In situations where the secondary bushing identification is not available or when a transformer has been rewound,
it may be necessary to determine the transformer polarity by test. The following procedure can be used.

The H1 (left hand) primary bushing and the left hand secondary bushing are temporarily jumpered together and a
test voltage is applied to the transformer primary. The resultant voltage is measured between the right hand
bushings. If the measured voltage is greater than the applied voltage, the transformer is Additive Polarity because
the polarity is such that the secondary voltage is being added to the applied primary voltage. If, however, the
measured voltage across the right hand bushings is less than the applied primary voltage, the transformer is
Subtractive Polarity.

Note: For safety and to avoid the possibility of damaging the secondary insulation, the test voltage applied to the
primary should be at a reduced voltage and should not exceed the rated secondary voltage.

In the example below, if the transformer is actually rated 480 /120 volts, the transformer ratio is 4:1 (480 / 120 =4).
Applying a test voltage of 120 volts to the primary will result in a secondary voltage of 30 volts (120 / 4 = 30). If
transformer is subtractive polarity, the voltmeter will read 90 volts (120 -30 = 90). If the voltmeter reads 150 volts,
the transformer is additive polarity (120 + 30 = 150).
The arrows indicate the relative magnitude and direction of the primary and secondary voltages.
Magnetic Current Test:
Test Purpose

Magnetizing current test of transformer locates the defects in the magnetic core structure, shifting of windings,
failure in turn to turn insulation or problem in tap changers. These conditions change the effective reluctance of the
magnetic circuit, thus affecting the electric current required to establish flux in the core.

Test Instrument

Multi meter or Mill Ammeter.

Test Procedure

First of all keep the tap changer in the lowest position and open all HV & LV terminals. Then apply three phase 415V supply on the
line terminals for three phase transformers and single phase 230V supply on single phase transformers.

Measure the supply voltage and electric current in each phase.

Now repeat the magnetizing current test of transformer test with keeping tap changer in normal position and repeat the test with
keeping the tap at highest position.

Generally there are two similar higher readings on two outer limb phases on transformer core and one lower reading on the centre
limb phase, in case of three phase transformers. An agreement to within 30 % of the measured exciting current with the previous test is
usually considered satisfactory. If the measured exciting current value is 50 times higher than the value measured during factory test,
there is likelihood of a fault in the winding which needs further analysis.

The value shall be = (1 to 2 percent of rated full load current of Transformer / HT KV) X Voltage Applied

Magnetic Balance Test

Test Purpose

Magnetic balance test of transformer is conducted only on three phase transformers to check the imbalance in the
magnetic circuit.

Test Instrument

Multi meter or Mill Ammeter.

Test Procedure

First keep the tap changer of transformer in normal position. Now disconnect the transformer neutral from
ground. Then apply single phase 230V AC supply across one of the HV winding terminals and neutral terminal.
Measure the voltage in two other HV terminals in respect of neutral terminal. Repeat the test for each of the three
phases. In case of auto transformer, magnetic balance test of transformer should be repeated for LV winding also.
There are three limbs side by side in a core of transformer. One phase winding is wound in one limb. The voltage
induced in different phases depends upon the respective position of the limb in the core.
 The voltage induced in different phases of transformer in respect to neutral terminals given in the table below.
415V, Two phase supply is to be applied to any two phases terminals on HV side of Power transformer and
voltages in other two phase combination are to be measured with LT open. Sum of the Resultant two values shall
be equal to the voltage applied.

High Voltage Test [Power frequency withstand test]:

Test Purpose:

To checks the insulation property between Primary to earth, Secondary to earth and between Primary &
Secondary.

Test Instrument:

High Voltage tester

Test Procedure:
Transformer must have passed the insulation resistance test immediately prior to starting this test.
Make sure transformer case and core are grounded.
Disconnect all high-voltage, low-voltage, and neutral connections, low-voltage control systems, fan systems,
and meters connected to the transformer winding and core.
 Short-circuit with jumpers together all high-voltage bushings and all low-voltage bushings to ground.
Connect hi-pot test set between high-voltage winding and ground. Gradually increase test voltage to the
desired value. Allow test voltage duration of 1 min, after which gradually decrease voltage to zero.
Remove low-voltage to ground jumper and connect hi-pot test set between low-voltage winding and ground.
Also connect the short circuited high-voltage winding to ground. Gradually increase test voltage to desired
value. Allow the test voltage duration of 1 min, after which gradually decrease voltage to zero.
If the preceding two tests do not produce breakdowns or failures, the transformer is considered satisfactory
and can be energized.
Remove all jumpers and reconnect primary and secondary connections and other system equipment that may
have been disconnected.

