Impact of the level of parental education on adolescent adjustment: A cross sectional

study
Author: Valiyamattam, Georgitta J; Gopal, D V Venu
Publication info: Indian Journal of Health and Wellbeing ; Hisar 4.1 (Mar 2013): 10-15.
ProQuest document link
Abstract:
We examined the impact of the level of parental education on adolescent adjustment from
early adolescence into late adolescence, across gender and grade groups comprising high
school and Grade 12. Participants in this cross-sectional study consisted of 1337 students (676
boys and 661 girls) from High School and grade 12 in various institutes of north coastal
Andhra Pradesh. Adjustment patterns were measured along the six adjustment dimensions of
the Culturally Relevant Bell Adjustment Inventory (Ashok, Madhu, Suneetha & Ramana,
2004). These dimensions includeHome adjustment, Health adjustment, Submissiveness Vs
Assertion, Emotionality, Hostility Vs Friendliness and Masculinity Vs Femininity. Results
obtained indicated a significant impact of parental education on adolescent adjustment with a
greater impact at the high school level as compared to grade 12 level. Both paternal and
maternal education were relatively equal predictors of adolescent adjustment. While paternal
education was a more significant predictor of adjustment for males at the high school level,
maternal education became a slightly more powerful determinant of adjustment for males at
the grade 12 level. Maternal education was also a slightly more influential predictor of
adjustment among female students. An impact of the level of parental education was seen on
the dimensions of home adjustment, hostility and masculinity in the male subsample and the
dimensions of emotionality and masculinity in the female subsample. Male students with
graduate fathers exhibited a greater degree of home adjustment difficulties and lowest levels
of hostility. A higher level of maternal education was found to foster better home adjustment
among males at Grade 12 and better emotional adjustment among females at the high school
level. Both the independent and interaction effects of parental education largely revealed that
the levels of masculinity tended to be high for both males and females, regardless of the grade
group, when both the parents had either graduate or post graduate levels of education.
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Full text:
Headnote
We examined the impact of the level of parental education on adolescent adjustment from
early adolescence into late adolescence, across gender and grade groups comprising high
school and Grade 12. Participants in this cross-sectional study consisted of 1337 students (676
boys and 661 girls) from High School and grade 12 in various institutes of north coastal
Andhra Pradesh. Adjustment patterns were measured along the six adjustment dimensions of
the Culturally Relevant Bell Adjustment Inventory (Ashok, Madhu, Suneetha & Ramana,
2004). These dimensions includeHome adjustment, Health adjustment, Submissiveness Vs
Assertion, Emotionality, Hostility Vs Friendliness and Masculinity Vs Femininity. Results
obtained indicated a significant impact of parental education on adolescent adjustment with a
greater impact at the high school level as compared to grade 12 level. Both paternal and
maternal education were relatively equal predictors of adolescent adjustment. While paternal
education was a more significant predictor of adjustment for males at the high school level,
maternal education became a slightly more powerful determinant of adjustment for males at
the grade 12 level. Maternal education was also a slightly more influential predictor of
adjustment among female students. An impact of the level of parental education was seen on
the dimensions of home adjustment, hostility and masculinity in the male subsample and the
dimensions of emotionality and masculinity in the female subsample. Male students with
graduate fathers exhibited a greater degree of home adjustment difficulties and lowest levels
of hostility. A higher level of maternal education was found to foster better home adjustment
among males at Grade 12 and better emotional adjustment among females at the high school
level. Both the independent and interaction effects of parental education largely revealed that
the levels of masculinity tended to be high for both males and females, regardless of the grade
group, when both the parents had either graduate or post graduate levels of education.
Keywords: parental education, adolescence, adolescent adjustment
Adolescence is essentially a period of dramatic transitions on the physical, psychological and
social fronts. Although this transition phase from childhood into adulthood has been widely
seen as a turbulent segment in the lifespan of an individual, the extent or turmoil may differ
across individuals. Moreover, what some call turmoil and chaos can be redefined in a more
positive light as a period of complex cognitive and social growth that makes possible the
development of individual potential (Whitmire, 2000).
