Journal of Food Engineering 100 (2010) 254260

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Journal of Food Engineering

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jfoodeng

Heat and mass transfer in combined convective and far-infrared drying

of fruit leather
Somkiat Jaturonglumlert *, Tanongkiat Kiatsiriroat
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50200, Thailand

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Combined convective and far-infrared drying is a challenging assignment due to complex relationship
Received 2 February 2010 between heat and mass transfer. In this paper, heat and mass transfer of fruit leather drying with com-
Received in revised form 8 April 2010 bination of hot air and far-infrared has been carried out. The heat and the mass transfer coefcients were
Accepted 9 April 2010
analyzed by heatmass analogy. It could be found that the ratio between heat and mass transfer coef-
Available online 4 May 2010
cients for the combination technique could not be obtained from the heatmass analogy classical model
and a modication is needed. The modied correlations for predicting ratio of heat and mass transfer
Keywords:
coefcients and the heat transfer coefcient in term of heat transfer Nusselt number are developed.
Heatmass analogy
Heat and mass transfer coefcient
The model could t the experimental data quite well within 10% deviation.
Far-infrared radiation 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Hot air drying
Fruit leather

1. Introduction
Combined convective and far-infrared drying is widely used in
many industrial processes for thin and at materials such as paper,
textile, painting and fruit leather (Adonis and Khan, 2004; Bird
et al., 2002). Application of infrared heating for food drying is re-
cently of special interest because of its progress in radiator design
and construction and its high efciency which is between 80% and
90%. Infrared radiation could transmit through water at short
wavelength and be absorbed on the surface at long wavelength.
Therefore, drying of thin layer seems to be more efcient at far-
infrared radiation, while the drying of thicker material gives better
result at near-infrared radiation (Nowak and Lewicki, 2004).
Drying of fruit leather is a process which involves simultaneous
heat and mass transfer. The heat transfer rate is a function of exter-
nal heat transfer coefcient and the thermal conductivity of the
material. While mass transfer rate generally depends on mass
transfer coefcient and mass diffusivity of water in the material.
With far-infrared radiation drying, energy is absorbed by the sur-
face layers and converted into heat. In wet bodies, the highest tem-
perature occurs under the irradiated surface layer and depends on
the radiation properties of the materials.
There are three stages in material drying. The rst one accounts
for heating up till there is water evaporates from the surface. If the
evaporation is steady, this step is named constant drying rate per-
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +66 5394144; fax: +66 5394145.
E-mail address: yaidragon@hotmail.com (S. Jaturonglumlert).
iod. At this state, it is assumed that internal mass transfer resis-
tance is negligible and the water vapor pressure near the surface
is equal to the saturated vapor pressure at the surface temperature.
The second part occurs at the beginning of the falling rate period.
Dry patch occurs on the surface and drying rate begins to decrease.
Further drying leads to a dry surface layer and the zone of water
evaporation retreats towards the center of the body and this period
of drying is treated as the third part which is the fully falling rate
period.
Heat and mass transfer mechanisms can be deduced directly
from differential transfer equations and the heat and mass transfer
coefcients could be written in terms of dimensionless variables
(Boukadida et al., 2001; Chen et al., 2002; Luikov and Mikhailov,
1965) such as Nusselt number, Prandtl number, Schmidt number,
Sherwood number and Stanton number.
Heat and mass transfer during drying of food material with
radiation energy is absorbed by the surface layers and converted
to heat. Hence, heat generated in a layer under the surface is con-
ducted towards the center of the body as well as to its surface. Heat
ux from the surface to the surrounding air is transferred by con-
vection. On the other hand, mass ux is transported all the time
from the center of the material to its surface. At the surface, both
uxes are concurrent and the temperature and moisture proles
in the air could be differed the occurring during convective drying.
Some infrared experimental drying combined with convective
drying of foodstuffs have been reported by Adonis and Khan
(2004), Nowak and Lewicki (2004), Ranjan et al. (2002), Sun et al.
(2005), Meeso et al. (2007), Pawar et al. (2008) and Swasdisevi et

