M

IcorOM
t' .... " " . . . . .QUllTII .0.
u ... co.,
w.,,' '''''' .".,,, ... ,. L . ".'.'o<"
Symposium
MUSEUM AND
COMMUNITY I

Beijing, China
September 1994

ICOFOM STUDY SERIES

ISS
24
 Symposium
MUSEUM AND COMMUNITY I
September 1994
Beijing, China
Edited by Martin R. Scharer
Alimentarium Food Museum, Vevey/Swiberland
 CONTENTS
SECOND AND DEFINITIVE EDITION

Introduction 5

I PAPERS FROM HUNGARY, CANADA, FRANCE, TANZANIA, ESTONIA,

AND INDIA ... 7

John Aage Gjestrum Analysing summary 9

Damien Watteyne Resume analytique 13
Maria Bezzeg Museums and communities today 17
Adriana Albi Davies Researching communities 27
Andre Desvallees Musee et communaute: Des ambiguites a eclaircir 33
Pius B.Mbonya Museums and the community 43
Heiki Piirdi Estonian National Museum and Estonian people 51
Anita B.Shah The museum - a social intitution of the community 61

II PAPERS FROM CHINA 67

Wang Hongjun Museum and regional history and culture - also the earliest museum in the
world and the origin of museums 69
Ma Xigui and Dong Jiping ... Development of society and the educational function of the
museum 75
Zhang Taichang Science museums and communities 81
Lu Jimin Museum education - Cooperation in tecbniques, exchange and training within the
Asia-Pacific Region 87

ill FINAL SUMMARY AND REMARKS 91

~dre Desvallees Musee et communaute. Esquisse de synthese 93

IV MUSEUMS AND MUS EO LOGY IN CHINA 95

Ma Zisbu Museums in China and their cultural policy 97

Lu Jirnin Museums and museology in China 101
Su Doughai Philosophy of Chinese museums 105

V ICOFOM-LAM 113

II Regional ICOFOM LAM Meeting: Museology, museums, space and power in Latin
America and the Caribbean, Quito, Ecuador, July 18-23, 1993, Conclusions and
Recommendations 115

Authors 123
ICOFOM Study Series 124
 I

MUSEUM AND COMMUNITY

This very important topic has been chosen as the theme for the 1995 lCOM Triennial Confer-
ence in Stavanger, Norway.

In preparation, ICOFOM organised a symposium within its 1994 Annual Conference in Beijing,
China . ICOFOM Study Series 24 publishes the papers of the symposium including the
analysing summaries which were presented at the beginning of the session as well as a final
summary and appreciation of the very lively discussions .

This volume also contains the papers presented by our Chinese colleagues in the seminar on
Museums and Museology in China, wIllch opened new and unknown worlds to all Western
participants.

Finally, a report on the second ICOFOM LAM meeting on Museology, Museums, Space and
Power in Latin America and the Carribean is added.

The discussion on Museum and Community will continue at Stavanger in Summer 1995 . The
papers will be published in ICOFOM Study Series 25 .

Martin R.Scharer
President of ICOFOM
PAPERS FROM HUNGARY, CANADA, FRANCE,
TANZANIA, ESTONIA AND INDIA
S"mposium Museum and community
Beijing, China, September 1994

Summary by Johll Aage Gjesrrum

The papers to this symposium are published in ICOFOM Study Series 24, in al17 papers. My
first reflection from reading the papers was a very positive one: in 7 papers here we ICOFOM
really have managed to include most parts of the world:
Maria Bezzeg writes from Hungary. ('.cntral Europe
Adriana A. Davis from Canada. North America
Andre Desvallees from France. Western Europe
Anita B. Shah. from India in Asia
Heiki Pardi from Estonia. North Europe
PiU5 8 . Mbonya from Tanzania. East Africa
From South America is presented the 'Conclusions and Recommendations' from the
regional LAM meeting in Quito. Ecuador. July 18-23. 1993 .

This is really worldwide exchange of ideas on the chosen subject: Museum and community.

My next reflection was a sad one. From these colleagues half of them could not be here and
take part in our discussions on the papers and this important topic.

The first question I made followed this discovery of how widely spread the authors were . Is it
possible from the presented papers to read differences on the subject: Museum and community ,
from where in the world the author is writing? Is this a fruitful perspective ? I think the answer
will be hoth yeas and no.

Tanzania, Africa
Piu.\ B. Mbnnya has the Tanzanian community as his fmming . On museums this community is
composed of three groups:
I) The museum workers-community
2) The museum-visitor. or the museum sensitive community
3) The museum non -sensitive c.ommuuity

"In Africa the museum is associated with colonialism." Mbonya writes when he explains why
museum is regarded alien to the indigenous communities.

The figures Mbonya presents indicate that only 0.8% of the Tanzanian popUlation are served by
museums. and of the total of 25 millions' 99.2% are not.

India. Asia
Anita B. Shah sees in India migration. people in search of better opportunities. moving from
one place to another, one big problem, not only of adjustment for the home population. but also
for the migrating people.

The project "People of India" showed what Shah calls a "kaleidoscopic cultural diversity" - and
4 .635 different communities were studied.

The big challenge to museums in this situation is to make people's realise. accept and value
human diversity. to understand cultural pluralism. and fight incorrect infonnation that leads to
stereotyped beliefs. One of these stereotypes is the believe in homogenisation instead of a pluri -
cultural society. Museology and museums cannot be the only answer or tbe medicine of al l the
ill s of the contemporary world. Shah write s. - however: "If the museum experience is strong

9
enough to reach the inner realms of consciousness of the visitors it is bound to bring about
attitude change effecting appropriate behavioural change." (p. 5).

CaQ!!dll. Nortb America

Adriana Albi Davies writes about her strong experience from her visit to the Grosse Island
during the ICOM General conference in Quebec. Canada Sept. 1992. What to a big ""tend was
a surprise to her was that despite her very solid Canadian education: BA. MA and Ph.D.
degrees. she had never learned the history of how this island functioned as a quarantine station
to inunigrants coming from Europe (1830s - 1937). - and many immigrants never came any
further. Environment Canada, Parks Service has produced a concept for the preservation and
presentation of this historic site. with the theme: "Canada: land of welcome and hope" .

Davies writes about how immignmt groups as the Irish. felt that the site was developed more as
a tourist destination groomed visitor needs. instead of telling about the tragic events on the
island.

From this position Davies discuss several important concepts in the international discourse of
museology, also connected to the short 25-years long museum history of Alberta. Canada. She
focuses on the terms "identity" and "collective memory ". Shall museums reflect social
diversit)" tbey must become centres of community based research . Davies writes. If the cultural
memory had been the driving force for the Canadian Parks Service. the result would have been
another. in Davies' opinion.

Estonia. North- Europe

Heiki Pardi writes about the Estonian national Museum. founded 1909. rooted in a national
movement from the 1860s- 1870s. Today the collection consists of8S.CXXl items
(ethnographic a). It started with the Song Festival 1869 - and from then on traditional folk
costumes became symbols of their own nation.

During the Soviet oc.cupatioD (1940-1991) the name of the museums was changed - the
nationalistic and symbolic old name changed to the neutral "ethnographical museum". They
could have contacts with the general public by temporary small exhibitions. Strong ideological
and national-political pressure made the activities of the museum regarded as a sign of passive
opposition. The Soviet-union. in Pardi 's words: "saw museums mainly as third-rate
establishments for propaganda" .

The number of museums with a national colouring was small- as in Estonia. Latvia. Lithuania
and West-Ukraine - at places they had existed before the Soviet occupation.

The Estonian National Museum took back its old name in 1988. - and the mere name became.
an important political slogan. Today people want ENM to express and sbape the Estonian
national identify.

Fran"". West. Europe

Andre Desval/ec$ in his paper wa:lt to clear up some of the different meanings of this theme
"Museum and community". The distinction between society and community is important,
societ), being composed of a mosaic of communities. Not linked to a specific community. the
museum very often finds its justification in itself (Le Marc). and the consept of community gets
reduced to the consept of public. From this there is a short distance to the consept of the market
as the leading idea.

10
Desvallees reefers to Stephen Locke (1991) who distinguish three kinds of community
museums:
I) Those founded, governed and managed by the community
2) some governed by the commwlity and managed by professional curators
3) some initiated and managed as community museums by professional curators.

He relates this to situations in USA. Great Britain and France. In France the ecomuseum then is
an example of a museum with a high level of community integration and with a territorial scale
that makes the participation of the population possible.

Desvallees also refer to the preparations for the ICOM 19. General conference where the
relations between cultural groups (communities) and society (community) will be focused
through 5 subthemes:
I) The role of museums in disintegrating nations
2) Creating a national identity - the role of museums
3) Museums and cultural diversity: Indigenous and dominant cultures
4) Museums and cultural diversity: The new challenges
5) The one-community mUSeum

Desvallees calls for an ethical reflection against some of the contents in these categories: "For if
the museum can be a very good means for expressing a community to know itself bener. it can
encourage the antisocial corporatist withdrawals, or be a tool used to serve fanatical political
positions."
The community must open itself towards the outside world, not remain withdrawn into itself
and its past.

HUDgary, Cegtral"Europe
Maria Be:::eg stress the difference between museums and other sources of knowledge. as
books, films. video tapes and television. The key to understand the possibilities of the
museum. is the museum being able to present the "original" document from humankind's life to
the community.

When the issue is approached from the perspective of contemporary people's need, as done by
the so-called "new museology" or "ecomuseology. this might not take into concern the
specificity of museums. This specificity is the complex: collecting. preserving, exhibiting
museal document:; - that is outstanding and typical documents of humankind's life.

The public expect museums to acquaint them with the past of the community in a way that
contributes to the solution of present-day problems.

Bezzeg see the appearance of social-historical museology as an integrating tendency in making

various disciplines function in what necessary should be a collective work.

Llltin America

The paper from the 2. regionallCOFOM LAM meeting is not reall y a conference paper. but the
conclusions and recommendations made at this meeting July 18-23 . 1993.

Pointing at the history and actual situation of Latin America, this "requires an evaluation of the
political dimension of Museology and the ideologic implications. essential to the professional
practices and to the social function of museums."

The Latin American museums must assume a new challenge: to contribute to the integral
development of the countries of the continent. - this is a political dimension.

11
Museology must contribute to the construction and comprehension of a system to guide the
course of society - and in the museum communicate these values. Therefore society should
sponsor creation of museums based 00 the needs of each social group.

The paper points out the risks in privatisation threatening the protection of heritage. - and that
political and hegemony interests. not always are according to the communities' feeling.
CODclusion

Looking at these 7 papers, what strikes me is tbat there in the question of Museum and
community seems to be a situation of an existeoce of quite different level of subjects. however,
at the same historical time. What do I mean by this? .

First. we see that the historical traditions and positions of museums differ enonnously between
these different parts of the world. These traditions then give the answer to how the museum is
valued and who give value to it.

Second. J think it is important to realise that countries with a very short history or experience of
museums do not need to develop their museums through the same slow progress and with
museums having the same hegemony and social meaning to privileged groups as we know it
from western countries. Knowledgt! llf this museum history and the conflicts within it. should
make it possible to sort out the qualitative and useful parts.

Third. evidently a situation where the museum is seen as a tool to create national identity can be
accepted today, as it was 100 years ago . However. these new nations should take benefit from
what many national museum projects have learned: that too much powerful weight on the unity
and unifonnity can turn such a museum into an instrument of oppressing minority groups and
their culture.

The national museums of the last century belonged to the first classical period of modernism.
The most important value was the one of rapid change; museums should save small pieces of
what had to and should disappear in real life.

I think today the question of values is mueh more complexed. among other things because this
project of modernity in many ways has failed. This, I believe. makes museums not only a place
to put what belonged to old days - history - but an institution having big possibilities in being
part of the reorganisation of man's ideas of himself and his values.

However, when we again confront this position with the 7 papers presented to this symposium.
evidently societies in different parts of the world are facing contemporary problems and
situations completely different. To these situations it is also my opinion that very different
museums are needed. and should be supported.

12
 MUSEES ET COMMUNAUTE

RESUME ANAL YTIQUE

Damien WATTEYNE

lei, Ii Pekin, notre propos est d'etablir un cadre general pour nos reflexions d'ici Ii Stavanger,
notre propos est de preparer quelques "blocs de depart" .

Je ne souhaite pas faire un resume : John I'a tres bien fait. Devant les differentes qualites des
textes, je prefere vous donner un point de vue analytique.

Apres une premiere, une seconde et une troisieme lecture, les textes ressemblent Ii un
patchwork, semblable Ii ceux de la Grande Muraille .. . ! La plupart des textes sont bases sur Ie travail
quotidien de chaque auteur et ne sont pas, comme on pourrait s'y attendre, en lien direct avec Ie
sujet.

Des lors, retoumons au titre de cette partie de notre symposium : Musee et Communaute . Le
sujet n'est PAS la maniere de travailler dans Ie musee, n'est PAS Ie role des objets et documents ou
copies. Le sujet est la COMMUNAUTE et la place du musee dans la communaute.

Je fais reference Ii la terrninologie et au texte de Andre DESV ALLEES qui a tres bien
explique cela. En Anglais, "community" signifie ou est compris comme "public" ou "societe" . En
Frans:ais, "communaute" signifie ou est compris comme un groupe social, professionnel, religieux ou
linguistique.
Neanmoins, il semble que "societe" est souvent un concept plus global que "communaute" :
une societe inclu des communautes.

Certains auteurs sont partis du musee comme institution. Us ont defini les caracteristiques des
personnes qui travaillent, gerent, visitent ou ne visitent pas Ie musee, en connexion avec I'histoire de
la situation politi que, avec I'histoire de la societe institutionnalisee. Dans ce cas, ils ont compris
"communaute" comme Ie public participant, ou non, au musee comme institution. De mon point de
vue, ils ont oublie les aut res personnes qui travaillent ou se preoccupent du patrimoine, en dehors du
musee comme institution.

D'autres auteurs sont partis du concept de "communaute", de ses differents composantes. lis
ont observe les differents types de fonction que Ie musee peut assumer Ii I'interieur d'une
communaute.
L'action educative a ete placee en premiere position Ii travers I'action sociale de sensibilisation
critique des differentes partie de toute une societe, des differentes communautes. Au contraire, selon
un auteur, Ie musee pourrait sensibiliser les differentes parties de la societe Ii une culture homogene
et "universelle" .

Finalement, la "communaute" a ete analysee dans ses relations avec Ie musee ou au niveau de
sa participation. En d'autres termes, la question est : qui parle, conserve, etudie; au nom de qui,
pour qui, a qui ? Quelle partie de fa societe, pour quelle partie et a quelle partie?

Ensuite, la question ethique devient beaucoup plus claire, en regard des aspects d' "identite" .

13
 En tenant compte de notre prochaine reunion en Norvege, je desire exprimer rna propre
maniere d'analyser les relations entre Ie musee et les communautes, rna propre maniere de determiner
Ie niveau - et non pas la qualite - de participation des communautes it l'interieur du musee comme
institution et comme lieu de processus de musealisation.

Le musee, cornme realisation culturelle (artefact) lui-meme, effectue et existe par l'interaction
entre trois facteurs :
- les collectjons, comme traduction de la vie et des croyances passees et presentes d'une
communaute, exprimees et traduites sous forme materielle et immaterielle;
- les trayailleurs, it I'interieur et it l'exterieur du musee (comme par exemple les collectionneurs
prives, les antiquaires, ... );
- les nljlisatenrs, - visiteurs (Iocaux ou non-Iocaux),
- chercheurs de I'exterieur du musee (parmi lesquels les etudiants secondaires ou
universitaires ),
- decideurs : - administrations,
- aide privee,
- aide politique.

Chacun de ces trois facteurs a ses propres besoins, exigences et, souvent ou parfois, devoirs.

Si nous souhaitons parler du musee et de la (des) communaute( s), nous devrions, d'abord,
analyser Ie processus d'interaction entre ces facteurs. Apres cela, les problemes de definition de la
"communaute" / "societe" / "public" seront beaucoup plus simples it resoudre.

Pekin, 17 septembre 1994

Darnien W ATTEYNE

14
 MUSEUM AND COMMUNITY

ANALYSING SUMMARY

Damien WATTEYNE

Here, at Beijing, our purpose is to put a general farm for our reflexions till Stavanger, is to
prepare some "starting-blocks".

I don't want to make a summary : John maked it very well. Front of the different qualities of
the papers, I prefer to give you an analytic viewpoint.

After a first, a second and a third lecture, the texts seem to be a patchwork, like those ITom
the Great Wall ... ! Most of the papers are mostly based on the daily work of each author and are
not, as we could expect it, connected with the topic.

So, go back to the title of this part of our symposuim : Museum and Community. Topic is
NOT the way of working in the museum, is NOT the role of objects and documents or substitutes.
Topic is the COMMUNITY and the place of museum in the community.

I refer to the tenninology and to the text of Andre DESV ALLEES who has that very well
explained. In English, "community" means or is understood as "public" or "society" . In French,
"communaute" means or is understood as a social, professionnal, religious or language group.
Nevertheless, it seems that "society" is often a more global concept than "community" : a
society includes communities.

Several authors had started ITom the museum as institution. They have definited the features
of the peoples who work, manage, visit or don't visit the museum, in connection with the history of
the political situation, with the history of the institutionnalized society. In this case, they understood
"community" as the public participating, or not, in the museum as institution. On my viewpoint, they
have forgotten the other peoples who are working or looking for the heritage, outside the museum
as institution.

Other authors had started ITom the concept of "community", ITom its different components.
They were looking to the different kinds of fonction that the museum would assume inside the
community.
The educative action has been put in first position through the social action of critic
sensitization to the different parts of the whole society, to the different communities On the
contrary, according to an author, the museum could sensitize the different part of the society to an
homogeneus and "universal" culture.

Finally, the community has been analysed in its relations with the museum,or the level of its
participation. In other words, the question was : who is speaking, saving, studying; in the voice of
who, for who and to who? Wich part of the society, for wich part and to wich part?

Then the ethic level becomes quite more clear, looking to the "identy"'s aspects.

15
 Looking to our next meeting in Norway, I wish to express my own way of analyse the
relations between museum and communities, my own way of determinate the level - and not the
quality - of participation of the communities inside the museum as institution and as place of the
processus of musealization.

Museum, as a cultural artefact itself, is making and existing by interactions between three
factors :
- collections, as translation of past and present life and beleving of a community, expressed and
translated in material or immaterial form ;
- workers, inside and outside the museum ( as for example, private collectors, antiquarians, ... );
- users : - visitors (local or no local)
- researchers from outside the museum (of whom teenager students or university students)
- deciders : administrations
private support
political support.

Each of those three factors has its own requirements, exigences and, often or sometimes,
duties.

If we wish to speak about museum and community (ies), we would have, firstly, to analyse
the process of interactions between those factors . After that, definition's problems of what is
"community" / "society" / "public" / .... are quite easier to solve.

Beijing, 17 septembre 1994

Darnien WATTEYNE

16
 1
Museums and Communities Today

Maria Bezzeg

The specific properties of an

existing thing are no less than

its genuine possibilities.

, 2
Georg Lukacs

Nowadays it is a very general phenomenon that the

complex of problems defined for example as the main

issue of the second scientific symposium, "Museum and

Community", is approached from the perspective of contem-

porary people's needs. The so-called "ne\v museology", i . e.

"ecomuseology" also involves a very similar type of ap-

,
proach. While admitting the raison d etre and fertility

of these ways of interpretation I would, however, emphas-

ize that we have to acknowledge the specificity of a museum's

mood of being as the very point of departure of our invest-

igations which cannot be subsiituted.

,
Though, as for the specificity of a museum s mood of

being it cannot be said that everything is unambiguous

here. When you see exhibitions in museums which are not

museum exhibitions /because you can not find museal docu-

ments in them/; when you read collecting, preserving it is

not such an important function /see "new museology"/; when

you find copies in a museum exhibition and it hasn't been

17
Bezzeg/2

written that this is a copy; when you see museal docu-

ments in exhibitions in arbitrary interpretation - all

of these phenomena mean: colleagues often do not know

what the specificity of museums is, why do people go to

museums? These above mentioned things show that there are

some very big problems in our field.

Today, when the development takes up the question

,
of common actions is connection with the museum s place

in society and the life of mankind - there is an urgent

need to reveal the nature of a museum's mood of being in

order that the independent parts of the complex /collect-

ing, preserving, exhibiting, etc./ take up their rightful

places in the totality /the museum/. It would provide an

opportunity for the museums to occupy their specific posi-

tion in the life of community.

Today it is generally admitted that museums should be

analysed in close connection with the cultural and natural

v
heritage of humankind. A term proposed by Sola, namely

heritology, comes to mind here. This perspective inteds

to unify in a single philosophy libraries, museums, exhibi-

tion halls, restoration departments, protection of historic

buildings, archives, film institutes and related informa-

tional centres of other kinds. "The presence of the museum

v

in such an array is", as Sola puts it, "justified by the

informative nature of the museum piece and the museum's

18
 Bezzeg/3

powers of communication.,,3 This theory , in my view, fails

to grasp the specific essence of museum pieces, for a huge

number of things of non-museum kind may and do possess, as

a matter of course , informative nature and communicative

power. It should be admitted, however , that we have many

good reasons to interpret museums and their activities in

relation to humankind's whole legacy.

Although the latter principle takes into account the

holistic context which I am inclined to emphasize, it is

not yet adequate to perceive the specificity of a museum ' s

mood of being. Many other things not only museum collections

belong to that heritage.

To sum up I would say, not only do we have to concen-

trate upon those common properties which the functions of

a museum ' s mood of being has with the other domains , but

also , first of all, the specific features of this sphere

should be unveiled and emphasized . The problems emerging

in the domain of a collection's mood of being and a museum ' s

mood of being -and I would subsume the issue of the second

symposium under this complex of questions also- are to be

solved only from analytic perspective of details and con-

crete, factual data, in and by which "categories reveal

their concrete and genuine essence". 4 5 pe Cl.. f yl.ng

. in that

way the most typical properties of a museum's mood of being,

we shall be able to attempt to answer the questions accen-

19
Bezzeg/4

tuated in the title of this symposium.

The major central category in a museum's contemporary

mood of being is the category of document. The precondition

that the most diverse items /objects, written texts, photo-

graphs, voice records or film, video records/ today may be

conceived as documents is that all the types of these items

became, as it were, indifferent as to their concrete physical

medium. Not very long ago among the exposed items on exhiti-

on, apart from objects, one could find, say, written texts

or photos only by way of a subsidiary, illustrating role.

Nowadays, however, the documentative value of items of the

most diverse kind has become more and more significant. The

indifference to the material medium of documents presupposes

a highly developed totality of documentative items, where

no kind of these possesses a predominating role over other

kinds. The category of document, however, does not express

precisely enough the specificity of a museum's mood of being.

In our case we have to do with museal documents, that is

outstanding and typical documents of humankind's life.

Today, as museums are considered both in their "self-

consciousness" and in public opinion as the guards and pre-

servers of humankind's legacy, the interest of visitors no

longer extends exclusively to exotic things or the results

of various disciplines but, rather, they expect museums to

acquaint them with the past of the community in a way that

20
Bezzeg/5

contributes to the solution of present-day problems. This

wish can only be fulfilled by the collective work of vari-

ous disciplines studied in museums and by integrating the

results of the various branches of both science and art.

That is what museology is destined for. It is not by chance

that historically it was the last to evolve.

After a specific approach to the partial spheres of real-

ity in a way characteristic of a museum's mood of being

/the collection, preservation, treatment and presentation

of documents relative to the life of humankind, namely de-

velopment of archaeology, ethnography, numismatics etc./

the appearance of social-historical museology marks a new

integrating tendency that is of a much larger scale than

any other known hitherto. As a matter of fact, social-

historical museology undertakes to present the entire so-

cial being through documents. Granted this, the formation

of a museum's mood of being is concluded.

Museology today is a historically developed disCipline

of universal character, although only its outlines can be

perceived as yet. It collects, preserves, treats and presents

/the unity of documentation and information -StranskY/ the

outstanding and typical documents of the life of humankind

/the three major moods of being:inorganic and organic nature

as well as social being/ reflected by science, art and every-

day life /thinking and practice/.

21
Bezzeg/6

The process of gathering our self-consciousness is

very active these days: museums recognize that they are

collecting not only archaeological, ethnographical ob-

jects, pieces of applied art etc . but also documents,

increasingly outstanding and typical documents, relative

to the life of humankind and with the help of these they

can inform the present of something that is of importance.

The question of why museums able to function as constitu-

ent parts of humankind's memory I am going to answer by

means of Georg Lukacs' conception of human species.

"Man is basically a social-historical being also in

the sense", as Lukacs puts it, "that his past, in the

form of his own past, is an indispensable constituent

of his contemporary existence and activities. Collective

action is in individual, as well as in social dimensions

inconceivable without establishing synthesizing contacts,

right or wrong as they may be, between past and present;

the more developed , the' more social' is a given society,

the truer is this principle." And as Lukacs, making fur-

ther historical dynamics more concrete, continues, "His-

tory in this sense is not simple knowledge but the elu-

cidation of those motivations and propelling forces which

in the past have formed social practice and which can

more effectively contribute to an unambiguous exposure

of man's contemporary relationships to his own human

22
 Bezzeg/7

species than any catalogue of the bare facts of the

present . The contents of this historical consciousness

as the propelling force of practical activities may

have this dynamic impact because they interpret the

human species as a process, as the way of man's self-

realization, contributing thereby to the self-realiza-

. II 5
tion of individuals on the level of the specles.
Museums have for a long time been interpreted only

with regards to the external aspects of utility /col-

lections as educational requisites , basic resources

of the individual branches of science/.It is the result

of a quite recent development that this field of reality

is considered in the context of the very essence of man.

In the sense of Lukacs ' above quoted theses, I would

maintain that the basis of the effect, exercised by

museums, rest on the existing continuity according to

which every individual human being forms a part of the

development of humankind as a species. As such museums

offer them possibility of meeting with a stage of the path

covered by humankind till now and with a section of the

development of the species. In this way, with the help

of the past as transmitted by museums one can catch up

with the level achieved until now.

The determination holds true in fact for a wider

domain of spheres, including sciences and arts. To

23
 Bezzeg/8

grasp the specificity of museums we have to emphasize

that they fulfil the function of recollection by means

of outstanding and typical documents of humankind's

life i.e. museal documents.

One can also acquire knowledge from books, films,

video tapes and television. Also film, video and theatre

can present spectacle, but only museums can present docu-

ments from humankind's life to the community. They can

evoke the past with testimonies to it. The above men-

tioned media are not able to do this. Most of the people

go to museums because they want to meet with the "ori-

ginal". The "original" document is the most important

specificity of museums. It has a special force. That is

why this is a genuine possibility in our field, and

museums should make their strongest efforts in this dir-

ection.

Notes

1 Cf. my paper "On Fundamental Properties of Museum's Mood

of Being- Functions of Museums in Contemporary Societies,
ICOM Education 14, Museum Education Towards 2000, pp.14-17.
2 Georg Lukacs, Zur Ontologie des gesellschaftlichen Seins,
I quote the Hungarian edition: Budapest,Akademia-Magvet6,
1985, Vol. III., p. 185.
3 Tomislav Sola, "The concept and nature of museology",
Museum, Vol. XXXIX, No.1, 1987, pp.45-49.
4 Zur Ontologie des gesellschaftlichen Seins, op.cit.,
Vol. III., p. 291.
5 Op.cit., Vol. III., pp. 79f.

24
Maria Bezzeg

Musees et Communautes aujourd'hui

La categorie central du mode d'etre du musee est

la categorie de document. Les conditions requises sont

que articles les plus divers /les objets, textes ecrits,

photographies, enregistrement de voix ou films, enre -

gistrements videos/ peuvent aujourd'hui tous etre

consideres comme des documents, et que tous ces types

d'articles deviennent, par ce biais, distincts de leur

forme materielle concrete.

La museologie aujourd'hui est une discipline de

caractere universel qui s'est developpee tout au long

de l'histoire, bien que seuls ses contours peuvent
etre perrus. La museologie collecte, conserve, traite

et presente les documents typiques et remarquables de

la vie de l'humanite - de natura organique et non-

organique aussi bien que de l'existence sociale -
provenant de la science, de l'art et de la vie quotidienne-

en pensee et en pratique-.

Selon l'esprit des theses de G.Lukacs, je desirerais

montrer que les musees exercent une influence sur les gens,

qui s'appuie sur la continuite de l'existence, d'apres

laquelle chaque forme de vie humaine fait partie du

genre humain.

25
14b

-2-

,
On peut egalement acquerir 1 information et la

connaissance a partir des livres, des films, de la video

et de la television. Les films, videos et Ie theatre

pres en tent egalement un spectacle mais exclusivement les

musees presentent des documents sur la vie de l'humanite,

pour la communaute. lIs temoignent du passe. Les autres

moyens mentionnes ne peuvent realiser cela.

On va generalement au musee pour y rencontrer "l'original".

Les documents originaux, etant la specificite la plus

significative des musees, ont o une force specifique. Les

originaux constituent ainsi les possibilites d'authenticite

dans notre domaine: les musees doivent porter leurs efforts

dans cette direction.