The primary spheres of adjustment that can pose significant challenges for the adolescent
include familial relationships, peer relationships, school achievement, and health adjustment
both at the physical and emotional levels and self-perceptions among others. Adjustment
along these domains, in ways that lead to the development of a stable and positive sense of
identity, becomes an essential predictor of a healthy adult life.
A substantial amount of research in the Indian context focuses on the areas of adolescent
adjustment and associated areas. However, a broad overview of the existing research also
reveals a dearth of research on the impact of parental education on various domains of
adolescent adjustment as variables of interest.
Among the many factors that may influence adolescent adjustment, academic achievement
i.e., achievement at the school and college levels is a potent predictor of adolescent
adjustment and wellbeing. Factors influencing the domain of academic achievement include
expectations at the familial, societal, school and peer group levels, the extent and nature of
parental involvement as also the adolescent's perceptions of the various influences and his
own personal expectations. The collective effects of these factors can have important
consequences for adolescents especially during decisive academic stages such as Grades 10
and 12, within the Indian educational context. The significant amount of research conducted
with immigrant populations (Asher, 2002; Kim, 1993; Liu, 1998; Schneider & Lee, 1990) and
the existing Indian research studies, though few, point to intense parental involvement in the
Indian context throughout the child's education (Larson, Verma & Dworkin, 2000). A
substantial amount of research evidence exists that Parental educational level is an important
predictor of children's educational and behavioural outcomes (Davis-Kean, 2005; Dearing,
McCartney, & Taylor, 2001; Duncan, Brooks-Gunn, & Klebanov, 1994; Haveman & Wolfe,
1995; Nagin & Tremblay, 2001; Smith, Brooks-Gunn, & Klebanov, 1997). Further Research
by Acharya and Joshi revealed that parental education influenced achievement motivation in
adolescents particularly in the academic area with higher levels of parental education leading
to higher achievement motivation, while other areas were not as significantly influenced
(Acharya & Joshi, 2009). Mothers with higher education had higher expectations for their
children's academic achievement and that these expectations were found to be related to their
children's subsequent achievement (Halle, Kurtz-Costes, & Mahoney, 1997). Research by
Glasgow et al. (1997) revealed that parental education was related to higher adolescent
educational expectations and outcomes in an ethnically diverse sample and that adolescents
whose parents had higher levels of education reported doing more oursework than their peers
whose parents had lower levels of education (Glasgow, Dornbusch, Troyer, Steinbeig, &
Ritter, 1997). Also, higher levels of maternal education to be positively associated with GPA
in grade 10, among American adolescents (Conger, Conger & Elder, 1997). Further, the levels
of maternal education in combination with other factors were found to be important predictors
of the physical environment and learning experiences and independent predictors of parental
warmth (Klebanov et al., 1994).
Thus, apart from the direct impact in terms of academic expectations and the setting of
academic goals, parental education may also influence adolescent academic achievement in
terms of the quality of learning environment at home, support and guidance extended for
academic activities and an understanding of the emotional needs of the adolescent, especially
in a more comprehensive manner that takes into account the intense academic pressures of
this period besides the natural emotional upheavals of adolescence. Further, levels of parental
education can also possibly influence the levels of health education and health care provided,
thus impacting health adjustment in adolescents.
The perceived/ostensible relevance of parental education levels as variables of concern within
fundamental domains of adolescent adjustment makes an assessment of the impact of parental
education level especially across crucial academic periods such as High School and Grade 12
in the Indian context, vital. The fact that studies on the impact of parental education levels on
broad dimensions of adolescent adjustment as explicit variables of interest are extremely
scattered further consolidates the need fora study on these lines. The present study takes a
cross-sectional approach, examining the impact of the level of parental education on
adolescent adjustment on the six CRBAI dimensions, in grade groups comprising high school
and grade 12, as also in the gender groups within this sample. Further, it also explores both
the independent and the interactional effects of maternal and paternal levels of education on
adolescent adjustment.