0260-8774/$ - see front matter 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2010.04.007
 S. Jaturonglumlert, T. Kiatsiriroat / Journal of Food Engineering 100 (2010) 254260 255

Nomenclature

A total area (m2) Sh Sherwood number

AS total surface area (m2) St Stanton heat transfer number
a, b, c empirical constant Stm Stanton mass transfer number
Cps heat capacity of sample (kJ/kg K) t time (s)
Cpa heat capacity of air (kJ/kg K) T temperature (K)
F12 radiation shape factor Ta hot air temperature (K)
h heat transfer coefcient (W/m2 K) TFIR far-infrared radiation temperature (K)
hc convective heat transfer coefcient (W/m2 K) Ts surface temperature (K)
hr radiative heat transfer coefcient (W/m2 K) T1 ambient temperature (K)
0
hr modied radiative heat transfer coefcient (W/m2 K) TG gas temperature (K)
ht total heat transfer coefcient (W/m2 K) Tb bottom sample temperature (K)
hm mass transfer coefcient (m/s) va air velocity (m/s)
Hsorp the total heat of sorption (J/kg K) x thickness (m)
Hevop heat of evaporation (J/kg K) yG vapor density at gas temperature (kg/m3)
Hwett heat of wetting of material (J/kg K) ys saturated density at surface temperature (kg/m3)
k thermal conductivity (W/mK) z distance between the sample and heater
L length (m)
Le Lewis number Greek letters
ms mass of sample (kg) qa density of air (kg/m3)
mv mass of vapor (kg/m2 s) e absorptivity of material
MR moisture ratio u the overall absorption coefcient
M moisture content (% dry base) r Stefan and Boltzmann constant, 5.67  108 (W/m2 K4)
Mcr critical moisture content (% dry base)
Nu Nusselt number Subscripts and superscripts
n empirical constant for ChiltonColburn analogy 1 radiation heater surface
Pr Prandtl number 2 sample surface
qc convective heat ux (W/m2) a air
qr net heat ux by radiation (W/m2) m mass
qt total heat transfer (W/m2) s surface
Re Reynolds number v vapor
Sc Schmidt number

al. (2009). Advantages of infrared radiation over convective heating The Nusselt and Sherwood numbers could be rewritten in the
were higher heat transfer coefcients and shorter time in drying terms of Stanton numbers for heat and mass transfers as (Kays
process. Moreover, the material temperature could easily be con- et al., 2005)
trolled and thus monitoring of food quality and functionality dur-
ing drying could be achieved. However, none of these considered Nu Sh
St ; St m 2
the effect of infrared heat uxes on the total heat and mass transfer RePr ReSc
coefcients.
The objective of this study is to determine the relationship of Then the ratio of the heat and mass transfer Stanton numbers
heat and mass transfer coefcients for drying process of a fruit could be (Kays et al., 2005)
leather which comes from longan under a combination of convec-
St Nu Sc Nu h D h 1
tive and far-infrared drying. Moreover, the validity range of the Le Le Le: 3
Stm Sh Pr Sh hm k hm qa Cpa
well-known analogy between heat and mass transfer is discussed
and the inuences of the operational parameters on the heat trans-
Le is Lewis number which is the ratio of thermal and mass
fer coefcients are examined.
diffusivities.
In case of laminar ow and low mass transfer rate, the rela-
2. Theoretical considerations tion can be inferred as ChiltonColburn analogy when the
ratio of Stanton numbers of heat and mass transfer is unity
2.1. Analogy of heat and mass transfer coefcients (Parrouffe et al., 1997; Mills, 1995). For general cases, the analogy
could be
The concept of analogy between heat and mass transfer was
rst presented by Chilton and Colburn (1934) (Bird et al., 2002). h
qa Cpa Le1n : 4
A theoretical background of this concept is given by the boundary hm
layer theory which shows that the dimensionless heat and mass
transfer equations are similar. A classical result of the analogy is The power n is often approximated as 1/3.
that the ratio of the heat and mass transfer coefcients in terms This correlation is very useful to evaluate mass transfer coef-
of Nusselt and Sherwood Number could be (Kays et al., 2005): cient from heat transfer data. However, various theoretical and
Nu h D h 1 experimental studies on heat and mass transfer showed that the
; 1 exponent value (1n) is not always equal 2/3 and a modication
Sh hm k hm qa Cpa
is needed, especially for combined convective and far-infrared
where Nu hL
k
; Sh hDm L. drying.
256 S. Jaturonglumlert, T. Kiatsiriroat / Journal of Food Engineering 100 (2010) 254260

