Keep your thoughts positive

because your thoughts become your words.

Keep your words positive

because your words become your behavior.

Keep your behavior positive

because your behavior become your habits.

Keep your habits positive

because your habits become your values.

Keep your values positive

because your values become your destiny

http://www.unc.edu/depts/wcweb/handouts/fallacies.html

Fallacies
What this handout is about

This handout is on common logical fallacies that you may encounter in your own writing or the writing of others. The handout provides
definitions, examples, and tips on avoiding these fallacies.

Arguments

Most academic writing tasks require you to make an argumentthat is, to present reasons for a particular claim or interpretation you
are putting forward. You may have been told that you need to make your arguments more logical or stronger. And you may have
worried that you simply aren't a logical person or wondered what it means for an argument to be strong. Learning to make the best
arguments you can is an ongoing process, but it isn't impossible: "Being logical" is something anyone can do, with practice! Each
argument you make is composed of premises (this is a term for statements that express your reasons or evidence) that are arranged in
the right way to support your conclusion (the main claim or interpretation you are offering). You can make your arguments stronger by

1. using good premises (ones you have good reason to believe are both true and relevant to the issue at hand),

2. making sure your premises provide good support for your conclusion (and not some other conclusion, or no conclusion at
all),

3. checking that you have addressed the most important or relevant aspects of the issue (that is, that your premises and
conclusion focus on what is really important to the issue you're arguing about), and

4. not making claims that are so strong or sweeping that you can't really support them.

You also need to be sure that you present all of your ideas in an orderly fashion that readers can follow. See our handouts on argument
and organization for some tips that will improve your arguments.

This handout describes some ways in which arguments often fail to do the things listed above; these failings are called fallacies. If
you're having trouble developing your argument, check to see if a fallacy is part of the problem!

It is particularly easy to slip up and commit a fallacy when you have strong feelings about your topicif a conclusion seems obvious to
you, you're more likely to just assume that it is true and to be careless with your evidence. To help you see how people commonly make
this mistake, this handout uses a number of controversial political examplesarguments about subjects like abortion, gun control, the
death penalty, gay marriage, euthanasia, and pornography. The purpose of this handout, though, is not to argue for any particular
position on any of these issues; rather, it is to illustrate weak reasoning, which can happen in pretty much any kind of argument! Please
be aware that the claims in these examples are just made-up illustrationsthey haven't been researched, so you shouldn't use them as
evidence in your own writing.

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What are fallacies?

Fallacies are defects that weaken arguments. By learning to look for them in your own and others' writing, you can strengthen your
ability to evaluate the arguments you make, read, and hear. It is important to realize two things about fallacies: First, fallacious
arguments are very, very common and can be quite persuasive, at least to the casual reader or listener. You can find dozens of
examples of fallacious reasoning in newspapers, advertisements, and other sources. Second, it is sometimes hard to evaluate whether
an argument is fallacious. An argument might be very weak, somewhat weak, somewhat strong, or very strong. An argument that has
several stages or parts might have some strong sections and some weak ones. The goal of this handout, then, is not to teach you how
to label arguments as fallacious or fallacy-free, but to help you look critically at your own arguments and move them away from the
"weak" and toward the "strong" end of the continuum.

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So what do fallacies look like?

For each fallacy listed, there is a definition or explanation, an example, and a tip on how to avoid committing the fallacy in your own
arguments.

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Hasty generalization
Definition: Making assumptions about a whole group or range of cases based on a sample that is inadequate (usually because it is
atypical or just too small). Stereotypes about people ("librarians are shy and smart," "wealthy people are snobs," etc.) are a common
example of the principle underlying hasty generalization.

Example: "My roommate said her philosophy class was hard, and the one I'm in is hard, too. All philosophy classes must be hard!" Two
people's experiences are, in this case, not enough on which to base a conclusion.

Tip: Ask yourself what kind of "sample" you're using: Are you relying on the opinions or experiences of just a few people, or your own
experience in just a few situations? If so, consider whether you need more evidence, or perhaps a less sweeping conclusion. (Notice
that in the example, the more modest conclusion "Some philosophy classes are hard for some students" would not be a hasty
generalization.)

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Missing the point

Definition: The premises of an argument do support a particular conclusionbut not the conclusion that the arguer actually draws.

Example: "The seriousness of a punishment should match the seriousness of the crime. Right now, the punishment for drunk driving
may simply be a fine. But drunk driving is a very serious crime that can kill innocent people. So the death penalty should be the
punishment for drunk driving." The argument actually supports several conclusions"The punishment for drunk driving should be very
serious," in particularbut it doesn't support the claim that the death penalty, specifically, is warranted.

Tip: Separate your premises from your conclusion. Looking at the premises, ask yourself what conclusion an objective person would
reach after reading them. Looking at your conclusion, ask yourself what kind of evidence would be required to support such a
conclusion, and then see if you've actually given that evidence. Missing the point often occurs when a sweeping or extreme conclusion
is being drawn, so be especially careful if you know you're claiming something big.

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Post hoc (also called false cause)
This fallacy gets its name from the Latin phrase "post hoc, ergo propter hoc," which translates as "after this, therefore because of this."

Definition: Assuming that because B comes after A, A caused B. Of course, sometimes one event really does cause another one that
comes laterfor example, if I register for a class, and my name later appears on the roll, it's true that the first event caused the one that
came later. But sometimes two events that seem related in time aren't really related as cause and event. That is, correlation isn't the
same thing as causation.

Examples: "President Jones raised taxes, and then the rate of violent crime went up. Jones is responsible for the rise in crime." The
increase in taxes might or might not be one factor in the rising crime rates, but the argument hasn't shown us that one caused the other.

Tip: To avoid the post hoc fallacy, the arguer would need to give us some explanation of the process by which the tax increase is
supposed to have produced higher crime rates. And that's what you should do to avoid committing this fallacy: If you say that A causes
B, you should have something more to say about how A caused B than just that A came first and B came later!

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Slippery slope
Definition: The arguer claims that a sort of chain reaction, usually ending in some dire consequence, will take place, but there's really
not enough evidence for that assumption. The arguer asserts that if we take even one step onto the "slippery slope," we will end up
sliding all the way to the bottom; he or she assumes we can't stop halfway down the hill.

Example: "Animal experimentation reduces our respect for life. If we don't respect life, we are likely to be more and more tolerant of
violent acts like war and murder. Soon our society will become a battlefield in which everyone constantly fears for their lives. It will be
the end of civilization. To prevent this terrible consequence, we should make animal experimentation illegal right now." Since animal
experimentation has been legal for some time and civilization has not yet ended, it seems particularly clear that this chain of events
won't necessarily take place. Even if we believe that experimenting on animals reduces respect for life, and loss of respect for life
makes us more tolerant of violence, that may be the spot on the hillside at which things stopwe may not slide all the way down to the
end of civilization. And so we have not yet been given sufficient reason to accept the arguer's conclusion that we must make animal
experimentation illegal right now.

Like post hoc, slippery slope can be a tricky fallacy to identify, since sometimes a chain of events really can be predicted to follow from
a certain action. Here's an example that doesn't seem fallacious: "If I fail English 101, I won't be able to graduate. If I don't graduate, I
probably won't be able to get a good job, and I may very well end up doing temp work or flipping burgers for the next year."

Tip: Check your argument for chains of consequences, where you say "if A, then B, and if B, then C," and so forth. Make sure these
chains are reasonable.

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Weak analogy
Definition: Many arguments rely on an analogy between two or more objects, ideas, or situations. If the two things that are being
compared aren't really alike in the relevant respects, the analogy is a weak one, and the argument that relies on it commits the fallacy
of weak analogy.

Example: "Guns are like hammersthey're both tools with metal parts that could be used to kill someone. And yet it would be
ridiculous to restrict the purchase of hammersso restrictions on purchasing guns are equally ridiculous." While guns and hammers do
share certain features, these features (having metal parts, being tools, and being potentially useful for violence) are not the ones at
stake in deciding whether to restrict guns. Rather, we restrict guns because they can easily be used to kill large numbers of people at a
distance. This is a feature hammers do not shareit'd be hard to kill a crowd with a hammer. Thus, the analogy is weak, and so is the
argument based on it.

If you think about it, you can make an analogy of some kind between almost any two things in the world: "My paper is like a mud puddle
because they both get bigger when it rains (I work more when I'm stuck inside) and they're both kind of murky." So the mere fact that
you draw an analogy between two things doesn't prove much, by itself.

Arguments by analogy are often used in discussing abortionarguers frequently compare fetuses with adult human beings, and then
argue that treatment that would violate the rights of an adult human being also violates the rights of fetuses. Whether these arguments
are good or not depends on the strength of the analogy: do adult humans and fetuses share the property that gives adult humans
rights? If the property that matters is having a human genetic code or the potential for a life full of human experiences, adult humans
and fetuses do share that property, so the argument and the analogy are strong; if the property is being self-aware, rational, or able to
survive on one's own, adult humans and fetuses don't share it, and the analogy is weak.

Tip: Identify what properties are important to the claim you're making, and see whether the two things you're comparing both share
those properties.

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Appeal to authority
Definition: Often we add strength to our arguments by referring to respected sources or authorities and explaining their positions on
the issues we're discussing. If, however, we try to get readers to agree with us simply by impressing them with a famous name or by
appealing to a supposed authority who really isn't much of an expert, we commit the fallacy of appeal to authority.

Example: "We should abolish the death penalty. Many respected people, such as actor Guy Handsome, have publicly stated their
opposition to it." While Guy Handsome may be an authority on matters having to do with acting, there's no particular reason why
anyone should be moved by his political opinionshe is probably no more of an authority on the death penalty than the person writing
the paper.