Method
Participants
Participants in this study consisted of 2225 students (1160 boys and 1065 girls) drawn from
various institutions across North coastal Andhra Pradesh, India. The sample included students
from High School, grade 12, and those attending graduate and post graduate classes. Tables
land 2 show the demographic composition of the sample on the basis of gender and parental
education. The mean age of the total sample was 16.78 years with a range from 1 lyears to 30
years. For High School students themean age was 13.61 witharange from 11 years to 17 years
whereas for Grade 12 students the mean age was 15.87 with a range from 13 years to 18
years. Undergraduate students participating in the study had a mean age of 19.75 with a range
from 17 years to 27 years while for postgraduate students the mean age was 22.42 with a
range from 19 years to 30 years.
Measures
The Culturally Relevant Bell Adjustment Inventory (CRBAI), is an adaptation of the student
form of the Bell Adjustment Inventory (1962), developed by Ashok, Madhu, Suneetha and
Ramana (2004) was used to measure the adjustment patterns among the students. It is a 179
item inventory available in bothTelugu and English languages and is highly suitable for use
with Indian adolescents. The six major dimensions of adjustment covered under CRBAI
includeHome adjustment, Health adjustment, Submissiveness Vs Assertion, Emotionality,
Hostility Vs Friendliness and Masculinity Vs Femininity. The student responds to each of the
179 by selecting any one of the three options- 'YES', 'NO', or '?'. Generally, high scores on
these dimensions indicate poor adjustment and low scores indicate good adjustment. CRBAI
has good psychometric properties. Spearman-Brown split-half reliability coefficients ranged
from .55 to .87 with most of them above .70. Criterion validity was established by correlating
the CRBAI scores with similar scales in 16 PF (Cattell, 1972), Adjustment Inventory for
College Students (Sinha & Singh, 1995) and other measures.
Results
We attempted an investigation of the influence of parental education on adolescent adjustment
patterns both across grade groups and gender groups as also in the grade groups within the
gender groups. The impact of parental education was examined both in terms of the
independent effects and interaction effects of maternal and paternal education.
Computation of univariate analysis revealed a significant impact of the father's level of
education on home adjustment among high school students. Students whose fathers were
educated upto the graduation level showed a significantly higher amount of home adjustment
difficulties (m=14.12) as compared to the other groups. Also, high school students whose
fathers possessed education upto the school levels showed a greater degree of feminity
(m=12.08), while high school students whose fathers were educated upto the graduation level
exhibited a greater degree of masculinity (m=14.46). A significant effect of the interaction of
the level of father's education and the level of mother's education was seen on the
masculinity-feminity dimension among school students. Students whose fathers possessed
education upto the school levels and whose mothers were either graduates or postgraduates
were found to be more feminine as compared to other groups. On the other hand students
whose fathers were graduates and whose mothers were either graduates or postgraduates, as
also students whose fathers were postgraduates and whose mothers were graduates, showed a
significantly greater degree of masculinity as compared to other groups.
An analysis of the influence of parental education levels on the overall adjustment patterns
within the gender groups revealed a significant impact of the level of mother's education on
the dimension of masculinity/feminity among females. Females whose mothers were educated
upto the school levels were more feminine, as compared to the other groups. On the other
hand, females whose mothers were graduates showed greater levels of masculinity.
An analysis of the effects of parental education levels on the grade groups within each gender
group revealed a significant impact of fathers level of education on the dimensions of home
adjustment and hostility among male students at the high school level. Male students at the
high school level whose fathers were graduates, showed a greater degree of home adjustment
problems. Also, male students at the high school level whose fathers were graduates showed a
significantly lesser degree of hostility as compared to the other groups.
At the grade 12 level, mother's level of education had a significant impact on the dimensions
of home adjustment and masculinity among male students. Male students whose mothers
possessed school levels of education showed significantly greater degrees of home adjustment
difficulties while those whose mothers were postgraduates showed the least amount of home
adjustment difficulties. Also, male students in the same grade group whose mothers were
postgraduates showed a greater degree of masculinity as compared to the other groups. A
significant effect of the interaction of the level of father's education and the level of mother's
education was seen on the dimension of masculinity among male students in this grade group.
Males whose fathers were graduates and whose mothers possessed post graduate levels of
education, as also males whose fathers were post graduates and whose mothers were
graduates showed greater levels of masculinity as compared to the other groups.