2.2. Combined convective and far-infrared radiation relation environment are neglected, the rate of heat absorbed by the sam-
ple is equal to the summation of the rate of heat accumulated in
Lebedev (1960) developed an empirical relation for far-infrared the sample and the rate of heat for water evaporation. Then
radiation drying. Textile material, clay, sand, rubber and wood
dms Cps T s T b

were materials used in the study (Keey, 1972). The expression qt 2
dmv Hsorp : 6
was given as dt
 2  0:4 Since
ht L TG T FIR
Nu aRe0:5 MRb : 5 qt qc qr 7
k Ts TG
a and b are constants which depend upon the fruit being dried. All or
temperatures are measured in the absolute values. The parameter qt Ahc T G  T s r/T 4FIR  T 4s  8
(TG/Ts)2 is accounted for the increase in apparent convective trans-
fer due to evaporation from a wet surface and the term (TFIR/TG)0.4 is u is overall absorption coefcient which can be estimated from
accounted for the radiation heat transfer rate. MR is moisture ratio the emissivity of the far-infrared radiation heater, the emissivity of
which is the ratio of moisture content at any time in the material to sample surface and the radiation shape factor between the infrared
its initial moisture content. radiator and the sample (Keey, 1972) and it could be estimated
This equation is also used to determine the total heat transfer from
coefcient for convective and far-infrared drying of longan leather / e1 e2 F 12 : 9
in this study.
The net radiative energy transfer between far-infrared radiation
2.3. Heat and mass transfer coefcients of longan fruit leather under heater and the sample could be rewritten analogously to the con-
combined convective and far-infrared drying vective heat transfer as

qr r/T 4FIR  T 4s hr T FIR  T s ; 10

Consider a sample which is longan puree in this study that will
be dried to be fruit leather in Fig. 1. The sample is heated by hot air where
and far-infrared in a chamber to evaporate water from the sample.
T 4FIR  T 4s
The energy balance at the sample is shown in Fig. 2. When the hr r/ : 11
back heat loss and the net radiation between the sample and its T FIR  T s

Fig. 1. (a) Longan puree, (b) Longan fruit leather.

Fig. 2. A schematic diagram of combined convective and far-infrared drying.

