Lecture 6 - Final For Posting

Reservoir Geomechanics
In situ stress and rock mechanics applied to reservoir processes

Mark D. Zoback
Professor of Geophysics

Week 3 Lecture 6
Rock Strength Chapter 4 Part 2
Stanford|ONLINE gp202.class.stanford.edu

Overview
2

Outline
Section 1
Friction and Fault Strength
Critically-Stressed Crust
Section 2
Predicting Stress Magnitudes
Section 3
Rate and State Friction
3

Coulomb Criterion Frictional Sliding
Sliding occurs when:

Coefficient of Friction

= (sliding friction)

n
Equation 4.39 pg.123

Coulomb Failure Function:

(So 0)

CFF = - n


Effective Normal Stress:

n = Sn -Pp

4

Injection Triggered Seismicity
Waste Injection

Denver Arsenal

Fluid Injection

Rangely Oil Field

5

Maximum Friction for a Variety of Rock Types
6

Highly Stress in Intraplate Areas
Hydrostatic Pore Pressure
Townend and Zoback (2001)
How Faulting Keeps the Crust Strong

7

Lithospheric Dynamics and the
Critically Stressed Crust
8

The Context of Concern: In Most Places, The
Brittle Crust is in Frictional Failure Equilibrium
1. Intraplate Earthquakes Occur Nearly Everywhere

9

Reservoir Induced Seismicity
2. Seismicity is Often Triggered by the Extremely

Small Pressure Perturbation Associated with
Reservoir Impoundment
10

3. Deep Borehole Stress Measurements
Zoback and Harjes (1997) 11


Are Stress Magnitudes Lower in Stable Areas?
Reservoir Triggered Seismicity No!

12

Slip on Active Faults Perturb Stress Field
at Multiple Scales
13

Modelling Fault-Induced Stress at the Wellbore Wall
Shamir and Zoback (1992)

Fractal-like Stress Fluctuations - SAFOD
depth (m)
-90 0 90 -90 0 90 -90 0 90
SHmax azimuth
15

Cumulative Gutenberg-Richter Relation
log ( N M) = a bM
Compares quantity of
earthquakes vs. magnitude
Cumulative Number (NM)

Southern

~20

California

b-value related to mechanics
of earthquake scaling;
5.5
typically, b1 for natural
events
Magnitude

Southern California, 1944-1990 (Knopo, 2000)
16

Cumulative Gutenberg-Richter Relation
log ( N M) = a bM
Compares quantity of
earthquakes vs. magnitude
Cumulative Number (NM)

Southern

4.5

California

b-value related to mechanics
of earthquake scaling;
typically, b1 for natural
events
Magnitude

Southern California, 1944-1990 (Knopo, 2000)
17

Stress Fluctuations Scale Like Earthquakes
Amy DayLewis, Mark Zoback and Stephen Hickman, Scaleinvariant stress orientations
and seismicity rates near the San Andreas Fault, Geophys. Res. Lett, v. 37, L24304, doi:
10.1029/2010GL045025, 2010

18

What Does a Critically-Stressed Faults Mean for
Fluid Injection?
19

A Recent Increase in Intraplate Seismicity
Prague, OK

Prague, OK*
3 M5+ Eqs

Nov.
Nov., 2011
2011
M 5.7

Zoback (2012)

About 150,000 Class II EPA Injection Wells Operating in the US

20
Why the Increase in Seismicity?

A Recent Increase in Intraplate Seismicity
Prague, OK

Prague, OK*
3 M5+ Eqs

Nov.
Nov., 2011
2011
M 5.7

Zoback (2012)

Ellsworth (2013)

About 150,000 Class II EPA Injection Wells Operating in the US
21

Why the Increase in Seismicity?

State of Crustal Stress in Frictional Equilibrium
Maximum stress difference in a sizeable volume of rock is controlled by:
Frictional strength of well oriented pre-existing faults
Maximum differential stress in-situ cannot exceed fault strength
22

Relationship Between Stress State and Fault Slip
Normal faults
trend parallel to
Normal
SHmax
Strike-slip faults
trend about
Strike-Slip
30 from SHmax
Reverse faults
trend
Reverse perpendicular
to SHmax
Modified Figuren 5.1

23

Triggered Earthquakes Guy, Arkansas
24

Outline
Section 1
Section 2
Section 3
25

Frictional Faulting Theory
Friction

defines both
limiting
stress
magnitudes
and
orientation of
faults likely
to slip
26

State of Crustal Stress in Frictional Equilibrium
Maximum stress difference in a sizeable volume of rock is controlled by:

Frictional strength of well oriented pre-existing faults
Maximum differential stress in-situ cannot exceed fault strength
1 ! 2 #2
= +1 + $ = 3.1 for = 0.6
3 "
27

Frictional Strength of the Crest
28

Stress States Associated with
Faults in Frictional Equilibrium
Frictional Faulting Theory: 1 S1 Pp " 2 $