Tip: There are two easy ways to avoid committing appeal to authority: First, make sure that the authorities you cite are experts on the
subject you're discussing. Second, rather than just saying "Dr. Authority believes x, so we should believe it, too," try to explain the
reasoning or evidence that the authority used to arrive at his or her opinion. That way, your readers have more to go on than a person's
reputation. It also helps to choose authorities who are perceived as fairly neutral or reasonable, rather than people who will be
perceived as biased.

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Ad populum
Definition: The Latin name of this fallacy means "to the people." There are several versions of the ad populum fallacy, but what they all
have in common is that in them, the arguer takes advantage of the desire most people have to be liked and to fit in with others and
uses that desire to try to get the audience to accept his or her argument. One of the most common versions is the bandwagon fallacy, in
which the arguer tries to convince the audience to do or believe something because everyone else (supposedly) does.

Example: "Gay marriages are just immoral. 70% of Americans think so!" While the opinion of most Americans might be relevant in
determining what laws we should have, it certainly doesn't determine what is moral or immoral: There was a time where a substantial
number of Americans were in favor of segregation, but their opinion was not evidence that segregation was moral. The arguer is trying
to get us to agree with the conclusion by appealing to our desire to fit in with other Americans.

Tip: Make sure that you aren't recommending that your audience believe your conclusion because everyone else believes it, all the
cool people believe it, people will like you better if you believe it, and so forth. Keep in mind that the popular opinion is not always the
right one!

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Ad hominem and tu quoque

Definitions: Like the appeal to authority and ad populum fallacies, the ad hominem ("against the person") and tu quoque ("you, too!")
fallacies focus our attention on people rather than on arguments or evidence. In both of these arguments, the conclusion is usually "You
shouldn't believe So-and-So's argument." The reason for not believing So-and-So is that So-and-So is either a bad person (ad
hominem) or a hypocrite (tu quoque). In an ad hominem argument, the arguer attacks his or her opponent instead of the opponent's
argument.

Examples: "Andrea Dworkin has written several books arguing that pornography harms women. But Dworkin is an ugly, bitter person,
so you shouldn't listen to her." Dworkin's appearance and character, which the arguer has characterized so ungenerously, have nothing
to do with the strength of her argument, so using them as evidence is fallacious.

In a tu quoque argument, the arguer points out that the opponent has actually done the thing he or she is arguing against, and so the
opponent's argument shouldn't be listened to. Here's an example: Imagine that your parents have explained to you why you shouldn't
smoke, and they've given a lot of good reasonsthe damage to your health, the cost, and so forth. You reply, "I won't accept your
argument, because you used to smoke when you were my age. You did it, too!" The fact that your parents have done the thing they are
condemning has no bearing on the premises they put forward in their argument (smoking harms your health and is very expensive), so
your response is fallacious.

Tip: Be sure to stay focused on your opponents' reasoning, rather than on their personal character. (The exception to this is, of course,
if you are making an argument about someone's characterif your conclusion is "President Clinton is an untrustworthy person,"
premises about his untrustworthy acts are relevant, not fallacious.)

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Appeal to pity
Definition: The appeal to pity takes place when an arguer tries to get people to accept a conclusion by making them feel sorry for
someone.

Examples: "I know the exam is graded based on performance, but you should give me an A. My cat has been sick, my car broke down,
and I've had a cold, so it was really hard for me to study!" The conclusion here is "You should give me an A." But the criteria for getting
an A have to do with learning and applying the material from the course; the principle the arguer wants us to accept (people who have a
hard week deserve A's) is clearly unacceptable. The information the arguer has given might feel relevant and might even get the
audience to consider the conclusionbut the information isn't logically relevant, and so the argument is fallacious. Here's another
example: "It's wrong to tax corporationsthink of all the money they give to charity, and of the costs they already pay to run their
businesses!"

Tip: Make sure that you aren't simply trying to get your audience to agree with you by making them feel sorry for someone.

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Appeal to ignorance
Definition: In the appeal to ignorance, the arguer basically says, "Look, there's no conclusive evidence on the issue at hand. Therefore,
you should accept my conclusion on this issue."

Example: "People have been trying for centuries to prove that God exists. But no one has yet been able to prove it. Therefore, God
does not exist." Here's an opposing argument that commits the same fallacy: "People have been trying for years to prove that God does
not exist. But no one has yet been able to prove it. Therefore, God exists." In each case, the arguer tries to use the lack of evidence as
support for a positive claim about the truth of a conclusion. There is one situation in which doing this is not fallacious: If qualified
researchers have used well-thought-out methods to search for something for a long time, they haven't found it, and it's the kind of thing
people ought to be able to find, then the fact that they haven't found it constitutes some evidence that it doesn't exist.

Tip: Look closely at arguments where you point out a lack of evidence and then draw a conclusion from that lack of evidence.

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Straw man
Definition: One way of making our own arguments stronger is to anticipate and respond in advance to the arguments that an opponent
might make. In the straw man fallacy, the arguer sets up a wimpy version of the opponent's position and tries to score points by
knocking it down. But just as being able to knock down a straw man, or a scarecrow, isn't very impressive, defeating a watered-down
version of your opponents' argument isn't very impressive either.

Example: "Feminists want to ban all pornography and punish everyone who reads it! But such harsh measures are surely
inappropriate, so the feminists are wrong: porn and its readers should be left in peace." The feminist argument is made weak by being
overstatedin fact, most feminists do not propose an outright "ban" on porn or any punishment for those who merely read it; often, they
propose some restrictions on things like child porn, or propose to allow people who are hurt by porn to sue publishers and producers,
not readers, for damages. So the arguer hasn't really scored any points; he or she has just committed a fallacy.

Tip: Be charitable to your opponents. State their arguments as strongly, accurately, and sympathetically as possible. If you can knock
down even the best version of an opponent's argument, then you've really accomplished something.

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Red herring
Definition: Partway through an argument, the arguer goes off on a tangent, raising a side issue that distracts the audience from what's
really at stake. Often, the arguer never returns to the original issue.

Example: "Grading this exam on a curve would be the most fair thing to do. After all, classes go more smoothly when the students and
the professor are getting along well." Let's try our premise-conclusion outlining to see what's wrong with this argument:

Premise: Classes go more smoothly when the students and the professor are getting along well.

Conclusion: Grading this exam on a curve would be the most fair thing to do.

When we lay it out this way, it's pretty obvious that the arguer went off on a tangentthe fact that something helps people get along
doesn't necessarily make it more fair; fairness and justice sometimes require us to do things that cause conflict. But the audience may
feel like the issue of teachers and students agreeing is important and be distracted from the fact that the arguer has not given any
evidence as to why a curve would be fair.

Tip: Try laying your premises and conclusion out in an outline-like form. How many issues do you see being raised in your argument?
Can you explain how each premise supports the conclusion?

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False dichotomy
Definition: In false dichotomy, the arguer sets up the situation so it looks like there are only two choices. The arguer then eliminates
one of the choices, so it seems that we are left with only one option: the one the arguer wanted us to pick in the first place. But often
there are really many different options, not just twoand if we thought about them all, we might not be so quick to pick the one the
arguer recommends!

Example: "Caldwell Hall is in bad shape. Either we tear it down and put up a new building, or we continue to risk students' safety.
Obviously we shouldn't risk anyone's safety, so we must tear the building down." The argument neglects to mention the possibility that
we might repair the building or find some way to protect students from the risks in questionfor example, if only a few rooms are in bad
shape, perhaps we shouldn't hold classes in those rooms.

Tip: Examine your own arguments: If you're saying that we have to choose between just two options, is that really so? Or are there
other alternatives you haven't mentioned? If there are other alternatives, don't just ignore themexplain why they, too, should be ruled
out. Although there's no formal name for it, assuming that there are only three options, four options, etc. when really there are more is
similar to false dichotomy and should also be avoided.

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Begging the question

Definition: A complicated fallacy; it comes in several forms and can be harder to detect than many of the other fallacies we've
discussed. Basically, an argument that begs the question asks the reader to simply accept the conclusion without providing real
evidence; the argument either relies on a premise that says the same thing as the conclusion (which you might hear referred to as
"being circular" or "circular reasoning"), or simply ignores an important (but questionable) assumption that the argument rests on.
Sometimes people use the phrase "beg the question" as a sort of general criticism of arguments, to mean that an arguer hasn't given
very good reasons for a conclusion, but that's not the meaning we're going to discuss here.

Examples: "Active euthanasia is morally acceptable. It is a decent, ethical thing to help another human being escape suffering through
death." Let's lay this out in premise-conclusion form:

Premise: It is a decent, ethical thing to help another human being escape suffering through death.

Conclusion: Active euthanasia is morally acceptable.

If we "translate" the premise, we'll see that the arguer has really just said the same thing twice: "decent, ethical" means pretty much the
same thing as "morally acceptable," and "help another human being escape suffering through death" means "active euthanasia." So the
premise basically says, "active euthanasia is morally acceptable," just like the conclusion does! The arguer hasn't yet given us any real
reasons why euthanasia is acceptable; instead, she has left us asking "well, really, why do you think active euthanasia is acceptable?"
Her argument "begs" (that is, evades) the real question.

Here's a second example of begging the question, in which a dubious premise which is needed to make the argument valid is
completely ignored: "Murder is morally wrong. So active euthanasia is morally wrong." The premise that gets left out is "active
euthanasia is murder." And that is a debatable premiseagain, the argument "begs" or evades the question of whether active
euthanasia is murder by simply not stating the premise. The arguer is hoping we'll just focus on the uncontroversial premise, "Murder is
morally wrong," and not notice what is being assumed.

Tip: One way to try to avoid begging the question is to write out your premises and conclusion in a short, outline-like form. See if you
notice any gaps, any steps that are required to move from one premise to the next or from the premises to the conclusion. Write down
the statements that would fill those gaps. If the statements are controversial and you've just glossed over them, you might be begging
the question. Next, check to see whether any of your premises basically says the same thing as the conclusion (but in other words). If
so, you're begging the question. The moral of the story: You can't just assume or use as uncontroversial evidence the very thing you're
trying to prove.