26
Researching Communities
by Adriana Albi Davies
This building, known as the LAzarttto (Concise Oxford, ~hospitat Jor dueastd poor"),
is 1M oldest suroiwroJtJu island's buildings. It dalts to 1847.
PAo ""'~" A. LIIwI4
The author uscs her observations of (ailu~ to
interpret adequately the: Groue tic: site: by
Environment Canada iiS a vehicle: to (onnulate: a
model of communitybued rese;u-ch. Such a model
will build community support for museums, since
they more fully reOeet community identity, and will
also help museums to meet the: needs of their
pluralistic audiences.
L'auteure se sert du fait qu'Environnc:mc:nt Canada
n'a pas reuui ra i'ltcrprctcr adequatemcnt Ie site de:
Grosse he pour creer un modHe de recherche
communaulairc. Un modclt: de cc genre
encouragen. Ie soutien de la communautc pour ses
mUKe', puisque eel dcmicn rdletc:ront davant2gc
l'idcntite de la communautc, c:l aideD aussi les
mus&!: ~ rcpondre :lUX be.soins de leur public
plun.iisle.
A community is made up of three
elements:
people,
territory,
heritage. J
A s a part of the International Coun-
cil of Museums (ICOM) conference
held in Quebec City from September
18-27, 1992, I visited the range of
heritage attractions in and around
Quebec City. The diversity included
early museums, such as the Musee
Volume 19, l .. ue 2, FallIWinter 1993
des Ursulines de Quebec, which cov-
ers 120 years of the Ursuline heritage
under the Old Regime (1639-1759);
the Musee de la civilisation, the new-
est museum covering every aspect of
Quebecois life, from the habitant past
to test-tube babies; and the streets of
the city itself, which provide an oppor-
tunity to experience a city through its
public buildings, homes and places of
business where citizens have lived for
the past 350 years.
A science fiction, myth and magic
television program I saw many years
ago in London, England, was posited
on the premise that stone could ab
sorb the record of people's lives and
that computers could be used to
"read" these "stone tapes." Of course,
the sensationalized plot dealt with hu-
man sacrifice and horror, but the
idea of the "stone tapes" has stayed in
my imagination.
This memory came back to me
when I tried to deal with the experi-
ence I had on the all-day trip to
Grosse lIe, a heritage outing arranged
by the conference organizers to give
us a "taste" of Quebec. We started in
the early morning at the historic ar-
moury building. where we caught a
bus that took us to the dock to em-
27
bark on a journey down the SI.
Lawrence. From the deck we saw the
Citadel, the Chateau Frontenac and
the wealth of historic buildings that
have made the city a UNESCO World
Heritage Site. As we went down river,
we saw the beautiful!le d'Orleans
with its patchwork of cultivated fields.
each with its river frontage. The river
journey for me became a journey
backwards through time until we got
close to Grosse lIe. The island is rug-
gedly beautiful; its rocky promonto-
ries are quite different from tie
d'Orleans. Of course, one notices im-
mediately the large Celtic cross and.
eventually. the dilapidated white
buildings of unknown origin and use.
We landed and were divided into two
groups: one group would tour the is-
land immediately while the others
had lunch. and then the process
would be reversed later in the after-
noon.
While waiting for lunch. I began
to read the interpretive panels aboard
. ship and my peace of mind disap-
peared. Up to that point I. a well-edu-
cated Canadian with B.A . M.A. and
Ph.D. degrees. as well as having been
the Science, Technology and Material
Culture Editor of The Canadian En,,
ck>pedia. had never heard of the heart-
wrenching history of Grosse lie. The
panels, very economical and in neu-
tral academic prose, told me about
the Irish emigration to Canada as a re-
sult of the potato famines. the epi-
demics of cholera. typhus and o ther
communicable diseases, and the role
of Grosse tie as a quarantine station.
The European history was not un-
known to me, since my Master's the-
sis was on the author Charles Dickens
and his charting of the ills of Victo-
rian England in his fiction, and also I
have researched a biography of Sam
and Isabella Beeton. publisher and
author respectively of Mrs. Beeton's
Book of Howehold Management . I have
read 100 years of periodical literature
cataloguing foods. fashions and fanta-
sies as well as the grim record of child

,I
, ice, has produced a development con-
\
'\ I
),1
. 1,
' ~
...
,"":11"
I
l ,'. "
1
J Historic Sites and Monuments Board
" ' I'
.J V
" !i
I "
! ',
, the most Significant themes in the his-
t f
-.
t
..L
I
t .J,..t
I t
The white CTOUU apptaring to marA: grave .sites only Strllt a commemorative junctirm. At the height
o/the early ~itkmics in the 1830s and 1840s (choltra and typhw), soil had to bt brought to
the island for appropriate burials.
~ U1I",?, of A Dduou.
mortality, deaths of women in child-
birth and the impact of the closure of
agricultural lands, industrialization
and other trends on both rural and
urban populations.
None of this prepared me for the
tour of Grosse lie, All the hopes and
dreams of those who had left their
homeland for a beller life only to be
overcoJlle by disease and, for some,
death came to me in an inarticulate
cry, Certainly, 1 wished that the
stones, underfoot and in the build-
ings, and the monument put up in
tribute to the doctors who died in the
earlier epidemics, could speak, If they
could, the record of human suffering
would not be lost. 1 also felt anger
that, though the Environment Can-
ada guide did her best to answer our
questions, again and again she came
back to the simple statement, "I don't
know."
But, in fact, we should know.
Since we do not have "stone tapes" to
tell us, we must ensure that some me-
dium documents past lives. For me,
this is what material culture research
and interpretation is about. It is not
simply the collection and protection
against the ravages of time of objects,
found and manufactured. It is the re-
Albert.ll MUMum, Review
,..;
~:"~
'" ,.
'
" -'-
,~ .. .~1j.,.'f
:'"
t 1 t
,-
cord of human use, whatever the eth-
nic group, period or culture, studied.
In his introduction to Gerald A. Dan-
zer's Public PUlces: Expwring Their His
t07)'. the editor wrote:
Communities without an understanding
of their pasts resemble people suffering
from amnesia. unable to remember from
where they came, how they responded to
needs or challenges. from whence they
drew affection and support, or
opposition, and where they intended to
go. History, the contemplation and
roaluation of the pas~ servtS socuty
much as memory servtS 1M individual in
idtntifjing circu1TLJtanct.s, providing a
guide to appropriate behaviour, and
offering a standard of comparison across
time and situation. 2
1 know that Grosse lie had a number
of uses: from the 1830s to 1937 as a
quarantine station for European im-
migrants, from 1942 to 1957 as a bio-
logical weapons research station for
the Government of Canada, from
1965 to 1988 as an Agriculture Can-
ada Research Station for the study of
foreign animal diseases, and from
1988 a National Historic Site. These
other uses have served to hide the
importance of the site in our country's
28
history; however, they are not an ex-
,,~,
... _.f. .,
cuse for inaction.
Environment Canada, Parks Serv-
cept for Grosse lie (dated March
1992), The introduction refers to the
of Canada's emphasis in 1983 and
w~'.., .
"
1974 upon immigration "as one of
. 1-
;'1.
~
tory of Canada" and "the national his-
toric significance of Grosse Ile ."~
The 1992 Proposed Development Con-
cept, however. is couched in the lan-
" guage of tourism, for example. visitor
services, themes, infrastructure sup-
port, economic impact. That is not to
say that the authors were insensitive
to the complex of issues that the site
presented:
It is important 10 prestnl Grosse Jle both
as a whole, that is, in terms of the history
of Canadian immigration, and in its
specifICity. that is, in terms of the role it
played as a quarantine station. It is
therefore essential that visitors be given
the opportunity to txpwre the full range
of historical themes chosen for this
commemorative site. 4
The authors continue:
In terms of a commemorative approach,
the rUvewpment concept we propose
start.s from the idea that in order to
sensitiu people to their history and
heritage, there is no belter method than
direct contact with authentic witnesses to
the past. The resources themselves are
thus considered the best intnpretnl of
history, and one cannot think of btUer
guilks to accompany visitors on their
trip back in time; it is thert/ore extremely
important to let those resources express
themselves. 5
The proposal expounds on the immi-
gration theme as "Canada: land of
welcome and hope" and also suggests
that the dark quarantine theme
should not be overemphasized, When
input was solicited from Irish Cana-
dian societies, the St. Albert Irish Soci-
ety sent a letter to the Minister,jean
Charest, expressing its concerns. The
 result of the Irish Canadian commu-
nity's reaction is an Information Supple-
mmt that was developed and
circulated to the groups (March
1993). The Supplement concludes:
Partly due to inadequate explanation
in the original Development Concept,
hundreds of people have received the
impression that the Canadian Parks
Service is not developing a national
historic site at Grosse tie, but rather a
tourist destination that will ignore the
poignant human stories in the is-
land's past," and "The Service agrees
that the expression of the immigra-
tion theme as 'Canada: land of wel-
come and hope' should be dropped;
the tragic dimensions of events on
the island make it inappropriate. The
story told, and the theme, is immigra-
tion; simply that. "6
One can argue that Environment
Canada has two failings with respect
to Grosse lIe: ftrst, it viewed the site
as a tourist atuaction to be groomed
to meet visitor needs; and, second, it
failed to plan adequately for the inter-
pretation of the human dimension of
the site. Unfortunately, this is a fre-
quent failure in other heritage facili-
ties. At a recent Professional
Development Series Forum spon-
sored by the Alberta Museums Asso-
ciation, "Big Museums/ Small
Museums" and held at the Olympic
Hall of Fame and Museum, Calgary,
September 14-15, 1993, we reviewed
the history of museum development
in the Province of Alberta. David
Goa, Curator of Folklife, Provincial
Museum of Alberta, who moderated
the session, noted that we were in the
first generation of museum building
in Alberta. In the 250year period in
which museums have flourished in
this province, the "big," profession-
ally staffed museums have built their
collections, cared for them. exhibited
them and. to a lesser extent. inter-
preted them, while the "small" muse-
ums, in the main. simply collected
and cared for their collections. In the
first generation of museums, simply
Volwne 19, u..ue 2, FaUlWillter 1993
saving collections from the ravages of
time is a major accomplishment. In
the second generation. this activity is
no longer enough. Because of the
public nature of the majority of muse-
ums, their various "publics" have a
right to expect that the artifacts in mu-
seum collections will be presented in
a context that draws on the knowl-
edge of those individuals who have
studied the item or class of items
based on the rigorous models of aca-
demic research and. when dealing
with living cultures, on oral history
and related techniques and technolo-
gies.
The Museology Committee (ICO-
FOM) of the International Council of
Museums has concentrated since its
inception on the defmition of the dis-
ciplinary base for museum studies,
and has also generated much discus-
sion on the nature of the museum. A
recently published book, Papen in
Museology 1, which is the report from
two symposia held at the Department
of Museology, Ume! University, Swe-
den, provides a feast for the museum
scholar concerned about where the
museum is going at the end of the
20th century. For some museum prac-
titioners, among them some Cana-
dian museum professionals who
attended the ICOFOM meetings at
the ICOM Conference in Quebec,
their ruminations appear esoteric and
introspective; but these theories do
"trickle down" eventually to the mass
of practitioners and guide practice.
I view myself as a conduit by
means of which these theories can
find practical application in Alberta's
museum community and. therefore.
as a means of popularizing" theoreti-
cal museum language and concepts.
Attendance at the ICOFOM meetings
at the ICOM Conference in Quebec,
followed by participation in a one-day
workshop titled "Working Together
for Our Cultural Memory" (hosted by
the Red Deer & District Museum and
the Danish Heritage Society of Dick-
son, September 29, 1992), in turn fol-
29
lowed by the arrival of the Umea Uni-
versity publication, served to focus
my attention on museum theory and
how it influences practice. The
French museum director and theoreti-
cian Andre Desvallees, in "Museology
and Culturalldentity:7 provides an
analysis of the evolution of what have
become standard terms in our discus-
sion of museum function. He begins
by noting the complex factors or "cul-
tural features" or "markers" that com-
prise identity, for example,
geographical community, a way oj liv-
ing community, a linguistic commu-
nity, a religious community, a
professional community, a technical
community and social communities
(the italics are mine).8 He sees that
these factors have been discussed in
France since the late 1970s. He also
notes that the term "cultural identity"
was first used in a book by Pierre
Gaudibert titled Du rulturtl au sacre,
published in 1981. Another related
term, "collective memory," according
to Desvallees, goes back to the 1950s
to the book of that name by Maurice
Halbwach, I want to focus on these
terms, "identity" and "collective mem-
ory" because they are central to the
changing role of museums at the end
of the 20th century.
For Desvallees, museums have al-
ways been about identity; they have
varied from age to age depending on
what their founders and staff have
considered that identity to be. Des-
vallees in the remainder of the essay
provides a condensed history of mu-
seum development, predominantly in
France. He notes that museums prolif-
erated in France in the 19th century
and were established "to reflect the
identity of the new French Nation."
He notes as well that the flourishing
of museums was accompanied by pil-
laging, "The pillage ofltaly by
Napoleon, the pillage of the colo-
nized countries in Asia or Africa. of
Chinese and Indu archaeology as well
as Polynesian. Melanesian. Indone-
sian, African ethnography... .. 9 He

In tht war against communicable distQJts, tht island's buildings npt"t.Jrnt .fomt technological
brtahthroughs. Tht building picturtd hert is aJumigation chamber and was a pan oj a complex oj
disinJtctionJacilitw buill in llu I890s.
!'MID _rfQ] of A. DtwWs.
compares archaeological and ethncr
graphic collections, the fonner seen
as similar to. the fine art mUSeum and
the latter to the natural history mu-
seum. He notes, .. it was as if, on the
one side, one was dealing with Men
(with a capital M) who were true art-
ists, and on the other side, with ad-
vanced animals which happened from
time tO ,time to achieve beautiful ob-
ject5,"lO This insight is important be-
cause it is at the base of most
museum ethncrgraphic collections,
though the attitudes of curators of
ethnography have moved beyond
what we would describe today as bla-
tant racism, But it is important for in-
dividuals working in the museum
field today to possess this historical
perspective and inSight. Desvallees dis-
cusses what for him was the second
generation of museums, the ethncr
graphic museums and open-air muse-
ums, and then discusses the evolution
of "identity" museums in France early
in the 20th century. These "local" mu-
seums, frequently the creations of a
learned society, bore the name of the
town and served "to store the con-
tents of the town's allics or certain ar-
chaeological findings rather than to
explain the history and life of the
Alberta M uaeuml lUview
community.")] In the 1960s, he saw a
further evolution of the identity mu-
seum: "East of Boston, in Lowell,
Mass., the local museum charts the in-
dustrialization of the town, backed up
by audio-visual support. giving a com-
plete picture, including migration
movements and disindustrializa-
tion."12
He quotes Franr;ois Hubert, a
theoretician of the ecomuseum, that
museums today "assume a double
function: transmit scientific knowl-
edge and answer to the cultural need
of a population searching for its iden-
tity through them."13Jt is this view of
museums that has prompted the
IeOM definition of museums as "insti-
tutions in the service of society and
its development."
For the second generation of mu-
seum development in Alberta, it is
this view of museums that must be
brought to bear on museum practice,
not only in "big" but also "small" mu-
seums. The American Association of
Museums has published a keynote
publication titled Excellence and Eq-
uit),: Education and the Public Dimen-
sion of Museums. The report provides
an expanded definition of the educa-
tional role of museums that can be
30
broadly defined as public service.
Three key ideas underpin the report:
I. The commitment to education as
central to museum's public service
must be clearly expressed in every
museum's mission and pivotal to
every museum's activities.
2. Museums must become more
inclusive places that welcome
diverse audiences, but first they
should reflect our society's
pluralism in every aspect of their
operations and programs.
3. Dynamic. forceful leadership from
individuals, institutions, and
organizations within and outside in
the museum community is the key
to fulfilling museums' potential for
public service in the coming
century. 14
To reflect social diversity, museums
must become centres of community-
based research. In other words, the
expertise possessed by museum prcr
fessionals must be used in co-opera-
tion with community groups to
produce community or local histories
that reflect the rich ethnic fabric of Al-
berta's past. Museums can no longer
be a recounting of majority history
alone.l 5 Warren R. Hofstra, in an arti-
cle titled" A Real World and the Aca-
demic Historian," levels some
damaging charges at academic histori
ans. He demonstrates that historians
have become: introverted and ob-
sessed with their own arcane terminol-
ogy. He: notes that the: most
interesting and innovative studies
have been done in the area of "com-
munity studies," which focused on
"the inarticulate, ordinary men and
women who often incised their only
record on the American past in a few
numbers scrawled on a tax list."16 He
describes a "community studies
model" for history research, as fol-
lows:
In. this motk, the academic historian,
both as a specialist in community studies
and as a living part of the community,
StTVt.S as a historian to the community.

From this position the community
historian can draw from the community
the wealth of information composing the
raw data of the new social history and
return to the community's history the
methodologits and cone<plual
jrameworJu driving scholarly inquiry.
In combining these two disparate
elements - tM community of scholars and
the community of citizens - historians
can create a chemistry vital for student
learning. while at the same time
fulfilling Rene DuBos's challenge 10
'think globally, act locally. '17
This new community-based his-
tory can be used to guide the mu-
seum exhibit development process as
well as interpretation and public pro-
gramming. In Alberta, since the cele-
bration of Canada's centenary in
1967, community research has been
narrowly interpreted as family histo-
ries pulled together by interested indi-
viduals who comprise informal or
fonnally registered historical socie-
lies. This was the generation who es-
tablished the majority of Alberta's
museums. For the second generation
of Alberta's museums, the knowledge
of museum professionals must be
brought to bear on recording commu-
nity history so that our museums can
better address their responsibility to
provide the basis for community iden-
tity. It is only through this working
together for our cultural memory," in
the words of David Goa, that muse-
ums can move to address the needs
of our pluralistic society. In doing
this, we will ensure that museums re-
main relevant to the mass of our citi-
zens. As Baba Dioum has written, "In
the end, we will conserve only what
we love, we will love only what we un-
derstand and we will understand only
what we have been taught" (a motto
prominently displayed by the Calgary
Zoo in its education centre).
If the evocation of cultural mem-
ory had been the driving force for the
Canadian Parks Service at Grosse lie,
I would not have left feeling that the
cries of those who died there were in-
Volume 19. l..u. 2, r.IVWln\er 1993
articulate cries thal did not communi- tural ldenti t)', .. in Papers in Mwtology 1,
cate to those who came after. Muse- Op. Cit.
8. Ibid., p. 5 L
ums are places of memory and 9. Ibid., p. 55.
imagination, as David Goa has stated. 10. Ibid .. p. 56.
Through community-based research l1.1bid .. p. 59.
projects, we can give voices to cul- 12. Ibid ., p. 60.
tural memory and not only help pre- 13. Andre Des\'a..IIees quoting Fran(:ois
Hubert's Du riseau dt ntusies d l'icomwlt.
serve the past of our communi lies
Homnta~... d Gt'01pS Htnri Riviirt (p, 72),
but also help to shape their future. Ibid .. p. 66.
14. American Association of Museums. Exal
Note: To promote community-based ltna and Equity: Education and tht Public
research Lhat brings togeLher scholars (either Dimension oj Mwt"UmJ (Washington. D.C.:
from universities or our senior museums), author, 1992), pp. 34.
community leaders and representatives from 15 . History NnuJ, the magazine of the Ameri-
local museums to undertake research to can Association for State and Local His-
preserve cultural memory'. the Alberta tol')', has de\'oled an entire issue to this
Museums Association has initiated a theme (November/ December 1992).
Researching Communities Grant.
16, Warren R. HofsU"a., H istory Ntwl, Ibid. , p.
Information on the pilot program can be
obtained from Lhe Association's offices. 20.
17. Ibid., p. 21.
Adriana A. Davies is the Executive Director
of Lhe AJberta Museums Association . She
earned a Ph.D. degree from the University
of London. England, and B.A. and M.A.
degrees from the University of Alberta,
Edmonton. She has extensh'e experience in
research in the humanities and material
culture (e.g., the Art for Art's Sake and
Decadent Movements in Britain and France,
British portraiture. antiques and Canadian
material culture and craf(5), as well as
advocacy issues with respect to Canadian
and British museums. She was the Science.
Technology and Material Culture Editor of
The Canodian Encyclopedia and has
developed curriculum for the Government
Studies Program of the Faculty of Extension,
University of Alberta,
Endnotes
1. Hugues de Varine, "Cultural Action - A
Concept and its Ambiguities ,R in Papers
in MwtoloD I (Umea, Sweden: Vmea Uni
versity, 1992), p . 179.
2. Gerald A, Danzer, Public Plact1: Exploring
Thtir Hislory (Nash\ille: The American As
sociation for State and Local History,
1987). p. vii.
3, Environment Canada, Parks Sen'ice, Grant
lit National Historic Silt - Propostd DnJtioJr
mtnt Conupl (Quebec City: author.
March 1992). p. 5.
4. Ibid ., p. 70.
Throughout its history as a quarantint facility,
5. Ibid ., p. 7 L tht island also housed docton and othc Jupport
6. GrOSJ' lit Nalional Hisloric Silt Propostd
ptnonntL Tht Parlu Canada guidt statt'd that
D~lopmtnt Conctpt -Information Suppit.
lhu was a doctor's howt.
mtnl, Op. Cie., p. 23.
PAOlO CINrTuy 0f..t. DGvw.
7, Andre Des\'allees, "Museology and Cui
31
 MUSEE ET COMMUNAurE: DES AMBIGUITEs A ECLAmCm
Andre DESV ALLEES, Paris, France
II s'agit la d'un theme qui peut apparaitre com me relativement recent dans l'univers des
musees, et pourtant il les conceme depuis au moins aussi longtemps qu 'existent les musees
publics.
D'autre part, si ce theme, et les debats qu'il suscite, est apparu sous une forme renouvelee
avec les musees communautaires fran~ais et plus generalement latins, il n 'en est pas moins
I 'objet de questions recurrentes dans Ie monde anglo-saxon depuis la fin du dux-n~uvieme
siecle. Citons en particulier Ie People's Palace Museum de Glasgow qUI eXlste depUls 1898,
citons cet archetype d'ecomusee que I'ecossais Patrick GEDDES avait projete, des 1903, a
Dunfermline, dans les environs d'Edimbourg; citons encore John Cotton DANA, Ie
fondateur du Musee de Newark, dans l'Etat de New York, qui dans son livre The New
Museum (Le nouveau musee) incitait, en 1917, "a developper chez les jeunes Ie sens de la
collection", lequel a tendance a "promouvoir un juste sens du civisme, venant du fait de
reaJiser pour la communaute quelque chose d'utile"(I ). II est vrai que Ie Fran"ais Edmond
GROULT avait propose, des les annees 1870, son modele de "musees cantonaux" qui
s'inspirait sensiblement des memes principes. Rappelons aussi que, dans les annees 1950,
les Americains avaient conduit des etudes sur I'interpretation et sur l'evaluation et que,
prolongeant ces etudes pendant la decennie suivante, a partir de Leicester et de Manchester,
les Anglais ont aussi, des 1972, tente quelques experiences de partenariat avec la
population!C2l. Rappelons enfin, s'i1 Ie faIlait encore, les cris d'alarrne pousses en 1971, a
Grenoble (France), lors de la neuvieme Conference generale, par Ducan F.CAMERON et
quelques autres sur la necessire pour les musees de prendre en compte leur public de
maniere plus consciente et plus efficace. Ce cri etait pousse dans la foulee du Congres de
I' Association des Musees americains ou, la meme annee, la minorire avait incite a
orivilegier les actions "public-oriented" sur celles strictement "object-oriented".

Mais, pour aborder Ie probleme du role de la communaule par rapport au musee, ne se

pose-t-il pas en premier lieu une question de terminologie? En effet certains (en anglais)
n 'ont-ils pas tendance a utiliser Ie terme "community" dans Ie sens generique de "public"
et meme, plus largement, dans Ie sens de "societe" (terme utilise dans la definition officielle
du musee des statuts de I'ICOM adopres lors de I'assemblee generale de 1974), alors que
d'autres (au moins en fran~s) , I'utilisent pour designer un groupe social ou ethnique limite
en nombre. En outre en anglais la meme formulation "community museum" peut designer
en fran~s a la fois Ie "musee de communaute" et Ie "musee communautaire", c'est-a-dire,
dans Ie second sens, Ie musee dont la communaute est non seulement Ie sujet ou Ie public,

DANA, John Cotton, The New Museum, repris dans The Museologist, vo1.51, n0172,
(I)
hiver 1988, pp.5-16 (p.8).

(2)C'est pourquoi on ne peut que s'etonner de voir, dans un des plus recents numeros de
Museum, que I 'on peut encore enfoncer des portes ouvertes sur I'action culturelle,
entreprise tout a fait officiellement, mais com me une grande nouveaute, dans Ie meme
I
comte de Leicester! Article de Diana Finlay, intitule " Au service de la communaute" et
visant surtout les handicapes. au demeurant fort sympathique, qui se termine par une parole
d'or: "Tout ce que je demande au monde des musees, c'est d'apprendre a ecouter; on Ie fait
dans Ie Leicestershire, ou mes collegues se montrent chaque jour plus attentifs. En bien
d' autres lieux on n' a pas encore pris conscience de la necessite de sensibiliser Ie personnel
pour que chacun n'ait qu'un but: etre en permanence au service des usagers"
(Museum,n oI80. decembre 1993: 12). A noter que la traduction fran"aise a developpe et
accentue Ie sens de la demiere phrase. Cf. egalement Vagues. 1: 20 et sqq .

33
 mais aussi I'acteur. Pour etre complet, ajoutons que la definition de la communaute passe
souvent par celie de I'identit~').
Nous etions en droit d'attendre une certaine clarification et un rapprochement des positions
terminologiques de I'important colloque qui s'est tenu du 21 au 23 mars 1990, au Centre
international de la Smithsonian Institution, a Washington . Mais ce colloque est reste tres
americano-americain et, d' apres ses actes publies(4), on a neglige meme Ie souvenir des
initiatives qui avaient pu anterieurement etre prises aux Etats Unis en matiere de musees
communautaires.
En presentant les actes, Ivan KARP distingue bien "societe" et "communaute" puisqu'il a su
preciser que "l'on peUl voir chaque societe comme une mosafque, changeant constamment,
de multiples communaUles et organisations" (p.3) et que "Ies musees et les communaUles
constituent seulement une partie de la societe civile, Ie complexe des identites sociales dans
lequel nous menons nos vies et grace auquel nous fa~onnons notre identite" (p.4).
Cependant, com me I'a remarque Joime Le Marec en faisant Ie compte rendu de la
publication , "Ies communaUles sont bien au coeur du debat, et c 'est a ce titre qu' elles
jigurent dans Ie titre de I' ouvrage, mais elles n' en sont plus partie prenantes, ayant fait
I'objet d'un traitement savant. ( .. .J Le musee reste alors dans une perspective
traditionnelle, un lieu qui se justifie en soi, et qui n 'a nullement besoin de la communaUle
pour exister. e'est l'inverse de la conception du musee communautaire tel que dejini par
Hugues de Varine et d'autres, pour qui la notion de communaute est fondamentale , en
amont de l'existence du musee, et opere necessairement une rupture par rappon a la notion
de public, dejini traditionnellement en aval de I'existence du musee, remplacee par la
notion d'usager. " (S)
Le concept de communaute se reduit alors, Ie plus souvent, au concept de public et la
participation envisagee est Ie plus souvent celie du public au sein des organes directeurs ou
consultatifs du musee. C'est pourquoi d'ailleurs Ivan Karp prend conscience que "Ia
meilleure fa~on de refiechir au changement de relations entre les musees et les
communaUles est de rejlechir a la f~on dont les visiteurs, entite passive, deviennent la
communaute, agent acti/'(6).

Les Britanniques ont eux-memes remarque Ie decaiage entre les mots et la chose, s'agissant
de I'emploi du mot "community" . Par exemple Stephen LOCKE remarque dans Museums
Journal, que Ie meme magasine avait publie en fevrier 1990 un numero special intitule:
"Les musees: sur la place du marche ou dans la communaUle?" alors que Ie contenu du
numero etait plut6t: "Les musees sont-ils de petits commerces ou des services publics? "(7)
Aussi Stephen LOCKE, dans son propre article, en 1991, nous montre-t-il qu'il a bien
compris de quoi il parle, meme s'il ne donne pas de definition precise de ce qu'il entend par
communaute: "Je distingue trois sortes de musees communautaires: certains sontfondes,

(1) II Y a quelques annees j' avais tente une petite histoire des musees envisages sous ces
differentes acceptions dans un article sur les musees d'identite: "Museology and cultural
identity" . Papers in Museology I , Umea University (Suede), 1992, 207p. (pp.50-77)
(Report from two symposia at the Departement of museology, april 1988 and april 1989)
KRAP , MULLER et LEVINE, edit. , Museums and Communities, Washington et
(4)
Londres, Smithsonian Institution Press, 1992 , 614p. (les citations sont traduites par moi-
meme)

(S) Dans Publics et Musees. 3, j uin 1993. pp. 156-158 (156-157).

(6) KARP , Ivan , in Museums and Communities, "Introduction ', p.1 2.

17) LOCKE. Stephen . "Communities and Professionals" . Museums Journal. april 1991,
p . ~7 .

34
 dirigis et administris par fa communauti; cerlains sont dirigis par fa communauti et
administris par des conservaJeurs projesrionnels; et certains sont iniliis et administris
comme des musees communautaires par des conservateurs projesrionnels"() .
Nous connaisssons aussi en France les trois modeles, c'est pourquoi je peux me permettre
de completer la definition manquante par une definition de I 'ecomusee. Souvenons-nous du
debut des definitions elaborees par Georges Henri Riviere: "Un ecomusee est un instrument
qu 'un pouvoir et une population con~oivent, jabriquent et exploitent ensemble" . Plutot que
de reprendre l'une de ces defmitions tres connues, j'en choisis plutot une qui I'est moins,
don nee en 1976 com me provisoire par Hugues de Varine, mais qui pourrait en reaIite
s'appliquer 11 tout musee d'identite, et done de commmunaute. n'etait en plus la
participation active 11 laquelle la dite communaute prend part dans la programmation et dans
Ie fonctionnement du musee: "L 'ecomusee est une intitution qui gere, etudie, exploite ii des
fins scientijiques, educatives et en general culturelles, Ie patrimoine global d'une
communaute donnee, comprenant la totalite de l'environnement naturel et culturel de cetre
communaute. L 'ecomusee est de ce jait un instrument de panicipation populaire a
l'amenagement du territoire et au developpement communautaire".
"A cette fin, l'icomusee utilise IOUS les moyens et lOuteS les methodes qui s'ojJrent a lui
pour mertre certe communaute iJ meme d'apprehender, d'analyser, de critiquer et de
maitriser de ja~on libre et responsable les problemes qui se posent iJ eile dans tous les
domaines de la vie. "
"L"ecomusee utilise essentiellement Ie langage de l'objet, du cadre reel de la vie
quoridienne, des situations concretes. [/ est avant lOut unjacteur de changement voulu" (9).

Cependant, quel que soit Ie degre de participation donne 11 la communaute dans Ie

fonctionnement du musee, ce qui compte aussi c'est Ie contenu des collections et ce
qu'exprime Ie musee par rapport 11 ce que peut en attendre la communaute qui Ie soutient.
C'est pourquoi ce contenu ne sera pas forcement identique selon que la communaute en
decide elle-meme ou selon que les decisions sont prises par d' autres, conservateurs et autres
savants. Com me Ie remarque encore Ivan Karp: "Parler pour et parler a se trouvent
frequemment melanges des lors que Ie droit de parler repose sou vent sur la creation d'une
conscience communautaire et sur Ie sentiment d'une identite et d'une mission. C'est Ie seul
moyen par lequelle public peu! devenir acteur"(lO). En effet, il ne faut pas negliger les effets
pedagogiques que peut avoir la methode. Mais, avant d'atteindre une participation
communautaire maximale, il est important de distinguer qui se trouve reellement derriere ce
que I 'on voit: si c'est la communaute qui parle d'elle-meme en s'adressant aux autres, si
elle a ete aidee ou non pour I'enrichissement du contenu, ou pour la mise en forme; ou si ,
s'inspirant de ce qu'elle a pu dire ou laisser comme traces, comme memoire, d'autres ont 11
la fois etabli Ie contenu et sa mise en forme.

Et, comme toute societe est complexe, lors meme qu'une communaute a ete delimitee, il
importe aussi de se demander qui parle, et au nom de qui. Car une communaute donnee
n 'est jamais completement homogene et comprend necessairement des sous-communautes
(jusqu'1I I'unite individuelle). Une exposition ne sera pas la meme selon que toute la

(8) id.loc.