Among female students at the high school level, the level of father's education had a
significant impact on the dimension of masculinity, with those students having fathers who
were school educated showing a significantly lesser degree of masculinity and those students
having fathers who were graduates, showing significantly higher degrees of masculinity. The
level of mother's education had a significant impact on both the dimension of emotionality as
also the dimension of masculinity among high school females. Female students whose
mothers possessed school education showed a significantly greater degree of emotional
problems, whereas those who had mothers' educated upto the graduate and post graduate
levels showed a lesser degree of emotional difficulties. Also, high school females whose
mothers were educated upto the school level showed a significantly greater degree of
feminity, whereas those, whose mothers were graduates, showed a significantly greater degree
of masculinity.
Discussion
With regard to the grade groups as also gender groups, the impact of parental education on
adolescent adjustment was found to be greater at the high school level, and lesser at the grade
12 level, where a continuance of the impact existed only formales.
Both paternal as well as maternal education levels were more or less equal predictors in the
overall patterns of adolescent adjustment. While the level of paternal education was a more
significant predictor of adjustment for males at the high school level, maternal education
became a slightly more powerful determinant of adjustment for adolescent males at the grade
12 level. Maternal education was also a slightly more powerful predictor of adjustment among
female students.
The High School years in the Indian context, also coincide with puberty and early adolescence
wherein the most important task for the individual becomes the formation of a stable identity
(Hurlock, 1976; Erikson, 1968) and which is also sex appropriate (Hurlock, 1976). With the
onset of puberty and the early adolescence, familial and societal pressures for sex appropriate
behaviour and taking up of sex appropriate roles increases (Hurlock, 1976; Huston & Alvarez,
1990; Galambos, Almeida, & Petersen, 1990). In early adolescence, boys and girls are treated
increasingly differently with independence encouraged in males and compliance encouraged
in females (Crouter, Manke & McHale, 1995; Hill & Lynch, 1983). Although the period of
adolescence as a whole is characterised by frictional relationships with parents (Hurlock,
1976), children during this period tend to identify to a greater extent with parents of the same
sex, who consciously or unconsciously become models of sex appropriateness. Research by
Clark-Lempers et al. revealed that during early adolescence, males reported closer
relationships with their fathers and females reported a closer relationship with their mothers
(Clark-Lempers, Lempers & Ho, 1991).
However, towards late adolescence, a period which coincides with grade 12 in the Indian
education system, the sense of identity is more stable and although the process of identity-
formation may still be incomplete, it is not characterised by high levels of volatility as in early
adolescence. Development of a more stable identity could also possibly contribute to a more
balanced and better identification with parents of the opposite sex. Contradictory findings
have been reported with regard to the relationship of between parents and the late adolescent.
Some studies found that late adolescents, especially girls, generally report more emotional
closeness with their mothers than with their fathers (Collins & Russell, 1991) and other
research has reported that late adolescents report more closeness with the same sex parents
(Furman & Buhrmester, 1992). However recent research such as that on African American
students, reported that late adolescents were closer to their mothers as compared to their
fathers (Smetana, Metzger, Campionne-Barr, 2004). This can be hypothesized as a possible
reason for the increase in the impact of maternal education on the adjustment of adolescent
males at the Grade 12 level.
An overall impact of parental education was seen on the dimensions of home adjustment and
masculinity/feminity whereas an overall gender-wise analysis revealed a significant impact of
maternal education level on masculinity/feminity dimension in females. Gender wise analysis
within the grade groups, revealed an impact of the level of parental education on the
dimensions of home adjustment, hostility and masculinity in the male subsample and the
dimensions of emotionality and masculinity in the female subsample.
With regard to the dimension of home adjustment, high school students with fathers' educated
upto the graduation levels had a significantly greater degree of home adjustment difficulties
and this trend was also particularly seen among high school males. On the other hand, high
school males with father's possessing school levels of education showed the least amount of
home adjustment difficulties. An item-wise analysis revealed that among high school males
with graduate fathers, significantly high scores were obtained on the subscale of the
perception of parents within the dimension of home adjustment and there was a more negative
perception of parents and especially the father.