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Equivocation
Definition: Equivocation is sliding between two or more different meanings of a single word or phrase that is important to the argument.

Example: "Giving money to charity is the right thing to do. So charities have a right to our money." The equivocation here is on the word
"right": "right" can mean both something that is correct or good (as in "I got the right answers on the test") and something to which
someone has a claim (as in "everyone has a right to life"). Sometimes an arguer will deliberately, sneakily equivocate, often on words
like "freedom," "justice," "rights," and so forth; other times, the equivocation is a mistake or misunderstanding. Either way, it's important
that you use the main terms of your argument consistently.

Tip: Identify the most important words and phrases in your argument and ask yourself whether they could have more than one
meaning. If they could, be sure you aren't slipping and sliding between those meanings.

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So how do I find fallacies in my own writing?

Here are some general tips for finding fallacies in your own arguments:

Pretend you disagree with the conclusion you're defending. What parts of the argument would now seem fishy to you?
What parts would seem easiest to attack? Give special attention to strengthening those parts.

List your main points; under each one, list the evidence you have for it. Seeing your claims and evidence laid out this way
may make you realize that you have no good evidence for a particular claim, or it may help you look more critically at the
evidence you're using.

Learn which types of fallacies you're especially prone to, and be careful to check for them in your work. Some writers
make lots of appeals to authority; others are more likely to rely on weak analogies or set up straw men. Read over some of
your old papers to see if there's a particular kind of fallacy you need to watch out for.

Be aware that broad claims need more proof than narrow ones. Claims that use sweeping words like "all," "no," "none,"
"every," "always," "never," "no one," and "everyone" are sometimes appropriatebut they require a lot more proof than less-
sweeping claims that use words like "some," "many," "few," "sometimes," "usually," and so forth.

Double check your characterizations of others, especially your opponents, to be sure they are accurate and fair.

Sample Arguments with Fallacies

What this handout is about

This is an adjunct to our fallacies handout. It presents a sample argument with many fallacies and another, less fallacious, argument.
Sample argument

Try to spot the fallacies in the following passage. To see a breakdown of this argument with comments on the various fallacies, click
here.

The feminist argument that pornography is harmful has no merit and should not be discussed in college courses. I read "Playboy"
magazine, and I don't see how it could be harmful. Feminists might criticize me for looking at porn, but they shouldn't talk; they
obviously look at it, too, or they couldn't criticize it. Many important people, including the Presidents, writers, and entertainers who have
been interviewed by the magazine and the women who pose in it, apparently agree. Scientific studies so far have not proved that
pornography is harmful, so it must not be harmful. Besides, to be harmful, pornography would either have to harm the men who read it
or the women who pose in it, and since they both choose these activities, they must not be harmful. Feminists should take a lesson
from my parentsthey don't like loud music and won't have it in their houses, but they don't go around saying it's harmful to everyone
or trying to prevent others from listening to it. Ever since feminists began attacking our popular culture, the moral foundation of our
society has been weakened; the divorce rate, for example, continues to rise. If feminists would just cease their hysterical opposition to
sex, perhaps relationships in our society would improve. If feminists insist, instead, on banning porn, men will have no freedom and no
pleasure left, and large numbers of women will be jobless and will have to work as prostitutes to support themselves. In light of these
consequences, feminists shouldn't be surprised if their protests are met with violence. Truly, the feminist argument is baseless.

Chock full of fallacies

On the left are the fallacious arguments; the explanation of them is on the right.

The feminist argument that pornography is harmful This is the overall conclusion. "Should not be discussed in college
has no merit and should not be discussed in courses" = unrelated to the arguments that follow, so this is missing the
college courses. point.

"I read it"=ad populum, "I don't see how"=appeal to ignorance; also, hasty
I read "Playboy" magazine, and I don't see how it
generalization to "Playboy" (as opposed to other porn) and on arguer's
could be harmful.
own experience

Feminists might criticize me for looking at porn,

Tu quoque; equivocation on "look at" (reading something to critique it is
but they shouldn't talk; they obviously look at it,
different from reading it regularly for pleasure).
too, or they couldn't criticize it.

Many important people, including the Presidents,

writers, and entertainers who have been
Ad populum and appeal to authority.
interviewed by the magazine and the women who
pose in it, apparently agree.

Scientific studies so far have not proved that

Appeal to ignorance.
pornography is harmful, so it must not be harmful.

Besides, to be harmful, pornography would either

False dichotomy (women who don't pose could still be harmed);
have to harm the men who read it or the women
unsupported assumption that people cannot be harmed by activities they
who pose in it, and since they both choose these
have chosen.
activities, they must not be harmful.
 Feminists should take a lesson from my parents
they don't like loud music and won't have it in their
houses, but they don't go around saying it's Weak analogy.
harmful to everyone or trying to prevent others
from listening to it.

Ever since feminists began attacking our popular

culture, the moral foundation of our society has
Post hoc; divorce rate=red herring.
been weakened; the divorce rate, for example,
continues to rise.

If feminists would just cease their hysterical

opposition to sex, perhaps relationships in our "Opposition to sex"=straw man; "hysterical"=ad hominem.
society would improve.

If feminists insist, instead, on banning porn, men

will have no freedom and no pleasure left, and
Appeal to pity; slippery slope; did anyone actually suggest a ban?
large numbers of women will be jobless and will
have to work as prostitutes to support themselves.

Ad baculum: A fallacy we didn't discuss, in which the arguer basically

In light of these consequences, feminists shouldn't says, "If you don't agree with my conclusion, bad things will happen to
be surprised if their protests are met with violence. you." And saying the feminist argument is baseless begs the question
Truly, the feminist argument is baseless. this is not additional evidence, but the exact claim the writer is hoping to
establish (with "baseless" in place of "has no merit").

A less fallacious argument for roughly the same claim

How might we make a stronger argument for the claim that "the feminist argument that pornography is harmful has no merit"? Let's try
to construct an argument that avoids the fallacies above. Please note that much of the "evidence" here will be made up to serve as a
modeldon't use this page as a source for any actual research on pornography! We'll see what a good argument could look like, even
if the evidence needed to make that argument doesn't currently exist.

The feminist argument that pornography is harmful lacks adequate support. First, the feminist argument typically alleges that
pornography increases men's willingness to rape women, or at least to think of them only as sex objects. But this argument ignores the
fact that the print pornography industry alone earns more money each year than the entire "legitimate" bookselling industry. For that to
be true, there must be many, many men and women who read pornography regularly. And yet crime statistics suggest that not many
men rape women. Furthermore, most men today believe in women's equality, as a study by Dr. Knowitall and her research group, of the
Institute on the Status of Women, demonstrates. Feminists acknowledge that scientific studies have failed to show that porn harms
women. If there had been only a few such studies, or if we had reason to believe they were unreliable, we should conclude that nothing
has yet been shown about whether porn harms women. But I think that when reliable studies have repeatedly failed to show a
relationship, that fact constitutes some evidence that the relationship doesn't exist. So it seems unlikely that porn is harming women in
the way the feminist argument alleges.
In the absence of positive evidence from studies, we have to rely on common sense. Can people distinguish between the sometimes-
degrading scenarios they see in porn and real life? I believe they can. I think pornography is a lot like television and moviesit
presents images that, while they certainly do have some impact on us, we all realize are nothing more than fiction. Young children may
have difficulty distinguishing between fantasy and reality, but they are not often exposed to pornography. Men and women who look at
porn should know better than to think that it gives a realistic picture of sexual relationships between men and women. If porn cannot be
shown to harm women as a class by making them more vulnerable to sexual violence or causing men to think of them as inferior, how
else might it be harmful? Feminists have often argued that the porn industry is harmful to the women who work within itthat many of
them are abused and exploited. I agree with them that if an industry is mistreating people, it needs to be reformed, and they are doing a
public service by pointing out such abuses. But what sort of reform are feminists proposing?
One suggestion I know about has been made by Catharine MacKinnon and Andrea Dworkin, who argue that there should be a civil
rights statute that allows anyone who has been harmed by porn to seek civil damages from pornographers. My concern about this
proposal is that although it will not legally be censorship, since the law would not empower the government to stop anyone from
producing material based on the ideas it contains, the civil rights statute will have the same effect as censorship. Pornographers may
be so afraid of facing lawsuits that many of them will stop producing pornand a situation where people are afraid to put forward
certain kinds of writing or pictures because they will face legal consequences seems to violate the spirit, if not the letter, of the first
amendment. Porn, like books, may express certain ideas about men, women, and sex, and those ideas may have political ramifications
but just as controversial books are protected, porn should be. It may even do more good than harm by provoking thoughtful
discussion and debate about men, women, and sexuality.

Fallacy lite

This conclusion is a little less sweeping than "the argument

The feminist argument that pornography is harmful lacks has no merit," which makes it easier to support. It also
adequate support. avoids getting into other issues like what should be taught
in college.

First, the feminist argument typically alleges that pornography This sentence points out exactly which part of the
increases men's willingness to rape women, or at least to think argument is being discussed, which helps keep the reader
of them only as sex objects. oriented.

But this argument ignores the fact that the print pornography
industry alone earns more money each year than the entire
"legitimate" bookselling industry. For that to be true, there must
be many, many men and women who read pornography
regularly. And yet crime statistics suggest that not many men
rape women.
This section of the argument does appeal to "what most
people do," but not in the same way as the bandwagon or
hasty generalization did. The author doesn't assume that
his or her personal experience is necessarily relevant or
generalize from a few people he or she knows; instead, he
or she refers to "crime statistics."

Furthermore, most men today believe in women's equality, as a

If Dr. Knowitall is a reliable source, this is a legitimate use
study by Dr. Knowitall and her research group, of the Institute
of authority, not an appeal to authority or bandwagon.
on the Status of Women, demonstrates.