(9)"L'ecomusee" , 1978, Vagues , 1.1, p.446. D'une maniere generale, pour ce qui conceme
la conception fran<;aise du musee communautaire. et en particulier de I'ecomusee. je me
contente de renvoyer 11 La Museologie seloD ~orges Henri Riviere (collectif). Paris,
Dunod, 1989. 409p. ill., ainsi qu '1I Hugues de Varine. L'initiative commuDautaire , Wet
MNES, 1991 , 27Op. et a Vagues , t.l , Wet MNES , 1992 . 533p. Un bilan de l'ecomusee
par rapport 11 la participation communautaire a ete fait par Kenneth Hudson , complete d'un
tableau comparatif par Patrick Boylan ("The dream and the reality" . Museums Journal ,
april 1992: 27-31)

"0' KARP.Ivan. op.cil .. p.13.

35
 communaute y aura participe, ou seulement une partie de cette communaute, et, si plusieurs
parties se trouvent representees, la domination affichee des unes sur les autres correspo~d
elle ~ une situation reelle ou ~ un simple pouvOlr plus grand de se faIre entendre? C est
encore Ivan Karp qui remarque: "On souleve un dilemme moral aigu des que /'on reconnait
que les musees ont des responsabilires a /'egard des communautes. Qu'arrive-t-illorsqu'une
communaute fait une requite qui opprimera inevitablement une autre communaute? qUi,
aujourd'hui, parle au nam d'une communaute? Toutes les demandes sont-ell~ valables a un
meme niveau? Sinon, quelle procedure devrait-on mettre en place pour deCIder er:tre. les
differentes demandes?"(\1l. Et d'evoquer notarnment Ie probleme des revendlcattons
possibles de memes biens funeraires et sacres par des communautes amerindiennes
differentes.
Dans la proposition qui est faite par Ie Comite d'Organisation de la dix-septieme
Conference gem!rale de I'ICOM , ce sont les rapports entre les communautes et Ia
communaute (i.e . les groupes culturels et la societe) qui ont ete mis en avant. Et
d'examiner en differents sous-themes comment les communaures ont ete concretement
prises en compte par Ie musee.
Nous pensons pouvoir regrouper ces differents sous-themes en fonction de la distance que
les musees qu' ils con cement peuvent avoir par rapport it la population (~ la communaute)
qui les portent, c'est-itdire au degre de participation possible.
1. La categorie la plus immediate conceme Ie musee correspondant it une seule
communaute: il s'agit I~ , Ie plus souvent de petits musees locaux, ~ I'identite bien
marquee, meme si les criteres permettant de defmir cette identite peuvent etre variables,
parfois ethniques, parfois territoriaux, parfois professionnels. Les exemples en sont
multiples, depuis les musees de plein air locaux scandinavesjusqu'it 1'6comusee, en passant
par les millier d 'Heimatmuseum allemand et tous les petits musees crees localement, au
niveau d'un village, d' une ville, ou d'un canton, pour satisfaire ~ une affmnation
identitaire.

2. De meme nature, mais constitues par des populations ethniquement minoritaires au sein
de populations. ~ la culture dominante, ces musees exprimant les particularites culturelles
des domines. Egalement petits et generalement locaux, il en existe dans certains des pays
d'ancienne colonisation, chez les Amerindiens du Canada et des Etats-Unis, d'autres
naissent en Amerique latine ainsi qu'en AustraJie, en Nouvelle Ulande, chez les Maoris et
autres peuples d'Oceanie, et en Europe scandinave, parmi les populations Samis - par
contre il ne semble exister nulle part de musee des tziganes. Non seulement ces musees ont
une identire tres marquee, mais leur fonctionnement est generalement tres communautaire.
On peut rappeler qu'un des premiers a ete l'Anacostia Neighborhood Museum, cree en
1967 par John Kinard avec une communaute noire de Washington.
3. Le musee communautaire, Ie vrai, est un outil paniculierement bien adapre pour
exprimer la diversite culturelle qui est latente dans toutes les cultures, mais particulierement
dans les nations industrielles qui 11 la fois segmentent la societe en nombreux groupes et
multiplient les rejets et done les marginalises. C'est pourquoi, 11 cote des musees de
minorites ethniques, on peut trouver des musees - ou des expositions - pour des classes
d 'age differentes, pour des sexes differents , des musees professionnels (corporatistes), des
musees de sp6cialistes d'un jeu ou d'un sport (les tireurs 11 I'arc ou au fusil , les joueurs de
boules ou de base-ball) .

4. Mais, nous I'avons vu, pour les musees communautaires se pose une question d'6chelle.
A une 6chelle differente des musees que nous venons d'evoquer, qu'on pourrait appeler "de
proximite" , peuvent exister des musees exprimant I'identite de communautes qui peuvent
etre tres grandes, ou plus sou vent multiples. en posant evidemment les problemes de

"" KARP . Ivan . op. cir. , p. IO.

36
 conflits internes que nous avons precedemment evoques. IIs peuvent avoir un champ qui
s'applique au niveau d'une region - encore les regions et les nations peuvenl-1ls aVOIr des
dimensions variables selon les pays: comparons par exemple I' AqUitame ou la Bretagne, qUi
ont leur musee (regional) a Bordeaux et a Rennes (France), avec la Moravie .et son musee a
Brno, qui est quasi national. II faut compter parmi la categorie la plus anClenne celle des
musees qui se veulent l'expression de la communaute nationale, en passant par l'identite
nationale, a partir meme parfois de plusieurs identites regionales differentes, mais
rassemblees en une nation unique. II s'agit la surtout des grands musees nationaux,
exprimant I'identite nationale, en s'appuyant parfois sur l'art (Ie Musee des Monuments
fran<;ais de Lenoir, a Paris en 1795, ou Ie premier musee de Berlin, en 1830), parfois sur
I'archeologie (Calcutta, 1814; Le Caire, 1857) parfois sur l'ethnographie (Stockholm ,
1872), parfois pluridisciplinaire (comme Nuremberg ouvert en 1853, Zurich en 1898 et
d'autres plus recemment, comme Rio-de-Janeiro en 1922, com me Pragues, Bratislava ou
Brno qui affirmaient bien l'existence d'identites differentes dans une nation qui les avait
reunies, ou , beaucoup plus recemment, Jerusalem en 1965, ou Mexico en 1966). Ces
musees nationaux pluridisciplinaires s'appellent tres souvent musees historiques.
5. Dans Ie contexte actuel de desintegration d' anciennes grandes nations, nous retrouvons Ie
phenomene qu'a connu Ie 1geme siecle, notamment a l'interieur de l'Empire autrichien et
en Scandinavie, avec cette multiplication des musees qu'ont suscitees les revendications
d'independance. Ces musees sont en mesure d'avoir un fonctionnement assez pres des
besoins de la population, dans la mesure ou ils emanent de la volonte forte d'afficher une
identite.

Ce recensement permet de confirmer, pour qui en eut doute, que Ie debat terminologique
presente en amont n'est pas simple querelle byzantine, puisqu'il apparait que Ie role de la
communaute est fonction non seulement de la volonte politique du pouvoir et de la
population, mais aussi de 1'echelJe territoriale a laquelle est porte Ie musee. II va sans dire
que la situation nationale des musees que j'ai situes dans la 4e categorie fait qu'ils ne
peuvent rien avoir de communautaire dans leur systeme de fonctionnement, car plus Ie
champ d' action du musee s' agrandit, moins Ie fonctionnement peut etre pris en charge par
la communaute qu'il est cense recouvrir - sauf par delegation tout a fait indirecte. C'est
alors que, en tant qu'agent, la communaute devient un public et que tout Ie contenu qu'elle
est censee exprimer dans Ie musee et ses expositions devient l'apprehension de la societe
nationale tout entiere.

Mais, outre cette question d'echelle, certaines de ces categories meritent une rcWexion
d'ordre ethique par rapport au contenu qu'elles portent, ou du moins de l'usage qu'on en
fait. Car si Ie musee peut etre un tres bon moyen d'expression d'une identite
communautaire et permettre a une communaute de se mieux connaitre, il peut aussi
encourager des replis corporatistes anti sociaux ou etre un outil utilise pour servir des
positions politiques fanatiques . C'est Ie cas notarnment des musees professionnels s'ils ne
sont que corporatistes. Mais l'actualite nous a rappele que les musees d'identite ethnique,
evoques dans la derniere categorie, pouvaient aussi jouer un role sinon toujours dangereux,
souvent ambigu. La solution pour la communaute est de choisir de s'ouvrir sur l'exterieur,
plutot que de rester repliee sur elle-meme et sur son passe.

37
 MUSEUM AND COMMUNITY: SOME AMBIGUITIES TO BE CLEARED UP

Andr~ DESVALLEES, Paris, France

Though this theme may appear relatively recent in the universe of museums, these have
been concerned by it for at least as long as public museums have existed .
Moreover, if this theme and the debate it rises, has appeared under a renewed form with the
French community museums - and Latin in a more general way - it has nevertheless been
the object of recurrent questions in the Anglo-Saxon world since the end of the 19th
century. Let's cite in particular the People's Palace Museum of Glasgow, which has existed
sine 1898; let's cite this archetype of ecomuseum which the Scott Patrick GEDDES had
planned, as far as 1903, in Dunfermline, near Edinburgh; let's cite too John Cotton DANA,
the founder of the Newark Museum, in New York State, who, in 1917, in his book The
New Museum, incitated "the developmelU of the collecting habit among the young [... J and
its leanings toward sound civic ilUerest through doing for one's community a helpful
thing"(I ). It is true that the French Edmond GROULT had offered, as soon as the years
1870, a model of a "cantonal (district) museums" which were inspired from the same
principles. Let's remind too, that in the years 1950, the Americans had studies about
interpretation and evaluation and that, extending this study during the next decade, in
Leicester and Manchester, the English have tried, since 1972, to establish some experiences
of partnership with the population(2). Let's remind at last, if this is still necessary the
warnings raised at the Grenoble's 9th General Conference in 1971 by Duncan
F.CAMERON and some others, about the importance of taking the public into
consideration in a more conscious and efficient way. This cry of alert followed the
Association of American Museums Congress, when the same year, the minority had
incitated to give priority to "public oriented" actions over those strictly "object oriented" .

But to take up the problem of the role of the community in relation to the museum don't
we have to examine first a question of terminology? In English, the term "community"
often tends to bear the generic meaning of "public", and even, more widely that of
"society" (this last term was used in the official definition of the museum in the statutes of
~com adopted during the general assembly in 1974), while at least in French use it to
designate a social or ethnic group limited in number. Moreover the same English
formulation "community museum", can designate in French both "museum of a
community" and "museum working with community ways" , that is to say for the last
meaning, the museum to which the community is not only the subject or the public, but the
actor as well. To be complete, let's add that the definition of the community often has to go
through that of identity<').

DANA, John Cotton, The New Museum, reprinted in The Museoiogist, vo1.51, n 172,
(I)

winter 1988, pp.5-16 (p.8).

(2)This is why we can only be surprised to see, in one of the most recent issues of
Museum, that we can still labour an obvious point about the cultural action , started very
officially, but as a big novelty , in the same county of Leicester! Article of Diana Finlay
called "Caring the community" and aimed principally towards the disabled, very pleasant
and ending on a golden word : "All 1 ask of the museum world is that is listen : it is doing so
in Leicestershire, where my colleagues are increasingly attentive. In many other museums
that is not the case!" (Museum. n 0180, december 1993:12) . CfVagues, I: 20 and sqq.

(3)A few years ago I had tried to write a small history of museums looked at under these
different meanings in an article on identity museums: "Museology and cultural identity" .
Papers in Museology 1, Umea University (Suede). 1992. 207p. (pp.50-77) (Report from
two symposia at the Departement of museology. april 1988 and april 1989)

38
 We could have expected a certain clarification and a bringing together of the terminological
positions in the important colloquium which took place on March 21-23 1990 m . the
International Center of the Smithsonian Institution in Washington. But this symposIUm
remained very Americano-american , and according to the acts that were published(4), even
the memory of some initiatives which had taken place formerly in the USA concernmg
community museums was neglected.
In the presentation of the acts, Ivan KARP makes a distinction between society and
community because he specifies that "Every society can be seen as a constantly changing
mosaic of multiples communities and organiUJtions"(p.3) and that "Museums and
communities make up only a ponion of civil society, the complex of social entities in which
we act out our lives and through which we fashion our identity" (p.4). Nevertheless, as
Ioelle Le Marec pointed out when she reported upon the publication "the communities are
in the hean of the debate, and that is why they appear in the tittle of the book, but they
panicipate no more to it, as they have undergone a scholarly treatment. [... J Then the
museum remoins in a traditiofUJI perspective, a place that finds its justification in itself and
does not need the community to exist. This is the contrary of the conception of a community
museum as defined by Hugues de VARINE and others, (0 whom the notion of community is
fundamental , previously to the existence of the museum, replaced by the notion of user"(' ).
So, the concept of community gets reduced, most frquently, to the concept of public and
the participation viewed is more often that of the public within the managing and
consultating authorities of the museum. Besides, that's why Ivan KARP becomes conscious
that" The best way to think about the changing relations between museums and communities
is to think about how the audience, a passive entity, becomes the community, an active
agent" (6) .

The British themselves have noticed the gap between the words and the things when applied
to the word "community" . For example Stephen LOCKE notices in Museum Journal, that
in february 1990 "The magasine devoted a special issue (0 'Museums in the Market Place
or the Community?', but the theme is funher defined as 'Are museums small business or
public services ? "'(7) That's why Stephen LOCKE, in his own article in 1991 shows us that
he has understood what he is talking about, even if he does not give a precise definition of
what he means by "community": "/ distinguish three kinds of community museums: some
founded, governed and managed by the community; some governed by the community
and managed by professionnal curulors, and some initUzled and managed as community
museums by professionnai curulors"('i.
In France, we also know the three models, and this is why I can afford to complete the
laching definition by a definition of the ecomuseum. Let's remember of the beginnning of
the definitions elaborated by Georges Henri RIVIERE: "An ecomuseum is a tool that a
power and a people together conceive, make and exploit". Instead to quote again one of
these more known defmitions, I prefer to choose one less known which in 1976 Hugues de
V ARINE gave temporary but really could apply to any identity and so community museum
- if not of the active participation of the community to the programming and the

(4) KARP, MULLER et LEVINE, edit., Museums and Communities, Washington et

Londres , Smithsonian Institution Press, 1992, 614p.

(' )In Publics ef Musees , 3.juin 1993, pp.156-158 (156-157).

(6) KARP, Ivan, "Introduction', in Museums and Communities p. 12.

LOCKE , Stephen . "Communities and Professionals" , Museums Journal, april 1991 ,

(7)
p.27.

(8\ Jd.loc .. p.n.

39
 functionning of the museum: "The ecomuseum is an insrirurion which mafUlges, srudies a~
exploirs - by scientific, educariofUll and, generally speaking, culrural means - rhe entire
herirage of a given communiry, including rhe whole natural environnement and culrural
milieu. Thus, ti,e ecomuseum is a vehicle for public panicipation in communiry planmng
and development.
To this end, the ecomuseum uses all means and methods as its disposal in order ro allow the
public to comprehend analyze, criticize and master - in a liberal and responsible manner -
the problems which itfaces. "
"Essentially, the ecomuseum uses the language of the anifacts, the realiry of everyday life
and concrete situation in order ro achieve desired changes. "(9).
However, whatever the degree of participation given to the community in the functionning
of the museum may be, an important thing as well is the contents of the collections and
what the museums expresses in relation to what can be expected by the community which
support it. This is why this content will not forcibly be the same whether the community
decides by itself or the decisions are taken by others, either curators and sholars. As KARP
adds: "Speaking for and speaking to are often combined, since the right to speak often
depends on the crearion of communaury consciousness and a sense of identiry and mission.
This is the only way in which a public can become an acror"(IO) . It is true that we must not
neglect the pedagogical effects that the method can offer. But before reaching a maximum
community participation, it is important to have a clear idea of what really lies behind what
we see: if it is the community that speaks to the others; if it has received help or not to
enrich the contents, or its putting into shape; or if, being inspired by what it could say or
the traces it let, its memory, others have decided both its contents and putting into shape.
And, as any society is complex, whenever a society has been delimited, it is important too
to wonder who is speaking, and in whose name. Because a given community is never totally
homogenous and necessarily includes under-communities (down to the individual unity). An
exhibition will not be the same whether all the community or only part of it has participated
in its building; and if several parties are represented, whether the evident domination of one
of them over the others, corresponds to a real situation or to a better capacity to make
oneself heard? Again Ivan KARP notes: "An acute moral dilemma is raised by the
aclawwledgement that museums have responsabilities to commmufUluties. What happens
when one communiry makes a request that will inevitably oppress another communiry? Who
actually speaks for a communiry? Are all demands(l!Il.ually valid? If not, what procedure
should be set in place to adjudicate among them?" 11}. And he recalls the problem of the
possible claim of the same funerary and sacred ownings by different Amerindian
communities.

In the suggestion made by the orgnisation committee of the 19th general conference of
ICOM, the relations between the communities and the community (i.e. cultural groups
and society) have been put forward. And several under-themes examine how the different
communities were concretely taken into account by the museum.

(9) "L'ecomusee", 1978, Vagues, t.I , p.446. Generally, about the French notion of
community museum, specially ecomuseum, I merely refer to La Museologie selon Georges
Henri Riviere (collective) , Paris, Dunod, 1989, 409p. ill.; and also: Hugues de VARlNE,
L'initiative communautaire , W and MNES , 1991, 27Op. and Vagues, voU, W and
MNES, 1992, 533p. Kenneth HUDSON did an evaluation of ecomuseum related to the
community participation, completed by a comparative table of Patrick BOYLAN ("The
dream and the reality", Museums Journal, april 1992, pp.27-31)
(10) KARP , Ivan , op.cit. , p. 13.

' II ' KARP . Ivan. op.cil. . p. IO .

40
 We think we can gather together the different under-themes according to the distance . that
the museums concerned may have to the people (community) which bears them, that IS to
the possible level of participation.
I. The most immediate category concerns the museum corresponding to a single
community: mostly small local museums, with a well-marked identity, even if the criteria
allowing a definition of this identity may vary, sometimes ethnical, sometimes territorial,
sometimes professionnal. We dispose of multiple examples, from the local Scandinavian
open air museums to the ecomuseums, passing along the thousands German heimatmuseum
and all the locally created little museums, in a village, a town or a canton, to satisfy an
identity affirmation.
2. Of the same nature, but constituted by ethnically minoritarian populations within a
culturally dominant population, these museums express the cultural particularities of the
dominated. They are small and usually local, and to be found in former colonized
countries, among the Canada and U.S. American Indians. Some others are appearing in
South America, Austrealia, New Zealand, among the Maoris and other Oceanian peoples,
and in Scandinavian Europe among the Samis populations - but it seems that a museum of
the Gypsies can be found nowhere. Not only do these museums have a very strong identity
but their functionning is generally very community. We can remember that one of the first
was the Anacostia Neighborhood Museum created in 1967 by John KINARD with a black
community in Washington.

3. The community museum , the real one, is a particularly well adapted tool to express the
cultural diversity which is latent in all cultures, but particularly in the industrial nations
which at the same time break the society into numerous groups and multiply the rejects, so
the marginalized. This is why, besides ethnical minorities museums , we can find museums -
or exhibitions - for different age groups, different sexes, professionnel (or corporatist)
museums, museums specialized in a game, or a sport (bowmen or gunmen , bowl or base-
ball players).

4. But, as we have seen, a question of sacle avices for the community museums. On a
different scale from the museums we just evoqued, which we could call "proximity
museums , some museums can exist, expressing the identity of very big or multiple
communities, and evidently raising the internal conflicts we talked about previously. Their
field can extend to a region - but regions or nations can have various dimensions according
to the countries: let's compare the Aquitaine or Britanny, which have their (regional)
museums in Bordeauxand rennes (France), with Moravia and its Brno Museum, which is
nearly national. We must include into the oldest category that of the museums which want
themselves to be the expression of the national community, throughout the national
identity, sometimes starting from several different regional identities, but assembled in a
whole nation. These are mostly the great national museums, which sometimes lean on art
(Musee des Monuments fran~s of Alexandre LENOIR in Paris, in 1795 , or the first
museum in Berlin, in 1830), sometimes on archeology (Calcutta, 1814; Cairo, 185?)
sometimes on ethnography (Stockholm, 1872), sometimes pluridisciplinary (like
Nuremberg, open in 1853 , Zurich in 1898 , and others more recently like Rio de Janeiro in
1922, like Pragues, Bratislava or Brno which asserted the existence of different identities in
a nation where they had been put together, or, much more recently, Jerusalem in 1965 or
Mexico in 1966). These national pluridisciplinary museums are very often called hitorical
museums.

5. In the actual context of the deintegration of former great nations we find the phnomenon
known in the 19th century, particularly in the Austrian empire or Scandinavia, with a
multiplication of the number of museums provoqued by the revendicatins of independance.
These museums can afford to have a way of functioning close to the needs of the
population. in as much as they were born from a strong will to express an identity.

41
The inventory allows to confirm, for whom might have doubted it, that the terminological
debate prsented previously is not simply a Bizantine quarrel, because it appears that the role
of the community is not only function of the political will of the power and population, but
also of the territorial scale to which the museum is raised. No need to say that the national
scale of the museums which I situated in the forth category implies that they can have
nothing of community in their system of functionning, for the more wider the action field
of the museum gets the less its functionning can be taken in charge by the community it is
believed to cover - except by a very indirect delegation. This is when , as an agent, the
community becomes a public and all the contents it supposedly expresses in the museum
and its exhibitions become the apprehension of the whole national society.
But besides this question of scale, some of these categories are worth an ethical reflection
against the contents they carry, or at least the use made of it. For if the museum can be a
very good means of expressing a community to know itself better, it can encourage the anti-
SOCIal corporatist withdrawals, or be a tool used to serve fanatical political positions. This is
notably the cas of the professionnal museums, if they are only corporatists. But actuality
reminded to us that the museums of ethnical identity, evoqued in the last categoty, could as
well playa role, if not always dangerousoften ambiguous. The solution for the community
IS to choose to open itself towards the outside word, rather than to remain withdrawn into
itself and into its past.

42
 P1USEUMS AND THE COMMUNITY Pi us 8. Mbonya

Mr/Madam Chairperson,my chinese Brothers and sisters,

distin(uished deleiates from all over the world, ladies and eentlelllen.
The theme of this conference is 'MusellJlls AND THE COMMUNITY'.
This abort paper is, Askini questions"ivin, answers and analysis
to these questions. It 1s also ,ivin, ~ personal reco_endations on
this theme to and you III1seolo,ists pthered here and to those IIUseolo-
,ists who are elsewhere in the world but are to day here with ua in
the spirit of Museolocy_

All of us know what are III1seUllS and their !Unctions, but we mieht
be ienorant about the word 'COMMUNITY' which is the .econd key -
cOllponet of the theme of this conference.What then is this 'Co.munity?
Museolo,ically 'the Community'here lIIeans the total population which
is supposed to be served by our III1SetDlls. This population is made up
of the followine sections.
1. The Museums workes - Community.
2. The MuseUli ,oer or the IIUseUII sensitive cOllllUllity,
3. The IlUseUII non - sensi t1ve collllllUll1 ty.
Let us examine each section in order to see clearly the difference
-one th~.

(a> The IIIUSeUII - worltes - cOllllUlli ty is lIIade up of:

(i) The non - curatorial auseUII personnel.This 1s _de up

.-
of IIIUSetDII attendants,prdeners, accaunt statf and sOllletimes,
auseUII ada1strators, Tins aubsec:tion of the auseum _
workers -COlllDlUty
, is always in the preaises of the IlUseUli
and 1t has a priY1ledie of even handline sensitive IlUseUli
Artefacts. It 1s not trained in MuseoloiY.However the
MuseUli administrators lIIay or lIIay be trained in . MuseoloeY.
This depends on whether they were preffessionally or
politically appointed.Those who are appointed on their
pro'essional excellence they are hiihlY educated i n
MuseoloeY.Those who ' are appointed politicallY:~3ey abe noj
trained in lIIuseoloiY.
(ii) The curatorial IIUseUli personnel;This 1s another sub-
section of the IIUseum- workers c0lll1un1ty.This is hi,hly
educatM in IIUseol0eY. It 11! the brain ltehind all the
world museums.However,this subsection 15 diVided into
cate,ories accordin, to their different lIIuseoloiical
discciplllinea,for eXallples;ornitholo,ists,entomolo,1sts
political sc1entists,Natural sc1entists and historians.
But they are ubified by auseoloiY as they are all called
lIIuseoloiists.These two subsections make up the 'MUSEUM-
work.:en - COMMUNITY' .This is the first section of the
cOllllUllity which the MuSeUII must live with if it is to be
43
Succes5!Ul in its daily museolo&ical and non- BUseolo&ical activities.
This section',r the community depends on the musseum for its liveli-
hood,Education and ror ita eeneral and lIocial welfare.
(b) The BUaeum eoer or seBsitive COEmunity.This is made up or the
rollowine sub sections.
(i) lehool children and students who visit lIuseums reiUlary-
orricially or unorfially.
(ii) Tbe section or the local adult population which ill sensitive
and knowledeable about the services which Rre provided by
lIuseums to the cOlIIDuni ty .lrhis section of the local adult
population visits museum at will.The number of museum vistorll
depends on how lIuch lIuseums has sensitized the popultion on
museum work and services.
(iii) The alien or the tourit subsction of the Museum sensitive
community visits museums of the countries they tour.It is
...
called alien because it is not local to""'country they are tou-
rine.The museum sensitive community is not museolo.ically
educated. The museum NON - sensitive community is made up of
all the section of the population, local and alien - which
has not heard about museoloiY and the exixtence o.f museums.
This section of the population is larger many times than the
sections a and B put together.However,the totality of the sectio
..ns a + b + C make up the 'COMiolUNITY'. This then is what is
meant by the community in the second part of the theme of
this conference.

PREsmT MUSEOLOGICAL PRACTICES AND INADQUECIES;

Mr/Madam chairperson,when contemporary museologists or museum
workers talk about successes in museum work they normally make
reference to;
(i) Their 811ccess in puttinj; up big and nice Illl.lSeum bulldin&8,
their attractive gardens,surroundine.,exh1bitions and hu&e
artifact collections.

(ii) Their seccess in securine enou&h museum runds rrom their

eoverments and rrom external sources.
(iii) Their success in gettine an annually erowine number of
tourists in their museums and hence an in creased realisation
or revenue in foreign currencies.
(iv) Their SlIccess in holdine conferences and increased attendance
to these conferences. They pitfully stop there J mr. Chairperson.
They fail to ask themselves the followine dund a mental
museological . questions.
(a) What percent3ge of the Community has received the message
of museoloiY? Is this community stagnant,dwindlln,;: or is it
Increasing. 44
(b) If nct Increasin"why has museolo~ or museum service not
expanded to reach the lar,er or the museum non sentitive
community?
The answers are as follows. The percenta,e of the section of the
community which has received the massa,e of museology in the entire
IS
.
world pltfully small and this is limited in urban centres and in
few rural areas where museums exist.To borrow the words of Rees a Gr-
eenber~ proi'essor and Art Historian at eoncordia Universtj in
Montreal which delivered in ~ebec dllrin~ the ICOr-: 16th GENERAL
CONCERENCE in 1992 that I the ~Iuseum located downtown, is associated
witt hi~h culturE" In Africa the mUeSUffi is associated '" ,ith colomialism
and that it is re,arded alien by the indi~eneous community.The
museum has confined it-self to the towns. This concept and pravtice
naturally bars and eliminates the lar~er rural community to rec~ive
museolcgy and it acts as a breaJk to museum workers and admistrators
to think of constructin, or of opening museums in the remote rural
areas. To take Tanzania as a liv1nc example;
(i) The population of Tanzania is 25 million people.99~ of these
are rural people.Only 1~ of Tanzanians live in urban areas.
(ii) The Museum sensitive community is as follows;
(a) school children, students and museum personnel which visit
museums every year number 150,000.
(b) Adult urban people who visit museum annually number 40,000.
(c) Tourists who visit the five National museums in Tanzania
annually nUlllber 10,000.
(d) The total number of museum visitors or ,oers is only -
200,000 people.
(e) The percent~e of lIuseum eoers i. 200,000 x 100 0.8~
25,000 000
(f) Tbe lareer cOllllunity which bas not been reached by lIuseum
work and services is 99.~ If this is true to Tanzania it
i& also true to all the 'countries in the world.
(e) .No research bas been done to provide a scientific answer to
the second questuion.Tbis paper leaves it open to be di&cu-
ssed by 1a-a~~..a.a- all 01 us. in this conference.The
I~
lareer section of the cOllllluni ty" un attended.,-
I
1. OBLIGATIONS OF MUSEUMS TOWARDS THE DIFFERENT SECTIONS OF
TH!: COMMUNITY

The museum has the followine oblieations towards its personnel;

(a) To provide adquate sources of their daily livelihood in
forms of v.Uaries, allowances and other finanCial renumeration.
(b) To keep their morale bieh towards their museum duties by
providin, them with all necessary reqUirements of their
45
YORK,professions,and disciplines.
(c) To care for their academic requerements by eiv~ them trainine
faciliteis locally and abroad.
(4) And to cater for their aocial,political and economic welfare.
To date many contemporary museuas,particulary museums in Africa
do not meet tkese obli,ations adquately.Salaries of their personnel
are pit!ullylow,tunda for reaearch, adainistration,trainin& md fnr
other museum work are very limited.Museum social and natural scientists
spent most of their time workin, in the museum instead of workin, in
the tield conduct in, rese~h and other scientific work, there is virt-
ually
V) No Funds set aside for runnine conferences, seminars, other social
scientific eat herin, and transport in the bud,ets of Afrisan museums.
African museums always request funds for these purposes trom foreiiD
donors. Who have the will tq, or not to a&ree to fund such requests.And
when donors a~ee to eive somefunds, these funds are always ina,quate.
Thus many project in Africa museums are not carried out and if they are
done they are always uncompleted. This is because of . lack of funds.
Ultimately,both muesum administrators and the scientific personnel eet
frustrated.Resultantly,many museum workers in Atrica l.ave mueeum work
for &reener pastures elsewhere every year.This exodus of African museum
scientists leaves African muaeums stranded.Many museums,as a result of
this, tail to pro&re ss as their counter parts in Europe and the Americas.
This yearly exodus of museum personnel ha. &reatly and neeatively -
atfected the deve lopment of museums in Africa.This is a chronic problem
which must beresolved by all the mUBeuolo,ist who are in this conference
so that the museum personnel in African museums shauld stabilise and
hence African museum development should be realised in the shortest -
possible time.Hence,museolo&y, which is the main preoccupation of this
intermational committee of ICOM AND INDEED OF THIS CON~CE,should also
,row as it does in Europe and the Amerieas.
(b) OBLIGATIONS OF MUSEUMS TOWARD THE t1USEUM SENSITIVE COMMUNITY.
We have already seen above that the numbers of museum ,oers of the
local community where a museum is situated is hardily O.8~ of the
whole local community. This means that 99.2~ of the community in that
area does not know what are museums and their duties. Indeed, the
museum personnel do not know how to aliviate this problem. They are
at a loss. The followin, are su&&ested obli,ations which will help
museum to resolve this problem.
1. Museums should look for ways and means of keepin, alive the zeal
or interest of the museum sehsitive community.
2. Museums should train this museum sensi tive community in museUlllo&y.
46
 3. MuseUllls should envolve the museum sensitive colllJllunity
in museum programmes.
4. Museums should write simple auseology books and news papers
which can be circulated in the intire community.
5. Delegates to this conference can add to this list other museum
obligations which you think will enable museology to penetrate
into the community which is ignorant of IlUseology.