 S. Jaturonglumlert, T. Kiatsiriroat / Journal of Food Engineering 100 (2010) 254260 257

This term could be modied in term of (TG  Ts) which is Mass of vapor is determined from the difference of initial and
nal mass of moisture in the sample mass during a period of time.
0 T FIR  T s
hr hr : 12 The vapor density of the air stream is determined from the mea-
T G  T s
sured temperature and the relative humidity of the air stream.
Then total heat transfer coefcient which is a combination of The vapor density at the sample surface is determined from the
convective and radiative heat transfer coefcients (Abraham and surface temperature by taking the assumption of saturation at
Sparrow, 2003) could be the surface (Holman, 1978; Haque, 2007).
0
ht hc hr ; 13
3. Materials and experimental setup
and
qt ht AT G  T s : 14 In this study, the fruit sample for testing was longan (Dimocar-
pus longan Lour.). Each sample of 100 g of longan puree was uni-
For longan leather drying, the total heat of sorption (Hsorp) from formly spreaded in a tray and kept inside a drying chamber. The
the surface of longan leather have been experimentally tested Jatu- sample thickness was measured with a dial micrometer. At least
ronglumlert and Kiatsiriroat (2008) which are six measurements of the thickness were made at different points.
Hsorp Hev ap Hwet 2502:1  2:397T s 280e12:8M ; 15 Only 5% deviation of the average thickness was allowed for each
sample. Initial moisture content was measured by drying 100 g
For the overall absorption coefcient u of longan leather, since of sample to a constant weight in a vacuum oven at 70 1 C for
the emissivity of the product depends on its moisture content. In 68 h under 26 in. Hg vacuum. Initial water activity and initial con-
this study, an experimental equation for collective the overall centration were directly measured with AQUA Lab Series 3TE
absorption coefcient could be estimated by Jaturonglumlert and equipment and hand held refractometer respectively. The condi-
Kiatsiriroat (2009) tions of longan puree are shown in Table 1.
Fig. 3 shows a schematic sketch of the experimental setup.
/ 0:379  0:014z 0:418M: 16 There was a blower to supply air into a drying chamber. The enter-
ing air velocity at the drying chamber could be varied between 0
2.4. Mass transfer coefcient and 4.5 m/s. The temperature of the entering air could be con-
trolled at 3080 C by an electrical heater. The drying chamber
The convective mass transfer coefcient at the sample surface was a well-insulated rectangular duct. Inside there was a far-infra-
could be determined by considering the difference of water vapor red ceramic heater with an intensity level control and its maxi-
density in the air stream and that at the surface of the sample. The mum power was 800 W. The sample for drying was kept in a
mass transfer coefcient could be given as tray under the IR heater.
The weight of the sample (for measuring mass of evaporating
mv water) could be recorded every 10 min during drying for determi-
hm : 17
yG  ys nation of drying curve by an electronic balance (Sartorius, cp3202s,
Germany) with an accuracy of 0.01 g. The air velocity was mea-
sured by an anemometer with an accuracy of 0.1 m/s at the posi-
Table 1
The conditions of longan puree samples.
tion over the sample. The fan speed was controlled by a variable
electronic transistor invertor (Delta, VFD-S, Taiwan). The air tem-
Description Value perature and the relative humidity were controlled by a digital
Initial mass 100 0.1 g controller (Shimax, MAC3F, Japan), which displayed an accuracy
Initial moisture content 222.76%db of 0.3%. The samples were then prepared for radiant heating. A
Initial water activity 0.971 0.05
K-type thermocouple (30 gauge Hypodermic Needle Probe, Omega
Initial concentration 31.38 0.5%brix
Initial thickness 7 0.5 mm Engineering, Stamford, CT) was inserted into the bottom of the
sample. The gas temperature was measured by thermocouple wire

Fig. 3. Schematic sketch of the experimental setup.