Feminists acknowledge that scientific studies have failed to This section of the argument avoids the appeal to
show that porn harms women. If there had been only a few ignorance and instead talks directly about what we should
such studies, or if we had reason to believe they were do when studies don't show anything conclusively.
unreliable, we should conclude that nothing has yet been
shown about whether porn harms women. But I think that when
reliable studies have repeatedly failed to show a relationship,
that fact constitutes some evidence that the relationship doesn't
exist. So it seems unlikely that porn is harming women in the
way the feminist argument alleges.

In the absence of positive evidence from studies, we have to

rely on common sense. Can people distinguish between the
sometimes-degrading scenarios they see in porn and real life? I
believe they can. I think pornography is a lot like television and
This section of the argument uses a fairly strong analogy
moviesit presents images that, while they certainly do have
between porn and other types of media, like TV and
some impact on us, we all realize are nothing more than fiction.
movies. The more relevant traits two things share, the
Young children may have difficulty distinguishing between
stronger an analogy between them is likely to be.
fantasy and reality, but they are not often exposed to
pornography. Men and women who look at porn should know
better than to think that it gives a realistic picture of sexual
relationships between men and women.

If porn cannot be shown to harm women as a class by making

This sentence assumes there are several possible ways,
them more vulnerable to sexual violence or causing men to
instead of setting up a false dichotomy.
think of them as inferior, how else might it be harmful?

Feminists have often argued that the porn industry is harmful to
the women who work within itthat many of them are abused
and exploited. I agree with them that if an industry is mistreating
people, it needs to be reformed, and they are doing a public
service by pointing out such abuses.
By discussing areas of agreement with opponents, the
arguer avoids ad hominems and shows that she is not
fanatically devoted to proving that her position is right
about everything and that feminists are wrong about
everything.

Again, this question is open and doesn't set up a false

But what sort of reform are feminists proposing?
dichotomy.

One suggestion I know about has been made by Catharine This is a fairly accurate characterization of the opponent's
MacKinnon and Andrea Dworkin, who argue that there should position, not a straw man; again, the author attributes
be a civil rights statute that allows anyone who has been ideas to specific peopleMacKinnon and Dworkinrather
harmed by porn to seek civil damages from pornographers. than making assumptions about what all feminists believe.

My concern about this proposal is that although it will not legally

be censorship, since the law would not empower the
government to stop anyone from producing material based on
the ideas it contains, the civil rights statute will have the same
effect as censorship. Pornographers may be so afraid of facing
lawsuits that many of them will stop producing pornand a
situation where people are afraid to put forward certain kinds of
writing or pictures because they will face legal consequences
seems to violate the spirit, if not the letter, of the first
amendment.
This might be considered a slippery slope, as the arguer is
predicting dire consequences that might or might not follow
from something. But notice that the prediction is qualified
by "may" (as opposed to "will") and "many" (as opposed to
all), and that the consequences predicted are not
especially far-fetched.

Porn, like books, may express certain ideas about men, A fallacy-free argument isn't necessarily a great one, of
women, and sex, and those ideas may have political course: there are a number of obvious and plausible
 objections to the argument we've just given. The strength
ramificationsbut just as controversial books are protected,
of an argument depends not just on avoiding fallacies, but
porn should be. It may even do more good than harm by
also on the truth of the premises, the completeness of the
provoking thoughtful discussion and debate about men, women,
author's knowledge, the quality of the evidence used, and
and sexuality.
so forth.

Emotions
 Critical thinking is the careful and deliberate evaluation of ideas or information for the purpose of making a judgment about
their worth or value: It is the ability to construct and evaluate arguments. (McWhorter)

Uses of Critical Thinking

Critical thinking underlies reading, writing, speaking, and listening. These are the C basic elements of communication. Critical thinking
also plays an important part in social change. Consider that the institutions in any society - courts, governments, schools, businesses
- are the products of a certain way of thinking.

Any organization draws its life from certain assumptions about the way things should be done. Before the institution can change,
those assumptions need to be loosened up or reinvented.
Critical thinking also helps us uncover bias and prejudice. This is a first step toward communicating with people of other races and
cultures.

Critical thinking is a path to freedom from half-truths and deception. You have the right to question what you see, hear, and read.
Acquiring this ability is one of the major goals of a liberal education.

Skilled students are thorough thinkers. They distinguish between opinion and fact. They ask powerful questions. They make detailed
observations. They uncover assumptions and define their terms. They make assertions carefully, basing them on sound logic and
solid evidence. Almost everything that we call knowledge is a result of these activities. This means that critical thinking and learning
are intimately linked.

Practice your right to question!

Critically Evaluating the Logic and Validity of Information

Many articles and essays are not written to present information clearly and directly; instead they may be written to persuade you to
accept a particular viewpoint, to offer an, opinion, to argue for one side of a controversial issue. Consequently, one must recognize
and separate factual information from subjective content.

Subjective content is any material that involves judgment, feeling, opinion, intuition, or emotion rather than factual information.
Recognizing and evaluating subjective content involves distinguishing between facts and opinions, identifying generalizations,
evaluating viewpoints, understanding theories and hypotheses, weighing data and evidence, and being alert to bias.

Evaluating Various Types of Statements

Distinguishing between Facts and Opinions

Facts are statements that can be verified or proven to be true or false. Factual statements from reliable sources can be accepted and
used in drawing conclusions, building arguments, and supporting ideas.

Opinions are statements that express feelings, attitudes, or beliefs and are neither true nor false. Opinions must be considered as one
person's point of view that you are free to accept or reject. With the exception of informed ones, opinions have little use as supporting
evidence, but they are useful in shaping and evaluating your own thinking.

* Informed opinion or testimony - the opinion of an expert or authority

Recognizing Generalizations:

A generalization is a statement made about a large group or class of items based on observation or experience with a portion of that
group or class. It is a reasoned statement about an entire group based on known information about part of the group. It involves a
leap from observed evidence to a conclusion which is logical, but unproven. Because writers do not always have the space to
describe all available evidence on a topic, they often draw the evidence together themselves and make a general statement of what it
shows. But generalizations need to be followed by evidence that supports their accuracy, otherwise the generalization is unsupported
and unusable. A generalization is usable when these two conditions exist:

1. Your experiences are sufficient in number to merit a generalization.

 2. You have sampled or experienced enough different situations to draw a generalization.

Testing Hypotheses:

A hypothesis is a-statement that is based on available evidence which explains an event or set of circumstances. Hypotheses are
simply plausible explanations. They are always open to dispute or refutation, usually by the addition of further information. Or, their
plausibility may be enhanced by the addition of further information. Critical thinking and reading requires one to assess the plausibility
of each hypothesis. This is a two-part process. First, one must evaluate the evidence provided. Then one must search for information,
reasons, or evidence that suggests the truth or falsity of the hypothesis. Ask questions such as:

1. Does the hypothesis account for all known information about the situation?

2. Is it realistic, within the realm of possibility and probability?

3. Is it simple, or less complicated than its alternatives? (Usually, unless a complex hypothesis can account for information not
accounted for by a simple hypothesis, the simple one has greater likelihood of being correct.)

4. What assumptions were made? Are they valid?

Weighing the Adequacy of Data and Evidence:

Many writers who express their ideas use evidence or data to support
their ideas. One must weigh and evaluate the quality of this evidence; one must look behind the available evidence and assess its
type and adequacy. Types of evidence include:

Personal experience or observation

Statistical data

Examples, particular events, or situations that illustrate

Analogies (comparisons with similar situations)

Informed opinion (the opinions of experts and authorities)

Historical documentation

Experimental evidence

Each type of evidence must be weighed in relation to the statement it supports. Evidence should directly, clearly, and indisputable
support the case or issue in question.

Evaluating Persuasive Material

While the main purpose of textbooks is to explain and present information that can be accepted as reliable, other sources may have
very different purposes. Some materials are intended to convince or persuade rather than to inform, and these sources need to be
carefully and critically evaluated. Persuasive writers use both language and logical argument to exert influence.

Recognizing Persuasive Language

A writer's or speaker's choice of facts and the language used to convey them may influence the reader's or listener's response.
Careful choice of details to describe an event shapes a reader's perception of the incident. Selective reporting of details is known as
slanted writing. Careful choice of words allows one to hint, insinuate, or suggest ideas without directly stating them. Through
deliberate choice of words one can create positive or negative responses. This is often accomplished through manipulation of the
connotative meanings.

Identifying Biased and Slanted Writing:

Bias is when a statement reflects a partiality, preference, or prejudice for or against a person, object, or idea. Much of what you read
and hear expresses a bias. As you read biased material keep two questions in mind:
 1. What facts has the author omitted?

2. What additional information is necessary?

Slanting is when a writer or speaker uses a selection of facts, choice of words, and the quality and tone of description, to convey a
particular feeling or attitude. Its purpose is to convey a certain attitude or point of view toward the subject without expressing it
explicitly. As you read or listen to slanted materials, keep the following questions in mind:

1. What facts were omitted? What additional facts are needed?

2. What words create positive or negative impressions?

3. What impression would I have if different words had been used?

Evaluating Arguments

An argument is a logical arrangement and presentation of ideas. It is reasoned analysis, a tightly developed line of reasoning that
leads to the establishment of an end result or conclusion. Arguments are usually developed to persuade one to accept a position or
point
of view. An argument gives reasons that lead to a conclusion. Analyzing arguments is a complex and detailed process. The following
guidelines are useful:

1. Analyze the argument by simplifying it and reducing it to a list of statements.

2. Are the terms used clearly defined and consistently applied?

3. Is the thesis (the point to be made) clearly and directly stated?

4. Are facts provided as evidence? If so, are they verifiable?

5. Is the reasoning sound? (Does one point follow from another?)

6. Are counterarguments recognized and refuted or addressed?

7. What persuasive devices or propaganda techniques does the author use (examples: appeal to emotions, name-calling, appeal
to authority)?