OBLIGATION OF MUSEUMS TO THE TOURIST;

Presently the tourist who visits african museums in Africa helps to
kill the interest of the tourit to visit African museums. The following
suggested obligations will boost the interest of the tourist in African
museums and increase the numbers of tourist to these institutions.
1. Museums in Africa should market or advertise themselves in
foreign countries.
1i. African museums should write and Circulate books about their
activities. They should also write in existing world museum journals
iii. African museum should adopt possitive attitudes of receivibg
tourists.
iv. Africam museums should charge the tourist reasonable rates.
(D) THE OBLIGATIONS OF MUSEUMS TOWARDS THE LARGER COMNUNITY:
We have seen that in the areas where museums are situated a lar8er
part of the community does not visit museums,and in the areas where
there are no museums,The community does not visit museums. This is
because the community does not know about the existence of museums and
o~ the services museums render to the community. I call this community
as a 'NONE MUSEUM SENSITIVE LARGER COMMUNITY' .This community is none
museum sensitive because it has either not seen a museum,or it is
ignorant of the importance of museums and museology in their. life
and in the life their nation,we have called ita a larger community
because its numbers are larger than the museum sensitive local cmmmunity
and the tourist community put together.
Tbe following are obligations of museums which willenable this
community to know museums and museology if they are ad.o pted;

1. Museums should introduce mobile museum services to areas where

there are no museUllls.
2. Museums should build tnterpreting museums in areas where there
are no museums.
3. Museums aouthorities should built zonal museums to enable the
country at least to have one museum in every corner of the country.
4. Existing museums should carry out exhibitions during important
local festivals.
5. Museums should establish museum departments in all primary and
secondary schools through out the country.
47
 6. Museums should train more personal to adguately .an tbe many
new museums and interpreting centres whicb will be built throught
the country.
7. Museums should write easy museum readers for circulation throughout
entire population. Iff these obligations will be observed by our
museums there is no doubt that museum work and museology will the
large section of the community globilly.
3;2 SUGGESTION OF A NEW ROLE OF MUSEUMS IN THE WORLD
Renowned delegates ot this cenference,while museum work does not
reach the mojority our people in Africa and indeed in the entire
world, shortly our existing museums and their personnel will be taced
with the work ot creating a COSMO UN! CULTURE for world cultualism
is fast invading the African region and Indeed the entire world be-
cause of the new policy of the NEW WORLD CORDER.Africa countries spe-
cially towns will shortly experience a fast mixing of cultures.
Since museuas are situated in towns in Africa,they will have an
added obligation towards is the rural larger community .Museums in
Africa have to strive to take the Como - Unieu1ture to the Local
larger, Communi ty which they now do not serve museulogical1y. They
will also have to serve the larger alien world commun1ty which will
come in Africa.In the 16th ICOM general conference in quebec Canada,
1992,the move towards world culture was outspken for the first time
by leading museum experts.
(i) Jacque Hainrd,curator of the Musee de'thnographlc de NenChautel
concluded hls address by a call for openess and cooperation
betweB museums to allow the freer movement of exhiblts,and for
a rejection of the practice ot overinsurence whlch only benefits
carriers and insurance companies.
(li) Tom Hi11,Director of the woodland Indlan cultural centre in
brantford,Canada,Emphasised that indgeneus Indian culture is
an intregral part of and isplration to Canadian culture.
(lli) Nima Poovaya - Smith,keeper of Bthinic Arts at Bradford Museum
in the Uk,warned that 'with the Advent of a mnited Europe it
is certainly time for sumeums to make a: SUstained effort to
reflect the cultural diversity 4ivep of the community they
serve(emphasmine).
(iv) Lars Nittve,director ot the Rooseum centre for contemporary Art
in Mo1mo,Sweden,Wonders about the consequences ot Po10tica1,
economic and cultural globa11sation,whwr ~ ,art becomes a global
concept.Is there still a way for museums to recognise ditferences
without margnalising them?'the 1800,000 to the 16th General
conference 1992 in Ouebec Caneda were asked.I ask you the same
question to day.

48
 (v) To achive the above responsibility~Grac~ C stanslaus,
Director of the Bronx museum of the Arts in New York suggested
that 'Museums should include pesponse representativies of
ethmic groups from various - neighbour hoods their staff,thus
allowing their concerns to be more readily addressed when
programming activities. '5 These quatations h&ve been put here to ~

elaborate what I call the new responsiblity of the museums in

Africa and in the worls for indeed Globilisation of culture or
COSMO - Uni culture is l.~y;t~bly coming.

4;0 THE CONCLUSION

1. "'his paper outlined in short the communities which are by

museums. These are only are 0.8% of the whole Tanzanian Popo-
lation of 25 million. This Vivi dly s!!Ows that a greater part of
the population (99.2~) is not served by museums. Thus museum
work which lies intront of us,world museulogists ,is COLOSSAL.
This is our caallenge.

2. The paper tried to suggest obligations of Museum to ever;

section of the com~ unity.But these suggestions and solutions
are mine. The conference is free to give out its own solu ti on ~
which will enable the 99.2% of the community whi ch has not
hears about museology to imbibe museology and to receive n1useun
services.

3. The paper has warr.ed museums of their comine new responsibility

of creating a comma uni or global culture on top of the old
unfulfi1led work. Ladi es ~~d Gactlemin,these are my views about
this theme,The duty of the conference is to discuss them and
finally to come out with the points which will be unani-mously
agreed upon by all.These will torm of the resolutions
at this conference.I beg to stop here.

Thank you very much for listening to my presentation .ttenti~ly

~
.

I CO~l & SAD:::A!1 Hem ber and

HEADMASTER
BAiUADI SEC SCHOOL
F. O BOX 423,
BARIADI - SH~~ANGA
TANZANIA
49
 ESTONIAN NATIONAL MUSEUM AND ESTONIAN PEOPLE

Heihl Pardi
Tartu, Estonia

The Estonian National Museum (ENM) is a museum the symbolic meaning of which has
been predestined by its name (the Museum of Estonian People or Estonian Folk Museum)
directly referring to people. The recognition of the museum and its identity are also strongly
influenced by that. It is rather complicated to interpret the name , as the word 'people ' has
many meanings in Estonian (ethnos, demos, laos, gens, natio, populus). In any case it
arouses great expectations among the general public that in many respects are very difficult
to define exactly. It can be said that the name of the ENM determines its unique place not
only among other museums but also among other cultural establishments. On the one hand, it
guarantees a favourable image for the museum, on the other , it is a heavy burden to bear.
What is the real meaning of the name? What should the ENM do to justify its name? These
are the questions to be answered now, after the proclamation of independence, as the context
of our activities has greatly changed in comparison with the Soviet time as well as the earlier
period.
The ENM was founded as the first Estonian museum in the university town Tartu in
1909. At that time Tartu was the centre of our national movement and cultural life. Estonia
was a part of the Russian empire where the aim of the national policy was to assimilate all
the peoples into a single state comprising one (Russian) people using only one language. The
idea of founding an 'Estonian museum' started gradually taking root in the 1860s- 1870s
alongside the formation of the Estonian national movement. This process was characterized
by a great number of various cultural activities as under the Russian rule purely political

51
issues were absolutely out of the question. Preconditions were good for cultural undertakings as
the level of literacy was high among Estonians (by the end of the 19th century it was 80 %). The
first Estonian newspapers made the general public realize that Estonians were in no way more
stupid or less culturally-minded than other nations. During the first all -Estonian Song Festival
in 1869 people consciously wore the traditional folk costume as a symbol of their own nation.
Allegedly , it was at this festival that the idea of establishing an ' Estonian museum ' was being
discussed for the first time. Museums had been founded in Estonia earlier as well ; however , they
were not meant for preserving Estonian cultural heritage, neither had they been founded by
Estonians themselves but by the local ' ruling class' which was German both in spirit and in
language. As was the case with a number of other undertakings in the field of national culture.
the idea of establishing a museum originated from the Finns, our kindred by language. However ,
it took much time to put this plan into practice as the idea lacked the solid economic basis
indispensable for this purpose. Besides , the idea itself was alien to people , even to the
intellectuals. The Estonian Students Society made several attempts to realize the plan but they
failed before achieving real results: there was always money shortage or they had something
more important to do . The real impetus for founding the museum was given by the death of
Jakob Hurt, PhD, a pastor and the greatest Estonian folklore collector, in 1907 . With the
assistance of 1,500 correspondents. he had collected about 115,000 pages of oral folklore
material in the 1880s and by that time the problem of preserving his collections had not been
settled yet. The foundation of a museum for this purpose would have been a solution to it.
In the course of the creative process the basic idea was gradually developed and the ENM
was actually founded to preserve the Estonian cultural heritage in its entirety. Ethnographica was
designed to be the core of it , but the museum was also meant to assemble archaeological
findings , modern art, photographic archives , a complete library containing a copy of each
Estonian book and also other publications as well as verbal culture and folk music . As can be
seen from the above-mentioned , it was really a universal ' Estonian museum ' . Since 1940, due
to the division of the collection into two parts (material and verbal one), two separate
establishments have existed side by side - the ENM and the Museum of Literature. The so-called
' things ' museum has extended its sphere of activities in the past years. Alongside Estonian
culture , much attention is paid to Finno-Ugric peoples with kindred languages. To a smaller

52
extent, comparative material from all over the world has been collected.
To paraphrase Orvar LOfgren, a Swedish ethnologist, we can say that the ENM is "the child
of the Estonian nationalism". It came into being owing to the political strivings of a young
nation, as an attempt to prove their existence to themselves and also to the outer world through
the evaluation of their own culture. In 1921 A.M. Tallgren, a Finnish professor of archaeology
at the University of Tartu expressed this idea very clearly, saying that a museum was an
establishment inspiring great self-respect in people.
The museum was founded and also worked for the first ten years as a public venture because
the Tzarist state would not support this kind of separatist undertakings. The museum did not
have a building of its own and the first functionary was employed only several years later. In
fact , the museum was a public organization called the Estonian National Museum. During the
first years the membership grew rapidly , amounting to 831 in 1918 (the year when the first
Republic of Estonia was proclaimed). The average number in the course of years, though, was
about four to five hundred. In addition to the members, the ENM also had a network of
'confidentials' who propagated the museum in different places , distributed its publications,
recruited new members , collected donations and objects for collections. The members of the
museum came from all over Estonia and also from other countries. In 1916, for example , more
than one-third of the members lived outside Estonia, mostly in different parts of the Russian
empire. Membership was the most numerous in Sl. Petersburg where the Estonian community
amounted to tens of thousands of people. The most exotic member came from Sumatra. The
majority of the members were representatives of the intellectuals, mainly schoolteachers , pastors
and students. Common people were quite rare in the ENM, being represented by two workers,
a few artisans and four peasants (two of them called themselves farmers , the other two were
estate-owners by their own words). As figures indicate, the museum was, first and foremost,
an enterprise of the intellectuals and the idea itself was rather alien to the general public.
Although they were aware of the existence of such a museum, the essence of it remained obscure
to them for a long time. Even nowadays we are confronted with the same problem - country
people do not realize the real value of their household commodities as museum items. It is still
considered too common a part of life to be specially valued. Hundreds of times the collectors
have been told that the objects they are looking for have been either burnt, given to peddlers or

53
remade. Despite of all that the ENM succeeded in compiling remarkable ethnographic collections
of about 25 ,000 items in a relatively short time (about ten years). At present the Estonian
ethnographica includes about 85,000 items.
Until the proclamation of the first Republic of Estonia the ENM was an important venture
in national policy attracting a great part of the intellectuals who, in their turn , passed the ideas
on to the general public. It was only owing to the financial support of Estonian people that the
museum was able to exist at that time. During the years of the republic (1918- 1940) the political
importance of the museum was greatly diminished . The museum got some financial support from
the state but it was made a state museum by the Soviet authorities only in 1940 (the reasons for
this were, of course, completely different). Neither the idea of building a new house for the
museum nor the strivings of the museum employees to acquire the status of a state establ ishment
in order to guarantee planned financing were supported. The problem of space was, however ,
solved quite favourably as a manor-house on the outskirts of Tartu (at Raadi) was placed at the
disposal of the museum . This developed into a popular place for outings and schoolchildren ' s
spring excursion schedules always included a visit to the ENM. Even nowadays many elderly
people connect the name of the ENM with the Raadi manor reminding them of a display of
decorated tankards , folk costumes and a chimneyless hut.
Like many other similar museums in Europe, the ENM considered traditional peasant culture
as its own. As regards Estonia, it was self-evident, as before becoming a nation (in the modern
meaning of the word) there were no ' Estonians' but only 'country people ' . Until World War II
rural population was predominant in Estonia; at present, most Estonians and an overwhelming
majority of non-Estonians live in towns.
Since 1931 the network of correspondents has been one of the main means of communication
with the general public . It was organized with the aim of collecting oral tradition on the old
peasant culture. In the course of time, about three to four hundred people have been engaged
in it. As the main attention was focused on peasant culture, the majority of correspondents also
came from among country intellectuals. Therefore, the ENM was first and foremost known as
a museum of peasant culture and folk art. This has also been expressed in the logo of the
museum: in the earlier days it was an ancient splinter holder used for lightening rooms ,
nowadays it is a stylized farm gate.

54
 At the beginning of its activities (both in Tzarist Russia and during the years of the first
Republic of Estonia) the ENM seemed to have been an important national symbol and its nature
coincided with the visions and expectations and of the general public. The articles published in
the printed media were a solid proof of it: they were vivid and tackling quite specific problems.
One of the reasons was certainly the fact that there were few state museums besides the ENM .
Therefore the ENM represented the main 'Estonian museum' as to the volume of its collections ,
their contents and its renown.
In the years of the Soviet occupation (1940-1991) the situation changed radically. First, the
museum was divided into two (the ENM and the Museum of Literature) whereas the composition
of the collections was greatly restricted, the main stress being laid on ethnography . The name
was also changed correspondingly - the nationalistic and symbolic one was exchanged for a
neutral and foreign 'ethnographical museum ' . The building of the museum was destroyed during
World War II , and as the new temporary building lacked enough space for a permanent
exposition, the ENM was actually turned into cultural archives. Contacts with the general public
were maintained by temporary small exhibitions (mainly on old peasant culture and folk art) .
publications (more or less regularly published yearbook comprising research on folk culture) and
the network of correspondents, some of whom had started their activities already in the 19205-
1930s. The main aim of the museum was collecting objects that by now has resulted in the
number of items about 2.5 times as many as before World War II (i .e. about 110,000 in all).
Besides material objects , manuscript, photo, film and drawings archives also exist. Owing to the
strong ideological and national-political pressure, the activities of the museum were regarded as
a sign of passive opposition both by the general public and the museum itself. The influence was
double-sided : on the one hand it ensured people's support, on the other, it interfered with the
development of the scientific ideas both in ethnology and in museology. The latter has not been
a subject of real importance for Estonia. Before World War II the need for it was not as great
as the number of museums was small and they were still at the very beginning of their
activities. The methodology and principles of museological work that have been in use up to
the present originate from the Swedish and Finnish museums at the turn of the century . The
Soviet Union saw museums mainly as third-rate establishments for propaganda, the most
important feature of which was ideological ' purity ' . The number of museums with national

55
 'colouring' in perifery was very small (purely ethnographical ones only in Estonia, Larvia,
Lithuania and West-Ukraine, i.e. only in places where they had existed before the Soviet
occupation) and the existence of these museums was only tolerated, but they did not get any
support. It was very characteristic of the period that during the 50 years of Soviet rule only one
museum was built in Estonia - an oil-shale museum. On the other hand, many new museums
were founded in Estonia during this period. This is a sign of the double-facedness of the Soviet
cultural policy because the main slogan for it was "Culture belongs to people". At present there
are about 90 state or municipal and some twenty or thirty public museums in Estonia. The status
of the ENM has been changed by the fact that at the moment there are 13 more museums the
name of which has the word 'Estonian' in it, i.e. the monopolistic status of the ENM at the
' museum market' has come to an end.
Owing to the re-establishing of the original name of the museum in 1988 and the
proclamation of independence in Estonia a different situation has developed which needs to be
interpreted. During the liberation movement which resulted in the break-up of the Soviet Union,
the mere name of the ENM was an important political slogan and a symbol of the continuity of
national culture. It was mostly the name that influenced the minds of Estonians during these
years , as it was impossible for them to see the museum in real life. It has well been
summarized by one of our correspondents who said , "The importance of the ENM is only
.theoretical. "
Nowadays , as the ENM has once again lost its actual meaning in national policy and as the
main stress has shifted from being an Estonian National Museum to being and Estonian National
Museum, some essential problems have cropped up. What shou ld the new building be like , what
should be displayed and how should it be done to arouse interest not only among elderly country
people or town people whose roots are in the country, but also among many other people, first
and foremost in creative intellectuals and the youth, as well as in businessmen, workers ,
engineers, etc. The present image of the ENM as a museum of peasant culture, mainly folk an
and traditional handicraft , can only be of interest to a narrow circle of people whose influence
in the society as a whole is insignificant. At present, it is a problem of existential importance:
for the first time in its history there is a chance to start the building of a new house for the
museum. The architectural competition held last year attracted much attention and res ulted in

56
a design the spirit of which does not bind the museum to the narrow-minded ' nationalism' , at
the same time retaining the idea of nationalism.
This spring a new extensive permanent exhibition ("Estonia. Land , people, culture") will
be opened after an interval of 50 years, and once again it will be in a temporary building. The
core of the exposition will be traditional peasant culture, the basis for the Estonian national
culture. At the same time we will make an attempt to display some more modern strata of
Estonian culture. The main problem here is the absence of material objects. As Estonians are
not the only nation living in Estonia and we have had some other cultures represented here even
before (Baltic Germans, Estonian Swedes and Russians), attention should be paid to them as
well. We must admit that this is not an easy task because, except for the Swedes, there is almost
no material available on the local Russian and German culture, neither in our museum nor
anywhere else. This is the direct result of the fact that the latter two have always been
considered as conquerors and rulers by Estonians. The Baltic-German culture ceased to exist in
1939 when Hitler called the local Germans 'back home ' . Russian settlement has been preserved
in places and the recording of its culture has begun.
Recently a questionnaire was sent out to our correspondents in order to find out what they
think about the ENM and its future. A unanimous opinion was expressed that the museum was
not well -known among people. Another viewpoint was that the ENM has and will have to
express and shape the Estonian national identity. Opinions differ as to the exact essence of the
latter. As the majority of the correspondents are elderly country people (mostly teachers) or first-
generation townspeople and they are more interested in national culture than an average
Estonian , the opinions expressed in the questionnaires cannot be considered as characteristic of
all Estonians or even the whole population of Estonia. However, it is still worth mentioning that
the ENM is not only viewed as a museum of peasant culture, but the necessity to take interest
in Estonian everyday culture in general has often been stressed. All the correspondents
considered it very important to study and reflect the changes that had taken place in Estonian
culture and also in Estonians themselves during the Soviet period, while sine ira el studio . It is
quite understandable that we have developed a one-sided nihilistic attitude towards everything
connected with the word ' Soviet' and in view of all that it is not a trivial truth .

57
 It is remarkable that one of the most important tasks of the ENM pointed out by many
people is opposition to the mass culture from the West that has really flooded Estonia after its
liberation from the ' Soviet prison '. Defensive attitude resulting from mental pressure was a good
protection from the influence of the Soviet cultural pattern and the Russian language. This does
not apply to the English-speaking mass culture as this is rather percieved as a symbol of the 'free
world' . At the same time we realize quite clearly that, figuratively speaking, we cannot stand
against computers and video with bast shoes and belt ornaments. On the contrary, video and the
like must be used to make the bast shoes and belt ornaments understandable to the general
public.
In conclusion we can say that the ENM - like the whole Estonian society and people - is
looking for its own way to proceed. A museum must change together with the society , and its
existence makes sense only when it tackles the most important problems facing the people who
have founded it. The ENM must not be an establishment of national nostalgia; in addition to its
reference to the past, it must implant the idea of future in people ' s minds. The primary aim of
the museum is to preserve the cultural memory of the nation and through present connect it to
the future.

58
 Le Musee National d'Estonie et Ie peuple estonien.

L'articie est consacre au probleme des relations entre Ie musee et Ie public dans une
perspective temporelle. Le nom du musee (Eesti Rahva Muuseum - traduction exacte: Le
musee du peuple estonien) a une signification tres speciale dans Ie contexte de l' Estonie et
offre des interpretations differentes . Le mot "rahvas' en estonien a plusieurs sens differents:
ethnos , demos, laos, gens, natio, populus. Le Musee National d ' Estonie est Ie seul
etablissement dans Ie domaine de la culture en Estonie dont Ie nom se rapporte directement
au 'peuple'. Donc, un aspect symbolique s 'ajoute tout de suite a ses activites.
Quelles devraient etre les occupations du musee pour justifier son nom? Ce nom ,
qU 'est-ce qu ' il signifie en realite? Quels sont les buts du musee aujourd ' hui - dans une
situation totalement changee du point de vue politique, sociale et culturelle?
Le MNE fut cree au debut du 20e siecie (1909) , ainsi que plusieurs etablissements de
meme ordre pour exprimer et developper I'identite d'un jeune peuple. Pendant la premiere
etape (jusqu 'a I' independance de l'Estonie en 1919) , Ie musee fut surtout une entreprise
nationale et politique. Le musee etait considere par Ie peuple surtout comme une entreprise
patriotique - il s 'agissait d ' un musee ESTONfEN. L'essence du musee comme tel etait moins
comprise. L'objet principal du musee fut I'etude de I'ancienne culture paysanne , surtout de
I' art folklorique. Ainsi se forma Ie visage du musee, Ie visage qui garde ses influences me me
aujourd ' hui. Jusqu ' a la lie guerre mondiale les Estoniens furent em majorite des paysans -
on s 'appelait depuis des siecles "peuple paysan" - et I'objet du musee correspondait a la
situation. Pendant la fere Republique d'Estonie (1918- 1940) I' importance politique du MNE
se diminua , mais elle accnit de nouveau apres I'annexion de l'Estonie par I'URSS. En 1940
Ie [louvoir sovietique nationalisa Ie musee . Ie divisa en parties et lui donna Ie nom de ' musee
ethnographique" . Ce nom n'avait pas de signification symbolique et il n 'etait pas familier au
peuple. Pendant la guerre Ie batiment du musee et I' exposition permanente furent detruits.
Le musee devint une archive de la culture et il eut assez peu de liens avec Ie public. Ceux
qui s'interessaient aux activites du musee etaient relativement peu nombreux et ils avaient peu
d ' influence sociale. Pourtant I'attitude du peuple etait en general favorable et encourageant
pour les chercheurs du musee. Le seul fait qu ' on s ' occupait de la culture nationale fut
considere comme une resistance au totalitarisme sovietique et a la politique de russification .
Apres la nouvelle independance de I' Estonie en 1991, Ie musee se trouve de nouveau
dans une situation ou son importance politique a une tendance de baisser. Le musee doit
trouver sa place dans la societe comme un facteur culture!.

59
THE MUSEUM --- A SOCIAL INSTITUTION OF THE COMMUNITY
ANITA B. SHAH, INDIA

Museums are created by the people, operated by the people, and

dedicated to serving ths psople.

The general growth of cultural awareness-- owing to a boom

in mase communication technology, more leisure time,
heightened consciousness of cultural identity in reaction to
the threats of modernization, urbanization, and rapid social
change, has found an important institutional response in
museums. The impact of museums on community activities has
undeniably intensified, particularly over the past decade.
Greater cultural awareness and participation QQ the on the
part of the public and professionalization of the
institutions themsslves have all helped to extend ths role
of museums within the community over a broad spectrum of
cultural activities. The most influential factor appears to
be the people's desire to re-examine ~ history, to discuss
various cultures and appreciate human ingsnuity. Moreover,
with regard to regional cultural development museums are now
viewed by all socio-economic sectors as a major cultural
asset and this is reinforced by a new sense of belonging.

A museum collects, documents and safeguards objscts for

public discovsry, understanding and admiration. Its primary
rols is to reveal significance of objects and ensure optimum
conditions for the best possible understanding of them. The
mUBeum focuses on consolidation, innovation and enhanced
cultural dissemination. The mueeum linke art and culture
through epace and time to current realizations. The museume
essential role ie to carry out education and heritage
diffusion and provide quality information to its clients
based on research. Mueeume are places for personal growth, a
vital etimulus for the passions people need in their lives.
The museum ie rapidly becoming an active social institution
that helps man to understand the world in which he lives.

61
The museum plays a dynamic role in development of all
aspects of social life and also holds the key to a better
understanding of society and its e v olution.

The commitment to education is central to

dedication to public servics and this must be clearly
expressed in every museum's mission and must be the pivotal
force in all its activities. In ordsr to carry out its
educational role the museum must have supplementary
resourcss of several kinds. They include works of art both
originals and reproductions in the lending or circulating
collection; library with books and periodicals, colour
prints, photographs, slide collection, information and
materials for research and study. Studios, auditor i um with
sound equipment and classrooms with a supply of materials
for studio work in arts and crafts~publications, can ha v e
wide ranging influence .

Upon all these resources are focused a diversifisd set of

community needs and interests. To meet them, the museum
radiatss a diversified range of services to various sections
of the public. By 'Community' we mean the local populat i on
and the region to which the museum belongs. The communit y is
highly diversified as to the kinds of individuals and groups
which it contains. Ths educational programs of the museums
must be adapted to the needs and abilities of the general
public and also cater to those of the specialized groups
like students, scholars, connoisseurs, etc. In a countr y
like India, which is struggling to provide education to its
illiterate masses, the museum can offer greater and more
stimulating access to the literacy - handicapped and become
active partners in literacy dri v es designed for teenagers
and adults, the rural and tribal populations.

In the last si x decades the progress man has made outstrips

the progress he made in the last 5000 y ears of his life on
earth. This phenomena, taken from a different angle h as

62
produced alarmin9 sids effscts, like pollution, 9lobal
warmin9, dsstruction of ths natural snvironment, stress and
strain of modern life etc. Pro9ress also msans chan9s. The
question that arises before us is whether this amount of
chan9s can be borne by ths individuals. Change brin9s with
it strsss and a search for roots. Modernization, tremendous
urbanization, technolo9ical advancemsnt, has brou9ht with it
strsss and strain of urban livin9. It has forcsd man to
ssarch for his idsntity, his roots, his history. Mobility
from one place to another has brou9ht with it problems of
adaptin9 to a nsw culture. Mi9ration in ssarch of better
opportunities, of people from one place to another has
brou9ht in problems of adjustment not only for the home
population but also for the mi9ratin9 psople. The concepts
acculturation, transculturation, assimilation, meltin9 pot
describe and hi9hli9ht the perspectives or processes of
adjustment. Keepin9 these points ~ ~ in mind certain
questions ariee:-

1. How can museums help minority 9roups, mi9rants to cope

with reality and life in 9sneral?

2. What status does the 'host' country 9ive to the mi9rants?

3. How do the people rsact and interact with the minority

9roups and the mi9rants?

4. How can the mussum help ths individuals to resolve

'identity crisis'?

5. What cultural policies and pro9rams, the museum must

adopt and execute for inte9ratin9 the mi9rants and the
minority 9roups with THE mainstream of the population?

The museum is a tool for sstablishin9 the identity of a

9rouP. The museum can portray the symbols of a particular
9rouP throu9h its material culture. Throu9h objects the

63
museum projscts the value system of the group and its
relationship with other groups. Museums play an integral
rols by projscting the identity of a group and helping them
to undsrstanding their past. This helps man to understand,
know, lsarn from past experiences and build up a standard of
comparison across space and tims.

Ths knowlsdgs of mussum professionals, mussologists must be

brought to bear on recording the history of the community,
so that the mussums can better address their rssponsibility
to provide the basis for community identity.

India is a country of kaleidoscopic cultural diversity. It

is a country embracing varied cultures and peoples that have
blossomed out of one of the oldest civilizations of the
world. The Anthropological Survey of India undertook a
project titled 'People Of India' under the guidance of its
director, Dr. K.S. Singh, to generate a brief profile of the
communities in India. Very interesting relevations have come
to light. They have identified, located and studied 4,635
communities distributed throughout India. Every region in
India is inhabited with diverse peoples with varied cultural
patterns. Each community in India has developed its own
characteristic cultural identity which is expressed in its
ideologies, symbols, arts, in short its way of living.

This immense diversity of India poses a challenge to the

museums and its profsssionais. They have to maks psople
realize, accept and value human diversity. The immediate
challsnge for Indian mussums is to expose and make psople
understand cultural pluralism. Museums have to convince that
identity of every group enriches the face of this earth just
as different flowers beautify it. Each group and culture has
a right of its own to flourish and blossom. Indian museums
have to present the extent of diversities of the Indian
communities by striking a balance between seemingly opposing
tendencies. Homogenization cannot be the professed goal of

64
any pluri-cultural socisty committed to democratic norms.
Indian museums havs to addrese to the reality of cultural
pluralism and support it with the philosophy of sscularism
to bring about changs in the social environment and arrest
the generation and nurture of ethnic prejudice and its
behavioral manifestations.

Museums by organizing expositions, sxhibitions, workshops of

various communities can reduce ethnic prejudice which is
grounded in and maintained by stereotyped beliefs. Theee
beliefs are baeed on incomplete or incorrect information
about the group. Conflicts ariss from ignorance and
incorrect information which in turn give rise to stereotyped
beliefs. Thus through arts and material culture the mueeum
can generate the right peychological climate conducive to
the promotion of mutual underetanding.

However, all thinge said the ultimate that counts is what

impact museums and mussology has on the common man, his self
perception and his perception of other communities. This
will in turn affect his intsraction with people of other
communities. It is the rssponse of the individual to the
information prssented in museums and his assimilation of
this information that has ths potential for affecting
behavior change. Museums and museology however, are not an
answer or the medicine of all the ills of the contemporary
world. But undoubtedly ths role of identity on interpersonal
relationships and intergroup and intercultural
relationships, and the effects that museums and museology
have on these aspects cannot be laid aeide. If the museum
experience is strong enough to reach the inner realms of
consciousness of the visitors it is bound to bring about
attitude change effecting appropriate behavioral change.
Thus museums and museology can have a direct impact on
intercultural relationships and thus playa dynamic role in
promoting peace and understanding among the peoples of the
world.