Parental involvement in education and the emphasis on performing well on examinations that
will earn them admission to prestigious institutions (Larson et al., 2000; Ramalingam, 2005;
Verma & Gupta, 1990) and the encouragement of achievement in certain fields, such as
medicine and engineering (Asher, 2002) is high in the Indian context. However for many
students at the high school level, academic goals and strategies to achieve them are not clearly
set. The academic uncertainty and lack of definite and practicable goals, accompanied by the
emotional volatility that is characteristic of early adolescence (Hurlock, 1976) which is also a
period of the highest level of parent-adolescent conflicts (ClarkLempers, Lempers, & Ho,
1991; Furman & Buhrmester, 1992; Galambos & Almeida, 1992; Montemayor & Hansen,
1985; Montemayor, 1983; Offer, 1969; PaikofF & Brooks-Gunn, 1991; Steinberg, 1990), may
lead to resentment towards parental expectations, pressures and attempts to control and
monitor them. The higher identification of the early adolescent male with the fathers is also
accompanied by a comparatively more authoritarian role of, and the greater influence exerted
by the father on academic goals and achievement in the Indian context, especially in the case
of the male child. Fathers possessing a graduate level of education as compared to fathers
possessing school levels of education may place high academic demands in terms of the
choice of career and the expectations of high performance. However, at the same time they
may not be as well equipped to guide the adolescent through this process as compared to
fathers possessing higher levels of education such as post graduates. This combined with the
emotional upheavals and academic stress of this stage can be hypothesized as a possible
reason for the high levels of home adjustment difficulties among adolescent males at the high
school levels.
At the grade 12 level, mother's level of education was the determiner of the quality of home
adjustment among males, and in contrast to the effects of father's level of education on high
school students, a low level of maternal education i.e., school education, lead to greater home
adjustment difficulties and vice versa. Grade 12 forms a second milestone in the educational
progress of the Indian student and comprises crucial efforts for ensuring a successful career.
Academic goals are more stable and set at this stage as compared to the high school level.
Moreover Indian children at the Grade 12 level in particular, were found to view parental
involvement positively even in the face of disagreement and appreciated and valued the
parental support and contribution towards an atmosphere conducive for academic
achievement (Larson et al., 2000). While mothers' educational levels have been found to be
significant predictors of achievement motivation in adolescents in the academic area (Acharya
& Joshi, 2009), and lead to higher academic expectations from children (Halle et al. 1997),
the role of the mother is also predominantly seen as especially and explicitly nurturant and
supportive. Klebanov, et al. (1994) found that while mothers' education along with other
factors was an important predictor of the physical environment and learning experiences in
the home, mothers' education alone was predictive of parental warmth (Klebanov, Brooks-
Gunn, & Duncan, 1994).
Research has revealed the possibility of the closer relationships of late adolescents with their
mothers (Collins & Russell, 1991; Smetana, Metzger, Campionne-Barr, 2004). Moreover,
during the adolescence phase, mothers were found to be comparatively more lenient towards
sons (Hurlock, 1976). Consequentially, the role of the mother becomes more vital in the
achievement of optimum home adjustment in late adolescent males. Mothers, who have
higher levels of education as compared to those possessing school levels of education, stand
in better ability of a superior and more mature appreciation of the needs of the adolescents
especially in the face of the intense academic pressures of Grade 12. This can be hypothesized
as the possible reason for better home adjustment in adolescents with graduate and post
graduate mothers as compared to those with mothers possessing school levels of education.
With regard to the dimension of hostility, male students with graduate fathers exhibited the
lowest levels of hostility. An item wise analysis revealed significantly low scores on the
dimensions of Contemptuous Vs Appreciative, Doubtful Vs Assured and Shrewd Vs Naive,
indicating that high school males with graduate fathers were more appreciative, assured and
naive as compared to the other groups.