Asking Critical Questions

What is the source of the material? Some sources are much more reliable and trustworthy than others; knowledge of the
source will help you judge the accuracy, correctness, and soundness of the material. Articles from professional or scholarly
journals are often more useful and reliable than articles in newsstand periodicals. To evaluate a source consider:

o its reputation

o the audience for whom the source is intended

o whether references or documentation are provided

What are the Author's Credentials? You must assess whether the material you are reading is written by an expert in the field
who can knowledgeably and accurately discuss the topic.

Why was the Material Written? Identify an author's primary purpose. If the author's purpose is to persuade or convince you to
accept a particular viewpoint then you will need to evaluate the reasoning and evidence presented.

Is the Author Biased? Does the author display partiality, preference, or prejudice for or against a person, object, or idea?

Does the Author Make Assumptions? An assumption is an idea or principle the writer accepts as true and makes no effort to
prove or substantiate.
 Does the Author Present an Argument? An argument is a logical arrangement and presentation of ideas. It is reasoned
analysis, a tightly developed line of reasoning that leads to the establishment of an end result or conclusion.

Recognizing Propaganda Techniques

and Errors of Faulty Logic
Propaganda Techniques

What are Propaganda Techniques? They are the methods and approaches used to spread ideas that further a cause - a political,
commercial, religious, or civil cause.

Why are they used? To manipulate the readers' or viewers' reason and emotions; to persuade you to believe in something or
someone, buy an item, or vote a certain way.

What are the most commonly used propaganda techniques? See which of the ten most common types of propaganda techniques
you already know.

Types:

Name calling: This techniques consists of attaching a negative label to a person or a thing. People engage in this type of behavior
when they are trying to avoid supporting their own opinion with facts. Rather than explain what they believe in, they prefer to try to
tear their opponent down.

Glittering Generalities: This technique uses important-sounding "glad words" that have little or no real meaning. These words are
used in general statements that cannot be proved or disproved. Words like "good," "honest," "fair," and "best" are examples of "glad"
words.

Transfer: In this technique, an attempt is made to transfer the prestige of a positive symbol to a person or an idea. For example,
using the American flag as a backdrop for a political event makes the implication that the event is patriotic in the best interest of the
U.S.

False Analogy: In this technique, two things that may or may not really be similar are portrayed as being similar. When examining the
comparison, you must ask yourself how similar the items are. In most false analogies, there is simply not enough evidence available
to support the comparison.

Testimonial: This technique is easy to understand. It is when "big name" personalities are used to endorse a product. Whenever you
see someone famous endorsing a product, ask yourself how much that person knows about the product, and what he or she stands
to gain by promoting it.

Plain Folks: This technique uses a folksy approach to convince us to support someone or something. These ads depict people with
ordinary looks doing ordinary activities.

Card Stacking: This term comes from stacking a deck of cards in your favor. Card stacking is used to slant a message. Key words or
unfavorable statistics may be omitted in an ad or commercial, leading to a series of half-truths. Keep in mind that an advertiser is
under no obligation "to give the truth, the whole truth, and nothing but the truth."

Bandwagon: The "bandwagon" approach encourages you to think that because everyone else is doing something, you should do it
too, or you'll be left out. The technique embodies a "keeping up with the Joneses" philosophy.

Either/or fallacy: This technique is also called "black-and-white thinking" because only two choices are given. You are either for
something or against it; there is no middle ground or shades of gray. It is used to polarize issues, and negates all attempts to find a
common ground.

Faulty Cause and Effect: This technique suggests that because B follows A, A must cause B. Remember, just because two events or
two sets of data are related does not necessarily mean that one caused the other to happen. It is important to evaluate data carefully
before jumping to a wrong conclusion.

Errors of Faulty Logic

Contradiction:
 Accident:

False Cause:

Begging the Question:

Evading the Issue:

Arguing from Ignorance:

Composition and Division:

Errors of Attack

Poisoning the Well:

Ad Hominem:

Appealing to Force:

Errors of Weak Reference

Appeal to Authority: Authority is evoked as the last word on an issue.

 Example: Someone uses the Bible as the basis for his arguments against specific school reform
issues.

Appeal to the People: Someone attempts to justify a claim on the basis of popularity.

Example: Opponents of year-round school claim that students would hate it.

Appeal to Emotion: An emotion-laden "sob" story is used as proof for a claim.

Example: A politician uses a sad story of a child being killed in a drive-by shooting to gain support
for a year-round school measure.

Developing the Ability to Analyze Historical and Contemporary Information

Apply understanding & knowledge of past events to new situations

Identify cause and effect relationships

Practice problem solving through the use of analogies

Synthesizing Information

Synthesis is creating something new from a number of different sources. Synthesizing information is a process of examining and
inferring relationships among sources and then making those relationships explicit. Synthesis is also a process of combining
information and ideas to create or develop a new idea, focus, or perspective. An effective way to integrate and synthesize information
is to recognize and use four particular thought patterns. These include:

Cause-effect - expresses a relationship between two or more actions, events, or occurrences that are connected in time.

Comparison-contrast - the comparison pattern is used to emphasize or discuss similarities between or among ideas,
theories, concepts, or events, while the contrast pattern emphasizes differences.

Problem-solution - defines a problem and conducts research to test possible solutions.

Classification - organize information into broad types or categories.

Using Analogies

The use of analogies to understand and interpret situations is another method for analyzing information. Using analogies requires one
to identify similar problems or situations and compare them with the problem at hand. The use of analogies enables one to learn from
the experiences of others. Some guidelines to follow are:

1. How are the situations alike?

2. How are they different?

3. How well does the analogy apply to your situation?

4. What does it suggest that you do?

 Recognize & Value Various Viewpoints
Identify an individual's values and biases (including your own)

Explore issues from multiple perspectives & understand multiple perspectives

Examine your existing beliefs, attitudes, and opinions. Why do you think so? What evidence do you have to support that
opinion?

Evaluating differing viewpoints is an essential critical thinking skill because it enables you to pull together divergent ideas and
integrate differing, even contradictory, sources. The skill is valuable as you research papers, examine social and political issues, and
resolve controversy.

Suggestions:

Deliberately put aside or suspend temporarily what you already believe about a particular issue.

Discover what similarities and differences exist among the various viewpoints.

Identify the assumptions on which each view is based.

Look for and evaluate evidence that suggests the viewpoint is well thought out.

To overcome the natural tendency to pay more attention to points of view with which you agree and treat opposing viewpoints
superficially, deliberately spend more time reading, thinking about, and examining ideas that differ from your own.

To analyze particularly complex, difficult, or very similar viewpoints, write a summary of each. Through the process of writing,
you will be forced to discover the essence of each view.

Appreciate the Complexities Involved

in Decision-Making & Problem Solving
Develop evidence to support views

Analyze situations carefully

Discuss subjects in an organized way

Predict the consequences of actions

Weigh alternatives

Generate and organize ideas

Form and apply concepts

Design systematic plans of action

A 5 Step Problem Solving Strategy

1. Specify the problem - a first step to

solving a problem is to identify it as specifically as possible. It involves evaluating the present state and determining how it
differs from the goal state.

2. Analyze the problem - analyzing the problem involves learning as much as you can about it. It may be necessary to look
beyond the obvious, surface situation, to stretch your imagination and reach for more creative options.

o seek other perspectives

 o be flexible in your analysis

o consider various strands of impact

o brainstorm about all possibilities and implications

o research problems for which you lack complete information. Get help.

3. Formulate possible solutions - identify a wide range of possible solutions.

o try to think of all possible solutions

o be creative

o consider similar problems and how you have solved them

4. Evaluate possible solutions - weigh the advantages and disadvantages of each solution. Think through each solution and
consider how, when, and where you could accomplish each. Consider both immediate and long-term results. Mapping your
solutions can be helpful at this stage.

5. Choose a solution - consider 3 factors:

o compatibility with your priorities amount of risk

o practicality

Keys to Problem Solving

Think aloud - problem solving is a cognitive, mental process. Thinking aloud or talking yourself through the steps of problem
solving is useful. Hearing yourself think can facilitate the process.

Allow time for ideas to "gel" or consolidate. If time permits, give yourself time for solutions to develop. Distance from a problem
can allow you to clear your mind and get a new perspective.

Talk about the problem - describing the problem to someone else and talking about it can often make a problem become more
clear and defined so that a new solution will surface.

Decision Making Strategies

Decision making is a process of identifying and evaluating choices. We make numerous decisions every day and our decisions may
range from routine, every-day types of decisions to those decisions which will have far reaching impacts. The types of decisions we
make are routine, impulsive, and reasoned. Deciding what to eat for breakfast is a routine decision; deciding to do or buy something
at the last minute is considered an impulsive decision; and choosing your college major is, hopefully, a reasoned decision. College
coursework often requires you to make the latter, or reasoned decisions.

Decision making has much in common with problem solving. In problem solving you identify and evaluate solution paths; in decision
making you make a similar discovery and evaluation of alternatives. The crux of decision making, then, is the careful identification and
evaluation of alternatives. As you weigh alternatives, use the following suggestions:

Consider the outcome each is likely to produce, in both the short term and the long term.

Compare alternatives based on how easily you can accomplish each.

Evaluate possible negative side effects each may produce.

Consider the risk involved in each.

Be creative, original; don't eliminate alternatives because you have not heard or used them before.
An important part of decision making is to predict both short-term and long-term outcomes for each alternative. You may find that
while an alternative seems most desirable at the present, it may pose problems or complications over a longer time period.

Being a Responsible Critical Thinker

and Collaborating with Others
Construct and evaluate arguments

Furnish support for one's beliefs

Assume responsibility for one's actions

Collaborate with the members of a group

Share obligations

Listen and communicate with others

In the settings of college, the workplace, and the community the ability to work with other people in group projects is an increasingly
important skill to develop. As adults, we are often required to be able to critically read and evaluate written and oral communication,
as well as to communicate our own ideas in a respectful and effective manner. However, collaborating with other people can be a
difficult task, especially if one is unaware of effective communication skills. Following are some suggestions for developing those skills
needed to be an effective critical thinker and collaborator.