65
Museums must have dedication to values and true knowledge.
providing genuine leaderehip to the community. It must
become a natural link between various communities. showing
the path to a smooth co-existence. by upholding that not
uniformity but harmony is the aim of mankind.

66 '
 II

PAPERS FROM CHINA

 Precis of the paper for the 1994 annual meeting of ICOFOM

Museum and Regional History and Culture

-also the earliest museum in the world and the origin of
museum
by Wang Hong/un, Curator of the Museum of Chinese History

This paper only spells out the relationship between museum and regional history and culture from the
museum development cause in China.
Museum, a cultural phenomenon, can be traced back to several centuries before Jesus Christ was born.
The modem sense museum appeared first in Europe in the 18th century. China - a developing country,
set up its first museum in 1905. Once the modem sense museum was introduced into China, a country
with splendid ancient civilization, it began to combine with the Chinese history and culture and was vested
with the Chinese contents and features.
By the end of 1993, China had established more than 1,500 museums. The majority part of which are
history museums (both ancient and contemporary history). They can be divided into four groups: 1.
museums on the basis of important archaeological excavations; 2. museums on the fonner residences
of prominent historic figures and sites of great historical events; 3. museums on the history and culture
of minority nationalities and their folk customs; 4. museums on the sites where great scientific and
technological achievements were achieved in ancient times. Through the investigation of history
museums, I conclude that the relationship between museum and regional history and culture is as follows:
1. Museums can exist by combining w~h the regional history, culture and material remains (including
his,orical relics and ruins). The regional history, culture and material remains will receive a concentrated
protection, research and wide spread by the establishment of museum.
2. The Temple of Confucius founded in 478BC on the sage's fonner residence in Qufu exhibits his left
things such as clothes, hats and music instruments and holds ceremonies in set times to worship the
famous philosopher. It is the ear1iest museum in China, much earfierthan the Alexandria Museum in Egypt
set up in 290BC or so. Therefore, the Temple of Confucius is also the earfiest museum in the wor1d.
3. The origin of museum lies on the utilization of cultural relics to spread the achievements, thoughts and
culture in ancient times. The Temple of Confucius set an example. The collection of precious articles in
ancient Greece and Roman only provided a necessary condition (collection) for the establishment of a
museum, since collection itself could not fonn a museum. Only by the time when the collection is used
to spread its contained culture and infonnation, could an initial museum be fonned.

69
 Paper for the 1994 annual meeting of ICOFOM

Museum and Regional History and Culture

-also the first museum in the world and the origin of museum
by Wang HongJun, Curator, the Museum of Chinese History

What is the relationship between museum and regional history and culture? This topic is one of the questions
which will be discussed at the current annual meeting and it will be the theme of the 1995 conference of
Intemational Council of Museums. This topic involves many aspects, but my paper only elucidates the
relationship between museum and regional history and culture from the developing cause of China's museums.
Museum, a cultural phenomenon, is an outcome of social development to a certain stage. Its history can be
traced back to several centuries before Jesus Christ was bom. The modem sense museum appeared first in
Europe in the 18th century and popularized wond wide in the 19th century.
As a developing country, the museum cause in China started comparatively late. But China is also an ancient
country with glorious history and culture. Once the modem sense museum was introduced into China, it began
to combine gradually with its long history and culture and was vested with the Chinese contents and features.
In the 19th century, foreigners established two museums in Shanghai, namely the Museum of Natural History
set up by a French missionary in 1868 and the Shanghai Museum by the British Royal Asian Cultural Association
North China Branch in 1874. In 1904, a French missionary opened the North China Museum in Tianjin and a
priest from a British Baptist Church started the Guangzhi Museum in Jinan, Shandong Province.
The first Chinese-founded museum is Nantong Museum, which was set up in 1905 by the famous industrialist
and educationalist Zhang Jian. It collected and exhibited specimens from foreign countries and historical relics
from China. The aim of the museum is let people see things "as early as thousand years ago and as far as foreign
countries," and know "ancient and modem history." From then on, museums began to combine with the Chinese
history and culture. With the establishment of numerous museums, the combination has become a common
phenomenon. By the end of 1993, according to incomplete statistics, China had more than 1,500 museums. Only
dozens of them are run by the State, the majority are constituted by provinces, municipalities, autonomous
regions, cities and counties. A few museums can be filed into the sorts of modem science and technology and
modem arts, most are history museums, either ancient or contemporary history.
what is the relationship between these museums and regional history and culture? Through a host of
investigations, we can see that all these museums are erected on the local material remains (historical relics
or sites) with the certain regional history and culture as the basic content. Due to the establishment of such
museums, the regional history, culture and material remains have received a concentrated protection and
research and wide recognition.
The combination of museum and regional history and culture consists of the following types:
1. Museums established on the basis of a regional important archaeological excavations.
They embody the exhibition hall of Peking Man in Zhoukoudian, Beijing; the museum on the site of Hemudu
Prehistorical Village in Yuyao, Zhejiang Province; the museum on the ruins of Banpo Prehistorical Village in
)(j'an; the museum of Terra Cotta Warriors in Untong, Shaanxi Province; the museum on the Tomb of King
Nanyue of Westem Han Dynasty (206BC-24AD) in Guangzhou; the exhibition hall of historical relics from Han
Tomb at Mawangdui, Changsha; the museum on the site of an ancient copper mine of the Spring and Autumn
Period (n0-476BC) in Huangshi, Hubei Province, and etc. In such museums, unearthed and handed-down
cultural relics are the major exhibits. This kind of museum is great in number and can be found everywhere in
provinces, municipalities and autonomous regions.
2. Museums established on the former residences of eminent historic figures or sites where great historical
events occurred
Humanities is a noticeable characteristic of the Chinese history and culture. Memorial halls and museums in
many cities, counties and districts are built or reconstructed on the former residences of prominent historic
figures or on the sites of big historical events. Last May, I accompanied two museologists from Reinwardt
Academy of the Nethenands to several museums in Shandong Province. The Temple of Confucius in Qufu and
Pu Songling Museum in Zibo left us the most deepest impression.
Confucius (551-479BC), a great thinker and educator in ancient China as well as the founder of Confucianism,
was bom one century eanier than the famous Greek philosophers, Plato (427-347BC) and Aristotle (384-

70
 322BC). In the second year after Confucius' death (478BC), Duke Ai of the State of Lu had Confucius' former
residence in Queli rebuilt into a temple to worship and offer sacrifice to the sage. Exhibited here were clothes,
hats, musical instruments and carts used by Confucius. Commemorative ceremonies were held several times
a year. Sima Qian, a famous historian in Westem Han Dynasty (20SBC-24AD) once worshiped the temple.
Later, he wrote down this visit in his magnum opus "The Historical Records."
Since then, the temple was renovated and enlarged several times and by 1012 of Northem Song Dynasty
(9S0-1127), it came to a huge compound full of classical buildings in the present size. Lubi (a wall from the
former residence), the family-used well and other relics now are well preserved in the temple. Each year,
several hundreds of thousands of Chinese and foreigners came here to pay their respects. I believe that the
Temple of Confucius built in 478BC is the eartiest memorial museum in China.
Pu Songling (1640-1715) is a renown novelist in Qing Dynasty (1644-1911). His fiction Strange Stories from
a Chinese Studio is very popular in the wortd and has been translated into English, FrenCh, Italian, Russian,
Japanese and other languages. The book satirizes the inconstancy of human relationships at that time through
the description of foxes and ghosts. Pu had been a teacher in his hometown for a long time. His former
residence in Pujia Village and his study Uaozhai" have been reconstructed into a memorial hall. Exhibited in
the hall are his portraits, works, versions in foreign languages, inkslabs and stamps. Pu Zhangjun, the 11 th
generation of his descendants, is now the vice director of this museum.
At present, China has more than 300 museums which are founded on the former residences of historic figures
or on the sites of great historical events. The Memorial Hall of Marquis Wu in Chengdu, Sichuan Province is
to commemorate Zhuge Uang, the enlightened statesman and strategist in the Three Kingdoms (220-280).
The Straw House of Du Fu is to memorize the great poet Du Fu of Tang Dynasty (SI8-907). In Jiangyou,
Sichuan Province and Ma'anshan, Anhui Province stand respectively a Taibai Tower which is to reminisce U
Bai, another great poet of Tang Dynasty. Along the West Lake in Hangzhou, stands the Memorial Hall of Su
Shi, a great poet of Song Dynasty (960-1279). In Jinan, Shandong Province is the Memorial Hall of Li Qingzhao,
a female poet of Song Dynasty. Many museums have also been established to memorize famous revolutionists
in the Chinese history. In Cuiheng Village, Zhongshan County, Guangdong Province, is Memorial Hall of Sun
Vat-sen, the forerunner of the Chinese democratic revolution. The former residences of Mao Zedong in
Shaoshan, Xiangtan, Hunan Province and Zaoyuan, Yan'an, Shaanxi Province are also reconstructed into
memorial halls. Museums are established on the former residence of Zhou Enlai in Huai'an, Jiangsu Province
and in Nankai University where the previous premiere once studied. In Beijing, memorial halls are built on the
former residences of the famous railway engineer Zhan Tianyou, opera master Mei Lanfang, painting artist
Xu Beihong and famous author Mao Dun. In Shijiazhuang, capital of Hebei Province, memorial halls were
founded for the Canadian doc1or Henry Norman Bethune and the Indian doc1or Dwarkanath Kotnis who had
attributed their lives to the Chinese national liberation undertakings. The former residence of Dr. Hu Shi is
refurbished and opened recently in Jixi County, Anhui Province.
In the Chinese history, especially since the mid-19th century, many great events affecting the progress of
the country and the fate of the Chinese people have been occurred. Experiences and lessons from these
events may strengthen the sense of defending our country, offer better service to our society and social
development. For this reason, China has established the Museum of Opium War in Humen, Guangdong
Province where the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911) official Un Zexu bumt opium in 1839, Memorial Hall of Wuchang
Uprising in Wuhan, Hubei Province, Memorial Hall of the First Party Congress of CPC in Shanghai, Memorial
Hall of August 1 Uprising in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province, Memorial Hall of Anti-Japanese War in Wan ping
County near the Lugou Bridge, Beijing.
3. Museums with the history and culture of minority nationalities or their folk customs as basic exhibits
China is a country with 56 nationalities and each nationality has its own history and culture. All of them has
done their bits to the formation ofthis multinational country. On the vast land of China, living styles and customs
in different districts are incongruous. Therefore, many museums are established with the local history and
culture and customs as the basic contents. Such museums can be found in the Inner Mongolia Autonomous
Region, Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region, Daliangshan Yi Nationality Autonomous District in Sichuan and
Ungshui U Nationality Autonomous District in Hainan . Preparation for the Museum of Tibet Autonomous
Region in Lhasa is undertaking. A lot of folk customs museums have been constructed in China, such as the
Suzhou Folk Customs Museum, Tianjin Folk Customs Museum, Yuzhang Folk Customs Museum in
Nanchang, Jiangxi Province, the Folk Customs Museum of Qiaojia Compound in Qixian County, Shanxi
Province.
4. Museums on the sites where great scientific and technological achievements in ancient times have been
achieved

71
 The invenUon of silk is one of the important distributions made by the Chinese people to the human beings.
And the opening of the Silk Road had further promoted the economic and cultural exchanges between Asia
and Europe. For more than 1000 years, Suzhou and Hangzhou have been the centres of silk fabrication. In
1989, the first silk museum was set up in Suzhou. Hangzhou followed suit in 1992. Elegant ceramics is an
outstanding achievement in ancient China. Jingde Town in Jiangxi is dubbed the name "capital of ceramics
and the city houses a ceramic museum. Another two ceramic museums are constructed on the sites of
Yaozhou Kiln in Yaoxian County, Shaanxi Province and Official Kiln of Southern Song Dynasty (1127-1279)
in Hangzhou. Tea, a beverage, is an creation of ancient China and ~ has added lustre to people's life in the
world. The first tea museum was set up in Longjing, Hangzhou. Citong City in Quanzhou, Fujian Province was
a prosperous port city and trade centre in China and the East during the Song and Yuan dynasties (1 Q-14th
century). Arabians, Indians and European tourists like Marco Polo had been here. With many steles and
unearthed ships from the seashore, the Museum of Sea Communications is constructed in Qunzhou. Zigong
in Sichuan Province has a long history of well salt producUon. In 1835, the well was dug as deep as 1,001.2
metres, the first one in the world exceeding 1,000 metres. And here stands the Zigong Museum of Salt History.
Based on the above-mentioned facts, we can reach the conclusion that the relationship between museum
and regional history and cu~ure is:
1. As a cultural spreading organ, museums can be established on the basis of regional history, culture and
material remains. In retum, the museums can provide a concentrated protection, research and wide spread
of the regional history, culture and material remains.
Such museums can help people to further understand their history and culture, and offer better service to the
region and its social development.
2. If a regional history, culture and material remains have a world wide significance, a museum based on this
precious cultural relics belongs to the whole human beings. It will promote the mutual understanding and
friendship between the peoples of all countries and playa special role in the world peace and development.
The Temple of Confucius in Qutu, Archaeological Museum in Athens, Museum of Pompeii Ancient City Ruins,
Leonardo Da Vinci Science and Technology Museum in Milan, the museum set up on the ruins of George
Washington Headquarter in New Yort<:, all these museums possess a world significance.
3. The Temple of Confucius established in 478BC on the sage's fonner residence in Jueli is the earliest
memorial hall in China. It is 188 years earlier than the Alexandria Museum constituted in Egypt during the reigns
(323-246BC) of Ptolemies I and II. Therefore, the Temple of Confucius is the earliest museum in the world.
4. The utilization of historical relics and ruins to spread the social achievements, philosophies and cultural
infonnation shall be the origin of museum.
For a long time, I have adopted the idea that the collection of previous relics in ancient Greece and Roman
is the origin of museum. But I have a new opinion after the study of ancient museums in China. Just like what
Professor Jeffrey Lewis said: "the traditional connecUon between the word of museum and the Muses Temple
and meditaUon, and the tendency of a museum's stressing only on the collection, preservation and exhibition
of high-grade arncrafts and alien cultural relics while neglecUng the coilecUon and exhibiUon of its own typical
naUonal cultural relics, have a great influence on people's understanding of a museum and the role of a museum
in the society." I consider that the collection of previous cultural relics in ancient Greece and Roman has only
provided the necessary conditions (exhibits) for the establishment of museum, but not all of the collections have
been tumed into exhibits. Further more, the exhibits only could not be the Origin of museum, the initial museum
can only be fonned when people began to utilize exhibits to spread its contained culture and infonnation. So
I hold that the origin of museum is people's utilization of historical relics and ruins to spread culture and
infonnation, at least, it is one of the origins.
Your comments on my opinion are cordially welcome. I hope museological scholars from all the countries
have an opportunity to visit the Temple of Confucius in Shandong and do your own investigations, so that a
scientific conclusion about the earliest museum in the world and the origin of museum can be drawn.

References:
1. "Confucius' Family" in "the Historical Records by Sima Qian of Han Dynasty, published by China Publishing
House

72
 2. "Autho~s Preface of Duke of Taishi" in "the Historical Records" by Sima Qian of Han Dynasty, published
by China Publishing House
3. "Collection, Collector and Museum" by Jeffrey Lewis of Britain, published in Chinese in the first issue
of "Chinese Museums" in 1993, translated by Yuan Kejian from the "Manual for Museum Managerial
Personnel" printed in 1984 by the British Museum Association.

73
 Paper for the 1994 annual meeting of ICOFOM

Development of Society and Educational Function of Museum

(Precis)
by Ma Xlgul and Dong Jlping

Museum, a cultural phenomenon, is an outcome of the social and economic development to a

certain level. From the early treasure house centred only on collection to opening to the public,
museum has acquired its educational function and started the history of an undertaking.
The development of museum and the development of society promote and supplement each other.
Take science and technology museums as an example. It is well known that science is a productive
force. When a group of scientific giants appeared, they proposed to construct science and
technology museums to "broaden the outlook of the public, stimulate their creative desire, provide
them visual enjoyment and utilize these practical but novel wonderful things (new inventions) to
realize the purpose of educating the mass: In line with this requirement, science and technology
museums are established and science and technology centres emerged. They have an essential
difference from the traditional museums. The science and technology museums and centres make
the audience as the centre, advocate "audience participation exhibitions" and thus inject a new life
into museum.
The combination between museum education and school education is a pressing representation
of the educational function of museum and a crucial aspect of museum's services to society. In the
whole growing life, a man will receive three kinds of educations, namely social education, family
education and school education. Therefore, museum is a critical part in social education, playing as
a link between family education and school education. A museum shall take active measures to
enlarge this vast field.
The development of society brings about the flourish of tourism. In retum, the flourish of tourism
also promote the development of museum. In the high tide of cultural tourism, visiting museums-
a high-taste cultural consumption - is irreplaceable by other scenic spots. To make a full play of
its elegant feature, a museum shall organize mUlti-level and multi-functional traveling activities and
publicize knowledge and culture to the public in the course of recreation and diversion.
Museum is a storage form of object information. Organizing exhibitions, arranging activities and
attracting visitors are basic measures which are used to carry out the educational function of
museum. The richer these measures are, the easier will a museum carry out its educational function.
A museum shall boldly enter into the society, joint in the people's life and merged together with the
society. It shall become the cultural centre of the society where it is located and shoulder well its role
as an educational organ. The demand made by the development of society is also the very life of
museum.

75
 Paper for the annual meeting of ICOFOM

Development of Society and Educational Function of Museum

by Ma Xlgul, Director of Beijing Capital Museum
and Dong Jlping, Deputy Director of Beijing Museum of Ancient Architectures

Museum is an important yardstick to measure the civilization level and social development of a country. It
is a powerful cultural and educational organ which is very closely related to society. A museum comes forth
according to the demand of society and develops by providing services to the society. It constantly amplifies
and perfects its functions during the social progress and becomes an essential component of a nation's social
sciences, culture and education.
As a cultural phenomenon, museum is an outcome of the social and economic development to a certain
stage. With the development of society, a museum unceasingly deepens, advances and improves itself to
meet the increasing requirements of human beings.
We can trace back the origin of museum, home and abroad, to the people's collecting activity in ancient
times. Imperial palaces, temples, high officials and noble lords of all dynasties collected rare and precious
articles and preserved them in special places, thus action was considered then as a symbol representing a
person's authority, position and property. As early as Shang Dynasty (16th-11th BG), China appointed
special officials to conserve treasures. "The Rites of Zhou Dynasty" records that "Tianfu is in charge of the
collection of sacred implements in ancestral temples and the most invaluable curio of the States." The book
also states that "yutu manages the king's jades, antiques and weapons. It selects the best for preservation."
In Song Dynasty (960-1279), it was the prevailing practice to collect, appraise and study bric-a-brac. Bogu
(Study the Past) Pavilion and Shanggu (Respect the Past) Pavilion were established to house ancient jades,
seals, pods, sacrificial vessels. calligraphies, paintings and etc." To Qing Dynasty, it became a fashion and
a group of famous collectors and appraisers had emerged.
It is well known that the word "museum" comes from the Muses' Temple. Collecting many war trophies and
sculptures, the temple in ancient Greece is considered as the most primitive shape of museum. The main
purpose of the collecting activity at this time was only for the appreciation of a family, a tribe or the upper circle
of a society. Most of them had no connection with the public. A museum then was just a secret treasure-house.
It did not bear "the public" feature of museum, let alone served the society.
The modem sense museum is a result of the bourgeois civilization. The bourgeois revolution has broken
the confinement of private collections and confirmed that opening to the public should be one of the
prerequisites of museum. From then on, museum has become a locale where people from all walks of life
can study freely and appreciate its collection. At time time, though the "treasure collecting" function was still
crucial and people still considered a museum as "a sacred and mystical palace," the museum has gained
indisputably its educational function by opening to the public. This is the most Significant and far-reaching
influential step in the history of museum development. Some person once pointed out that only when a
museum goes from the activity centred only on appraisers and upper circles of a society to the public and
has an educational function, can it start to be an undertaking." I think it is a brilliant exposition on the property
of museum. The object teaching method empowers a museum to achieve an imperceptible self-educational
effect in a circumstance unlike classroom. In a society with constant growth of productivity and never-ending
renewal of science and technology, various museums can virtually satisty the people's restudy demand. So
it is the requirement of society and the public that leads to the museum cause.
In the 16th and 17th century, the bourgeois Renaissance and Enlightenment actuated the great scientific
progress and a group of scientific giants emerged. They suggested one after another to set up science and
technology museums. The British philosopher Francis Bacon (1561-1626) recommended. as early as 1600,
to establish a museum to exhibit new inventions and introduce the inventors. The French mathematician
Rene Descartes (1596-1650) once proposed to build a museum to display scientific instruments and metres
'and machines. The German mathematician leipnitz clearly put forward the advice of constructing a museum
to promenade machines and other inventions. They believed that the founding of such museums could
"broaden the outlook of the public, stimulate their creative desire, provide them a visual treat and educate
them with the practical but novel and ingenious things." With the development of society, the museums see

76
 clearly their educational function. In China, it was Zhang Qian who first put forth the suggestion of using a
museum to educate the public. According to his opinion, a museum "shall exhibit ancient and modem articles
in the vast space of a high pavilion and let people view and appreciate its collection," so that the public "can
have something to consult and experience, combine the past with the present, collect materials and conduct
research works." The clearance of the educational function helps a museum to strengthen its sense of social
responsibility. The social development has replenished and fostered the functions of museum. This point is
confirmed by the growing course of science and technology museums.
The early science and technology museums are museums of natural sciences. We believe that a museum
has three functions, namely collection, research and education. But the educational function of an early such
museum remained at the stage of exhibiting the collection of high officials and noble lords to the public. A
person, no matter what his status is, has the right of pursuing scientific knowledge, obtaining information and
appreciating arts. In other words, the museums then occupied a commanding position and opened to the
public in a passive way. The success of the first industrial revolution brought about substantial material wealth
to human beings. To publicize the achievements created by the revolution, various intemational fairs were
organized. Such fairs, popular in the developed countries in Europe and America, have greatly promoted the
establishment of science and technology museums. The organizers fully recognized the people's yeam for
scientific knowledge as well as the significance of publicizing science and technology. The Intemational Fair,
renown in the world trade history, was held in London in 1851 . Six years later, the South Kensinton Industrial
Technology Museum was built with iron and glass and housed a dazzling collection. In the following half-
century, many countries constructed their own science and industry museums under the stimulation of
intemational fairs. These museums still attached great importance to the collection of exhibits, but the
founding of such museums itself was a method to expand industrial education. The German Museum
founded in 1903 and the New York Science and Industry Museum in 1930 are the two earliest modem sense
museums. They initiated the prinCiple of audience participation and the technique of scientific demonstration.
The prinCiple changed the condition of passive visit in traditional museums and was considered as a
breakthrough of the educational function of museum.
When more and more people envision science and technology as a motive force of the development of
society, science and technology centres emerged as the times require. Its appearance is considered as the
seeds of new thoughts in the museum world. In the past 50 years, science and technology centres have
increased rapidly. The centres welcome visitors to touch the exhibits and participate the activities. However
in traditional museums, the exhibits are inaccessible and usually labelled with a sign of "no touch." The public
can gain more delights and knowledge from such centres. But when the science and technology centres just
came forth, many personnel safeguarding the traditional museological theory expressed their doubts. They
overemphasized the difference between display and exhibition, the presentation of the inner value of cultural
relics and the instillation teaching method. They neglected the immeasurable role of participation and
exhibition in the spread of knowledge. But the people's demand and the development of society can not be
confined by theoretical talking. Science and technology centres have broken the elegance and quietness of
traditional museums. The centres step down the high stand, immerse themselves among the masses and
become the most effective and welcome museums. The "audience participation" principle tums out to be the
most vital part in the development of science and technology centres.
From treasure Collecting to opening passively to the public to offering participation opportunity to the
audience, science and technology centres are considered as modem sense museums and accepted
gradually by more and more organizers and personalities of various circles. The formation of such centres
is regarded as another revolution in the museum history, which has fundamentally enlarged the concept of
museum. The cardinal function of a traditional museum is to collect valuable cultural relics, all activities
organized by the museum are centred on its collections - the core and material foundation of the museum.
In the past, if a museum has no or few collection, no or less research accomplishments, poor management
and insutficient utilization of the collected antiques, it would be reckoned as an unqualified museum or a
museum not up to a certain degree. But the introduction of science and technology centres has put an end
once and for all to such opinion . For the centres pay little attention to the collection of cultural relics, some
of them even house no object d'art. Instead, the centres encourage the audience in every possible way to
join in their activities. They focus their work on exhibition and education, and attach great importance to the
collection of exhibits which are easy to be operated by visitors. Cultural relics are replaced by numerous
articles in diversified kinds and exhibitions are enriched by various activities.
Today, more and more museums world over start to utilize new techniques to change their exhibition factors.
With the unceasing creation of new technologies and new theories in the science and technology fi eld,
science and technology museums and centres enable the public to get a more direct touch with new

77
 technologies and new products. The people pursuing new kind of life have gradually conceived that they
can not understand and participate the perpetually changeable life unless they know and master modem
sciences and technologies. The president from a Canadian science and technology museum once said that
the aim of his centre was to face the future and oHer an opportunity for the audience to approach science
and technology. Indeed, modem science and technology is closely bound up with people's life. It has probed
into political, economic and cultural fields. More and more people want to leam science and technology. So
the museums shall appeal visitors in a lovable way and publicize scientific knowledge. This is required by
the development of society.
A museum, as a lifelong educational organ, is an important base where people carry out self-education.
Such self-education involves many aspects including morality, knowledge, capacity, temperament and
interest. Cultivating the children's interest of vis~ing museums is an indispensable factor to supplement
school education and substantiate family education. Some people think that the educational function of
museum is a pert of modem education, the concrete reflection of the combination between social education
and school education.
Museum, known as a three-dimensional textbook and a library of material objects, is an ideal place for the
adults to increment knowledge and resolve problems. For children, it is a field full of new and unique things
which may cause their imagination. With the development of social civilization and the increase of cultural
level of the whole society, museum has been listed in many countries as a social educational organ and the
second classroom. According to statistics, museums in many developed countries not only organize various
exhib~ions, but also provide a series of lectures and recreations.

The Louvre Museum in France established a vocational school as earty as 1882. In 1980s, the French
govemment started drawing up the plan of museum social education for people over 18 years old. To
coordinate the school education, many countries pay increasing attention to the combination of the
knowledge in textbooks with the vivid exhibitions in museums. The close co-ordination with the school
education has become one of the museum's functions and has been listed in the aim of museum operation .
The educational departments founded by museums in the United States not only explain exhibits to the
audience, but also open special classrooms and laboratories for students. The museums of natural history
in the Great Britain adopt diHerent teaching methods to the kids under 13 years old and the teenaged middle
school students. In New Zealand, teachers and principals of primary schools must receive a special
instruction about museum teaching approach before they take their posts. In Mexico, when leaming
subjects such as history, archaeology and natural sciences, middle school students are required to visit
museums .
. With the economic and cultural development, China devotes much attention to the role of museum in the
school education. As earty as the 19505, museums were ordered to hold vivid educational activities for
students. In recent years, the Central Govemment has regulated that the schools shall organize their
students to visit several museums a year. The Museum of Chinese History is one of the eartiest educational
bases having connection with schools. The museum has made various explaining words sUMble to
students of different grades and coached them to understand correctiy the Chinese history with their own
language. It also compiled textbooks, teaching sketches, TV teaching programs according to the
characteristics of the teenagers. All these have greatly brought into play the initiative of the students and
achieved good educational eHects unmatchable by the classroom education.
Actually, students make up a considerable proposition of the audience of museums at home and abroad.
Many lectures and activities organized by museums are for students. Some statistics show that the middle
school students account 20 to 40 per cent of the total visitors. Take the latest investigation made on the
museums in Jiangsu Province for an example. The province has 23 museums, 11 of them provide teaching
guidance and 5 oHer topic lectures to primary and middle school students. In line with the audience statistics
made by the Beijing Museum of Natural History in 1993, more than 50 per cent of its 500,000 visitors were
students. The Memorial Hall of the Anti-Japanese War receives more than 1 million visitors a year and some
60 per cent of them are primary and middle school students. The Capital Museum had welcomed 700,000
audience from 1988 to 1991 and 40 per cent of them were primary and middle school students. All these
figures have proved that museum occupies an important role in the life of primary and middle school
students. Therefore, museums shall attach special importance to studying primary and middle school
students. In recent years, the museum circle in Beijing has adopted a series of eHective measures to expand
education to primary and middle school students. One of the measures is to set up social educational bases
in the museums. At the beginning of 1992, the Beijing municipal government passed a decision that
museums shall build education bases for the youth and teenagers. This action not only strengthens the

78
 educational function of museum, but also broadens its service scope to young people. At the same time,
govemments at different level and personalities from all circles have a better comprehension on the significance
and role of museum. The bases have organized various activities. An initial shape of a social networi< offering
education to the Chinese teenagers has been formed in the Beijing museum wond. Besides, the museums in
Beijing have also ananged many other activities such as "To be a Friend of the Museum" and camping practices
in summer and winter. All these have stimulated the enthusiasm of the teenagers and encouraged the
connection between museum and school.
The teenagers are the hope and future of a society. Whether tney can get a good education or not has a bearing
on the whole nation's quality and the country's construction. It is a systematic project conceming the whole
society. Generally speaking, a person undergoes three kinds of educational environments during his entire
growing cause, namely school, family and society. Therefore, museum is an important component of social
education. This point shall be fully understood by the whole society, especially by the museums.
Some parents and schools would rather let their children go to recreation grounds or adventure castles than
visit museums. Why does such a phenomenon exist? One reason is the poor publication of this high-grade
cultural consumption and of the service function of museum to the school education; the other reason is the
existed problems in museum itself. Modem science and technology is challenging traditional education.
Stimulating and cultivating the creative of the teenagers has become the educational focus in various countries.
And museum plays an increasing role in out-<>f-school education. So museums shall try hard to develop and
expand this vast educational base. .