258 S. Jaturonglumlert, T. Kiatsiriroat / Journal of Food Engineering 100 (2010) 254260
was kept inside an aluminum rod which served as a shield from
radiation. The surface temperature was measured by an infrared
optical pyrometer (model OS550, Omega Engineering, Stamford,
CT). The pyrometer was focused at a 0.009 m diameter circle from
a 0.61 m distance. The spot location was conrmed by a laser sight-
ing viewer (model OS550-LS, Omega Engineering, Stamford, CT)
prior to each run. A monitoring programs, was used to log the data
which were downloaded into a computer.
Convective drying was done in the same dryer with hot air tem-
perature at 60, 70 and 80 C and at an air velocities of 0.50, 075 and
1.00 m/s. Combined convective and far-infrared drying test were
conducted at ve radiator temperatures (TFIR) of 300 to 500 C with
distance between the sample and the infrared heat source of 10
30 cm. The inlet air temperature and velocity were kept constant
at 30 C and 0.5 m/s, respectively.
4. Results and discussions
4.1. Comparison of drying rate and Nusselt number (Nu) between hot
air drying and combined convective and far-infrared drying
Fig. 4 shows drying rate curves of the sample for hot air drying
and combined convective and far-infrared drying. For hot air dry-
ing, there was no constant rate period but only falling rate period.
While for combined convective and far-infrared drying, there was a
constant rate period at the beginning and falling rate period after
that. In both techniques the drying rate period could be catego-
rized into two parts. The rst falling rate period was almost cer-
Fig. 4. Comparison of drying rate curve time for hot air drying at 70 C and 1.0 m/s
and combined convective and far-infrared drying at 400 C and distance between
the sample and the infrared heat source is 20 cm.
Fig. 5. Comparison of Nu versus MR for hot air drying at 70 C and 1.0 m/s and
combined convective and far-infrared drying at 400 C and distance between the
sample and the infrared heat source is 20 cm.
tainly well in excess of diffusion rate, and the second falling rate
periods occurred when the rate was controlled mainly by the rate
of internal diffusion of moisture from the inside of the material to
the outside surface.
Fig. 5 shows the values of Nu in these drying periods. Again, the
total Nu from the combined convective and far-infrared radiation
drying is higher than that with hot air drying in all drying periods.
The calculated heat transfer coefcient could also be classied into
three ranges. The rst one is the constant rate period which starts
from wet material to the moisture ratio at around 0.75 which is the
critical moisture content of the drying process. The second range is
the 1st falling rate period of which the moisture ratio is between
0.35 and 0.75. At this state, the top surface is dried while the bot-
tom surface is still wet. The 2nd falling rate period is found when
the moisture ratio is less than 0.35. The nal moisture content of
the sample is considered at 14% dry basis.
4.2. Ratio of heat and mass transfer coefcient for longan fruit leather
for hot air drying
Table 2 shows the ratio h/hm on all periods calculated from Eq.
(4) and experiments are tabulated in terms hot air temperature
and inlet air velocity and the results are shown in Table 2. In this
case the far-infrared radiation is not taken into account, the ratio
h/hm increases with hot air temperature and decreases slightly
with inlet air velocity. The calculation value h/hm based on the
ChiltonColburn analogy and experiments showed a similar trend.
The data shown this value remain close to unity and exhibits a
maximum variation of 8%, thus the analogy is veried to be valid
within the experiments.
4.3. Effect of combined convective and far-infrared drying on the ratio
of heat and mass transfer coefcient for longan fruit leather
The results when far-infrared radiation is included at various
distances between the sample and the infrared heat source are
shown in Table 3. It could be seen that the ratio ht/hm on constant
rate period with combined convective and far-infrared radiation is
less than that from the hot air drying which means that there is
higher mass transfer rate with the combined technique. As the
infrared radiation temperature increases the ratio decreases
signicantly.
A modied equation to predict the ratio ht/hm for combined
convective and far-infrared radiation is also developed. A correla-
tion for predicting the ratio ht/hm of all periods with combined con-
vective and far-infrared radiation could be
 1:152
ht T FIR
qa cp;a Le2=3 /0:304 : 18
hm TG
The correlation could predict 90% of experimental data within
10% deviation as the results shown in Fig. 6. This empirical equa-
tion is applicable for the following ranges: z = 1030 cm and
TFIR = 300500 C.
Table 2
Effect of the ratio h/hm on all periods for hot air drying.
va (m/s) Ta (C)
60 70 80
0.5 979.39 (976.40) 1148.07 (1143.02) 1234.88 (1277.72)
1.0 946.74 (926.81) 1091.61 (1046.08) 1109.80 (1030.23)
1.5 916.20 (911.42) 1008.91 (1001.92) 1074.00 (965.05)
The values in brackets are h/hm estimated from equation 4.
 S. Jaturonglumlert, T. Kiatsiriroat / Journal of Food Engineering 100 (2010) 254260 259

Table 3
Effect of combined convective and far-infrared drying on ht/hm. Inlet air velocity and distance between the sample and the infrared heat source are 0.5 m/s and 20 cm respectively.
The average air temperature over the sample is about 6080 C.

z (cm) TFIR (C)

300 350 400 450 500
10 844.36 (862.43) 729.65 (846.64) 463.26 (840.06) 421.23 (826.64) 402.62 (819.58)
15 877.68 (831.40) 733.26 (825.49) 566.60 (826.64) 483.29 (819.58) 444.40 (817.28)
20 931.24 (824.91) 773.94 (821.55) 611.05 (819.58) 531.28 (817.28) 526.71 (810.71)
25 933.25 (821.46) 788.82 (819.85) 755.49 (817.28) 622.17 (812.52) 599.96 (807.95)
30 1022.12 (819.12) 966.57 (816.83) 833.24 (814.40) 722.13 (808.36) 699.93 (806.35)

The values in brackets are ht/hm estimated from equation 4.