With regard to the dimension of emotionality, emotional problems were the higher for females
in high school, whose mothers possessed school levels of education and were lesser for those
with graduate or post graduate mothers. Adolescence is a difficult passage for many girls
(Brooks-Gunn & Reiter, 1990) and because puberty happens earlier and is more apparent in
girls than boys, it can be a comparatively more difficult transition. Studies have shown that
adolescent girls tend to be high on emotionality (Adams & Berzonsky, 2006) and may
experience higher negative emotional reactions to stressful events than do males (Hampel and
Petermann 2006; Rudolph 2002). This emotional upheaval is accompanied by the pressures of
high school and in particular grade 10 in the Indian context. With the closer relationships
shared by girls with their mothers both in the early adolescent (Clark-Lempers et al, 1991 )
and late adolescent stages (Collins & Russell, 1991; Smetana, Metzger, Campionne-Barr,
2004), mothers become the primary parental source of emotional support. Mother possessing
higher levels of education can be possibly better equipped to provide a more holistic
emotional support system to adolescent girls especially in the academic sphere, as compared
to mothers possessing school levels of education. This can be assumed as one of the reasons
for higher emotional problems among high school females with school educated mothers and
vice versa.
Both independent and interaction effects of the levels of parental education were seen on the
dimensions of masculinity/feminity with the interaction effects of maternal and paternal
education being limited to this dimension. Both the independent and interaction effects laigely
revealed that the levels of masculinity tended to be high for both males and females,
regardless of the grade group, when both the parents had either graduate or post graduate
levels of education. On the other hand, the levels of feminity tended to be high when either
parent or both possessed school levels of education.
Conclusion
The overall impact of parental education on adolescent adjustment within the grade and
gender groups was found to be greater at the high school level, and lesser at the grade 12
level, where a continuance of the impact existed only for males. Both paternal as well as
maternal education levels were found to be relatively equal predictors of adolescent
adjustment. While paternal education was a more significant predictor of adjustment formales
at the high school level, maternal education became a slightly more powerful determinant of
adjustment for males at the grade 12 level. Maternal education was also a slightly more
influential predictor of adjustment among female students. An impact of the level of parental
education was seen on the dimensions of home adjustment, hostility and masculinity in the
male subsample and the dimensions of emotionality and masculinity in the female subsample.
Male students with graduate fathers exhibited a greater degree of home adjustment difficulties
and lowest levels of hostility. A higher level of maternal education was found to foster better
home adjustment among males at Grade 12 and better emotional adjustment among females at
the high school level. The interaction effects of maternal and paternal education were limited
to the masculinity/feminity dimension. Both the independent and interaction effects of
parental education largely revealed that the levels of masculinity tended to be high for both
males and females, regardless of the grade group, when both the parents had either graduate
or post graduate levels of education.
The findings herein assist a more comprehensive understanding of the impact of parental
education on adolescent adjustment in the transition from early to late adolescence through
high school to grade 12. This study also largely discusses the impact of parental education
from the perspective of its possible impact on adolescent academic achievement and related
issues and the correlates of the same for overall adolescent adjustment especially in the
academically crucial and stressful years of high school and Grade 12 in the Indian context.
Potential areas for future research would include a deeper analysis of the possible impact of
parental educational levels on other areas vital to adolescent adjustment, such as peer, familial
and social relationships, health, and emotional maturity. An examination of parental
personality variables that may modulate the effects of parental educational attainment would
also be useful.
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AuthorAffiliation
Georgitta J. Valiyamattam
Department of Psychology and Parapsychology
Andhra University, Visakhapatnam
D. V. Venu Gopal
Psychology and Human Values,
AP IIT, Nuzvid, Andhra Pradesh
AuthorAffiliation
Correspondence should be sent to Georgitta J. Valiyamattam Department of Psychology and
Parapsychology, Andhra University, Visakhapatnam
Subject: Teenagers; Adjustment; Children & youth; Education; Academic achievement
Publication title: Indian Journal of Health and Wellbeing; Hisar
Volume: 4
Issue: 1
Pages: 10-15
Number of pages: 6
Publication year: 2013
Publication date: Mar 2013
Publisher: Indian Association of Health, Research and Welfare
Place of publication: Hisar
Country of publication: India
Publication subject: Medical Sciences, Psychology
ISSN: 22295356
Source type: Scholarly Journals
Language of publication: English
Document type: Feature
Document feature: References Tables
ProQuest document ID: 1547799226
Document URL: https://search.proquest.com/docview/1547799226?accountid=15859
Copyright: Copyright Indian Association of Health, Research and Welfare Mar 2013
Last updated: 2015-02-07
Database: ProQuest Central