Tourism is a key link between museum and society. Museum offers service through tourism and reinforces its
contact with the society. Furthermore, the development of tourism also enable a museum to fully play its
educational function.
Tourism, a cultural phenomenon, is an outcome of modem social civilization. People crave to visit famous
mountains, great rivers and historical sites to satisfy their desire of broadening outiook, seeking novel and unique
things, exploring the unknown . Afterthe Wond War II, tourism has made headway in all parts of the wond, winning
the title of "non-smoking industry". Cultural tourism has prevailed all over the wond since 1920s. Besides visiting
natural scenery, people also look forward to see and appreciate man-made scenes which combines material
with spirit. Some person concludes that "the wond is a multi-directional globe made of scenery, history and
culture. People want to know, understand, experience and judge more cu~ural contents such as history, religion,
arts, nature, science and technology, folk customs and etc." Relevant departments have made such a forecast
that "when the per capita gross national product (GNP) of a country comes to $300, the residents will wish to
travel .wnhin the country; if it reaches $1,000, the citizens will covet to visit neighbouring countries; and if it tops
$3,000, the people will want to tour far countries." According to statistics, from 1978 when tourism started in
China to 1991, China had received 232.5 million foreign tourists, with an annual growth of 20.1 per cent. The
domestic tourism has been on an upward track after 1985. By 1991, the accumulated tourist number came to
2 billion. Tourism is on an irresistible ascending trend both in China and in the wond. It is not hard to find out that
museum holds an critical position in the mari<et of cultural tourism. As a special cultural and educational organ,
museum plays a great role in cultural tourism which can not be replaced by other cultural facilities.
Speaking of China, it is one of the four famous countries with ancient civilizations (the other three are Egypt,
Greece and the Roman Empire). China has a glorious history of more than 5,000 years, rich cultural relics and
numerous natural and man-made attractions. At present, China has more than 1,000 museums, majority of them
are on the travel routes, some are scenic spots themselves. These museums are in great variety consisting of
history, arts, folk customs, nationality, religion, nature, science and technology. The Palace Museum in Beijing,
Museum of Aquatic Animals in Qingdao, Nationality Museum in Hainan, Silk Museum in Suzhou and Salt
Museum in Zigong not only contain beautiful natural and man-made scenes, but also house abundant
collections. They reproduce the past and the present of China and reflect the history and culture of our country.
In recent years, many localities have constructed recreation grounds under the stimulation of mari<et economy.
These grounds draw the materials from classical novels, fairy tales or folklores, such as "Dream of the Red
Mansion", "The Pilgrimage to the West" and "The Roll of Gods." For instance , the Grand View Garden combines
knowledge with recreation. It has created social and economic benefits and added luster to museum. But most
of the later-built recreation grounds are repeated structures and a considerable number of them are with low
cultural taste. They try very hard to create a frightening environment and vigorously publicize the superlicial or
even discarded dross. They only contaminate the public and pollute the society. People satirize them as
"monsters and demons - forces of evil." The Americans, with a comparatively short history, have constructed
the Disney Land - a recreation form with modem civilization. It has prevailed the whole wond as a kind of culture.

79
But the recreatic n groL - . 3 with low taste can offer no cultural entertainment to the public. In the high tide of cultural
tourism, on the one hand, recreation grounds prevail in China, and on the other hand, museums are "infrequently
visited places: Some museums lower their status to meet the low-grade fashion, but some others are striving to
attract back visitors with high-grade cultural contents and in forms loved by the public. The museum circle in Beijing
has fully utilized its scenery advantage and developed many kinds of tours with distinctive local features. Such
activities comprise the musics and dances for sacrificial rites, lectures on the collection and appraisal of cultural
relics, special tourto see cultural relics. The activities have lured a lot of domestic and foreign tourists. The society
is developing, the cultural quality of the whole society is increasing and the public are seeking for higher grade
cultural entertainments. So the irreplaceable position of museum in the current society is ironclad. Museums shall
always improve themselves to spread social civilization.

Museum is a stocking form of material information. It is all-inciusive: economy, politics, history, arts, science and
technology. After systematic organization of the material information, museum can provide the audience
exhibitions and activities with different contents and in novel forms. We can find almost everything in different
museums from social history to natural ecology, from imperial palaces to folk customs, from the primitive
handicrafts to the multi-media computers. All exhibitions and activities are basic textbooks for the museums to
carry out social education. The more vivid and abundant of such textbooks, the more visitors will they attract, the
greater role will they play in training and upgrading the public's mOrality, sentiment and knowledge level, and the
easier will they implement the educational function. To improve exhibition quality, organize various activities and
lure more visitors have actually become the measurement for a society to check whether a museum is qualified
or not, whether it is necessary to exist.
People can not in vacuum, so protecting and qualifying environment is a task for all human beings. The existence
and development of museum is an important yardstick to measure the cultural condition of a society. Museum is
a part of a society. If a museum neglects its responsibility to the social cultural environment, forgets its educational
function and conduct low-grade vulgar publicity, it will only produce pollution to the society. If a museum ignores
the people's demand, takes no care of the social cultural climate and publicize "highbrow art and literature" or the
things which is pigeonholed by most people, it will surely be forgotten by the public. The educational function of
museum will withered and disappear, and the museum will eventually be deserted by the society.
"Museum for the 1980s" written by Kenneth Hudson, through his description of the museums in a small area of
a developing country, points out that "once a museum becomes the local cultural centre, it has the right to say that
it has merged completely with the society." A museum shall go into the society and participate social activities and
people's life, so that it can perform well its educational role. This is the developing trend of museum. Kenneth also
says that "A museum now seldom considers itse~ as a unit with no connection with the society. It gradually
conl;iders itse~ as the cultural centre of the society where it is located. A museum is no more regarded as a treasure-
house or an agent preserving the State's cultural and natural relics. Instead, it is looked upon as a powerful social
educational means in the most wide-ranging sense. I believe that the value and role of museum will become more
and more important with social development, economic flourish and growing cultural requirement. Museums will
be further aware of the educational function and provide multi-level services to the Society.
July, 1994

References:
1. "Fundamentals of the Chinese Museology" written by Wang Hongjun
2. "Museum for the 1980s - A Survey of Wond Trends" written by Kenneth Hudson
3. "Science and Technology Centres" written by Victor Danilov
4. "Chinese Museum" (a joumal) published by the Chinese Society of Museums

80
_.. _ - ------ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Science Museums And Communities

Zhang Taichang
Director of China Science and Technology Museum
Member of the Executive Board of ICOM/CIMUSET

This article expounds the occurrence and development of

science museums in view of the demands of social development.
Based on the surveys and investigations of the general public's
scientific attainment, the article explains the significance of
emphasizing science museums' educational function. It also dis-
cusses the principles in which science museums develop their role
in societal education and the society's supporting mechanism
for museums, and attempts to expand the content of museology
from the angle of objective law.

Retrospective of History

Since the Industrial Revolution in the 17th century and with

the emergence of steamed-engines, electricity, nuclear engergy,
information technology and digitized technology, scientific and
technological progress has become the most revolutionary and active
factor in the dvelopment of productive forces. The development of
productive forces requires the enhancement of every individual
labourer's quality, and the demands of the society usher in a new
historical era for museums, with .museums of industry emerging one
after another. The Deutsches Museum is one of the first of its
kind in the world to have been established. Its founder Dr. Von
Miller once said, "With the help of inventors' primitive instru-
ments, machines, models and the arrangement of demonstrations to
show the development process of the different branches of natural
sciences and technologies, this in a sense makes science and tech-
nology relatively easy for people of different educational levels
to understand." The aim of the museum" is to educate students
and workers etc. with contents such as the application of science
and technology and their role in issues relating with human exis-
tence, so as to promote human progress and make various scientific
researchers, inventors and their achievements in natural sciences
and technologies forever be respected by the public." He also
pOinted out that "all exhibits must be designed in the simplest
way so that they can also be operated by visitors who do not know
much about science ...... " From Dr.Miller's remarks we can see that
even at that time, the Deutsches Museum already laid emphasis on
its educ?tional function in accordance with social demands and
attached great importance to the development of participatory and
dynamic exhibits.
In 1937 and by introducing the experimental demonstrations
given by university students into museums, France established the
Discovery Palace, which is the world's earliest science and tech-
nology museum with dynamic display and gives first place to edu-
cational objectives. From then on museums have become an exten-
sion of school education.

81
 From 1945 to 1985, mankind entered into the high tech era.
Within this period of time, more than 20 science and technology
centers were set up around the world which have become supplement
to and extension and advancement of school education. Among these
pioneers of modern science museums are the On~ario Science Centre
in Toranto, Canada and the Exploratorium in San Francisco, USA.
The rapid development of science and technology has not only
resulted in a deepgoing educational revolution, but also brought
about new developments for traditional museums. Of these museums'
collection, educational and research functions, educational func-
tion has been upgraded to an outstanding position. In one of its
reports in 1984, the US Committee of the New Century Museums em-
phatically expounded ~he educational function of museums. It des-
cribed such function as "anti-ignorance movement" through museums.
This report says,"as a matter of fact, many people regard public
education as the most important contribution in this century to
the development of museum concept". Even before 1969 when they
were formally defined as educational institutions, America's
museums had already taken as their own duties the inter flow of
ideas, the spread of knowledge, the stimulation of people's curi-
oSity and ' the enhancement of people's appreciation.

Strengthen Social Service Function

Science museums should serve the society, to be more exact,

they should serve the development of trans-centuries labourers
who are of relatively high intelligence, creativity and quality.
Social progress and scientific developments have undergone
four different stages: At first, the personal achievements of
scientists could result in a technological revolution; Later the
involvement of enterprises and market competition brought about
prosperity and development; Then came the actions of governments,
the competition of national strength usually meant contest of
s~ientific pnd technological developments; Beginning from the
1970s, social production, life, environment and existence without
exception have become closely linked with science and technology .
The development and progress of a society or a country depend on
the scientific attainment of the general public, as well as on
the understanding of and participation in science and technology
by the general public. As a result, mankind entered the era of
science for the public.
Recently, China Association for Science and Technology ( CAST)
conducted a sample survey of the scientific and technological
attainment of the Chinese public in 100 counties and with over
5,000 people being surve y ed. According to the unified interna-
tional survey method, the so called scientific attainment includes
three aspects: l ) have certain scientific knowledge; 2 ) know the
processes and methods of science and technology; and 3) understand
the interaction between science / technology and the s o ciet y . A com-
parision regBrding these three aspects was made between 10,000
Chinese and 10,000 Americans. "

82
The survey content and result 10,000 Chinese 10,000 Americans

Have certain science/techno- 30.1% 35%

logy knowledge

Know the processes and methods 2.6% 13.3%

of science/technology

Understand the interaction 1.9% 26.4%

between science/technology
and the society

The percentage of people who a . 3% 6.9%

conform with scientific
attainment

The above comparision indicates two points: 1) With regard to

basic education, or primary and middle school education, there is
no big disparity between China and USA. However, when it comes to
societal science education, that is, informal education and soci-
etal science awareness, there exists a big gap between the two
countries; 2) It is a common issue to foster a public which con-
forms with scientific attainment. But compared with America,
China's proportion of people who conform with scientific attain-
ment is 30 times lower than that of USA in terms of population
percentage. This is a serious problem which affects scientific
and technological developments, as well as social progress.
Mankind have entered the era of science for the public. But
the current formal school education can lead to neither the
public's understanding of and participation in science and tech-
nology, nor the development of a generation of highly qualified
labourers, entrepreneurs, engineering technicians, scientists ... .
and even government leaders . Such an important task undoubtedly
will partially fallon the shoulders of science museums. This
requires that science museums must be designed and operated with
such a task in mind .

The Prin~iples in Which to Develop the Roles of

Societal Education

1) As informaal societal education institutions, science

museums' servic e s should be omnidirectional. For teenagers, the y
n~e the extension of school education; for the general public,

83
 they are welfare facilities of lifetime education; for scientists
and technicians, they are the sources of information and venues
for scientific and technological interchanges; for administrative
staff, they are the places for popularized education on scientific
concepts and the concept of sustainable development. But of course
teenagers should be regarded as the priority objects of science
museums' services.
2) Science museums should turn their collections into organized
entirety of knowledge and information which can correctly reflect
the occurrence, development and current status of science and
technology. In view of the fact that modern scientific developments
are meticulously divided and mutually-infiltrational, science
museums should take into consideration both the specialization and
comprehensiveness of knowledge, the scientific principles and their
applications, and the basis and developments. They should also
emphatically clarify the relationship between science/technology
and social progress, and spare no efforts in popularizing science
and technology, as well as in disseminating science awareness.
3) By means of displays, demonstrations and experiments that
combine interest and knowledge with science, science museums
should do their utmost to stimulate the public's desire to learn
and to participate in science, so as to make this specific entire-
ty of knowledge and information more acceptable and comprehensible
to the general public, and to fulfill the goal of disseminating
scientific knowledge, spreading science information, stimulating
creativity and fostering science awareness.
4) Science museums should adopt new technological means, in-
cluding accoustical, optical, video, computer and multi-media
technologies to enlarge their volume of information storage and
transmission, so as to make it possible for visitors to obtain a
relatively large amount of information within a short period of
time.
5) Science museums should be operated in an open-door manner
in order to ,strengthen their educational function. They should
take the initiative to establish contacts with schools, enter-
prises and other institutions, and to get up exhibitions, train-
ing programmes, experiments and other activities in an organized
way, so as to increase the utilization ratio of science museums.
Meanwhile,science museums must expand their educational projects
and radiate their educational function to every part of the
society by organizing travelling exhibitions, science interest
groups, science contests, science summer camps and science pub-
lications etc.

84
Society's Supporting Mechanism for Museums
Being important education institutions in the society, science
museums deserve the recognition and support from the society, so
that they can follow the road of stable development.
1) The support by society's public opinions
To obtain the recognition and support from the society,
science museums should in the first place rely on their own con-
tributions to the societal education . They must point out the
deficiency of traditional education and widely publicize the
special role played by science museums. The "fault zone" in the
contingent of scientisits has already caused a deep sense of crisis
among some foresighted scientists, educationists and social acti-
vists. It is these people who have taken the lead in rendering
support to the science museum cause, and their support has
aroused the public's consensus, the government's attention and
enterprises' enthusiasm.
2) The support from the government
Science museums must emphasize their nature as welfare cultural
facilities for the public and should therefore enjoy appropriations
from the State taxation revenues,which will be fed back to the
public for their benefit . The State and local governments should
allocate special funds to support the normal expenditure of science
museums. They should also give policy support to science museums'
acceptance of tax-reduced or tax-free donations from communities,
enterprises and individuals. Fortunately, our taxation system now
provides that such donations, if made through relevant foundations
and government departments, can be exempted from tax.
3) The establishment of foundations to broaden the channels of
social support and facilitate the acceptance of donations
from society in accordance with law
In China, a special fund for the development of science and
technology museums has been set up under the China Science and
Technology 'Development Foundation. The missions of the fund in-
clude: a) fund-raising; b) promoting activities related with
science museum development; and c) organizing commendation acti-
vities on a regular basis. All these missions are aimed at enhanc-
ing the strength and vitality of science museums. Our considera-
tion is that the establishment of suc,h a fund should not be a
short-term behaviour, rather it should become an important mecha-
nism for the development of science museums. Our experience has
proved that the establishment of this fund has helped open up a
channel ~or lawful acceptance of donations from the society. In
the meantime it has united a large number of eminent personages
to participate in the science museum cause.
4) The establishment of a ' broad network of "museum friends"
and volunteers
Over the past years, our science museum has from time to time
encountered certain technical perplexities and found its abilities

-- ':
: -- ,."
85
not equal to its ambitions. One of the most protruding problems
is the renewal of exhibits. Science museums must replenish their
contents with the state-of-the-art exhibits that can best reflect
modern technologies, and this means that we must solve the pro-
blem of large amount of manufacturing inputs. At the same time
we will also face the difficulties of mastering advanced techno-
logies involved in these exhibits. Such being the case, we must
establish wide-ranging contacts with various scientific research
institutes, colleges, universities and high-tech enterprises in
order to win their support and, in a mutually-beneficial way,
attract them to invest in science museums.
Another major problem concerns the training of guides. Since
most of the exhibits inside science museums are dynamic and par-
ticipatory, explanation given in the manner of repeating what the
books say is no longer suitable. Instead, we must study new
methods of guiding visitors to learning on their own initiative
(publication of instruction pamphlets can be a good idea) and of
answering visitors' questions. Practice has proved that only guides
with relatively high scientific attainment and wide knowledge can
adapt themselves to such discussion-like questions/answers. At
present our museum is trying out the method of using college and
university students as voluntary guides with a view to building
up a contingent of "museum freinds" and volunteers, so as to
technically solve science museums' difficulties arising from the
lack of new information and personnel.
5) While adhe~ing to their major business orientation, science
museums can also engage in catering business, the sales of sou-
venirs and other commercial activities in an effort to increase
their revenues and cover their tremendous expenditure. In this
sense, the construction of science museums should also include
the building of necessary service facilities, for this will not
only make things convenient for visitors, but also will partially
make up the deficiency of science museums' funding sources.
The selection of science museums' locations should, to the
greatest extent, take into consideration the traffic convenience .
If the construction of museums were planned according to an over-
all museum complex programme, then visitors of serval museums
could influence each other, resulting in even better social im-
pact and greater benefit.

Translated by Ou Jiancheng

"
86
 Museum Education
-Cooperatiion in Techniques,Exchange and Training
Within the Asia-Pacific Region ,

By Professor Lu Ji Min

With the rapid devetopment of the museums within the Asia-Pacific Region in recent
years, the various programmes developed among the museums have also been
improved,however it needs to be strengthened with cooperation with the museums. The
museums need to exchange information,and experience,learn from each other,expand
technical exchange and training programmes.

I. ' he importance of inter-regional cooperation in museums

In the old days,the cooperation and exchange in the museums within the Asia-Pacific
Region have been affected to some extent because of the limitations of languages,
restrictions of transportation and funds. Although the obstacals have been reduced gradually
and the museums have more and more cooperations with each other,it still cannot meet the
needs of the development of the museums. The on-going changing society requires that we
need to exchange and probe the new information,new situation and new problems rapidly
and promptly. At present, China has 2,000 traditional museums and another at least 2,000
museum-like organisations including zoos,botanical gardens ,nature reserve and histcrical
sites .China Museums Association is now compiling Annals of Chinese Museums which will
cover all the traditional museums and museum-like organisations in China and which is
estimated to be published in summer in 1994.These museums are different from each other
and have different problems and aifficulties as well as different experience and
effects,therefore :hey not only need to cooperate and exchange information with ea ch
other,but also need to learn new technology and new experience from abroad. I wish that
more work will be done to orgOl1ise these kind of activities by The Education and Cultural
Actions Committee and Asia-P Rcific Region Committee of The International Council of
Museums.And I think this cc .' znce is very important and it was very-well arranged. I hope
that there will be more of suc l~ co nference in the near future.

II. The educational function of the museum should be strengthened and expanded,

The educational function of the museum should be placed in the first place among the three
major functions of the museum,i.e. collection,study and education ,and it should be the
center of the museum's operations. In order to give full play to the eduational function,we
should give first priority to exhibitions,which are the major means for educational and cultural
activities. Without a good exhibition,few visitors would come.How can we play the ~o le of
education let alone enhance the revenue?ln china,there are some museums who seldom
change their displays neither in form nor in content,which can hardly attract the interests of
the visitors ,On the contrary,the Palace Museum of Beijing is renovating the painting show,
bronze ware show and porcelain show.:Aoreover,they are replenishing and readjusting the
dispays in The hall of Supreme HarmonY,The Hall of Central Harmony and The Hall of
Preserving HarmonY,the purpose of which is not only to aUract more visitors and to increase
I
the revenue but also to give its importance to the educational function.The annual amount of
the visitors of the Palace Museum of Beijing is more than eight miliion .Eeveryday there are
about 30,000 to 40,000 visitors coming to the Palace Museum to be educated.Good
exhibitions can provide valuable knowledge to the visitors and educate them .As museums
have plenty of objective educational resources,they should make full use of them to satisfy
people's needs of knowledge by means of its object teaching. To enlarge the educational
function of the museum ,consideration should be put upon the innovations oi exhibitions from
the aspect of content,fonm,and interpretations so as to meet the needs to the visitors. As
well as the imp[Qvement of our exhibitions,we shoud also strengthen the cooperation in the

87
 area and exchange exhibitions to each otherThe exhibition tour between China and Japan
and that between India and Mongolia which were held lately both have resulted in good
effects.

III. We should take practical measures on human resources training .

At present.a large amount of museums in China are at loss. The m:ljor problems are
shortage of funds, backward facilities, inability to renew the display,security of the exhibils,and
few visitors. I Ihink in order to get rid of the lost state,there are two things we must dO.first,to
improve the exhibition so as to promote the educational functio n; SecondlY,to tighten up the
management so as to improve the working standard.However,th a ;Joint to accomplish these
two things is the human resources.We should Irain our personnel and improve the work.1
think human resources training can be carried out in various ways with different contents
amongst different number of persons.1met Or.Pawl,Chairman of Personnel Training
Committee 0: ICOM in Bejing this March and we shared the view that we should take more
practical measures on personnel training .Recently,Cultural Minister of Mongolia has also
given some good opinions on personnel training programmes between China and
Mongolia.And I have also suggested several times in my speeches ~"a t training classes could
either be held by Personnel Training Committee of ICOM and Asia-P3cific Region
Committee of ICOM,or by a certain country or region with support and convenience from all
the member countries. Museums Associatin of China has ever sent people to the Asia-pacific
Region Cultural Personnel Training Programme held by Asia Culture Center and also invited
the members of ICOM and Asia-PAific Region Committee of ICOM and some other museum
experts from the US or Japan to China to give lectures,which were quite successful.

IV. Technical cooperation is required to modernise the museums

At present,museums are seeking the modemisation of exhibitions, collections protection and

security managemenl.furthermore.with the diversification of the layout in the museums,
they have higher requirement to the application to audio and optical equipments and other
new materials.Therefore,it looks more and more important to have technical
cooperation,research and spread the application to new techniques and new materials.

Technical cooperation should cover collection protection,collect ion dupiication and collection
security management (i.e.security of storehouses and display moms) as well as
exhibitions.AII of these aspects need the new technologies and new materials.

Besides new technologies,technical cooperation should also involve the traditional

technologies which also need developmenl.China own its advanced traditional technology
which is very effective in collection protection, renovation and duplication.This traditional
technology is especially effective to the protection of bronze ware,painting and porcelain.
Every country has ils own advantages, that's why we need to cooperate with each other so as
to develop the strong pOints while avoid the weak points and make progress together.

There are various ways of technical cooperation :organising obseNation group,sending

personnel to take furthur education,holding training programme,or inviting experts to give
lectures.

V. Academic symposium should be held for academic exchanges

International academic 5ymposium is a vital activity to exchange information and experience

and enhance cooperation.The Assembly of Asia-Pacific Region of ICOM held in Beijing in
March in 1989,The 16th Session of ICOM held in Quebec in September in 1992,and the 5th
session of Asia-Pacific Region of ICOM held in Sydney in September in 1993 have all been
very successful.And I believe that this conference will also be a success .

88
The Symposium of Natural Science Museums and Environment of ICOM held in Beijing in
August in 1993 was very fruitfui.

This March,in my capacity as chairman of China National Committee of ICOM,I invited

Dr.Pawl,Chairman of Committee of Personnel Training of ICOM ,and Mr. Van
Mensh,Cllairman of Museology Committee of ICOM to China for investigation.At that
time,we made a decision that there would be two international conferences to be convened in
Be ijing in 1994,one is the annual meeting and symposium of the Museology Comm ittee of
ICOM (by the way ,1was elected a member of the Museology Committee of ICOM at its
committee session held in Greece in May in 1993.);The other conference is a training class
Wllich will be held in Beijing by the Personnel Training Committee of ICOM who will invite
four Illuseum experts to give lectures in Beijing .1hold the view that these activities are very
important iniernational and inter-regional cooperation and exchange,which can promote the
development of museums.1 hope that Educational and Cultural Actions Committee of ICOM
and ASia-pacific Region Committee of ICOM would try their utmost to suggest and organinse
more conferences in this area .Of course,we are aware that the most serious difficulty is the
problem of funds.A nd things can hardly be accomplished without money.Hence I hope that
liw leaders of the ICOM,esp.Mr.Ghose,the chairman,and the leaders of all the specialized
comrnitiees of ICOM, the chairmen of the national committees of each country and the
leaders of Asia-Pacific Region Organisation will try their best to raise money and provide
favourable conditions .

The preara iory work of this confere nce was very successful and it was well-arranged. Here I
would like to extend my gratitude to the leaders of the ICOM,the leaders of National
Committee of India of ICOM ,Mr.Ghose and Mr.Biswas ,who have done a wonderful jab.

Thank ),vu!

89
 1/1

FINAL SUMMARY AND REMARKS

 MUSEE et COMMUNAUTE
ESQUISSE DE SYNTHESE par Andre DESV ALLEES

Decidement, la Tour de Babel n'a pas fini de jouer de mauvais tours a tous les organismes
intemationaux et les remarques que j 'avais faites, dans rna propre contribution sont restees
fondees lorsque I'on a connaissance de I'ensemble des contributions sur Ie theme de "musee
et communaute" ou "museum and comunity". Toujours aussi grand est Ie contresens (the
"misunderstanding") selon que I'on part du mot anglais ou du mot fran<;ais, selon que I'on
raisonne a partir des concepts anglais ou des concepts fran<;ais. Et sans doute en serait-il de
meme si I'on partait d'autres langues - ou d'autres familles de langues, slaves, magyars,
finnoises, arabe, chi noise, etc. Heiki Pardi remarque par exemple, dans sa contribution,
que dans sa langue, l'estonien, Ie mot "peuple" peut prendre six sens differents.

Notre comite doit evidemment tenir compte de la vie (ou de I 'absence de vie) des mots,
mais il doit aussi se donner les definitions dont il a besoin pour faire avancer la reflex ion et
s'appuyer dessus autant qu'il est possible. Pour ce qur-conceme la definition des termes
"musee et communaute", il a deja choisi en 1983, lors du symposium de Londres; il suffit
de se reporter a nos debats et conclusions.

Un des problemes linguistiques qui n'a pas ete evoque par Damien WATIEYNE, dans sa
synthese des differentes communications, est que, dans community museum, Ie terme
community, en anglais, a tantot Ie sens d'un substantif (museum of community = musee de
communaule) - et ce peut etre n'importe quel musee d'histoire et d'ethnologie assimilable a
un musee d'identite -, tantot Ie sens d'un qualificatif (en franc;ais: musee communautaire
aurait pu generer en anglais: communaulary museum) , et alors en effet c'est non seulement
Ie fond, Ie contenu, qui est concerne, mais aussi Ie systeme de fonctionnement, comme
c'est Ie cas dans les ecom!..!sees - et c'est Ie sens qi/Ciit choisi ies CanCiciiens du \juebec
lorsqu'ils ont choisi ce qualificatif pour designer les ecomusees.

Si I 'on essaie de classer les differentes contributions ecrites en se referant aux differences de
sens que j'ai envisages dans rna propre contribution, on y trouvera tout d'abord celles qui
prennent Ie mot communaute dans Ie sens de "societe", donnee comme but principal de
I'existence du musee dans la definition du musee donnee par I'lcom. C'est dans cette
categorie que se place incontestablement la contribution de Maria BEZZEG - encore que la
fonction sociale du musee n'y apparaisse que comme une evidence. C'est aussi Ie cas de la
contribution de Pius M.BONY A. .

Avec Adriana Albi DAVIS, on passe d'une vision aussi large - la societe dans son ensemble
- a une vision plus restreinte, puisque notre auteur, citant abondamment un article ou je
resumais I'histoire des musees d'identite, pourrait nous laisser entendre qu'il n'y a pas de
difference entre musee communautaire et musee d'identite.

Une vision plus claire est celie ou Heiki pARDI, dans son resume de I'histoire du Musee
national estonien, definit la communaute par son identite, queUe que soit la dimension du
groupe ethnique.

Seule Anita SHAH est bien entree dans Ie sujet, a la fois en rappelant d'emblee que Ie
musee "est cree par Ie peuple, qu 'i l fonctionne grace au peuple et est au service du peuple",
et en envisageant d ' une part que la "communaute veut dire la population locale et la region
a laquelle Ie musee appartient", d'autre part que "Ia communaute est aussi diversifiee que
les individus et les groupes qu'elle comprend"; enfin que I'action du musee doit se
diversifier en fonction de la diversite de cette communaute. Mais surtout notre collegue n'a
pas cherche a evacuer les difficultes de mener une bonne politique museaIe lorsqu'on a
affaire a une variete de communautes; et d'aller jusqu'a proposer que Ie musee soit un lieu
ou les con flits latents puissent etre exposes pour se resoudre.

93
On voit que la varieu: des entrees par laquelle Ie comite d'organisation de la prochaine
conference generale a aborde Ie theme principal n 'etait pas un luxe puisque la plupart des
communications sont restees encore en de,<a des significations proposees.

Les debats proprement dits semblent avoir montre - aussi bien parmi nos hotes chinois que
parmi les representants de differents pays - qU ' une partie acceptait Ie sens propre de muset:
communautaire et qu 'une autre partie preferait se contenter d 'un sens large et vague qUi
confond les populations avec les longues queues de visiteurs se bousculant a I'entree du
Musee du Louvre, du Grand Palais, du British Museum ou de la Cite Interdite. Mais il
semble aussi que la difference peut passer entre ceux qui ont a affronter quotidiennement les
problemes de la population chez laquelle leur musee est implante, avec les difficultes
sociales de cette population, et, de I'autre cote, certains qui vivent dans une tour d'ivoire
academique - meme s'ils travaillent dans un musee.

Le musee communautaire de la petite communaute traditionnelle est celui dont nous avons
parle Ie plus, parce que c'est Ie plus connu, mais il est d'autres problemes souleves par Ie
canevas de propositions du Comite d'Organisation de la Conference triennale de I'ICOM a
Stavengen, et sur lesquels j 'aimerais revenir.

C'est Ie cas du deuxieme sous-theme, lequel traite des groupes ethniques minoritaires
domines par des cultures tres differentes. C'est Ie cas en de multiples pays occidentaux.
Mais c'est les exemples sont aussi nombreux dans la plupart des pays d'Afrique et d'Asie.
Je ne citerai que Ie cas des Touaregs en Afrique ou des Alnou en Asie du nord-est, des
Kurdes et des Tziganes en Europe, des Amerindiens, des Noirs et de bien d 'autres en
Amerique, des Eskimos et des Lapons tout autour de la couronne boreaJe (on donne
officiellement plus de cinq mille groupes minoritaires sur la terre entiere). II ne faut pas
negliger tOlltefois la difference de traitement de ces minorites, selon que la nation ou elles
se trouvent en assimilent les membres un par un ou isole Ie groupe.

Le troisieme sous-theme est celui des minorites simplement culturelles (qui peuvent etre
aussi bien sexuelles, com me les femmes, ou de classes d'age, comme les enfants ou les
personnes agees), ou d 'autres qu 'on appelle marginales dans Ie monde occidental ou les
bouleversements economiques ont entraine de grands bouleversements sociaux.