When evaluating information and arguments, be wary of biased and slanted language but keep an open mind to the ideas and
opinions of others. Too often we close our minds when faced with opinions or information with which we don't agree. Practice
being a critical but open-minded listener. Use patience and respect while listening to others' ideas.

As a critical thinker you should critically evaluate the arguments of others, but this also means you have the responsibility of
constructing your own arguments so they are unbiased and supported with credible evidence. It is good to have beliefs, but
remember to support your opinions.

Another responsibility one has as a critical thinker is to take responsibility for one's actions. Everyone makes mistakes and it is
a responsible person who acknowledges his/her error and learns from it. A person who accepts responsibility for her/his
arguments and actions builds integrity in the eyes of others, and a person with integrity is often respected and listened to.

Finally, group collaboration requires a commitment to shared obligations. For group work to be effective all members must
contribute equally to the problem task. Successful teamwork entails full participation by all members and not just a dedicated
few.

The qualities of a critical thinker are truth-seeking, open-minded, analytical, systematic, self-confident, inquisitive, and mature.
 Recognizing Word Roots and Prefixes

Common Word Roots

Root Meaning Example Definition

agri field agronomy field-crop production and soil management

anthropo man anthropology the study of man

astro star astronaut one who travels in interplanetary space

bio life biology the study of life

cardio heart cardiac pertaining to the heart

cede go precede to go before

chromo color chromatology the science of colors

demos people democracy government by the people

derma skin epidermis the outer layer of skin

dyna power dynamic characterized by power and energy

geo earth geology the study of the earth

helio sun heliotrope any plant that turns toward the sun

hydro water hydroponics growing of plants in water reinforced with nutrients

hypno sleep hypnosis a state of sleep induced by suggestion

ject throw eject to throw out

magni great, big magnify to enlarge, to make bigger

man(u) hand manuscript written by hand

mono one monoplane airplane with one wing

ortho straight orthodox right, true, straight opinion

pod foot pseudopod false foot

psycho mind psychology study of the mind in any of its aspects

pyro fire pyrometer an instrument for measuring temperatures

script write manuscript hand written

terra earth terrace a raised platform of earth

thermo heat thermometer instrument for measuring heat

zoo animal zoology the study of animals

Common Prefixes

ante- before antebellum before the war

anti- against antifreeze liquid used to guard against freezing

auto- self automatic self-acting or self-regulating

bene- good benefit an act of kindness; a gift

circum- around circumscribe to draw a line around; to encircle

contra- against contradict to speak against

de- reverse, remove defoliate remove the leaves from a tree

dis- apart dislocate to unlodge

dys- bad dysfunctional not functioning

ecto- outside ectoparasite parasite living on the exterior of animals

endo- within endogamy marriage within the tribe

ex- out excavate to dig out

equi- equal equidistant equal distance

extra- beyond extraterrestrial beyond the earth

hyper- over hypertension high blood pressure

hypo- under hypotension low blood pressure

in- in interim in between

inter- between intervene come between

intra- within intramural within bounds of a school

intro- in, into introspect to look within, as one's own mind

macro- large macroscopic large enough to be observed by the naked eye

mal- bad maladjusted badly adjusted

micro- small microscopic so small that one needs a microscope to observe

multi- many multimillionaire one having two or more million dollars

neo- new neolithic new stone age

non- not nonconformist one who does not conform

pan- all pantheon a temple dedicated to all gods

poly- many polygonal having many sides

post- after postgraduate after graduating

pre- before precede to go before

pro- for proponent a supporter

proto- first prototype first or original model

pseudo- false pseudonym false name; esp., an author's pen-name

re-, red- back again rejuvenate to make young

re-, red- together reconnect to put together again

retro- backward retrospect a looking back on things

semi- half semicircle half a circle

sub- under submerge to put under water

super- above superfine extra fine

tele- far telescope seeing or viewing afar

trans- across transalpine across the Alps

Number prefixes

uni- one tetra- four oct- eight

mono- one quint- five nov- nine

bi- two pent- five dec- ten

duo- two sex- six lat- side

di- two hex- six ped- foot

tri- three sept- seven pod- foot

quad- four hept- seven

Math & Science Affixes and Roots

Root or Affix Example

aqua (water) aquarium

hydro (water) hydroplane

hemi (half) hemisphere

semi (half) semicircle

equi (equal) equivalent

tele (far off) telescope

micro (small) microfilm

onomy (science of) astronomy

ology (study of) geology

uni (one) universe

bi (two) bicycle

tri (three) triangle

octa (eight) octagon

dec (ten) decade

centi (hundred) centimeter

milli (thousand) millimeter

bio (life) biology

astro (star) astronaut

thermo (heat) thermodynamic

meter (measure) diameter

ped (foot) pedestrian

pod (foot) tripod

Prefixes that mean "no": a- de- dis-, in- non- un-, contra

Examples: disqualify, nondescript, unscrupulous, contradict, inadvertent

Prefix Meaning Examples

a-, an- without, not asexual, atypical, amoral, anarchy

de- reverse action, away defrost, demystify, desensitize, deduct

dis-, dif-, di- not, apart dissatisfied, disorganized, different, divert

in-, il-, it-, im- not inappropriate, invisible, illegal, impossible

non- not nonproductive, nonessential, nonsense

un- not unlikely, unnoticeable, unreliable

contra-, counter- against contrary, contradict, counterproductive

Prefixes that indicate "when," "where," or "more": pre-, post-, ante-, inter-, infra-, traps-, sub-, circum-, ultra

Examples: premature, postscript, anteroom, intervene, transformation

Prefix Meaning Examples

pre-, pro- before pre-dinner, preliminary, previous, prologue

post- after postwar, postoperative, postpone

ante- before antecedent, antechamber

inter- between, among interstate, intercept, interfere

intra- within intramural, intrastate, intravenous

trans- across transcontinental, transparent, transaction

sub- under submarine, submerge, subjugate

circum- around circumnavigate, circumference

ultra- beyond, on the far side of, excessive ultrasonic, ultraviolet, ultraconservative
 Word Relationships
Synonyms, Antonyms, Homonyms, Analogies

In some ways words are like families. Just as there are different relationships among members of the same family, there are different
relationships among words. Picture your own family. You probably have relatives who like to do the same things you do. But they may
look nothing like you. You may have relatives who are from another city. They might have unusual accents and all "sound alike."
There are probably still others who are rebels. They always want the opposite of what everyone else in the family wants.

There are similar relationships between words. Words that mean the same thing but look different are called synonyms. Their
meanings are very similar (e.g., pretty/cute). An antonym is a word that has the opposite meaning of another word (e.g., pretty/ugly). A
homonym is a word that sounds like another word but has a different meaning (e.g., there/their).

Because these terms are often confused, here is an easy way to keep them straight.

Heard alike Same meaning An opposite

O Y N

M N T

O O O

N N N

Y Y Y

M M M

Words are related in many other ways as well. When thinking about the relationship between two words, you must examine those
words for ways in which they are different, alike, or related to each other.

Understanding how words fit together helps you expand and network frameworks. As an active reader, this skill enables you to
analyze and synthesize information. Such knowledge is useful in building your vocabulary. This, in turn, gives you more skill in using
the context (see figure below).
 12 Steps for Effective Studying
Studying effectively is a process, not an event. The process leads to success.

1. Plan a definite time for studying every day. This will discourage procrastination and prevent a pile-up of work. Studying every
day, even for a short period of time, keeps you from falling behind. Prioritize your list and begin completing the most difficult
material first.

2. Know the purpose of and understand each assignment before leaving class. If you understand what to do and how to do it,
your study time will be shortened. Keep a record of all assignments in a special section of your notebook or on a separate
calendar.

3. Predicting the amount of time you need for each assignment causes you to work smarter as well as harder and more
productively. By keeping track of the actual amount of time you spend on your assignments, you are more likely to concentrate
and less likely to become bored.

4. Time yourself to see how long it takes you to read five pages of your textbook. This will help you determine the amount of time
needed to complete a reading assignment. Because a textbook is loaded with information, you may have to read some
sections more than once. Even instructors have to reread material. Allow time for reflecting and thinking about what you have
read.

5. Reading assignments are usually completed and due prior to the instructor lecturing on the material. Take a little time before
class to review the material so you are ready to participate in class discussions and are prepared for any quizzes.

6. Adopt a textbook reading strategy, (like SQ4R), or whatever works for you. Pay attention to charts, diagrams, and special
"boxed text" areas. They are definite aids to understanding the material.

7. Every time you study, spend at least ten minutes reviewing the material from your previous study session. These "refresher
shots" are part of the secret for long-term memory retention. This habit of frequent review also results in less time needed for
studying prior to a major exam.

Know the percentages! We retain:

10% of what we read
 20% of what you hear

30% of what we see

50% of what we see and hear

70% of what we talk about with others

80% of what we experience personally

95% of what we teach to others

8. Study during the day. You are probably less efficient at night.

9. Study for 30 to 40 minutes and then take a 5-minute break, or if your concentration and discipline will allow, study for 50
minutes and take a 10-minute break. Get up walk around, stretch, drink some water, or eat a light snack. Taking regular breaks
refreshes your mind so you can concentrate better, finish faster, and retain more.

10. If you do study at night set a "stopping time" for yourself. This "time frame" will encourage hard work in anticipation of the clock
going off. You may even set a goal for yourself to complete an assignment before the time limit. This increased impetus may
help you to concentrate.

11. Do not cram the night before a test. Distribute your review in half-hour segments over a period of days. If you do not adopt a
structured study schedule, you will not master required course material and you will set yourself up to fail.