433V Winding =3KV High Voltage

11KV Winding =28KV High Voltage
22KV Winding =50KV High Voltage
33KV Winding =70KV High Voltage.
Dielectric Test:
Dielectric tests of transformer are one kind of insulation test. This test is performed to ensure the expected over all
insulation strength of transformer. There are several test performed to ensure the required quality of transformer
insulation, dielectric test is one of them.

Separate source AC withstand voltage test:

This dielectric test is intended to check the ability of main insulation to earth and between winding.

Test procedure:

All the terminals of the winding under test should be connected together and the voltage should be applied.
Other winding terminals which are not under test and also tank of the transformer should be connected to
earth.
The current should be stable during test and no surges should occur.
A single phase power frequency voltage of shape approximately sinusoidal is applied for 60 seconds to the
terminals of the winding under test.
The test shall be performed on all the windings one by one.
The test is successful if no breakdown in the dielectric of the insulation occurs during test.
During the Separate source AC withstand voltage test, the frequency of the test voltage should be equal to
the transformers rated frequency or should be not less than 80% of this frequency. In this way, 60 Hz
transformers can also be tested at 50 Hz. The shape of the voltage should be single phase and sinusoidal as
far as possible.

The test voltage is measured with the help of a capacitor voltage divider with digital peak voltmeter. The
peak value multiplied by 0.707 (1/2) is the test voltage.
The values of test voltages for different fully insulated winding are furnished below in the table.
Induced source voltage withstand test:

The aim of this test is to check the insulation both between phases and between turns of the windings and
also the insulation between the input terminals of the graded insulation windings and earth.
During test, normally the test voltage is applied to the low voltage winding. Meanwhile HV windings should
be kept open and earthed from a common point.
Since the test voltage will be much higher than the transformers rated voltage, the test frequency should not
be less than twice the rated frequency value, in order to avoid oversaturation of the transformer core.
The test shall start with a voltage lower than 1/3 the full test voltage and it shall be quickly increased up to
desired value.
The test voltage can either be measured on a voltage divider connected to the HV terminal or on a voltage
transformer and voltmeter which have been set together with this voltage divider at the LV side.
Test period which should not be less than 15 seconds.
It is calculated as ,Test period=120 seconds x ( Rated frequency / Test frequency )
The duration of the test shall be 60 second at twice the power frequency.
The test is accepted to be successful if no surges, voltage collapses or extreme increases in the current have
occurred.
Impulse Test of Transformer:
Lighting is a common phenomenon in transmission lines. This lightning stroke on the line conductor causes
impulse voltage. The terminal equipment of transmission line such as Power transformers then experiences these
lightning impulse voltages. Again during all kind of online switching operation in the system, there will be
switching impulses occur in the network. The magnitude of the switching impulses may be about 3.5 times the
system voltage. Insulation is one of the most important constituents of a transformer. Any weakness in the
insulation may cause failure of transformer. To ensure the effectiveness of the insulation system of a transformer, it
must confirm the dielectric test. But the power frequency withstand test alone cannot be adequate to demonstrate
the dielectric strength of a transformer. That is why impulse test of transformer performed on it. Both lightning
impulse test and switching impulse test are included in this category of testing.
Lightning Impulse Voltages:

The lightning impulse is a pure natural phenomenon. So it is very difficult to predict the actual wave shape of an
lightning disturbance. From the data compiled about natural lightning, it may be concluded that the system
disturbance due to natural lightning stroke, can be represented by three basic wave shapes.

Full wave

Chopped wave and

Front of wave

Although the actual lightning impulse disturbance may not have exactly these three shapes but by defining these
waves one can establish a minimum impulse dielectric strength of a transformer. If lighting disturbance travels
some distance along the transmission line before it reaches the transformer, its wave shape may approach to full
wave. If during traveling, if flash-over occurs at any insulator of the transmission line, after the peak of the wave
has been reached, the wave may become in form of chopped wave. If the lightning stroke directly hits the
transformer terminals, the impulse voltage rises rapidly until it is relieved by a flash over. At the instant of flash -
over the voltage suddenly collapses and may form the front of wave shape. The effect of these wave forms on the
transformer insulation may be different from each other. We are not going here in detail discussion of what type of
impulse voltage wave forms causes what type of failure in transformer. But whatever may be the shape of lightning
disturbance voltage wave, all of them can cause insulation failure in transformer.