Le quatrieme sous-theme est aussi tres connu puisque Ie plus ancien: c'est celui des identites
reconnues qui ont donne naissance a des musees. Je veux parler des identites nation ales (ou
regionales, selon I'echelle): generalement elles ont eu un role tres positif puisqu'elles ont
permis aux peuples et aux populations de se retrouver dans leur musee et parfois d' aider a
leur prise de conscience nationale. Les musees de ce type peuvent encore aider certaines
nations neuves a sauver leur culture menacee par Ie nivellement universe!. Mais ...

Nous en arrivons au cinquieme et dernier sous-theme, lequel s'applique aux aspects negatifs
de cette question. Et I' actualite, au moins europeenne, nous rappelle qu 'une identite con,<ue
avec exclusive peut conduire au pire et que les musees de communautes culturelles peuvent
aussi etre a la fois les cibles et les instruments politiques et guerriers de la barbarie.

La question qui se pose, en conclusion, a nos hotes est celle-ci: y a-t-il en Chine des
communautes, et donc des musees, qui correspondent aces differentes categories? Et ces
musees posent-ils les memes problemes qu 'en occident?

94
 IV

MUSEUMS AND MUSEOLOGY IN CHINA

 Paper for the annual meeting of ICOFOM

Museums in China and Its Cultural Policy

by Ma Zishu, vice director of the State Bureau of Cultural Relics

Museum in China is a major setup collecting cultural relics and samples, a publicity and educational organ
and a scientific research unit. It is an important component of the Chinese socialist scientific and cultural
undertakings. Since the founding of the People's Republic of China in 1949, with the development of economic
construction and the flourish of science and culture, the cause of museum has developed rapidly under the
leading of the Chinese Communist Party and the Central Govemment.
The development of China's museum has witnessed two high tides. The first one happened in 1950s. Except
Tibet, all provinces, autonomous regions and municipalities directly under the Central Government estab-
lished their own museums in succession. Museums and revolutionary memorial halls were also set up in many
cities, districts and counties. By the end of 1950s, the number of museums came to 480,20 times that of 1949.
In 1960s, due to the three-year natural calamity and the ten-year cultural revolution", the amount of museums
reduced.
The second high tide was after 1979 when the reform and open policy was implemented in China. Since then,
museums have sprung up like mushrooms. Each year, dozens of museums were ushered in . In 1993, there
were 1,130 museums in the national cultural relics system alone, 47.1 times the number of 1949 and 3.24
times that of 1978. In addition to museums founded by other departments and systems, the total number was
over 1600.
With more than 40 years of painstaking efforts, China's museums do not only increase in number but also
in variety. A complete museum system is gradually taking shape. We have history museums - museums
reflecting China's long-standing history and revolutionary traditions. Under this category are the Museum of
Chinese History, Museum of the Chinese Revolution, Military Museum of the Chinese People's Revolution
in Beijing and such museums in localities, museums of historical relics and memorial halls of revolution. We
have natural and geological museums which comprise local museums of natural history, museums of
geology, exhibition halls of ancient biological fossils. China is a multinational country. Museums in the regions
where minority nationalities live in compact community pay great attention to their traditions and folk customs.
A system of such museum is initially formed. With the development of socialist construction, a family of
scientific, technological and industrial museums was bom in China. Such museums are founded to meet the
demand of economic construction and serve directly all walks of life. This system is now in the ascendant.
To date, a complete system of diversified museums has been formed, developed and perfected constantly.
Quality of museum managerial personnel has increased persistently. Collection, exhibition and scientific
research facilities in a certain number of large and medium-sized museums have been improved continually.
All these have laid a solid foundation for constructing the socialist museum cause with Chinese character-
istics. The museum cause has become a crucial condition and component of constructing the socialist spirit
cultivation.
Some 27,000 staff and workers are employed in museums under the national cultural relics system. These
museums have collected 8.65 million pieces of cultural relics and natural samples, 41,000 of which are the
first class State-protected cultural relics. These museums organize 4,500 exhibitions a year and receive more
than 100 million visitors, 5.1 million of which are foreign tourists. The museums have played a great role in
the construction of socialist modernization, spread of historical, scientific and cultural knowledge, education
of patriotism, socialism and national conditions, and international cultural exchanges.
As a developing country, the uneven economic development in different areas results in inequitable
development of China's museum cause. The details are as follows:
1. The museum undertakings in the east coastal and central provinces develops rapidly both in number and
variety. Some museums are at modern level. But in the westem outlying regions, such as Xinjiang, Qinghai,
Ningxia and Tibet, the number is few and most of them are museums of historical relics, cultural relics or
revolution.
2. Alike other countries in the world, a part of the museums in China are newly built and the other part is
reconstructed old structures. It has protected many ancient buildings in different times and with various
nationalities and local features. But unlike foreign countries, the majority part of ancient Chinese buildings are

97
 wooden structures instead of brick and stone. They are easy to be destroyed, so the protection work
becomes more tough and heavy.
3. The uneven development of museum cause also manifest in social benefits. The Palace Museum,
the largest one in China, is the largest existing building group of imperial palaces. It receives more than
7 million people a year though a measure of limiting visitors has been adopted. However, some
museums at county level only receive yearly one to two thousands visitors. These uneven situations are
determined by local economic development, people's living standard and cultural quality. But this will
be changed gradually with the development of local economy, acceleration of people's living standard
and cultural quality, and the increase of floating population.
The museum cause is a social undertakings to which the whole society has attached great importance.
A museum can not exist without a society, and a society can not be without a museum. A museum shall
do its bit for the social progress and in tum a society shall offer necessary condition and assistance for
the museum's development. China's museum cause has got great support from the Chinese Commu-
nist Party, govemments at different level and personalities of various cincles. Chairman and General
Secretary Jiang Zemin and Premier Li Peng had instructed many times that a museum shall use the
cultural relics to educate the public on patriotism, revolutionary tradition and national conditions and it
shall fully realize its social benefits. The two leaders had also affirmed achievements made by the
museums on these aspects. Many museums have been appointed as a "social educational base" for
teenagers and students by people's government at different level, educational departments and
communist youth leagues.
To guarantee a healthy development of the museum cause, the State Bureau of Cultural Relics decides
that during the Eighth Five-Year Plan (1991-1995) or a longer period, the museum construction shall
follow the basic lines set up by the Chinese Communist Party. It shall base on the actuality, emancipate
the mind, deepen the reform and open wider to the outside world. While improving the conditions of
eXisting museums, new variety of museums shall be developed in a planned order, so that the museum
cause will progress coordinately in quantity and quality, variety and distribution. In line with the need and
possibility, specialized small and medium museums will be the focus, meanwhile a few of large modern
museums shall be constructed, pushing the Chinese museum cause to a new stage. To achieve this
aim, the State Bureau of Cultural Relics has put forward the following policies:
1. A museum shall made a strong play of its melody, in other words, it shall focus on exhibition and
promote other works on the basis of exhibition, making an overall improvement of its working quality.
Exhibitions sponsored by different types of museums at various level shall pay much attention to their
-collection characteristics and local distinctions, they shall attach great importance to the design' of
exhibiting forms, the use of audio-visual equipment, electricity and other modern methods like imitation
and bionics to let the audience participate the activity and try hard to create their own unique and typical
styles. Museums of history and revolution shall mainly show off the national aptitude, revolutionary spirit
and creative power of the Chinese people. Memorial halls shall highlights their memorial characteristics
and records of actual events. Nationality and folk custom museums shall emphasize fine traditions and
solidarity spirit of this united multinational country.
The museums shall playa more important role in educating the mass, especially the teenagers. We
shall eventually carry out what the General Secretary Jiang Zemin instructed,"arm the people with
scientific theories, guide them with correct opinions, mould them with lofty spirits, inspire them with fine
works, train and bring up constantly generations of socialist new successors with ideal, morality, culture
and discipline."
2. A museum shall liberate the mind, be practical and realistic, readjust and reform its organizational
structure, implement responsibility system and speed up the reform pace of museum management.
The museum management must act in the spirit of reform and opening to the outside world and based
on the actual demands of various works in this cycle. It must make a bold change of improper structural
arrangements, update the management, execute responsibility system, set up a complete and scientific
checking system, introduce a competitive system combining responsibilities, rights and interests, adopt
fair competition in the working process, reward whose who have done well and punish those who have
done bad in the system of distribution with the consideration of equitable principle. More pay for more
work. It shall arouse the enthusiasm of the whole staff, and meanwhile fully utilize its talent and
technological advantages to set up tertiary industries suitable to its own characteristics and offer better
services to visitors and society, eam some money to make up the shortage of funds given by the State
and inject new energy in the museum development.

98
 3. Starting out from the overall development demands of museum cause, China shall reinforce the
construction of a group of key museums, direct and promote the work of diversified museums at different
level in the country.
The State Bureau of Cultural Relics will select in a planned way some museums by stages and in groups
and appoint them as key national museums. Such museums are required to have better infrastructural
facilities, rich collections with unique characteristics, many professional personnel, great achievements
in exhibitions and scientific researches, high reputation and great influence at home and abroad. Bureaux
in prOvinces, autonomous regions and municipalities shall examine and determined their own key
museums at provincial level according to the local actuality and eventually advance the whole museum
cause by developing firstly these key leading museums.
4. China advocates co-operations and exchanges among the museums, plays the mass role and achieve
mass benefit, gradually form a good circulation of the museum operation system.
China encourages the close contacts and strong co-operations among the museums in collection,
exhibition, scientific research and foreign cultural exchange. The country instigates museums to
exchange their duplicated cultural relics, co-sponsor exhibitions, do scientific research jointly and bring
their publication and educational role into full play.
5. Striving for actual efficiency, China shall do well the construction of new museums in an active and
stable manner.
During the Eighth Five-Year Plan (1991-t 995) or a longer period, China will attach great importance to
constructing and developing small and medium-sized museums with specific characteristics and local
features besides a few large museums. While cultural relics protection departments are focusing on
museum construction, all walks of life are also encouraged to build their own special museums with trade
characteristics and time features. Besides State museums, collectively-owned and even private muse-
ums are allowed to be established.
6. Starting out from the macro-management of museum cause, China shall pay attention to enriching
the collecting structure, consider at the same time the museum construction in old revolutionary bases,
minority nationality regions and border areas and make a proper improvement of museum distribiJIion.
7. China will strengthen the construction of socialist legal system by setting up, amplitying and perfecting
effective rules and regulations. It will expedite the constructing and management work of museum
according to law.
In this period, the State Bureau of Cultural Relics have mapped out several laws and regulations including
the "Museum Grade Standards" and "Regulations on Museum Management." The bureau has also
finished the feasible report and earlier stage preparation work of "Museum Law of People's Republic of
China." In line with the set rules and regulations, the bureau will urge and direct local museums in the
checkup, registration and filing works of their collected cultural relics. The local museums will improve their
museum conditions, add necessary collections of cultural relics as well as exhibiting facilities. They will
introduce and utilize widely modem exhibiting, seeing and hearing devices, protective technology,
equipment and security alarming system, increase the use of computers in the museum management and
push the management work up to a new level.

99
 Paper for the 1994 annual meeting of ICOFOM

Museums and Museology in China

by Lu Jlmln, Director of China Society of Museums

The modem sense museums appeared comparatively late in China, with a history of only 100 years. But
the Chinese long-lasting history and culture and the habit of collecting and preserving antiques in various
dynasties have provided an advantage for the development of museum. Back to the Shang Dynasty (16th-
11 th BG), China had special place for the collected cultural relics. Imperial palaces, ancestral temples and
govemment repositories of various dynasties had once preserved rare and unique treasures. Many
collectors and appraisers in the Chinese history have done a lot of research work and left the descendants
rich cultural relics.
China has deepened constantly its understanding of museum. The development of museum and
museology has also gone through a bumpy road. At the end of the 19th century, some person put forward
to establish a museum in Shanghai to display ancient and modem treasures from China and abroad as
well as various minerals and specimens of animals and plants. Zhang Jian, the founder of the first modem
museum in China, considered that a museum should use its vast space to exhibit ancient and modem
antiques and should open to the public. In 1905, he established the Nantong Museum which was
composed of three sections: nature, history and arts, housing more than 3,000 cultural relics and
specimens. It is the first private museum in China. In 1912, the nationalist government prepared to open
a museum of history in the Imperial College, the first State-run museum in China. In 1925, the Forbidden
City -the imperial palaces of Ming and Qing dynasties, was changed into the Palace Museum. This action
is of great significant to the development history of Chinese museums. The appearance of the above-
mentioned three museums has evoked great social repercussions and promoted the rapid development
of museums in all parts of China. In 1928, China had only 10 museums; in 1936, the number carne to n,
museums were constructed in more than 20 provinces and cities. The Chinese Association of Museums
was founded in 1935, with over 30 group members and 120 individual members. In 1936, the association
held an annual meeting to discuss problems related to museology. The association pointed out cleany
that a museum was not only a treasurehouse to preserve antiques, but also a cultural and educational
organ where people could gain knowledge from the exhibited objects and conduct scientific research. The
museums at that times were very functioning and had been abroad several times for international
exhipitions. The museum cause in China started comparatively late, but from the very beginning, it
possessed evidently the three functions of museum namely collection, research and education.
Just when the Chinese museum cause underwent into a prosperous period, the Anti-Japanese War
(1937-1945) broke out in 1937. The development of museum fell from the high tide to the bottom. Most
museums were destroyed and a great many rare cultural relics were damaged. By 1949, only 21 museums
had been left in China and most of them were in a miserable state.
The 19505, right after the founding of the People's Republic of China in 1949, was the second booming
period for the Chinese museum undertaking. The central government issued a series of poliCies and
regulations to protect cultural relics and sites. It also allocated special funds to purchase antiques and
develop museum though the nation was in an economic difficulty. On the one hand, China reconstructed
and readjusted the old museums, added funds and increased managerial persons; on the other hand, the
country erected a group of new museums in a planned way. Some multi-functional museums (geological
museums) were founded first in provinces, municipalities and autonomous regions. The provincial
museums in Anhui, Shandong and Gansu emerged as the times require. At the same time, small and
medium-sized museums and memorial halls appeared in various parts of China. In addition, some State-
level large museums were constructed in Beijing including the Museum of Chinese History, Museum of
the Chinese Revolution, Museum of Natural History and Military Museum of the Chinese People's
Revolution. The total museum number increased year after year, from 21 in 1949, to 40 in 1952 to 72 in
1957. The uneven development situation in the past has been changed basically and museums are no
longer centred in a few big cities. With the renewal and development of museums, a big stride has also
been made in museological research. At the First China National Museum Conference held in 1956, the
attendants discussed on the characters, tasks and functions of museum and reached a better understand-
ing about its collection, display and exhibition, education and scientific research. The conference indicated
cleany that a museum was an organization collecting cultural relics and specimens, an institution doing
research and publication, and a unit provi ding services to the public and scientific research. The

101
 conference emphasized that a museum should educate people on patriotism and let them know better
about the history and nature of our country. The Culture College then organized "Museology Training Class"
and compiled the "Introduction to Museum Work" which made an overall description of all the museum
activities and played a good role in promoting the research and development of museology. In the 1950s,
China achieved great accomplishments in the museum cause and museological research. The country also
accumulated many experiences. And the museum cause was flourishing.
However, "the cultural revolution" from 1966 to 1976, threw the Chinese museum undertaking to the low
tide again. All museums were closed for a long time and the basic exhibiting facilities were dismantled. Many
collections were damaged and the museum workers were physicaily injured and mentally affected.
Since I 980s when the reform and open policy was implemented in China, the museum cause entered the
third thriving period. The country has speeded up its museum development pace and poured a great many
material and financial resources into the expansion of old museums and construction of new ones. China
has adopted a series of measures to strengthen museum management and museologicai research. The
national cultural relic protection system had 365 museums and 6. I 2 million pieces of collection in 1980; 71 I
museums and 6.37 million collection in 1985; 1,013 museums and 7.78 million collection in 1990; 1,130
museums and 8.64 million collection in 1993. In the past 10 years, the museum number increased by 765
and collection by 2.52 million pieces, excluding those museums founded by other systems. The being-
compiled "History of the Chinese Museums" lists more than 1,480 museums, but the actual total number
may exceed 1,800. Since the 1980s, a group of large and medium-sized modem museums have been
established, such as, the Shaanxi History Museum, Famen Temple Museum, Luoyang Ancient Tomb
Museum, Shandong Provincial Museum. Besides, the Shanghai Museum, Henan Museum and Zibo
Museum are under construction. The museums in China have changed greatly in number, scope, type and
activity.
To increase the working skill of museums, the State Bureau of Cultural Relics and the Chinese Association
of Museums have organized museological research and other seminars. Rules and regulations conceming
the management of museum collection, display and exhibition, social education and scientific research
have been mapped out, for example, "Trial Regulations on the Protection of Museum Collection" and "the
Working Regulations for Museums in Provinces, Municipalities and Autonomous Regions." Museological
research has further broadened its field, combined theory with actuality and developed in multiple levels.
All museum works must be conducted on the besis of scientific research. Collection, preservation,
exhibition and education shall all be done in a planned way and shall be closely connected with
museological research. The achievements in museological research have been used in museum operation
as well as special education, creating great effects in the society. In recent years, many monographs,
papers, popular literatures and teaching materials, tables and various joumals have been published. Of
which, "Fundamentals of the Chinese Museology" and "China Encyclopaedia - Museum Volume" are
academically authomative books. Many papers and treatises are research achievements with the Chinese
characteristics.
The Chinese museum cause has developed rapidly because ~ su~ the requirement of the social
progress. The development of society needs museum and museum must serve the development of society.
Under the good s~uation of reform and opening to the outside wond, China will reinforce the construction
of material and spirit civilizations. And museums do play an important role in the construction of the two
civilizations. So a museum shall enlarge and strengthen its functions to fit the advancing society. It shall
shackle off yoke of the traditional opinions, invigorate the popularization scientific knowledge, emphasize
its educational function, stress on recreation and appreciation, and eventually meet and satisfy the
increasing cultural demand of the public. A modem museums shall attach great importance to the changes
of society and merge itself with the environ and develop itself accordingly. In the past 10 years, China has
made outstanding progress in the museum cause and museological research.
The Chinese museum has constituted a reasonable distribution and a complete system consisting of
history, nature and geology, science and technology, nationality and folk customs, and famous historic
figures. A group of large-sized modem museum have appeared in Shaanxi, Shandong, Zhejiang, Henan
and Shanghai. Some old museums in Jiangsu, Guangdong, Uaoning , Fujian and Anhui have been
refumished and new life and vitality has been injected into them.
The connotation of "museum collection" is amplifying all the time and the value of the collection is growing
unceasingly. Museum collection can no longer be confined as "historical" or "past." Modem museums are
in great variety with expanded scope of collection and exhibits. They shall become cultural treasurehouses
of the man's society and natural resources. In the recent 10 years, the museum collection has increased

102
 by 2.52 million pieces, an increase both in quantity and in quality. The museum collection is the material
base of all the activities arranged by museums as well as the tool to publicize infonmation. The expansion
of the collection and the increase of value directly influence the functions and social benefits of the Chinese
museums.
The publication fonms of museum are improving day after day and the exhibition methods are tuming
to be multifold. A museum usually organize displays and exhibitions on basis of the nationality's history
and natural resources where it is located. The museum tries hard to keep its individual characters, show
off its obvious Chinese characteristics, attract more visitors, widen its educational functions and satisfy
the social demand. Most of the museums in China put the educational function in the first place. In 1993,
the national cultural relics system held 5,000 exhibitions, received 150 million visitors and 5 million of
which were foreigners. Last year, 22 museums in Beijing were named as "educational bases which
received 13 million audience and over 2.2 million of them were middle school students. In 1993, 10
museums were awarded "the National Excellent Social Educational Bases and 10 others were awarded
as advanced units.
Scientific research in museums further extends its field and tums to be of great variety and in multilevel.
In the past, it used to be in a small scope and few variety, more attention was paid to the scientific research
within the museums. In the recent years, things have changed a lot. While strengthening the scientific
research within the museums, it has also established a close relationship with the scientific research in
other social departments. Today, infonmation and documents are exchanged among the museums and
the academic atmosphere is more invigorating. Among the museum workers, more than 1,000 with high-
grade professional titles (professors and curators) and 4,000 with medium-grade professional titles
(lecturers and engineers). Some persons are experts in the fields of history, archaeology, education,
biology and geology; others are good at cultural relic repair, appraise, mounting and sample manufac-
turing. Their achievements have caused great social attention.
The special educational function of museum deepens increasingly and is highly valued by the society.
Since the implementation of refonm and open policy, while reinforcing school education in an all-round
way, China has developed adult education, vocational and technical education as well as education for
the aged and children. As a social educational organization, museums play an increaSingly important role.
With abundant object educational resources and various teaching approaches, a museum is able to
become an educational system in addition to the school education. Under the market economy, some
departments only seek for economic benefits and set up mazes and recreation grounds which over
stressing ghosts and evils, left bad impressions on the mass, especially the teenagers. In this condition,
it is more crucial for a museum to fully play its educational function. To date, most museums in China have
esiablished social educational departments and adopted the guide system. They often arrange various
activities, such as lectures, summer campings, special-line tours, circulating exhibitions and various
training classes. Museum activities are now emerging with education, culture, science, tourism and
environmental protection.
It is a glorious but arduous task for the museum cycle to set up museums and develop museology with
the Chinese characteristics. Since museology develops with the advance of museum. In 1982, the
Chinese Society of Museums was founded in Beijing and localities allover the country follow the suit to
fonm local museum societies. Museological research has entered into a new high tide with these societies
as the centre.
China has a strong lineup of researchers. The Chinese Society of Museums has more than 2,000
members and much more with local museum societies. National and local seminars are held one by one,
more than 2,000 academic papers on museology have been published, involving both macro and micro
topics.
There is a wider research field. The research on museum history is outstretching rapidly. The research
on the development road of museum is exploring the Chinese characteristics. The research on basic
theories concems many profound problems. Many branches have been shaped up in the research of the
applied theories.
Connection between theory and practice is developing in depth. To create a museology with the Chinese
characteristics, museums must deeply rooted into the Chinese society, enhance the research on the
national conditions and study the Chinese museums in a down-to-earth way. The museums shall study
the new conditions and new problems bringing about in the course of refonm and opening to the outside

103
wond. Base on the actual management system and operative methods, such research suits the Chinese
national conditions and has distinctive Chinese characteristics.
Meanwhile, the Chinese museums must learn from and use the scientific theories and advanced
experience of foreign countries. We can not create museums and museology with the Chinese
characteristics by closing our door. Instead, we shall deeply connect with the actual Chinese society and
open the door wider to the outside wond. Because the Chinese characteristics are not contradictory to
characteristic of various countries in the wond, the two can learn from and help each other and make up
each other's deficiencies. Only by this, can we establish museums and museology up to the wond level
but with the Chinese characteristics.

104
 Paper for the 1994 annual meeting of ICOFOM

Philosophy of Chinese Museums

by Su Donghai, Editor-in-chief of Chinese Museum

It is our great honour to have so many museologists of intemational fame in China to discuss with
us some urgent problems of museology. Such a grand occasion will certainly exert important
influence on pushing the research of Chinese museology forward.
Personally, I also feel greatly honoured to have this opportunity to give you a presentation on some
basic questions in Chinese museological research. As it is known to all, since the foundation of the
People's Republic of China in 1949, the theory and practice of Chinese museums have been
developing under the guidelines of Marxist wond outlook as well as its historical outlook and
methodology. However, this situation does not affect the dialogues between Chinese and intema-
tional museological circles. Particulany, ever since China adopted a state policy of opening to
outside wond in 1978, the Chinese museological circles has been advancing to ou1side wond. In
theoretical field, we are sharing more and more common language with our foreign colleagues. As
I believe, among the museums of different countries, the theoretical generality is stronger than
individuality. The prospect of C<Hlperation between us in this field is promising.
Now, please allow me to give you a concise presentation dealing with some philosophical questions
within the framework of Chinese museological theory.
I. The out/ook on the Essence of Chinese Museums
What is the essence of museums? Such a question attracts great attention of the Chinese
museological circle. In China, the beginning of intensive studies on this question can be traced back
to 50s. The National Conference on Museum Work, held in May 1956, did pu1 its emphasiS on this
question and give an answer to it. The conference, participated by 110 delegates, pu1 forth a famous
point known as the theory of "Three Natures and Two Tasks," It is understood as there are three basic
natures of museums, namely: being a scientific research institu1ion, being a cultural-educational
organization and being a main spot of collecting and preserving spiritual-cultural relics as well as
natural specimen. Thus, a museum is made by combining all these three natures together. There
are two fundamental tasks of a museum, namely: to provide services to scientific research and to
serve the broad mass of people as a whole. Following the discussions of the above mentioned
conference, Mr. Zheng Zhenduo, a famous Chinese scholar and the then Deputy Minister of Culture
PRC, delivered his conclusion speech, in which he made a further point that the three fundamental
natures of museums, combining scientific research, cultural education, as well as collection and
preservation of cultural relics and specimen together, reflect an indivisible dialectical relationship
among them. Consequently the essential characteristics of museums should be attribu1ed to
simultaneously containing in themselves all these natures. Mr. Zheng's speech clearly indicated that
the three natures of museums represented an organic system or an organic structural entity. So, the
essence of museums means a compound entity composed organically by the three natures. In lack
of anyone of them, a museum can no longer be a museum in its integrate meaning, consequently,
just with single existence of anyone of the three natures, it is no way to be a museum either. Only
with the existence of all the three, a museum can be a museum in its true sense. The organic
existence of these three natures constiMes the essential characteristics of museums which makes
them different from other instiMions. Based on the results of above mentioned discussions, we hold
that as early as in mid-50s, the Chinese museological circle had already given an answer to the
question regarding the essence of museums through analyzing the museum structure. 01 course,
the recognition derived from that was in its primitive stage . As the practice develops, the recognition
develops too.
The National Conference on Museum Work in mid-50s was convened soon after the CPC and the

105
 Chinese govemment had made the call "marching towards science," at a time when particular attention
was attached to providing services for scientific research by the museums and libraries. Thus, the three
natures of museums had been put in a way of bringing the scientific research to the forefront, stressing
that "the scientific research is the foundation of all activities of museums" at the same time.
Starting from the 60s, the political struggles in China had been aggravated, then developed into a more
serious situation in time of the Cultural Revolution. So, the expositions of museums had to shift in order
to follow up tightly the political needs. in a time, an exhibition eulogizing a certain historical figure could
suddenly be changed into one of condemning the same person. History could be rewritten at will, the
exhibrts could also be amended and falsified at one's will . The scientific and factual qualities of museums
were heavily tramped down, the essence of museums was endangered.
After the Cultural Revolution, the museums went into retrospections for some time, thus deepened the
recognition of their essence anew. The Chinese museological circle reconstructed the theory of "Three
Natures and Two Tasks" by transforming the old sequence "scientific research, education, collection and
preservation of cultural relics and specimen" into a new sequence - "the collection and preservation of
cu~ural relics and specimen, education, scientific research. " This new sequence gives high priority to the
position of "the collection and preservation of cultural relics and specimen" by bringing it to the forefront.
Such a sequence was reflected in the new museum regulations promulgated in June 1979. In fact, the new
sequence of the three natures not only reflects the change in orders, but also indicates a leap in the
recognition of museum essence at the same time. To accentuate the position of objects means to
accentuate the most core characteristic .of museum. The other two characteristics of museums, for
example, the scientific research and education, only on conditions of linking themselves with the
characteristic of objects thus combining organically with it, can form altogether a special compound entity
known as a museum. Such a new recognition of the position of the characteristic of objects in the compound
entity, is a conclusion derived from long-term practice. It shows that the recognition of the museum essence
inside the Chinese museological circle has been deepened by traversing a way from the studies on the
structure of museums to the studies on their functions.
My own views relating to the relationship between the three natures have already been expressed in my
article - The Outline of Museum History, published in 1988. I hold that the three natures of museums have
been formed historically and not something given by anybody. In the historical process of museum
formation, the function of coflecting and preserving objects appeared most earty, it was the most ancient
and also the first function of the museums. Object collection and preservation represent the core of the
multiple natures of museums. Deviating from objects, museums would lose their most essential charac-
. teristic. After this first function, the scientific research appeared as the second function of the museums.
The social development needs science and technology, but the latter would not have been possible to take
root into such a specific cu~ural body as museum without the help of objects. For museums, objects are
the carriers of scientific information. Without them, the museums would lose their scientific research
characteristic and consequently lose their particular value of existence as basis of scientific research as
well as scientifIC popularization. Social education appeared as the third function of museums. Such a
function is by no means to have been transplanted into museum soil without foundation. It is the extension
of the first and second functions innate to museums. The education of museums is a kind of education
surrounding objects, or an education of objectification. Only by means of surrounding the objects closely,
the museum education is able to fly its own colours and appear brilliant among various kinds of education.
In the course of the historical development of museums, the functions of the three natures appeared
objectively and subsequently. The second function is the extension of the first, and the third one is the
extension and expansion of the first and the second. The relationship among the three is just something
like concentric circles. The furlC1ion of collection and preservation represents the nucleus circle, while that
of scientific research represents the inner circle and education represents the outer circle. The three
functions constitute a systematic structure, a compound but not a mixed entity. In order to bring forth best
effects as a whole, it is necessary to bring all three functions into play reasonably.
For decades the recognition of museum essence has been deepening gradually in the Chinese
museological circle. However, a matter does not have just one essence, more essences can be abstracted
from the complicated phenomena of a matter. So far as I know, Dr. Peter van Mensch holds that to provide
information is the most essential characteristic of the museums. In China, some researchers also raised
their new viewpoints relating to the museum essence. I am not going to go over them here .