12. Learning is accumulative. New ideas must be incorporated with previous material from lectures, readings, and any other
assignments such as labs. You have to continuously make the connection in your mind from new material to previously
learned material and/or experiences. Putting it all together is easier if you schedule time daily to read, to think, to write, to
reflect, and to review.

Improved learning is the natural result of this 12 Step approach to studying and effectively using your time.

Not having enough time to study means you lack organization, so by managing your time, you have control over your life and a
chance to do more of what you want to do.

Be proud of what you can achieve through daily accomplishments!

Time Management

The foundation for success!

You have a task or a goal you want to accomplish. This could be a single task or a number of tasks that you need to take care of in a
day or over a period of a few days. Without a structured approach to these tasks you would be like a car spinning its tires on an icy
road; there's a lot of effort being put into reaching a destination, but the vehicle, you, is virtually stuck in the same spot wasting gas. To
achieve your destination you must take all the known obstacles and conditions into consideration. Allowances must also be made for
the possibility of unknown conditions that will ultimately arise. The best method or "plan" most successful in accomplishing goals
is "time management." Time management is the appropriate use of and structuring of your time in order for you to maximize your
time. If you learn how to maximize your time, you will have ample time to successfully accomplish everything you need to and want to
accomplish. Accomplishments don't just happen; they are carefully planned for.

Professionals from all walks of life have written volumes on what are the best approaches to managing your time. In every author's
rendition there is one unanimous absolute rule - you must use a calendar on which to write a detailed, prioritized schedule. For every
author, there are that many views on what type of calendar you should use. The important issue here is for you to use any kind of
calendar you feel comfortable with, and one that will allow you to view a complete day on one page and enough room on that page to
write concise directions.

Before going on this journey into the realm of time management, take a few minutes and complete the "Study Behavior Inventory".
Knowing where you are right now in your approach to your studying will enable you to design a workable schedule. This assessment
 is just that, an assessment, not a test. You are simply to answer "yes" or "no," but your answers must be honest. This is for your
benefit and no one else's. Once you have finished, return to this page and continue with the next paragraph.

It's good to take a look at yourself once in a while!

How many questions did you answer yes? How many no? Research indicates that the most effective and successful college students
answer no to all 25 questions (Brown, 1977). It may be helpful as you think about your study behavior to review those items that you
answered yes. You might want to ask yourself how those particular behaviors affect your study effectiveness. What does this have to
do with "time management?" As you probably noticed, there were a number of questions dealing with time, place, and amount of work
accomplished. These are directly related to how you manage and spend your time. If you are spending a lot of time accomplishing
very little, maybe you are day-dreaming too much, and not concentrating on the task at hand. If this is the case, you are wasting time.
Time is like money, once it's spent, it's gone, - you won't have any more until next pay day, or in this case when the sun comes up. If
you find you are not able to get very far when studying, then maybe you are not allowing for enough time. So you see, it is a
combination of many aspects all of which revolve around time; the amount of time you spend, when you spend it, where you spend it,
and how you spend it. Keep this next statement in the for front of your mind: A procrastinator spends twice as much time and energy
accomplishing half as much as someone who organizes his/her time.

Does getting organized involve work? YES! What does it take to get organized? It takes discipline, dedication, drive, determination,
desire, practice, and a lot of patience and consistency. These attributes are the elements of success that can neither be given to you
nor done for you by someone else. To become an efficient and effective manager of your time, you need to become efficient and
effective with the process. You have the ability to perform all these attributes - you just need to DO IT!

Having your time and life organized is similar to organizing for a trip. Remember two people can take different roads and arrive at the
same destination at approximately the same time. The differences between the two trips are the scenery's, the road conditions, and
how fast they each had to drive to reach the same conclusion. Personally I prefer to take a well paved, smooth road, admiring
fantastic scenery, and have planned well enough in advance to take a leisurely trip. What kind of road are you traveling?

The six steps of the Soprano Technique are:

Read your textbook paragraph by paragraph without a pen or highlighter in hand.

After you finish a paragraph, decide if any information in that paragraph is worth highlighting or underlining. Ask yourself, "Is
this really important? Does it support and define the main topic?

Pick up your highlighter or pen and highlight or underline the most important key words or phrases of that information, or write
"key words" notes in the margins.

Then put a number in the margin of the text next to the highlighted or underlined material. Use numbers in ascending order to
note the importance of the highlighted or underlined material.

Put the same number and page on a separate sheet of paper in your notebook. Then write out a question based on the
information you have just highlighted or underlined in the textbook. Essentially the information you have just highlighted or
underlined in the text should answer your questions.

Proceed with your study/reading of the text. Every time you decide to highlight or underline text material, assign it a number in
the margin of the textbook next to the highlighted information. Put the same number in your notes and create a question about
the information you have just highlighted or underlined.

Memory and Learning Styles

The main reason we forget something is because we never really learned it in the first place.

Memory

A good memory is something we must work towards. Things are forgotten because they never really made a strong impression on us
in the first place. The reasons for this lack of impression are as varied as from one person to the next. Nevertheless, the most
common reasons are:

you are thinking about something else - you are not listening;

you do not think the idea was important;

 you do not take or have the time to learn or store the material properly.

To remember information, you need to know that your memory operates on four levels of efficiency. Your ability to remember
something increases from level 1 to level 4 depending on what you do with the information.

Level 1:Hear or read the material once (not reliable for a test).

Level 2:Read the information and review it once or twice (this is cramming - you will forget most of what you have read).

Level 3: Read the information, review the material several times, write it down, and test yourself over the next two days
(expect fairly good recall).

Level 4: Repeat and frequently write down the information over a period of 3-6 days (gives you excellent retention).

If you do not review what you have learned, you will forget 70% within an hour and 84% within 48 hours. One of the best forms of
review is teaching or telling someone else about the information using your own words. This is where study groups become
invaluable.

Learning Styles

People learn and memorize information using a variety of "learning styles." Learning styles are how you concentrate, process and
remember new and difficult information. You may remember information more easily through any combination of the following styles:

hearing

seeing

reading

writing

illustration

first hand experience

Be aware of your best styles. Most information presented to you in college is by lecture. Reading textbooks and other related material,
as well as doing all the assignments are the other parts of the learning equation. It is beneficial for you to combine learning styles to
be successful.

When you are studying:

Say the information;

Write it down;

Read it over and over;

Put it into a form or format that will make sense to you;

Draw a diagram;

Relate the information to what you already know;

Picture and try to experience what you are learning;

Teach the information to someone else.

 Textbook Reading Strategies

Reading is Important

Reading is probably the most important activity we can do to "get ahead" in life. However, many of us take reading for granted. We
feel we are too busy to read, or maybe we don't enjoy reading. Not only is it important to read effectively when you study, but reading
for pleasure at least 20 minutes a day will improve your life and your ability to read. Read whatever interests you - just read, be
flexible, and remember to keep reading every day.

Flexibility in what you read is extremely important. Being flexible means reading different types of materials. Reading novels,
newspapers, magazines, periodicals, or poetry will enable you to adopt different approaches to the different materials. Words may be
words, but you read the daily newspaper differently than you read a novel and much differently than you read your textbook. An
effective approach to reading is in the development of a successful strategy.

One successful strategy for textbook reading is: SQ4R

Step 1: Survey

Step 2: Question

Step 3: Read

Step 4: Record

Step 5: Recite

Step 6: Reflect

S = Survey / Preview

Rationale:

To become familiar with the material before you read, and to activate any prior knowledge you have of the subject.

Make the book your friend; look at the cover; review the Table of Contents, Introduction, and Index, and back cover to become familiar
with the format and the material.

Survey the assigned chapter. Look at the chapter title and topic headings. See how the chapter is organized and how many pages are
in the chapter.

Quickly read the chapter introduction, the first sentence of each paragraph and the chapter summary to see what material will be
discussed in the chapter and how it is presented.

Q = Question

Rationale:

To make the reading process a critical thinking exercise and to focus your attention on what information you need to
get from the reading.

Reading with a purpose (to answer questions) increases concentration, comprehension, retention, and interest in the subject matter.

Questions to have in mind to answer as you read may come from:

your instructor;

worksheets, take home tests, quizzes;

questions throughout and at the end of the chapter;

 Change the main headings into questions, e.g., "Reduce Study Stress" to "How can I reduce study stress?" Then as you read the
section write down the answers to your questions or make a notation in the margin. Get engaged with the material.

R = Read

Rationale:

The information is necessary in order to master the course material.

Read one section at a time to understand the material and answer your questions. Do not read to memorize the information. On paper
write down chapter headings and titles to use as outline notes later in this process.

Keep focused on your reading. Helpful hints include:

write down problems on paper to be handled later;

schedule reading breaks every hour or half-hour if it is a difficult subject;

make associations or visualize the information to make it more meaningful;

do not take notes while reading;

read aggressively, with the intent of getting answers, noting supporting details, and remembering major points;

As you read, use a pencil to put check marks in the margin by important ideas. Be sure all your questions have been
answered.

Reread sections as needed. Be an active reader.

R = Record

Rationale:

By incorporating the motor activity of writing information down, you will have review notes and you will better establish
the information into your long-term memory.

After reading each section and page, reflect and summarize the information in your notes. Put ideas into your own words to reinforce
your understanding of what you have read. Taking notes at this point in time will almost ensure that you are noting the important parts
of the section. Go back over the paragraph and highlight or underline only the main ideas and supporting details with no more than
10-15% of the page highlighted. Use marginal notations as a way to separate main ideas from examples and each of those from new
terminology.

Write brief study notes under your chapter headings and titles, which will help encode the information in your long-term memory for
easier retrieval and recall.

R = Recite

Rationale:

Activating long-term memory storage is aided tremendously by hearing and verbalizing the material. If you can
explain the concepts to another, you have mastered the material.