4.4. Heat transfer coefcient for combined convective and far-infrared Fig. 8 shows a comparison of total heat transfer coefcient be-
drying tween the calculated results from the empirical equation and the
experimental data. The simulations results can predict 85% of
A correlation similar to Eq. (5) for predicting the total heat experimental data within 10% deviation.
transfer coefcient for combined convective and far-infrared dry-
ing could be
Table 4
 2  0:4
ht L TG T FIR The empirical parameters of the Nusselt number for combined convective and far-
Nu 2:009Re0:5 MR0:025 : 19 infrared drying.
k Ts TG
Period  2  0:4
Fig. 7 also shows the equation tting of the experimental data. Nu aRe0:5 TG
TS
T FIR
TG MRb
To get better results, a set of the correlations of the total heat trans- a b r2
fer coefcients for different stages of drying are developed of
Constant rate 0.899 1.201 0.879
which the related constants are shown in Table 4. This empirical 1st Falling rate 2.476 0.630 0.759
equation is applicable for the following ranges: TFIR = 300500 C, 2nd Falling rate 3.482 0.303 0.794
0.1 < MR < 1.0, 4000 < Re < 12,000 and distance between the sam- All 2.009 0.025 0.741
ple and the infrared heat source is 20 cm, all temperatures in this
equation are evaluated at absolute temperature.

Fig. 6. Comparison the ratio ht/hm of experiment and empirical from Table 3. Fig. 8. Comparison total heat transfer coefcient of experiment and empirical from
Table 4.

Fig. 7. Nu/Re0.5 versus (TG/Ts)2(TFIR/TG)0.4(MR)0.025 for combined convective and far- Fig. 9. Comparison of heat transfer coefcient and drying time for hot air drying at
infrared drying at 400 C and distance between the sample and the infrared heat 70 C and 1.0 m/s and combined convective and far-infrared drying at distance
source is 20 cm. between the sample and the infrared heat source is 20 cm.
260 S. Jaturonglumlert, T. Kiatsiriroat / Journal of Food Engineering 100 (2010) 254260
4.5. Drying time of longan fruit leather with combined convective and
far-infrared drying
Fig. 9 shows the experimental data of longan fruit leather dry-
ing with hot air only and combined convective and far-infrared
drying. For hot air drying, the air temperature is at 70 C with a
speed of 1.0 m/s. It could be seen that the second method gives
shorter drying time to the nal moisture content which is around
14% dry basis, due to the higher heat and mass transfer coefcients.
Increase of far-infrared radiation heat ux from 1.90 to 4.20 kW/
m2 results in shorter drying time.
5. Conclusions
The following conclusions can be drawn based on the results
obtained in this study as
(1) When the far-infrared radiation is taken into an account for
longan fruit leather drying, the ratio ht/hm becomes lower
than that obtained in the case without far-infrared radiation
which means that higher mass transfer is obtained with the
combined convective and far-infrared drying
(2) The ratio ht/hm for combined convective and far-infrared
drying of longan fruit leather could not be predicted from
the heatmass analogy classical model.
(3) The modied correlations for predicting the ratio of heat and
mass transfer coefcients and the heat transfer coefcient in
term of heat transfer Nusselt for longan fruit leather drying
could t the experimental data quite well within 10%
deviation.
(4) The combined convective and far-infrared drying gives
shorter drying time due to the higher heat and mass transfer
coefcients compared with the hot air drying. Increase of
far-infrared radiation heat ux results in shorter drying
time.
Acknowledgements
The authors gratefully acknowledge the support provided by
the Commission on Higher Education, Thailand and the facilities
from Maejo University and the Graduate School, Chiang Mai
University.
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