II. The Value Outlook of Chinese Museums

106
 In China, the museums were originally introduced from the West, Also, the Chinese started realizing
the value of museums through their observations of the museums in the Western countries. In the
60s of 19th century, China and Japan started the movements of leaming from the West almost at the
same time. The investigation personnel as well as the diplomats and students, sent abroad by the
Chinese govemment, usually attached great importance to the museums in the course of their
observations of the Westem cultures. They usually held that the real objects-exhibits displayed in the
Westem museums could help people with widening their field of vision and improving their
knowledge, as well as benefiting them by raising their scientific and cultural levels. During that time,
China was in a crisis of being carved up by foreign powers and the Chinese people were seeking for
an outlet of saving their mothertand and making her strong, so it is quite natural for the investigators
to cast their first eyesight at the scientific and educational values of the museums, taking them as
necessary means of reforming Chinese society. Henceforth, the Chinese started setting up their own
museums. From the first museum built by the Chinese with their hands in 1905, 42 museums had
been built successively up to 1937. All these museums were basically built by the govemments. Why
the govemments wanted to build museums in dozens of large cities throughout the country? Because
the governments as well as those prudent people who were zealous in museum undertakings,
thought the scientific and education values of museums were necessary for social transformation .
Thus, being the carriers of these values, the museums were destined to be bom and developed for
the sake of meeting the social demands. From above we can see that the Chinese museums were
bom and developed for carrying out special social missions. The value of their existence lies in
realizing their missions assigned by the society. So, from the very beginning of their existence,
Chinese museums became the museums of mission type.
After the founding of the People's Republic of China in 1949, the Chinese museums entered into
the second stage of their development. The new government of China attached great importance to
the museums and a great number of museums had been built by state investments. Except two
remote regions, nameiy the Tibet and Qinghai, museums were set up in all provinces, large cities and
autonomous regions. During a period when China was learning from the Soviet Union whose
museums were distinguished with strong socialist ideology, the value outiook of Chinese museums
was inevitably influenced by the value propensity of Soviet museums. In this stage of development,
the political value became the main factor for the existence and development of Chinese museums.
The polrtical remould of the museums and the ideological remould movements of the museum
professionals in the 50s, the stress on the necessity of making cultural relics and exhibitions available
to serve the political struggles in the 60s, all these were the fruits bom by polrtical propensity. From
a theoretical point of view, value belongs to a category of relationships. The government and the
society represent the subjects in the value relationship of the museums. The demands of the subjects
playa leading role in forming the value propensity. While the museums, representing the objects in
the value relationship, remain to be the material carriers of the value. Yet. the value is latent and can
be realized only by means of satisfying the demands of the subjects. In spite of the dependence of
the value relationship on the demands of the value subjects, nevertheless, the value objects by no
means playa completely passive role in realizing the value. They can adapt themselves actively to
the demands of the value subjects or even change them. The value subjects and the value objects
interact on each other. In time of the Cultural Revolution, some museums went so far as to fabricate
history and remould the cultural relics at will for the purpose of meeting the demands of the political
struggles. In result they did win over the high estimation of the then value subjects and thus had a
better chance for their survival and development for a time. Of course, to satisfy the special demands
of the value subjects by means of distortion of the museum value, it was something happened only
under special political situation.
In 1979, China entered into a new historical period with economic construction as central task. Class
struggle was no longer the key link of social life . consequently, the value propensity of museums was
changed too. The museums resumed their cultural essence again. Being the show windows of the
country, museums attracted attention from the side of government and society. In the decade of 80s,
some 1000 museums increased in China. Museums have been popularized up to middle cities. All
these museums were built by state investments. Such a fact indicates that the state and society think
highly of the values of museums in cultural construction. The museums. on their part, also try their
best to expand their cultural functions in order to met the higher and higher cultural demands of the

107
 society. The Chinese museological circle experiences a new upsurge in relation to the studies on
the cultural essence and functions of the museums, also on the assessment of their value as well
as the value of cultural relics. Here,l would like to express my own views on the values of museums.
The values of museums are manifold both in kind and in stratification. There are huge value
potentialities hidden in the museums which need the value subjects to find out and to exploit. Viewing
from an angle of broad social cultural stratum, I hold that the museums possess 4 cultural values
as follows:
1. The Value of Verifying History
Man's knowledge of both social and natural history are indirect, rational and not intuitive. Yet the
items of museum collections are usually the original and sensible objects or materials related to the
past history. Through examinations and researches of these original objects and materials, people
are able to sense and get into direct contact with the past history. Furthermore, as the original objects
and materials as such are the survivors of the past history, they are able to verify it. Also, as they
are the fossils of history and reflect it in materialized forms, so undoubtedly they possess an
objectivity and reality which render very special value for people to know and sense the history.
When standing in front of the magnificent arrays of clay soldiers and horses of Qin Dynasty, people
cannot but shocked by the force of the history, an amazing feeling they can experience nowhere
except in museum. These historical verifiers are called cultural relics and those collected and
preserved in museums are the most selective ones with higher values of historical memory and
verification. Museums represent the centres of various precious cultural relics. The objects and
materials with values of historical verification collected and preserved nowhere other than
museums, are waiting for the value subjects to realize and to use.
2. The Value of Know/edge
The objects housed in museums belong to a particular sort of knowledge carriers and possess
special charms of knowledge. The displays and exhibitions organized by museums represent an
unified body combining thinkings both in terms of images and logic and thus form a special
knowledge as such, the museums are able to attract to them the researchers and learners from
various social strata.
The knowledge and information provided by museums are different in some way from that provided
by research institutes and libraries. This is because they are not the knowledge carriers similar in
all aspects. But, the knowledge and information provided by museums can be used side by side with
that provided by other institutions on the ground of mutual supplement and verification. So, from the
view of education, museums are deserved to be well-admitted as class rooms second to school
education. Viewing in light of scientific research and popularization, the objects collected and
reserved in museums are important supplementary knowledge to books. Hence we can say,
museum is a special treasury of knowledge.
3. The Value of Estheticism
The Chinese society has not yet paid enough attention to esthetical value of the museums. When
museums were being introduced into this country, people attached great importance to their
scientific-educational values and neglected their esthetical value. In earty 20th century, Chinese
scholar Cai Yuanpei, when studied in Germany, did repeatedly stress on the esthetical value of the
museums. However, his voice did not attract enough attention of the society. Since the 80s, Chinese
society started paying attention to the esthetical value of museums. Some researchers have shown
their concern over this issue already. Yet, at the moment, the esthetical value of museums has still
not been fully aware by the esthetical subjects. The solution lies in the promotion of the esthetical
consciousness of the society as a whole.
It is necessary to point out here the differential of estheticism. There is different esthetical
consciousness under different ideology. accordingly, the esthetical experience is also different
under different cultural background. Such differential of the esthetical subjects by no means lessens
the possibility of realizing the museum values, on the contrary, it enables museums to exert greater
attraction to visitors from different countries and places, thus realizing their esthetical value in a

108
 larger scale. museums can not only satisfy the esthetical requirements of domestic visitors, but also
that of foreign visitors. They are good places to satisfy manifold requirements of the esthetical
subjects.
4. The Value of Morality
The Chinese sociefy pays more attention to the moral value of museums. On their part, the Chinese
museums work rather hard to extol the virtues such as patriotism, collectivism and selfishless
devotion by means of their displays and exhibitions. The Chinese govemment even set up a number
of museums dedicated specially to the heroes and exemplary figures, such as Lei Feng and many
others, for the purpose of extolling and publicizing their communist virtues and glorious deeds. The
Chinese govemment also pays high attention to setting up museums in honour of the great and
famous men and women in history, for the purpose of raising the moral status of the visitors to a
higher level through a subtle influence of the thoughts, characters and deeds of those historical
figures. The moral value acts in co-ordination with the esthetical value. Some moral values are
esteemed as virtues. Virtues represent an important aspect of the national spirit as well as a
contribution to the precious spiritual treasure of mankind as a whole. One of the responsibilities of
museums is to publicize and extol these virtues. The moral value of museums lies exactly in
eulogizing the noble deeds, characters and ideals.
The four kinds of values as we have discussed above are interrelated one another. The value of
verifying history and the value of providing knowledge can be put in a traditional expression as "true,"
"good" and "beauty." So, the museums are the carriers of the "true," "good" and "beauty" values at
the same time which no other institution can compete with. That is why the museums are more
colourful and brilliant than any other cultural carriers. Therefore, the museums are praised as the
cultural miniatures of mankind as well as the show windows of the spiritual civilization of a nation .

III. The Ethical Outlook of Chinese Museums

In the field of practical ethics, a number of branches have been developed, such as medicai ethics,
legal ethics, enterprise ethics and politicai ethics, etc., this situation cannot but give an impetus to
the establishment and development of museums ethics. The studies on the Code of Professional
Elhics carried out by ICOM reflect the efforts dedicated to the museum ethical research. The ethicai
thinking and outstanding Chinese characteristics by inheriting both the historical and revolutionary
trn.ditions. The Chinese museums attached great importance to establishing people's relationship
as well as fostering their thinking in terms of the ethical norms. Thus, the Chinese museum
professionals who have been following their line for long are people of high professional morality and
refinement. Their behaviors are mostly controlled by moral force rather than legal force. The ethical
thought of Chinese museums can be reflected mainly in three aspects as follows:
1. "An Pin Le Dao"
"An Pin La Dao' is an old Chinese idiom expressing a traditional virtue of China. To put it into English
verbally, ~ means "to regard poverty w~h equanimity and to find pleasure in devoting to one's
course." To put ~ into contemporary language, "An Pin" means to regard the material scantness with
equanim~, while "Le Oao" means to devote oneself to one's ideal and deeply love one's career. As
a matteroffact, the museum undertaking is the one with scanty material resources, with low payment
and retums, especially in China. It is really a virtue for Chinese museum workers to carry on such
an undertaking and set their hearts on it for a long period of time. A great number of Chinese museum
workers even devoted a life-long service to this undertaking, neither changed their mind nor to be
attracted by any other jobs with higher payments. What makes them to stick themselves firmly :0
such a line with material scantness and low payments? The explanation is that there are special
professional attractions and unusual qualification demands in this line. As museum work requires
high professional skills which can be obtained only through long-term accumulations, so, as a rule,
the longer the workers accumulate their knowledge, the higher their professional skills attained.
Therefore, it is a professional requirement of the museum undertaking for a long-term stabilization
of its staff members, accordingly, the museum workers should also be well-prepared in mind to lead
a life-long career with material scantness. This actually means to make a personal sacrifice.
Furthermore, "to regard poverty with equanimity" (An Pin) must be linked with "to find pleasure in
devoting to one's course" (Le Oao) . If not, the former would lose its sense and value. The ancient

109
 Chinese philosophers, Confucius and Mencius, both thought highly of Yanhui's virtue of An Pin Le
Dao; yet cast their eyesights on "Le Dao." It is mainly due to a noble professional responsibility and
love, we museum workers are abie to regard the material scantness with equanimity. The museum
workers always share a professional pride among them and experience a feeling of nobleness in their
work. The reason is that the museums are linked with things of "true, good and beautiful; and linked
with the glorious history of a state and a nation. The national pride combining with professional
nobleness creates a special attractive power of the museums, which in its tum enables the museum
workers to find pleasure in dedicating themselves to their course without being scared by material
scantness. Thus, the thinking and feeling of An Pin Le Dao represent the ethical mainstay of the
Chinese museums.
2. Prefer Justice to Profit
The relationship between justice and profit is a traditional theme of Chinese ethics. Justice means
the ideal of morality, while profrt means economical gains. The traditional Chinese ethics prefer
justice to profit The Communist Party of China also thinks highly of setting up the mind of serving
to people wholeheartedly. Therefore, over a long period of time, the Chinese museums, in terms with
their ethical thinking and practice, uphold a mind of selfishless devotion to the public and regard H
as a glorious deed as to submit individual interests to collective interests, what is more, they take
haggling over money reward and individual interests as mean conducts so give no thought to them.
The noble ideal and professional dignity have become the motive power in work while the material
incentive has been debased to an immaterial position. However, as China is now in the course of
establishing a socialist market economy, the ideas of common people on moral values are changing
too. Greater and greater attention has been paid to the money regards of the workers. The moral
concept of preferring justice to profrt" has been replacing by a value outlook of combining justice
and profH into one. But, the unification of things in practice cannot be attained as easily as in thinking.
The contradiction between justice and profit remains a probiem throughout the wortd and is to be
solved gradually in the course of practice. For example, saying that "museum is a non-profitable
organization; is this an economical problem or an ethical one? And, what is the relationship between
social effects and economical effects? all these appear to be complicated probiems in practice.
The relationship between justice and profit can be extended into relationship between collectives
and individuals. Chinese morality attaches great importance to the collective interests. To submH the
interests of the individuals to that of the collectives is regarded as an ethical norm in China For
. Chinese museum professionals, collectivism is an important connotation of their moral accomplish-
ment.
3. Self-cultivation
In China, to conduct self-cultivation, in other words, to attain moral refinement by onese~, is a
traditional virtue too. The Communist Party of China pays great attention to the self-cultivation of the
party members. Ever since the CPC came to power, the Party and the state never cease their efforts
in upholding such a good tradition through encouraging all workers and staff members to conduct se~
cultivation and ideological training. Se~-cultivation includes not only setting up one's noble ideal, but
also the correct handling with the human relationships, particularty the relationship between
individuals and collectives. Therefore, self-cultivation represents a moral practice with an abundant
intention. In comparing the morality with the legality, the Chinese museums pay greater attention to
the fostering of mOrality. Chinese museum workers enjoy an intimate relationship among them.
People working together in a small unit, know one another well and they behave themselves just like
members in a big family. Accordingly, strong affections exist side by side with deep contradictions.
The way of adjusting the relationships among'people lies mostiy in practicing self-Criticism by both
sides. To raise people's moral quality to a higher level remains a good prescription for solving the
contradictions among them and tuming the passive factors into active ones. The professional zeal
and good human relationships maintained by Chinese museum workers rely inainly on their se~
cultivation in ideological and moral aspects.
Nevertheless, in the great torrent of reform and opening to outside wortd there are multiple outlooks
on values which inevitably flush the brains of Chinese museum workers. Thus, it is not enough to rely
solely on the moral force now, efforts have been made in strengthening the legal construction in

llO
museums. This is another question which I am not going to discuss here.
My respectful friends and colleaguesl In concluding this presentation, please allow me to stress on one
more point, that is, the philosophy of Chinese museums never represents a close system. Although
Chinese museums took root in the soil of Chinese historical and revolutionary traditions, yet they absorbed
the value outlooks of the Westem museums at the very beginning of their foundations. Then, taking
Marxism as its theoretical guidance, the philosophy of Chinese Museums is able to incorporate into itsen
valuable and progressive thoughts of diverse natures. For more than a decade, owing to the favourable
conditions of the reform and opening to the outside wond, the Chinese museological circle gets a deeper
insight into the generality of museums of different countries, high allention has been paid to the learning
and studying the theoretical and practical experiences of the Westem museums, and accordingly, the
exchanges and cooperation with the museums of other countries have been strengthened. In this aspect,
I am very glad to mention here how the wot1< of ICOFOM have been highly appreciated by Chinese
museological circle, and the studies on its theoretical outputs have been carried on with great interest
among us. Chinese Museum, the periodical of Chinese Society of Museums, as well as some other Chinese
museological publications, have published one after another the messages and information conceming
academic activities of ICOFOM. A series of articles and representative approaches have been introduced
too, including those of S. Tsuruta, C.K. Schriener, V. Sofka, P. van Mensch, W. Cluzinski, Z. Stransky, T.
Sola, M. Scherar, G.E. Burcaw and others. Bedises, the papers and information conceming the Movement
of New Museology have also been introduced. Hereafter, we well keep a sharper eye on the activities of
ICOFOM and lake a more active part in it.
Finally, I appreciate deeply your kindness of listening patientiy to my long speech. Thank you very much.

111
 V

ICOFOM-LAM
 II REGIONAL ICOFOM LAM MEETING

MUSEOLOGY, MUSElJMS, SPACE AND POWER

IN LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN

Quito, Ecuador, July 18/23 1993

Conclusions and Recommendations

Ino'oduction

The participants of the II ICOFOM LAM: Regional Meeting. representing Argentina, Brnzil.
Ecuador. Peru and Venezuela. assembled to discuss the topic Museology, museum", S[1Qce and
power III LaIlll America and tile Olrlbbean. report the following.
The Latin American and Caribbean countries are undergoing an economic transformation that
has a dettrmining repercussion on the social, political and cultur.!! aspects. It is convenient that
ml~~eology make use of this articulation to establish real links between the political and economic
powers, so as to contribute to strengthen the identities of this region.
The State m~~t assume its responsibilities in pT1lctice. by improving its organization.
determining a cultur.!! policy and backing the conunitment of its authorities.
In this way, it is confirmed that lIIe Swle should not neglect lis hertwge guardlall role and
lis responstbllttJ for tile co~aIlon and tnlegrttJ of such hertwge. recommended in the Caracas
Declaration, (1992).
The history of Latin American people has been the result of deep social, political and
economic conflicts. In this wllY. singular values have arisen. which maIl)' times ignored or overlooked
the significance that anonymous communtfJes have had in hist.orical and cultural processes.
Nowadays, meditating on the role concerning museums in Latin America and the Caribb,an .
in view of the complex and uncertain reality that these regional cOIUltries live requires an evaluation
of the political dimension of Museology and the ideologic implications, essential to the professional
practices and to the social function ofmuscwns.
In previous events, the concept of muselUll as a conununication process, an alternative
resource of integral education, a source of community values and socialization. an inttraction space
and 8 cause of social transformation has been claimed and reaffumed. Museums are linked to time as
an expr~on Of Immorwltty; to space as a place for lIIe untouchable and to vital wealth. in the
SlIJIement of dualtfJes such as nature and culture; unity and multiplicity. and in the fact of being
subject and object at the same time.
Although the Latin American muselUll responds to space, time and culture factors which
diverse historical processes have predetermined it is also summoned to asslUlle a new challenge: to
contribute to the integral development of the countries of the continent
The political dimension that Museology should acquire, demands from its professionals,
effort, oriented to the identification, comprehension and management of the sources, instruments.
mechanisms and destination of the twodirectional power relations. in which the muselUll is enrolled
within the political context It is not only a question of the power that inlluences thi, institution from
upper decision spheres, but also the one that arises from internal intelectual self determined potentials
and politi cal administrative self management, which such institution possesses.
What we have previously pointed out reveals that the survival possibilities of the museum
strivc in a conflict bctween external and internal powers. from outside or inherent thereto.

115
 Nc:vcrth~l~ss, th~ musrum k~cps th~ awarcm~ss of its ins~r1ion in such conflict; th~ exc~ncmcc
ofth~ interaction ~stab1ish~d with th~ commwrity; th~ power of cvidcmces; the commwrication ability;
th~ ~xpcricm" and succ~ss in smnmoning disposals and th~ smsibility for det~cting d=and~ and
off~ring satisfactory answers to the individual and society altogeth~r. All this constitutes itli tYlison
d'~ 8lld its l~gitirnacy.
So, it is th~ way in which th~ mus~um in vi~w of an ali~nat~d, mithiJYing. forg~tful soci~ty.
C8ll 8lld must offer promising choic~s for th~ future, involv~d in th~ search for the integral man,
awar~ of his space, tim~ 8lld culture.
It must b~ guid~d to th~ dc:v~lopm~nt of its own cr~ative, debating, innovativ~ abilities; it must
be oriented to the professionalization of its hum8ll resources; to the understanding and satisfaction of
its public; to man's integration under conditions of equality, respect 8lld freedom.

Taking tnio consJderaIJoll whilJ luis been sIDled and bearing in mlnd (he agenda of (his
eYen!, we submit (he following constderal1on..~ and reco11l1tlt!1ldolJon..~ according to (he followIng
order,

1. CUlture 8lld society

2. Museology
3. Museums
4. Space
5. Power

I.Culture and society

Conslderln:,

that Latin America 8lld the Caribbean possess native cultures that go back mi11eniums;

that Latin Am~riC3 8lld th~ Caribb~8ll processes of colonization and innnigration have gradually
impos~d diverse cultural guidelines;

that the countries of the region started appraising their history and heritage in a general way only by
the md of the XIX century.

that the cultural development results from the relation between man and his environment, and is
closely related to the integral growth of each society, leading to the living conditions of its people;

that in the particular case of Latin America and the Caribbean, the integral development of culture is
connected to th~ underst8llding of their own history and the relation ofits ancestors with their
environment;

that the present can be understood, the future planned, and the personal, national and regional
identity strengthened through this knowledge;

that it is convenient to emphasize that the living conditions of the people of the region will improve if
culture goes hand in hand with development;

R~.commmd5,

To put into practice actions tending to secure the knowledge and comprehension of the multicultural
and pluriethnic character of the countries of the region;

116
To value the traditionalleaming that goes together with the ethnic, historical and geographical realities
of the different cultures of each of the countries of the region;

To elabora~ specially designed programs, so that the inhabitants from Latin America and the
Canobean recognize themselves in an authentic process of cultural integration;

SocJefJes In thetr responsJbJe lnstonces

To sponsor the recognition and use of the rights of cuItura1 minorities;

To contnoute to the preservation of cuItura1 heritage, taking into account that museums arc the
mainly responsible to take care of the same;

To de~rmine, in each case, the interpretation and usc of the objects that have belonged to the culture
they represent

2. Museology
Conriderin~

that Museology is a scientific discipline dlat socially commits those who work in it

that the notions reported in the documents published by the International Committee for Museology
(lCOFOM), as a consequence of dIe scientific work canied out in its annual symposia. as well as
those endorsed in the Round Table of Santiago de Chile and in the Caracas Declaration -elaborated
by museum professionals of diverse disciplines related to the same- establish the theoretical
fundanlental basis for dIe development of Mus eo logy as a scientific discipline;

-that representatives from Latin America and the Caribbean countries were present in such events;

that the contemporary museum problems, its functions and objectives have been specified in ~uch
documents;

that Museology as a science and dIe museum as an institution conJrlbute to the COnstrl!.cti01l and
comprehenslon o/a systm to gl!.lde lM COUf$ o/socl2ty, considering the development as a part of
that system and that course;

We recommend,

Mllseology prOfessionals

-To get to know and disseminate all documentation referred to theoretical and applied Museology;

-To back, through concrete actions, the application and diffussion of scientific museologic concepts
within Latin American museums;

-To support the activities that ICOFOM LAM canies out in Latin America and the Caribbean, tending
to promote research and museological studies in the region, through senlinars, meetings, publications.
document translations and excl!anges among professionals;

-To put into practice the recommendations risen from the Hrst and Second Regional ICOFOM LAM
Meetings, according to the requil'enlents dlat each situation in pruticnlal' demands.

117
3. Museums
Conriclerinc,

-that museums are spaces and means of communication of values;

-that nowadays they are SWDIDoned to fu1fiII a social role that reveals the real image of each of the
complex cultures in which they arc iounersed;

-that they must make usc of and reveal the differences that exist between the diverse ethnic groups.
causing a self-knowledge and intercultural integration process;

-that the contcroporary museum has a commitment with the integral growth of society, asswniog each
day a role of greater responsibility with regard to it;

We recommend,

Different :sectors of:suciet}

-To sponsor the creation of community, neighbourhood and local museums and ecomuseums, based
on the concerns and needs of each social group;

Mw:eums

-To adopt measures tending to the dissemination of their acti\ities. using mass media for this purpose;

-To promote critical thought and evaluation of their woIk, proposing the participation of the
community they serve and involving this in the dynamics of their acti\1ties;

-To obtain a major understanding of cultural processes in time and space -in a synchronic and
diachronic m3lUler- through the planning of exlubitions whose subjects refer to diITerent ethnic
groups.

4. Space
Coruideltn:,

-that the time and space of museums invol\'es the past. present and future as wen as the physical.
social and cultural aspects;

-that muscwns must be understood in relation with the time and space of each society, working out
this connection as a continuity;

-that there exists a common Latin American history and tradition. which form its identity;

-that the diITerent expressions of each Latin American culture result from the society that reveals them
and that museums link these in an interdisciplinary way;

-that the success of the museologist's professional performance commit$ the incorporation of a
series of scientific disciplines, in close and complementary work;

-that educational systems of the countries of the region often do not correspond to reality;

118
 We J'e(;ommend,

[nsfJIutluns tmoIYed tn museologtCtJi "0710

-To infonn an institutions and people related to museums about the museological activities carried out
and to be carried out;

-To promote and support the diffusion ofmuseological texts in the countries of the region;

-To tend to a professional ethic development through the application and dissemination of the
IeOM Etllle and l'ro/lNtonal Deontolog} Code.

-To encourage the interdisciplinary activities in museums and the self-improvement regarding its
human resources;

[COM and [COFOM

-To stimulate the museologic conceptual unification. so that Latin American institutions linked to
Museology can finally give an homogeneus general and unified sight;

-To promote the production and dissemination of museological theoretical and technical texts;

Etbu:aiJonal tnstlJuiJons

-To follow the guidelines that the ethnic. historic and geographical realities of each of the region's
societies establish;

-To value and make use of the potential existent in museums, true agents of cultural growth;

MUM.'-um proj'lNtona/s

. -To guide the museological discourse to the present, including contemporary reality, proving at the
same time the pennanent relationship between past and present;

-To attain the correct use of Mus eo logy as a scientific discipline, asking for museological counsel to
whom it corresponds;

-To expedite the comprehension of the culture's specificity and globality; as wen as of the cultural
continuity, present in the synchronic and the diachronic aspects;

-To study and evaluate the degree of communication achieved through their messages, specially taking
into account the language used in exhibitioru;

-To put exhibition objects into context;

-To fonn interdisciplinary commissions that behave as a theoretical background of the diverse
activities perfonned;

-To help out professionals that work in these institutions and have no studies referred to museology,
through the fuIJillment of tutorships. courses and seminars related to the functions they carry out;

-To work effectively as a complement of the educational system

11 9
 5. Power
Conridain"

-that each COWltry of Latin America and the Caribbean presents particular features. due to the
peculiarities of their political and social realities;

-that its intt;graI development process is seriously limited due to the lack of continuity of different
governments' cultural guidelines;

-that certain sectors within Latin American societies have been historically used to achieve situations
ofpowcr;

-that the economic sphere fu1fi11s a fimdarnental role in the promotion. conservation and diffusion of
the cultural and natural heritage. contributing from different standpointl; to solve the cultural needs
that the State can no longer take care of.

-that neo-hoeral policies -actual1y used by most of Latin American governments- can, nevertheless,
commit the self-determination of the countries of the region;

-that in view of the privatization of their enterprises, the State must study the risks to which the
cultural and natural heritage arc subjected. guaranteeing their protection and permanence;

-that the musewn develops its action within a network of political and hegemonic interests. not always
in accordance with the communities' feeling;

-that each of the components of this network has its particular scope;

-that a musewn at the service of power offers an arbitrary system of references;

We recommend,

InlemalJonal organl1Jllion.~ responslble Jor the preservaIJon oJ the heritage

-To be solicitous about the permanence of coherent cultural policies. which guarantee the continuity of
each action;

HIgh gO'lernmenfal Instances

-To guarantee the continuity of fimdarnental cutural policies through different government,;

AuihoTtties and muse~

-To establish a counterbalanced relation between political, economic and cultural interests, creating
programs oriented to achieve the rescue of coUective memory and the development of people, in 8
Latin American time and space;

120
 -To be conveniently prepared, with regard to the diverse policies that the State can apply involving the
mUicum. in order to offer 3Il>Wcrs which do not alter the fundamental functions of the institution;

-To give priority at aD times to the museum and it$ cuJtura1 space, in vi(:W of the uprise of
matters of conflict at decision-making level

-To avoid the arbitrary usc of cultural and/or nlllllnl1 heritage with power and hegemonic ideological
goals.

PlnaJI}, the II ICOFOM lAM partJcJpGnts cunsJder thal It Is necessary w complele the
preceding theorelJazl /xzckgrolUlll."tth practJcal aclJons and tlIerifore bring forward the fol/(ftflng
m()(Jtms,

M()(Jon number 1

The elaboration of a pilot scheme for different museums of the region -which fulfill the
Conclusions and RecommendotJons agreed upon in this event- is recommended to delve deeply into
the supporting foundations of Latin American Museology.
In order to carry this out. ICOFOM LAM and competent int.cmational governmental and non-
governmental organizations are requested to put into practice the necessary measures and so
instrument this lim experience. It is also requested that its results be disseminated during the course of
the next ICOFOM General Conference, to be held in Norwil}' in 1995, so that they act as an example
for similar future experiences.

MQ/Jon number 2

The Undcrsecretariat of Education and Culture, Ministry of Education and Culture, Ecuador,
is suggested to study the appropriate mechanisms in order to make possible the creation of a
Coordinating Museum body, responsible for establishing the foundations and elaborating a national
niuseological policy, in agreement with the specific functions that such institutions must fulfill.

M ()(JQ1J number J

The Ecuadorean Ministry of Education and Culture is requested to take into account the
difficcult situation that equatorial museums lire generally undCl1;oing. providing them with
indispensable economic means, so that they can carry out their activities for the benefit of diverse
sectors of the society of this country.

LIkewLe, a Yole c!f support Is agreed for the fOI/(ftftTlg projects, on account of betng
cQ1J5/dered c!f tTllerest for the Reg/Q1J In general and the d/ffcfCTIt cOTl111fUntties tmo/Yed, In
partJcu/4r,

1. Petition to include Coro and La Vela in the list as of Natural and Cultural Heritage of
Mankind. submitted to UNESCO by Venezuela.

2. Measures initiated by the Town Council of Cuenca, Ecuador, tending to achiC"e

the declaration of the historic centre of the city as Cultural Heritage of Mankind.

3. Refunctioning of the building called La Perla de Cuenca in the city with the same name,
where in a near future, the Museum of Metals will function as a cultural
centre and seat of permanent and temporary exhibitions.

121
 AUTHORS

Maria BEZZEG, Institute and Museum of War History, Budapest, Hungary

Adriana Albi DAVIES, Alberta Museums Association, Edmonton, Canada

Andre DESVALLEES, Direction des Musees de France, Paris

DONG Jiping, Beijing Museum of Ancient Architecture, Beijing, China

John Aage GJESTRUM, Beverhru, Norway

LV Jimin, Chinese Museums Association, Beijing, China

MA Xigui, Beijing Capital Museum, Beijing, China

MA Zishu, State Bureau of Cultural Relics, Beijing, China

Pius B.MBONYA, Headmaster, Bariadi Sec School, Shinyanga, Tanzania

Heiki pARDI, Estionian National Museum, Tartu, Estonia

Anita B.SHAH, Hyderabad, India

SV Donghai, "Chinese Museum", Beijing, China

WANG Hongjun, Museum of Chinese History, Beijing, China

Damien W ATTEYNE, Cornrnunaure franyaise de Belgique, Bruxelles, Belgique

ZHANG Taichang, China Science and Technology Museum, Beijing, China

i 23
 ICOFOM STUDY SERIES (ISS)
Papers of ICOFOM's scientific symposia

1-20 are available as reprint

1,1983 Methodology of museology and professional training I

2, 1983 Museum - territory - society. New tendencies and new practices I
3, 1983 Methodology ofmuseology and professional training 2
Museum - territory - society. New tendencies and new practices 2
4, 1983 Museum - territory - society. New tendencies and new practices 3
5,1983 Methodology of museums and professional training 3

6,1984 Collecting today for tomorrow I

7,1984 Collecting today for tomorrow 2

8,1985 Originals and substitutes in museums I

9, 1985 Originals and substitutes in museums 2

10, 1986 Museology and identity I

11 , 1986 Museology and identity 2

12, 1987 Museology and museums I

13, 1987 Museology and museums 2

14,1988 Museology and developing countries - help or manipulation ? I

15,1988 Museology and developing countries - help or manipulation? 2

16, 1989 Forecasting - a museological tool? Museology and futurology

17,1990 Museology and the environment

19,1991 The language of exhibitions I

20, 1991 The language of exhibitions 2

21,1992 Theory and methodology of new museology/Current affairs in museology [in

preparation]

22, 1993 Museums, space and power [in preparation]

23, 1994 Object - document?

24, 1994 Museum and community I
25, 1995 Museum and community 2 [in preparation]