A standard full lightning impulse voltage rises to its peak value in less than a few microseconds and falls,
appreciably slower, ultimately back to zero. The rising part of the impulse voltage is referred to as the front, the
maximum as the peak and the decreasing part as the tail. The waveform can be represented approximately by
superposition of two exponential functions with differing time constants

The various lightning impulse voltages are identified in the test specifications by the following time parameters:
front time T1 and time to half-value T2 for full lightning impulse voltages
front time T1 and time to chopping Tc for standard chopped impulse voltages (2 s < Tc < 5 s)

a . full lightning impulse voltage b. lightning impulse voltage chopped on the tail
 c lightning impulse voltage chopped on the front or wedge-shaped impulse voltage

Fig 2.1 Examples of lightning impulse voltages with aperiodic waveform

Starting point for the determination of the time parameters is the virtual origin O1. It is fixed as that point of time
which precedes the point A of the impulse voltage at 0.3. Graphically, O1 is obtained as the point of intersection
of the straight line through the points A and B with the zero line. Definition of the virtual origin O1 is essential
since the origin O of the recorded waveform is often not recognizable due to superposed disturbance voltages and
limited bandwidth of the measuring system. The front time T1 is the time between the virtual origin O1 and the
point of intersection of the straight line through A and B with the peak line.
Where in TAB is the time interval between the points A at 0.3 and B at 0.9 on the front of the impulse voltage. For
lightning impulse voltages, T1 is defined as <20 s, since otherwise it is considered as a switching impulse voltage

The time to half-value T2 is the time interval between the virtual origin O1 and the point at 0.5 on the tail of a full
lightning impulse voltage. The time to chopping Tc is the time interval between the virtual origin O1 and the virtual
instant of chopping which is the point of intersection of the straight line through the points C at 0.7ua and D at
0.1ua with the horizontal at the level of ua. For an impulse voltage chopped on the tail or at the peak, ua is defined
by the point of intersection of the straight line through C and D with the impulse voltage (Fig. 2.1b). In the case of
a lightning impulse voltage chopped on the front, ua is the same as the peak value (Fig. 2.1c). Fixation of the
virtual time to chopping takes into account that the beginning of chopping is not always clearly recognizable in the
recorded waveform. Reasons for that are the finite duration of chopping and a limited bandwidth of the measuring
system, which lead to a rounded form of the recorded waveform in the chopping region

For characterizing a full impulse voltage, numerical values of front times and times to half-value in microseconds
are introduced as symbols. The standard 1.2/ 50 lightning impulse voltage has accordingly a front time T1 = 1.2 s
and a time to half-value T2 = 50 s.

Tolerances and Uncertainties:

While generating lightning impulse voltages, deviations from the impulse parameters of the test standards laid
down for high-voltage apparatus are permissible. The tolerances for lightning impulse voltages amount to:

3 % on the value of the test voltage

30 % on the front time T1 and
20 % on the time to half-value T2.

The reason for the large amount of tolerances on the time parameters lies in the varying degrees of interaction of
the test objects with the generator circuit, due to which the waveform and thus, the time parameters of the
generated lightning impulse voltage are affected to a greater or smaller extent. The elements of the lightning
impulse voltage generator with which the waveform is obtained need not be changed each time the load presented
by the test object is marginally altered.

Switching Impulse Voltages

During tests with switching impulse voltages, the stressing of the power apparatus by internal over voltages
consequent to switching operations in the supply network is simulated. The idealized waveform of an aperiodic
switching impulse voltage is, like that of a full lightning impulse voltage, defined by superposition of two
exponential functions; however, the time constants here are appreciably larger.

Besides the test voltage value (peak value), switching impulse voltages are characterized by two time parameters,
which, in contrast to lightning impulse voltages, are with reference to the true origin O of the waveform. The truly
existing deviation in the initial part of the switching impulse voltage is negligible on account of the larger values of
the time parameters. The time to peak Tp is defined as the time between the true origin O and the instant of the
peak, the time to half-value as the time between O and the point at 0.5 on the tail of the switching impulse
voltage.