2

= = # +1 + %
3 S3 Pp
Reverse Faulting: SH max Pp " 2 $

2
= # +1 + %
Sv Pp
Normal Faulting: Sv Pp " 2 $

2
= # +1 + %
Sh min Pp
Strike-Slip Faulting: SH max Pp " 2 $

2
= # +1 + %
Sh min Pp
2
! 2 +1 + # = 3.1 for = 0.6
" $
29

Range of Stress Magnitudes
Hydrostatic Pp
Critical SHmax

Critical Shmin

Critical SHmax

S v Pp
= 3.1
Sh min Pp
SHmax Pp
S v Pp = 3.1
Sh min = + Pp Sh min Pp
3.1 SHmax Pp
Sh min 0.6S v ( )
SHmax = 3.1 Sh min Pp + Pp
S v Pp
= 3.1
( )
SHmax = 3.1 S v Pp + Pp

Stress Magnitudes at Depth as Constrained by
Frictional Strength of the Crust
Figure 4.31 a pg.138

31

Limiting cases Andersons Classification
Radial Extension Normal faulting (NF)
Sv >> SHmax = Shmin Sv > SHmax > Shmin
Intermediate cases
Normal/Strike-Slip faulting
Sv = SHmax > Shmin
Strike-slip faulting (SS)

SHmax > Sv > Shmin
Strike-Slip/Reverse faulting
SHmax > Sv = Shmin
Radial Compression Reverse faulting (RF)

SHmax >> Shmin = Sv SHmax > Shmin > Sv
Stress Magnitudes are
Dependent Upon Pore Pressure
Figure 4.30 pg.136

33

Stress Magnitudes are Dependent Upon
Pore Pressure
Figure 4.31 b pg.138

34

Range of Stress Magnitudes
Overpressure at Depth
Critical SHmax

Critical Shmin
Critical SHmax

Sv Pp
= 3.1
Sh min Pp
Sv Pp SH max Pp
Sh min = + Pp = 3.1
3.1 Shmin Pp SH max Pp
= 3.1
SH max = 3.1(Shmin Pp ) + Pp Sv Pp
SH max = 3.1(Sv Pp )+ Pp

Limiting cases Andersons Classification
Radial Extension Normal faulting (NF)
Sv >> SHmax = Shmin Sv > SHmax > Shmin
Intermediate cases
Normal/Strike-Slip faulting
Sv = SHmax > Shmin
Strike-slip faulting (SS)

SHmax > Sv > Shmin
Strike-Slip/Reverse faulting
SHmax > Sv = Shmin
Radial Compression Reverse faulting (RF)

SHmax >> Shmin = Sv SHmax > Shmin > Sv
Outline
Section 1
Section 2
Section 3
37

Slowly Slipping Faults During Hydraulic Fracturing
Microseismic fault patches

MW
-1.0
MW
-1.5
MW
-2.0
4000 ft
~100 m

~200 m

N
~100 m

Map View Typical rock volume influenced
by one fracturing stage

4000 ft
Das, I. and M.D Zoback (2013), Long-period, long-duration seismic events during hydraulic
stimulation of shale and tight gas reservoirs Part 1: Waveform characteristics, Geophysics,
v.78, no.6, p. KS107KS118.
Long Period Long Duration Seismic Events
SHmax
Recording
Well 2
Slowly Slipping Faults
Recording 39
Well 1 SHmax
Kohli, A. H. and M.D. Zoback (2013), Frictional properties of shale reservoir

rocks, Journal of Geophysical Research, Solid Earth, v. 118, 1-17, doi:
10.1002/jgrb. 50346
40

3
x 10
1
Haynesville Light Haynesville Dark
Barnett Light Barnett Dark
Eagleford Light Eagleford Dark
0.8
10
Coefficient of Friction
0.6
(a - b)
5
0.4
Unstable Stick-Slip/Eqs Stable Sliding/Creep
Stable
0
0.2
0 5
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Clay + Organic Content (wt%)
41

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Reservoir Geomechanics

In situ stress and rock mechanics applied to reservoir processes

Sliding occurs when:

Coulomb Failure Function:

Equation 4.40 pg.124

Effective Normal Stress:

Townend and Zoback (2001)

How Faulting Keeps the Crust Strong

1. Intraplate Earthquakes Occur Nearly Everywhere

2. Seismicity is Often Triggered by the Extremely

Zoback and Harjes (1997) 11

Reservoir Triggered Seismicity No!

Shamir and Zoback (1992)

-90 0 90 -90 0 90 -90 0 90

About 150,000 Class II EPA Injection Wells Operating in the US

Modified Figuren 5.1

Maximum stress difference in a sizeable volume of rock is controlled by:

Frictional Faulting Theory: 1 S1 Pp " 2 $

Equation 4.43 pg.132

Reverse Faulting: SH max Pp " 2 $

Normal Faulting: Sv Pp " 2 $

Strike-Slip Faulting: SH max Pp " 2 $

Figure 4.31 a pg.138

Strike-slip faulting (SS)

Radial Compression Reverse faulting (RF)

Figure 4.30 pg.136

Figure 4.31 b pg.138

Strike-slip faulting (SS)

Radial Compression Reverse faulting (RF)

Slowly Slipping Faults

Kohli, A. H. and M.D. Zoback (2013), Frictional properties of shale reservoir

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In situ stress and rock mechanics applied to reservoir processes