Recite out loud the information you have read. Tell yourself the major concepts of the section using your own words. Ask yourself
questions on your reading and answer those questions out loud.

Study with a friend or in a group to discuss and reinforce the material. Studies show that students who recite forget only 20% of
learned material within a two-week period. Those who do not recite or discuss the material forget 80% of the information in the same
time period.
R = Reflect / Review

Rationale:

This is a metacognitive activity to make you a more self-aware learner. It also enhances long-term memory storage
for successful retrieval at a later date.

Reflection weaves new ideas into old, by comparing the new ideas with ones you already know. By asking yourself, "Upon what
evidence are these new ideas and information based?" and "How can I use this new material?" you should increase your creativity,
your knowledge, and critical thinking skills.

Review the material within 24 hours. This moves the information from short-term to long-term memory. Review often. Revise study
notes as needed. The more you review, the more information you will learn and retain. This avoids last minute "cramming" for a test.

Practice the SQ4R technique with one subject over a two-week period to become familiar with the process and to begin realizing the
benefits.

There are many textbook reading strategies available, SQ4R being just one, which can aid you in mastering the volumes of content
found in college texts. The importance of adopting a strategy, which is comfortable for you, cannot be underscored enough. Use a
strategy to tackle those textbooks before they tackle you!

http://www.id http://www.managementparadise.com/forumsebate.org

Blooms Taxonomy 101

The human mind is like a parachuteit functions better when it is open.

Coles Rules

Blooms Taxonomy

In todays educational world, the word rigor is rapidly coming to the forefront.Rigor is de? ned as an environment in which each
student is expected to learn at highlevels, each student is supported so he or she can learn at high levels, and each
studentdemonstrates learning at high levels (Blackburn, 2008). As we try to prepare studentsfor the twenty-? rst century its become
apparent we must do more than simply teachstudents facts; we must also teach them to think. Synonymous with the idea of rigorare
the levels of thinking known as Blooms Taxonomy. Most of us in the ? eld of edu-cation have heard of Blooms Taxonomy, whether we
studied it in our undergraduateclasses or maybe even dabbled in developing lessons and assessments a

uned to alevel of Blooms. Like most things that are great in theory but hard to live out in day-to-day practice, the continued use of
Blooms Taxonomy, especially the higher levels ofBlooms, is challenging at best. There are a number of reasons for this.First of all, in
todays standards-based world, we as educators are faced with anoverwhelming amount of content we must teach our students.
Secondly, the emer-gence of high-stakes tests related to No Child Le

Behind

(2001 Public Law 107-110)

has made us feel that our main undertaking needs to be preparing students for theyearly assessments. Finally, actually instilling in our
students the ability to think at ahigher level requires that were able to understand, teach, and apply creative think-ing skills ourselves.
Because this is probably not the way most of us were taught our own critical thinking skills may be sorely lackingand the bo
?

om line is that itactually takes

using

higher-level critical thinking skills to

teach

higher-level criticalthinking skills.As we try to add rigor to our classroom practices, the logical question becomesWhat is meant by
higher-level critical thinking skills? To really answer that ques-tion we need to review Blooms Taxonomy in depth.

The History of Blooms Taxonomy

Blooms Taxonomy was developed in 1956 and followed the work of BenjaminBloom and the three domains of learning:

The cognitiveknowledge-based domain, consisting of six levels;

The affectiveattitudinal-based domain, consisting of ? ve levels; and

The psychomotorskills-based domain, consisting of six levels.

Blooms Taxonomy deals with the ? rst domainthe cognitive domain. It was ini-tially developed for use by university professors but
was quickly adopted by curric-ulum planners, administrators, researchers, and classroom teachers from all levelsof education
(Anderson & Sosniak, 1994). Its become the leading model for criti-cal thinking skills and because of this, well use Blooms Taxonomy
as we integratehigher-level thinking and rigor into formative, short-cycle assessments.

What Exactly is Blooms Taxonomy?

Knowing that taxonomy is another word for classi? cation is crucial tounderstanding Bloomsits simply a classi? cation system of
cognitive thinkingskills. These skills are on a tier so that each one builds on the one before it; you can-not climb a ? ight of steps without
?rst hiting the bottom ones, and so it goes withBlooms. The better you understand the lower levels of thinking, the easier it will beto
achieve the higher levels.The six levels of Blooms Taxonomy are:

Knowledge

The knowledge level of Blooms Taxonomy is considered to be the lowest level,and is probably the one with which we educators are
most familiar. The descrip-tor of the knowledge level provided in most of the work associated with Bloomsis, exhibits memory of
previously learned material by recalling facts, terms, basicconcepts, and answers (based on Blooms Taxonomydeveloped by Linda
G. Bar-ton, M.S.Ed., 1997; hereafer cited as Blooms Taxonomy/L. Barton, 1997). This is thetype of learning demonstrated when
educators ask their students to list things theyhave memorized or to answer basic, literal questions. Falling into this category aresuch
things as memorizing all of the U.S. states for social studies or the multiplica-tion tables for math. These are both knowledge-level skills.
As an English teacher,you may ask your students to identify the main character in a novelonce again,knowledge level.

Blooms ofen provides key words that represent this level. They include wordssuch as

who, what, why, when, where, which, choose, ? nd, how, de? ne, label, show, spell,list, name, select, and tell

Comprehension

The second level of Blooms Taxonomy is the comprehension level. The descrip-tor for this level is to demonstrate understanding of
facts and ideas by organiz-ing, comparing, translating, interpreting, giving descriptions, and stating mainideas (Blooms Taxonomy/L.
Barton, 1997). This is what were doing when we askour students to explain somethinghow they got an answer, or how they workeda
problem. What this looks like is when we ask students to demonstrate whatsjust been taught to them, almost a restatement, just to be
sure they understand it.When we were in school, this was the level we were working at when we wrote abook report and stated the
main idea without any opinions. Just the facts, maamwould be the motto of comprehension.The words usually considered key at this
level include

compare, contrast, demon-strate, interpret, explain, extend, illustrate, infer, outline, relate, rephrase, restate, translate,summarize,
show, and classify.

Application

Level three in Blooms Taxonomy is the application level. According to Bloom,this level requires the learner to solve problems to new
situations by applying acquired knowledge, facts, techniques, and rules in a di

erent way (BloomsTaxonomy/L. Barton, 1997). Application is what were asking from students whenwe ask them to solve a math
problem using a formula or a speci? c strategy when theproblem is one they have not seen previously. Its different from memorization
orrestatement of facts because students have to take the fact and apply it to somethingnew. Its also what a social studies student does
when he reads a map and uses thescale. He has been taught how to use the scale, but has not been taught the speci? cdistance
between the two points; the student needs to apply the scale-reading skillsto answer the problem. If you ever wrote a Haiku poem when
you were in schooland used the format involved (a non-rhyming poem where the ? rst line contains? ve syllables, the second line seven
syllables, and the third line ? ve syllables), thenyou were working at an application level.Some of the key words and phrases used when
learning at the application levelinclude

apply, build, choose, construct, develop, interview, make use of, organize, experi-ment with, plan, select, solve, identify, and model.

Analysis

Analysis is described in Blooms Taxonomy as thinking that asks a student toexamine and break information into parts by identifying
motives or causes; makeinferences and ? nd evidence to support generalizations (Blooms Taxonomy/L.Barton, 1997). This is what we
ask students to do when we have them look at themain characters in two different stories and compare how they relate to one
another.In science class, its what happens when we ask students to classify common plantsaccording to their characteristics. What it
might look like are the questions on abil-ity tests when a student is asked to complete the phrase, hot is to cold as black isto
_____.Some of the key words and phrases employed when using analysis are
analyze,categorize, classify, compare, contrast, discover, dissect, divide, examine, inspect, simplify,survey, take part in, test for,
distinguish, distinction, relationships, function, motive, infer-ence, assumption, and conclusion

Synthesis

The de? nition of synthesis in Blooms is to compile information together in blooms a different way by combining elements in a new
pattern or proposing alternativesolutions (Blooms Taxonomy/L. Barton, 1997). We ask students to synthesize whenwe direct them to
write a different ending to a story. Another example of synthesisis when we ask students to propose a new solution to a problem
involving a currentissue; for example, global warming. Synthesis may be the most challenging of thelevels in Blooms to understand, the
reason being in core areas of school we dontfocus as much on creativity as we do on comprehension. How often do students cre-ate
something new in social studies class or in mathematics class? Usually theyre simply hunting for a single correct answer. Synthesis
allows students to create newknowledge and information as they take apart new material.According to Blooms, some of the key words
to consider when using synthe-sizing are

build, choose, combine, compile, compose, construct, create, design, develop,estimate, formulate, imagine, invent, make up, originate,
plan, predict, propose, solution,suppose, discuss, modify, change, original, improve, adapt, minimize, maximize, delete,theorize,
elaborate, test, improve, happen, and change.

Evaluation

The evaluation level of Blooms is one that seems to be a little more comfortablefor most of us because what we know about opinions is
that everyone has one!Evaluation is de? ned as the type of learning demonstrated when a student is askedto present and defend
opinions by making judgments about information, validityof ideas or quality of work based on a set of criteria (Blooms Taxonomy/L.
Barton,1997). This can be as simple as a child telling the kindergarten teacher why blue ishis favorite color. Its what children do when
they choose which book is their favor-ite and tell why they chose it. Another example of evaluation is choosing a side ona current issue
in social studies and defending that side. Teachers tend to use thishigher level more frequently than analysis and synthesis simply
because its a levelwith which they are more familiar.

According to Blooms, some of the key words central to the level of evaluationare

award, criticize, determine, judge, compare, recommend, agree, opinion, support, prove,estimate, choose, decide, dispute, justify, mark,
rule on, appraise, interpret, importance,disprove, perceive, in? uence, conclude, defend, evaluate, measure, rate, select,
prioritize,explain, criteria, assess, value, and deduct.