In addition to Tp and T2, a few other time parameters are also defined. The time duration Td is fixed as the time
above 90 % during which the voltage is greater than 0.9. In special cases, switching impulse voltages can also
swing below the zero line in the tail region. It may therefore be necessary to specify the time to zero Tz between
the true origin O and the instant of the first zero-crossing of the tail of the switching impulse voltages.

Switching impulse voltages are identified by the numerical values of Tp and T2. The standard switching impulse
voltage 250/2500 has a time to peak of 250 s (tolerance: 20 %) and a time to half-value of T2 = 2500 s
(tolerance: 60 %).
Impulse generation :

A Marx generator is a type of electrical circuit whose purpose is to generate a high-voltage pulse by a number of
capacitors that are charged in parallel and then connected in series by spark gap switches.

Input supply charges up the capacitors in parallel. After some time, the capacitors are all charged to the supply
voltage. The terminals in between each 'stage' is a spark gap. The spark gaps are set to a distance so that they will
'fire', or conduct, as soon as the capacitors are charged to supply voltage. Because of the way they are arranged,
when the spark gaps fire the capacitors are essentially discharged in series. Thus, the output voltage is
(theoretically) a multiple of the input voltage equal to the number of capacitor stages in the Marx.

Fig: Marx generator

Test procedure:
All the dielectric tests check the insulation level of the transformer. Impulse generator is used to produce the
specified voltage impulse wave of 1.2/50 micro seconds wave. One impulse of a reduced voltage between 50 to
75% of the full test voltage and subsequent three impulses at full voltage. For a three phase transformer, impulse is
carried out on all three phases in succession. The voltage is applied on each of the line terminal in succession,
keeping the other terminals earthed. The current and voltage wave shapes are recorded on the oscilloscope and any
distortion in the wave shape is the criteria for failure.

Introduction to Partial Discharge Testing

Whats a partial discharge?

A partial discharge (PD) is an electrical discharge bridging a portion of the insulation between two electrodes. The
discharge may occur at any point in the insulation system that the electric field strength exceeds the breakdown
strength of that portion of the insulation system. In transformers, the insulation system is comprised of the winding
insulation material as well as the dielectric fluid.

IEC Std 60270: Localized electrical discharge that only partially bridges the insulation between conductors and
which can or cannot occur adjacent to a conductor.

The term partial discharge refers to the fact that a complete discharge (breakdown) to ground does not occur, but
rather a breakdown between 2 intermediate voltages within the insulation.

PD usually begins within voids, cracks, or inclusions within a solid dielectric, at conductor-dielectric interfaces
within solid or liquid dielectrics, or in bubbles within liquid dielectrics. Since PDs are limited to only a portion of
the insulation, the discharges only partially bridge the distance between electrodes. PD can also occur along the
boundary between different insulating materials.

Fig: PD within Insulation System

Partial discharges within an insulating material are usually initiated within gas-filled voids within the dielectric.
Because the dielectric constant of the void is considerably less than the surrounding dielectric, the electric field
across the void is significantly higher than that across an equivalent distance of dielectric. If the voltage stress
across the void is increased above the breakdown voltage for the gas within the void, PD activity will start within
the void.
The equivalent circuit of a dielectric incorporating a cavity can be modeled as a capacitive voltage divider in
parallel with another capacitor. The upper capacitor of the divider represents the parallel combination of the
capacitances in series with the void and the lower capacitor represents the capacitance of the void. The parallel
capacitor represents the remaining un-voided capacitance of the sample.

When partial discharge is initiated, high frequency transient current pulses will appear and persist for nanoseconds
to a microsecond, then disappear and reappear repeatedly as the voltage sine wave goes through the zero crossing.
The PD happens near the peak voltage both positive and negative. PD pulses are easy to measure using the HFCT
method. The HFCT is a "high frequency" current transducer which is clamped around the case ground of the
component being tested. The severity of the PD is measured by measuring the burst interval between the end of a
burst and the beginning of the next burst. As the insulation breakdown worsens, the burst interval will shorten due
to the breakdown happening at lower voltages. This burst interval will continue to shorten until a critical 2
millisecond point is reached. At this 2 ms point the discharge is very close to the zero crossing and will fail with a
full blown discharge and major failure. The HFCT method needs to be used because of the small magnitude and
short duration of these PD events. The HFCT method is done while the component being tested stays energized and
loaded. It is completely non-intrusive. Another method of measuring these currents is to put a small current-
measuring resistor in series with the sample and then view the generated voltage on an oscilloscope via a
matched coaxial cable.

With partial discharge measuring equipment, the dielectric condition of high voltage insulation can be evaluated,
and destructive discharge patterns such as electrical treeing within the insulation can be detected and located
before failure. Treeing is one form of electrical pre-breakdown phenomenon caused by discharges in solid
insulation. It is a damaging process beginning as partial discharge and progresses through the stressed dielectric
insulation in a path resembling the branches of a tree. Figure below depicts the dielectric breakdown within a solid
insulating plate with extensive tracking during the application of a potential raised slowly to point of flashover.
Partial discharges in transformer windings can begin as small voids in the paper insulation. As PD activity
progresses, the repetitive discharges eventually cause permanent changes within the affected solid insulation and
impregnating dielectric fluid which reduces the insulation qualities of either or both. This places greater stress on
the remaining insulation, leading to further growth of the damaged area, resistive heating along the tree, and
charring also known as tracking. This eventually culminates in the complete dielectric failure of the transformer.

Several partial discharge detection and measurement methods (optical, acoustic, and electrical) have
been developed since the importance of PD was recognized. Partial discharge currents tend to be of short duration
and have rise times in mere nanoseconds. On an oscilloscope, the discharges look like randomly occurring 'spikes'
or pulses. Due to the short duration and low energy magnitude of these signals, the accepted measurement of
partial discharge magnitude is in pico coulombs.
The coulomb is the standard unit of electric charge. It is defined as the charge transported by a steady current of
one ampere in one second (1C= 1A x 1s). The symbol for the coulomb is an uppercase C. It is a large value. One
ampere-hour of current transfers only 3600 coulombs of charge. Therefore values are normally measured in micro
coulombs (one thousandth or 10 6), nano coulombs (one millionth or 10 9), and in the case of transformer PD
testing, pico coulombs (one billionth or 10 12) or pC.

Partial discharge test procedures dictate that measurements are made at various voltage levels as the test voltage is
increased to the dielectric test level and then reduced. Above Figure details the stepped voltage procedure used for
transformer PD testing. Since a transformer operates via electromagnetic induction, an AC voltage is applied.
However, because the iron core of the transformer is typically designed to operate at 50 or 60 cycles and saturates
at approximately 110% of rated voltage, it is necessary to use a test voltage at a higher than rated frequency to
avoid core saturation during the test.

The test begins with recording the ambient, or background PD level and PD reading instrument is calibrated. The
transformer is then energized at 110% of rated voltage for 5 minutes and a calibration is made and discharge rate
recorded. The voltage is then raised to 130% for another 5 minutes, another calibration is made and discharge rate
recorded. Now the voltage is raised to 200% of rated voltage OR the hi-pot level, whichever is less, another
calibration made and PD recorded. The process is repeated 2 more times with the voltage being reduced back to
130%, then 110% of rating .At the110% level however; the voltage is maintained for a full hour.

The structure where a partial-discharge occurred in an insulating media is shown in the below simplified Figure. As
seen on the simplified diagram, the impulses forming on the discharge point cause a U voltage drop at the
transformer line terminals. This forms a measurable q load at the measuring impedance. This load is called
apparent load and given in pC (Pico-Coulomb) units.

During measurements: U voltage drop, average value of apparent partial-discharge current, partial- discharge
power, impulse count within a time unit, partial-discharge start and cease voltages can also be determined.
Measuring circuit and application
Where:

1. Supply generator
2. Supply transformer
3. Test transformer
4. Voltage transformer and measuring circuit
5. Filter
6. Measuring impedance
7. Selective switch
8. Measuring instrument and oscilloscope
qo calibration generator

For this, a calibrator (Calibration generator) is necessary. The calibrator produces a q0 load with a predefined
value. Calibrator is connected to the test material in parallel. The q0 load produced in the calibrator is read at the
measuring instrument. These steps are repeated at all terminals of the transformer to be measured at no-voltage.

K = q0 / q0m

Where:

K : correction factor

q0 : the charge produced by the calibrator

q0m : the charge observed at measuring equipment

After the calibration operations are completed, the calibration generator is taken away from the measuring circuit.
When the power system is connected (supply generator switch is closed), the voltage level will be too low. The
voltage is substantially increased up to the level stated by the specifications and in the meantime the partial-
discharge values at the predefined voltage levels are measured at each measuring terminal and recorded. After the
transformer is energized for measuring operations, the partial-discharge value read at the measuring instrument is
multiplied with the predefined K correction factor, and real apparent partial-discharge value for each terminal
is found.

q = K qm

K : correction factor

qm : the charge observed at measuring equipment

q : the real apparent charge

The test is considered to be successful if the partial-discharge value measured at the transformers measuring
terminals is lower than predefined values or values stated in the standards and no increasing tendency is observed
during test.

In addition to the measured partial-discharge level, the below conditions should also be considered in
transformers:

Partial-discharge start and cease voltages are above the operating voltage.

Depending on the test period, partial-discharge level stays approximately stable.

 Increasing the test voltage causes almost no partial-discharge level change.

Temperature Rise Test of Transformer

Temperature rise test of Transformer is included in type test of transformer. In this test we check whether the
temperature rising limit of transformer winding and oil are as per specifications or not.

1. First the LV winding of the transformer is short circuited.

2. Then one thermometer is placed in a pocket in transformer top cover. Other two thermometers are
placed at the inlet and outlet of the cooler bank respectively.
3. The voltage of such value is applied to the HV winding that power input is equal to no load losses
plus load losses corrected to a reference temperature of 75C.
4. The total losses are measured by three watt-meters method.
5. During the test, hourly readings of top oil temperature are taken from the thermometer already
placed in the pocket of top cover.
6. Hourly readings of the thermometers placed at inlet and outlet of the cooler bank are also noted to
calculate the mean temperature of the oil.
7. Ambient temperature is measured by means of thermometer placed around the transformer at three
or four points situated at a distance of 1 to 2 meter from and half-way up the cooling surface of the
transformer.
8. Temperature rise test for top oil of transformer should be continued until the top oil temperature has
reached an approximate steady value that means testing would be continued until the temperature
 increment of the top oil becomes less than 3C in one hour. This steady value of top oil is determined
as final temperature rise of transformer insulating oil.
9. There is another method of determination of oil temperature. Here the test in allowed to be continued
until the top oil temperature rise does not vary more than 1C per hour for four consecutive hours.
The least reading is taken as final temperature rise of the oil.

During temperature rise test for top oil of transformer we make the LV winding short circuited and apply voltage to
the HV winding. So for full load rated electric current flows in the transformer, the supply voltage required will
much less than rated transformer voltage. We know that core loss of a transformer depends upon voltage. So there
will not be any considerable core loss occurs in the transformer during test. But for getting actual temperature rise
of the oil in a transformer, we have to compensate the lack of core losses by additional copper loss in the
transformer. For supplying this total losses, transformer draws current from the source much more than its rated
value for transformer.
Note: These temperature rises limits mentioned in the above table are the temperature rise above the temperature of
cooling medium. That means these are the difference between winding or oil temperature and temperature of
cooling air or water.

Winding Temperature Rise Test on Transformer

1. After completion of temperature rise test for top oil of transformer the current is reduced to its rated value
for transformer and is maintained for one hour.
2. After one hour the supply is switch off and short circuit and supply connection to the HV side and short
circuit connection to the LV side are opened.
3. But, the fans and pumps are kept running (if any).
4. Then resistances of the windings are measured quickly.
 5. But there is always a minimum 3 to 4 minutes time gap between first measurement of resistance and the
instant of switching off the transformer, which cannot be avoided.
6. Then the resistances are measured at the same 3 to 4 minutes time intervals over a period of 15 minutes.
7. Graph of hot resistance versus time is plotted, from which winding resistance (R2) at the instant of shut
down can be extrapolated.
8. From this value, 2, the winding temperature at the instant of shut down can be determined by the formula
given below-

Where, R1 is the cold resistance of the winding at temperature t1.

For determining winding temperature rise we have to apply the above discussed indirect method. That means hot
winding resistance is measured and determined first and then from that value we have to calculate the winding
temperature rise, by applying resistance temperature relation formula. This is because unlike oil the winding of
transformer is not accessible for external temperature measurement.